A graphical representation of lateral force and acceleration for the drive cycle is shown in ESI Fig. S6, † where there is a higher frequency of left cornering events (right half of the graph) than right cornering events and more accelerating than decelerating (top vs. bottom, respectively) events. However, all four quadrants are expressed throughout the drive cycle and are representative of real-world driving conditions. This drive cycle focuses on city driving, which comprises 70% of driving on a global scale. 27 Therefore, the TRWP nanoparticles that are reported here are representative of real-world city-driving conditions.
Comparison of third body materials.
Particle size distribution by concentration (colour bar) shown for (a) milled stone dust and (b) sand at a constant tire speed of 50 kilometres per hour. |
The sand third body particles ( Fig. 2b ) exhibited lower concentrations (PN per stage <500 PN per cm 3 ) of background particles compared to MSD, reducing instrument noise throughout the drive cycle. The sand interference remained significant (>500 PN per cm 3 ) for the first two stages of the ELPI ( d p ≤ 16 nm) but was markedly improved compared to MSD, which significantly interfered with eight ELPI stages ( d p ≤ 380 nm). Additionally, the fine texture of MSD tended to obstruct the inlet of the ELPI. Thus, sand was validated and used as the third body material for the experiments conducted herein. There were additional measures taken to reduce interference from large sand particles within the ELPI, such as only connecting the ELPI to the extraction system when the sand had reached a uniform concentration within the rig, as summarised in Table 1 .
For nanoparticle TRWP emission studies, it is concluded that sand maintains the tire's integrity, while representing real-world driving conditions with reduced interference compared to milled stone dust.
When considering PM emissions throughout the TRWP cycle from all particles (solid and semi-volatile) 95% of the total mass was represented in the micron-sized ELPI stages. The mass distribution shifts when the solid component is considered independently (with the CS), and here the five largest ELPI stages account for 95% of the mass collected. The broadening of mass distribution could indicate that semi-volatile particles have condensed onto solid, micron-sized particles, and when evaporated, there is a small amount of mass lost in these size ranges. The contribution from nanoparticles to the mass concentration is minor, and thus using mass as a metric to analyse nanoparticles generated by tire-road interactions does not provide suitable resolution above the background.
Considering PN, 95% of the TRWPs are <250 nm, highlighting the importance of focusing on a number-based metric for assessing nanoparticle TRWPs. The solid PN distribution (CS) has a broadening of the relative concentration of particles, indicating that there could be a semi-volatile component to these particles as well; however, the 95% distribution remains < 250 nm. Table S2 † also shows that micron particles do not contribute a significant amount of total PN.
Throughout the drive cycle, there are specific events that generate particles during (a) normal and severe driving modes and with and without the catalytic stripper. Comparing the driving mode with and without the catalytic stripper is shown in (b) for semi-volatile (SV) particles. |
To compare the response to more severe driving behaviour, the lateral force was increased and the cycle is more representative of severe cornering. Here, only one force is increased for the severe mode in order to reduce the effects of multi-variable changes. TRWP generation is shown to increase with increased lateral loads compared to the normal driving mode. In addition, by subtracting the total particles from the total solid particles, the semi-volatile fraction of emitted particles can be calculated, which is shown in Fig. 3b for the nanoparticle size fraction (SV 1 ) and all size fractions collected (SV 10 ). The difference between SV 1 and SV 10 is most noticeable during high emitting events.
Fig. 4 , which is background corrected, shows the total particles generated in particle number concentration (a) and particle mass (b) by size compared to the solid particles generated throughout the drive cycle, in Fig. 4c and d , respectively. The solid fraction of the particles only comprises a small fraction of the total particles emitted, as shown by comparing Fig. 4b to a. Data below the white dashed lines within Fig. 4a and b highlight the size bins where 95% of the particle number concentration can be found, which is in size bins <250 nm, whereas 95% of PM can be found >1 μm, as shown with the black dashed line in Fig. 4c and d, indicating the size bins where 95% of particle mass was collected throughout the drive cycle.
The size distribution is shown for the entire drive cycle driven displayed by particle number concentration for data (a) without the CS (total particle number) and (b) with the CS (solid particle number) in comparison to the mass distribution by size bins for data (c) without the CS data (total particle mass) and (d) with the CS (solid particle mass). Data below the dashed line (a and b) represent the size bins where 95% of the particle number concentration is collected and data in size bins above the black dashed line (c and d) comprise 95% of the mass concentration. These data are background corrected. |
The particle distribution shown in Fig. 4b has been background corrected and thus could represent particle collection noise due to third body particles, as they would not be removed by the CS or they could be solid tire/road particles that have chemical compositions that are stable above 350 °C. Comparatively, Fig. 4a shows high particle concentrations (>2000 PN per cm 3 per size bin in the nano-range) that were removed by the CS ( Fig. 4b <500 PN per cm 3 per bin) and are not present in the CS-based data. Here, over the course of the drive cycle, more than 70% of the particles (above background) are semi-volatile and are evaporated when subjected to the CS. The difference in measured TRWPs between solid particles ( Fig. 4b ) and total particles ( Fig. 4a ) is most pronounced during high concentration events, exemplified during 200, 700, 800 and 1200 s of the drive cycle. Further speciation is needed to quantify and characterise the chemical composition of the nanoparticle size bins; however, this is complicated by the amount of mass required to perform these types of analyses. The particle distribution shown for both PN and PM is reproducible for all valid test results (Table S2 † ), and corroborates previous work at KIT that did not use third body particles where >95% of PN is <300 nm. 8
The mass distribution for the drive cycle is shown for total particles ( Fig. 4c ) and solid particles ( Fig. 4d ), where it is apparent that the majority of mass in both distributions is micron sized (>1 μm). Comparing Fig. 4a and c , the total particle size distribution shows that both a large number of particles are generated in the nano-size bins and a high mass in the micron-sized bins. However, comparing the solid particle number ( Fig. 4d ) to solid particle mass ( Fig. 4b ) indicates that there are few particles (indistinguishable by number) that contribute to high solid mass concentrations during the drive cycle. It is not known whether these large particles are third body silica or TRWP emissions.
There is continuity between drive cycles and the fingerprint created. The majority of particles are semi-volatile throughout both drive cycles and are primarily nanoparticles, except for specific high-force events.
The steady-state force (right axis, orange) is shown with particle concentration (left, blue) for (a) PM and (b) PN measurements for submicron particles (PN solid line) and up to 2.5 microns (PM dotted line). The PN and PN lines are indistinguishable as they overlap. |
Fig. 5 demonstrates that PM 1 and PM 2.5 have over an order of magnitude difference in PM generated during force events, whereas there is no distinguishable difference between PN 2.5 and PN 1 indicating that nearly all particles generated during these force events are within the nanoparticle range.
To investigate the generation events leading to TRWP nanoparticle emissions, particle concentrations within various size ranges are examined versus applied force in Fig. 6 . Two trials of SSCs are segregated by particle sizes of 6–260 nm (PN 0.3 ), 260 nm–0.98 μm (PN 0.3–1 ) and 0.98 μm–10 μm (PN 1–10 ), as well as by the absolute force exerted during the SSC for 2.5 kN (blue), 2 kN (purple) and 1 kN (green). The particle size distributions for these forces are explicitly shown in Fig. S9. † Fig. 6 shows the total particles generated ((a), without the CS) and for the solid fraction of the generated particles ((b), with the CS). The larger fractions (PN1 and PN10) have statistically insignificant increases in the mean and interquartile spread between forces. As the force increases, the total concentration increases, but specifically in the smallest size fraction. Fig. 6a shows that at 2.5 kN, the mean PN 0.3 concentration increases by 195% compared to concentrations at 2 kN and 1 kN forces. It is also clear that the interquartile range broadens as the force increases, meaning that the TRWPs generated during high force events are more variable than those generated during lower force events, which could be due to the “memory effects” of the time–temperature profile of the tire during a drive cycle. Memory effects occur when a specific event within a drive cycle influences a later emission event, such as a high friction or force event that could result in a different subsequent emission than a low friction or force event.
Box and whisker plot for steady-state cycle data shown for repeat cycles for PN (a) without the CS (representative of all particles) and (b) with the CS (only the solid, non-evaporative particles). The data are grouped for particle sizes 0.006–0.26 μm (PN ), 0.26–1 μm (PN ), and 1–10 μm (PN ). The analysis is shown for 2.5 kN (blue), 2 kN (purple), and 1 kN (green) forces. |
Fig. 6b shows the solid fraction generated by SSC force on the same scale as Fig. 6a . All size ranges have consistent low particle concentrations (<170 PN per cm 3 ), with the exception of PN 0.3 when subjected to a 2.5 kN force, where we see an increase in outlier concentrations. This collective analysis shows that SSCs provide insights into threshold forces for nanoparticle generation. The current tire and speed configuration demonstrate that particles in size bins 6–260 nm (PN 0.3 ) are present at all forces, but the concentration increases when forces are above 2 kN, where the majority of nanoparticles are semi-volatile. This method provides a pathway for broader investigations of different tires and speed-load conditions for our continued studies of nanoparticle TRWP generating events.
SSCs give nuanced insight into when nanoparticles are generated, expanding on full drive cycle analyses. Here, the SSCs conclude that at lower force events, semi-volatile nanoparticles are less likely to be generated, whereas forces >2 kN generate semi-volatile nanoparticles.
Fig. 7 shows the results of the Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis on submicron particles for two sampling days. On each day, eight TRWP cycles were deposited onto each substrate with the goal of increasing the deposited mass on each substrate for ICP-MS digestion. To ensure sufficient mass for ICP-MS digestion, particles from two impactor stages were combined, the <250 nm size bins and the 250 nm–1 μm size bins. The sample preparation and digestion method followed a previously published methodology, and due to the mass required for offline analyses, there was not enough material to compare catalytic stripper based samples. 24
ICP-MS results for two separate days, denoted with blue and red, including only submicron TRWPs. |
Moreover, the analysis revealed the presence of zinc (Zn) within the emitted submicron particles. Previous research has established Zn as a constituent of tire rubber; 24 however, this work cannot definitively say that Zn is solely a result of tire compound emissions. It is worth noting that sand could not be digested for ICP-MS analysis due to the unavailability of hydrofluoric acid digestion capabilities at our facility. Future work may include comparing the composition of the emitted particles to the digested sand third body particles, as well as the road surface, further identifying and differentiating elemental markers capable of distinguishing between tire rubber and road material.
SEM images for the chemical composition of (a) a 70 nm stage particle (blue) and background (grey), (b) a 1 μm stage particle (purple) and (c) a >10 μm stage particle highlighting the (d) tire (maroon) and sand (red) components. The EDX spectrum is shown (e) with present elements noted. |
Firstly, it was observed that milled stone dust significantly interfered with nanoparticle size bins, as evident from the high concentrations within the ELPI. The interference made the differentiation of submicron emissions that were tire-based vs. third-body-based difficult to quantify, whereas the sand interference was comparatively lower, allowing for reduced background noise during particle generation studies. The use of previously used drive cycles provided insights into tire emissions under simulated real-world driving conditions, although the high rate of force changes posed challenges in attributing specific force events to particle generation events. Therefore, steady-state cycles were used for a more nuanced understanding of generation events, revealing that high lateral forces (>2 kN) generated the highest submicron concentrations, over 2 orders of magnitude higher than background submicron concentrations.
The online and offline methods together supported the conclusion that the majority of nanoparticles, ∼70% of emitted submicron particles over the entire drive cycle, were semi-volatile emissions. This remains true when considering any diffusional or thermophoretic losses within the catalytic stripper. The exact chemical speciation of the emitted particles could not be concluded, but it is likely that these particles originate from vaporization events throughout the drive cycle. SEM results indicated the presence of sand particles in larger sizes but there was an absence of SiO in sub-100 nm particles. ICP-MS of submicron impactor substrates confirmed the presence of tire-related elements in the generated nanoparticles. However, definitive attribution to the tire or road surface was challenging and more work is needed in this area. With the conclusions from the SEM with EDX spectra, this work demonstrates a viable way to generate TRWP nanoparticles, which limits the interference of vital third body particles within the nanoparticle size range, while providing a new mechanism of sampling non-exhaust emissions with a catalytic stripper.
This study highlights the complexities involved in generating, collecting and assessing submicron tire wear particles. The generation method created here can be used. This work paves the way for future investigations to address remaining uncertainties and refine emission estimation methodologies.
Conflicts of interest, acknowledgements.
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: |
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