international assignment success

10 tips for managing successful international assignments (2023 update)

Embarking on international assignments brings both excitement and challenges. As businesses have been extending their global presence for years, the effective management of international assignments has always been extremely important. These assignments require collaboration and coordination among team members from different countries and cultures, demanding a unique set of skills and strategies. In this article, we will explore ten invaluable tips to help you navigate the complexities of international assignments and achieve success. 

The world has become a global village, with teams spanning continents and cultures. In this interconnected landscape, effective management of international assignments is essential for organizations to thrive. Whether you are a team leader or a team member, understanding the intricacies of international collaboration is key to overcoming obstacles and achieving exceptional results. 

Our ten tips for managing successful international assignments cover a range of factors that influence the outcome of these endeavors. From communication and cultural sensitivity to logistical considerations and fostering team cohesion, each tip provides actionable insights to enhance your approach. By implementing these strategies, you can strengthen your team’s collaboration, optimize productivity, and cultivate a harmonious work environment that transcends borders. 

Here are 10 tips for managing successful international assignments:

1. Effective communication 

Effective communication serves as a cornerstone for success in international assignments. Understanding the diverse communication styles of team members is essential, as it allows for clearer and more meaningful interactions. Different cultures have their own ways of expressing ideas and collaborating, so being attentive to these styles fosters better rapport and mutual understanding. 

Bridging language and cultural barriers is another vital aspect of effective communication in international assignments. Cultivating cultural sensitivity and embracing inclusivity create an environment where everyone feels respected and valued. Being mindful of cultural norms, customs, and social etiquette enhances cross-cultural interactions. Additionally, utilizing interpreters, translation tools, and language training programs can facilitate communication across language barriers. 

2. Cultural sensitivity and adaptability 

Embracing cultural diversity as a strength is essential. Each team member brings a unique perspective shaped by their cultural background, which can lead to a wealth of ideas and innovation. By recognizing and appreciating these differences, teams can create a collaborative environment that celebrates diverse viewpoints and enhances problem-solving capabilities. 

Developing cultural intelligence and awareness is key to navigating cultural differences.  

This involves cultivating the right attitude, developing awareness, acquiring knowledge, and honing the necessary skills to understand diverse cultures, including their customs, traditions, and values. 

By doing so, team members can navigate potential misunderstandings, promote effective communication, and build strong relationships based on mutual respect and understanding. 

Effective leadership in international assignments requires flexibility and an understanding of diverse work styles and cultural preferences. That is why adapting leadership and work styles to accommodate cultural differences is crucial. Leaders who adapt their approach can foster trust, engagement, and collaboration within the team. By demonstrating respect for the values and practices of team members, leaders create a harmonious and inclusive work environment. 

3. Logistical planning and coordination 

Dealing with time zone differences and scheduling challenges is a primary concern in the realm of international assignments. With team members located across different regions, finding mutually convenient meeting times and synchronizing schedules becomes crucial. By considering time zones and accommodating various working hours, teams can establish effective communication and seamless collaboration. 

Leveraging technology plays a vital role in facilitating efficient coordination. Collaboration tools, project management software, and communication platforms enable real-time updates, document sharing, and instant communication irrespective of geographical distances. Harnessing these technological solutions enhances productivity and streamlines workflows for international teams. 

To ensure smoother operations, streamlining processes is imperative. By establishing clear protocols and workflows, teams can minimize delays, miscommunications, and redundancies. Standardizing documentation, establishing effective communication channels, and defining roles and responsibilities maintain clarity and efficiency throughout the project. Regular evaluation and improvement of processes further enhance productivity and mitigate challenges. 

4. Building trust and collaboration  

Trust forms the foundation of effective teamwork. In international assignments, team members may come from diverse backgrounds, cultures, and work environments. Establishing trust is essential to foster collaboration, promote open communication, and ensure the success of the project. 

Building trust begins with setting clear expectations and goals. Team members should have a shared understanding of the project’s objectives, milestones, and deliverables. Clearly defining roles and responsibilities helps to avoid confusion and promotes accountability. Regularly communicating progress, addressing challenges, and providing feedback fosters transparency and trust among team members. 

Promoting collaboration is also crucial in international assignments. Encouraging open dialogue and creating platforms for sharing ideas and insights allows team members to contribute their expertise and perspectives. Virtual team-building activities, such as icebreaker sessions, virtual coffee chats, or online forums, can help strengthen relationships and enhance collaboration. Additionally, facilitating cross-cultural training and workshops enables teams to develop a shared understanding and appreciation of each other’s cultures, further fostering collaboration. 

5. Flexibility and adaptation 

Flexibility and adaptability are key attributes for success in international assignments. As the business landscape continues to evolve, teams must be prepared to adapt to changing circumstances, new technologies, and unforeseen challenges. 

Being open to new ideas and approaches is crucial. International assignments provide an opportunity to learn from diverse perspectives and innovative practices. Embracing new methodologies, tools, and processes can lead to improved efficiency and effectiveness. By encouraging a culture of continuous learning and adaptation, teams can remain agile and responsive to the demands of the project. 

Flexibility also extends to accommodating personal and cultural differences. Recognizing that team members may have different working styles, preferences, and needs helps create an inclusive and supportive work environment. Providing flexible work arrangements, considering cultural holidays and celebrations, and accommodating individual time zones and schedules demonstrates a commitment to valuing diversity and promoting work-life balance. 

6. Conflict resolution and mediation 

In international assignments, conflicts and disagreements are bound to arise due to differences in perspectives, cultural norms, or communication styles. Effectively addressing and resolving conflicts is crucial to maintaining team cohesion and productivity. 

First and foremost, creating an open and safe environment for addressing conflicts is essential. Encouraging team members to express their concerns, opinions, and ideas fosters open communication and prevents conflicts from escalating. Active listening and empathy play a significant role in understanding different viewpoints and finding common ground. 

When conflicts arise, mediation and conflict resolution techniques can be employed. Facilitating constructive discussions, encouraging compromise, and seeking win-win solutions can help resolve conflicts amicably. In situations where cultural differences contribute to conflicts, cultural mediators or intercultural experts can provide valuable insights and guidance. 

7. Knowledge sharing and learning 

International assignments provide an excellent opportunity for knowledge sharing and learning. Each team member brings unique skills, expertise, and experiences to the table, which can enrich the project and promote professional growth. 

Encouraging knowledge sharing ensures that valuable insights and best practices are disseminated throughout the team. Regular meetings, virtual workshops, and collaborative platforms can be utilized to share knowledge, discuss challenges, and learn from each other’s expertise. Implementing mentoring programs or buddy systems can further facilitate knowledge transfer and create a supportive learning environment. 

Additionally, fostering a culture of continuous learning enhances the team’s adaptability and innovation. Encouraging team members to pursue professional development opportunities, attend relevant training programs or webinars, and stay updated on industry trends strengthens their skills and knowledge base. Providing resources and support for learning initiatives demonstrates the organization’s commitment to personal and professional growth. 

8. Respect for diversity and inclusion  

International assignments bring together individuals from various cultural backgrounds, ethnicities, genders, and perspectives. Promoting diversity and inclusion is not only ethically important but also contributes to the success of the project by harnessing the power of different ideas and experiences. 

Respecting diversity means creating an inclusive environment where all team members feel valued, respected, and empowered to contribute. This includes embracing different cultural practices, beliefs, and perspectives. Avoiding stereotypes, biases, and discriminatory behavior is crucial in fostering an inclusive work environment. 

Leadership plays a vital role in promoting diversity and inclusion. Leaders should lead by example and demonstrate a commitment to diversity and inclusion through their actions and decisions. By actively seeking diverse perspectives, creating opportunities for underrepresented individuals, and ensuring equitable access to resources and opportunities, leaders can foster a culture of inclusivity. 

9. Cross-cultural training and education 

To navigate the complexities of international assignments successfully, investing in cross-cultural training and education is invaluable. Understanding cultural differences and acquiring intercultural competence enhances communication, collaboration, and overall project outcomes. 

Cross-cultural training programs provide team members with insights into different cultural norms, values, communication styles, and business practices. These programs help build cultural intelligence, enabling team members to adapt their behavior, communication, and work styles to effectively interact with colleagues from different cultures. 

Beyond basic cultural awareness, cross-cultural training should also include education on specific cultural nuances relevant to the project. This may involve learning about local customs, etiquette, and business protocols of the countries involved. By equipping team members with this knowledge, they can navigate cultural differences with sensitivity and respect. 

10. Recognize and celebrate achievements 

Recognizing and celebrating achievements is essential for boosting morale, fostering team spirit, and reinforcing a positive work environment. In international assignments, it is important to acknowledge the accomplishments of team members from different cultures and countries. 

Take the time to acknowledge individual and team achievements, both big and small. This can be done through public recognition, appreciation emails, virtual celebrations, or awards. Celebrating cultural diversity by incorporating elements of different cultures into the recognition process further enhances inclusivity. 

Regularly highlighting and celebrating achievements not only motivates team members but also reinforces a sense of belonging and pride in the project. It creates a positive work culture where everyone feels valued and appreciated for their contributions, regardless of their cultural background. 

In conclusion, managing successful international assignments requires a combination of effective communication, cultural sensitivity, adaptability, and collaboration. By embracing diversity, investing in cross-cultural training, and fostering an inclusive work environment, teams can overcome challenges, maximize productivity, and achieve outstanding results. With the right strategies and a commitment to cultural understanding, international assignments can become transformative opportunities for growth, learning, and global success. 

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Why 40% of Overseas Assignments Fail and What You Can Do to Prevent It

Four in ten international assignments are judged to be a failure. And yet the number of overseas assignments continues to rise. Global companies are under considerable pressure to determine what makes a successful overseas assignment and to understand why they so often fail.

To minimize the risk of such failure and to ensure the well-being of their employees, organizations must examine the key challenges facing expats deployed overseas, and determine the best way to prepare, support, and manage them during their time abroad.

Challenges of overseas assignments

International companies are realizing that expatriate employees require significant support to complete their assignment successfully.

With 40% of all overseas assignments failing, the cost of failure is high – the average cost of an expat assignment can amount to $311,000 per yea r. It makes financial sense for companies to ensure that they fully prepare and support expatriate employees before, during, and after their overseas assignments.

Global Mobility in the Age of Diversity

Companies sending employees overseas have a moral responsibility and a duty of care to ensure that they understand the legislation and cultural differences in the country assignees are going to.

Some of the most important services that should be available to all expats on overseas international assignments include:

• Pre-assignment health screening to ensure that the employee is fit for the assignment
• Cross-cultural training for the entire family
• Comprehensive travel and medical insurance packages
• Access to Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) throughout the assignment

Why expatriate assignments fail and how to prevent this failure

According to INSEAD business school, the five main reasons for expatriate assignment failure, which they estimate at 40-50% of all overseas deployments are:

1. You chose the wrong person in the first place

Unless there is a previous track record of success, it is very difficult to isolate the qualities that successful expats require.

2. Lack of local support in the host country

The local branch of the company in the host country has a crucial role to play in supporting newly arrived employees.

3. Disconnection from the home country

It is very important for expats to keep in touch with colleagues and work life back home so that they have a more balanced view of their role within the global organization and are better prepared for repatriation once the assignment is over.

Further reading

4. Domestic difficulties

While children and spouses are frequent factors in early repatriation cases, these difficulties are extremely hard to spot because most expats are reluctant to share domestic or social difficulties with the company – the company needs to know that the assignee’s family is coping, and it should explain the need for open communication up-front.

5. Failure to plan

Individuals need time to prepare practically and mentally for an overseas assignment, and an organization needs time to put the right infrastructure in place.

It takes time to choose the right candidate, and to put in place the people required to support them, so effective planning for the overseas international assignment is crucial.

Preparing employees for overseas assignments

Preparation is key to ensuring a successful overseas international assignment and support should be offered throughout the process.

Global Mobility professionals must:

• Select employees carefully Success at home does not necessarily translate into high performance overseas for an employee. It is important to consider soft skills, such as flexibility, self-reliance, tolerance, and the ability to handle change and ambiguity, since these are qualities that point to the likelihood of success in a new environment.
• Prepare for departure This is where companies often fall short – pre-deployment programs such as cross-cultural training and intensive language classes need to be developed and supported financially by the organization.
• Offer ongoing support Proactive, ongoing support versus reactive actions by employers has been found to markedly increase the success rate of expatriate assignments, so this kind of support should be integral to the program.
• Prepare for repatriation This is an often overlooked factor in the success or failure of international assignments — expats need to have sufficient time to prepare for a new environment at home for themselves and their families.

The benefits of overseas assignments

There are numerous benefits for both companies and employees in meeting the challenges of successful overseas international assignments.

Advantages for companies

• Expansion into both new and existing markets: By building out a talented workforce abroad, a company can bolster its global influence and revenue
• Development of top talent: international experience can help train employees for leadership , managerial, and executive roles in the future
• Streamlined operations: if a company is looking to make moves quickly, sending an existing employee abroad can help streamline operations
• New perspectives are gained: having employees working overseas can help funnel new perspectives, ideas, and business practices back to headquarters

Benefits for employees

Likewise, there are significant benefits for employees of working abroad, and expatriates should understand that overseas deployments will often result in benefits not only for the company but for themselves:

• The potential for career progression
• An increased salary or compensation in many cases
• Attractive perks and benefits for the whole family
• The development of professional skills that could lead to future promotion
• Enhanced personal experiences and potential opportunities for travel
• The discovery of new people, traditions, and ways of working
• Familiarization with new languages and cultures

Managing expatriates on overseas assignments

Research shows that services that prepare, support, and show employees that they are valued typically represent just 1% of the total cost of overseas assignments.

The following tips apply to all global organizations managing expatriates on overseas international assignments:

• Ensure that your employees are medically fit
• Make sure that any drugs that the employee/family needs are legal
• Give cultural training to employees and their families prior to travel
• Offer intensive language courses for the whole family
• Sign up for an expatriate Employee Assistance Program
• Provide international medical insurance

Be prepared

When it comes to overseas assignments it is really a case of – fail to prepare: prepare to fail. Global mobility professionals must examine the challenges facing the modern assignee and determine the best practices to support and manage them throughout their assignment.

As International Management Consultant Audrey Rowley puts it:

“Successful overseas assignments depend on the individual and the support they receive. After the initial honeymoon period, it is common for employees to feel isolated because of the cultural and language barriers and the separation from friends and family. Having a benefit and support program that starts [at home] and continues throughout the assignment can alleviate the risk of failure, provide employees with support to address any issues, and ensure the assignment is a success for the company and the employee.”

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7 Strategies for a Successful International Work Assignment

Published: Oct 08, 2018

International assignments are exciting for a host of reasons, but having the opportunity to live in another country while finding success in your career at the same time is particularly compelling. Working abroad allows you to gain real-world experience, advance the skills you have, and learn how to thrive in a global environment.

But living and working in a new country with a different culture is a major life change. It’s important to immerse yourself in the experience and remain positive through the ups and downs. Below are 7 tips to make the most of your journey abroad.

1. Keep an Open Mind

Social media and the internet allows us to connect with people from all over the world. Take time to learn about the history of your new home, including any local customs or laws, so you can set more realistic expectations ahead of time.

When you finally touch down in your new destination, keep an open mind. What you think you know about an area or country may end up being turned on its head once you spend more than a few days there.

For Allison Alexander, a participant in Abbott’s Finance Professional Development Program , an international assignment was the ultimate lesson in flexibility. “Going to an international role means you’re stepping into a culture and a set of expectations that are foreign to you,” she explains. “It forces you to be open to the unexpected.”

Unlike traveling for leisure, international assignments allow you to spend months or even years in a location. You can, and should, tap into the global mindset you’ve already developed while leaving room for all the surprises that will come from long-term exposure to a different culture.

2. Set Goals

Maximize the benefits of an international assignment by setting goals for yourself at the beginning. What do you hope to accomplish in the first two weeks? How can you challenge yourself once you’ve settled in? And when you leave, what are the skills you want to take with you? Having clearly defined milestones will help you stay focused on what’s important and define the steps needed to grow your career.

3. Develop Language Skills

You may not become fluent, but practicing the local language can help you build deeper connections within the community and potentially open up new work opportunities in the future. Don’t fret if you stumble through mispronunciations and tenses at first, the more you practice, the more confident you'll become, and the better you'll get.

4. Be Adventurous

When you're abroad, it's great to take advantage of travel. You have a new world at your doorstep! It's also a chance to try activities you've never tried before.

"I've been doing things I thought of all my life but could never muster enough courage to actually do," says Timir Gupta, another member of Abbott's Finance Professional Development Program, who has traveled solo, tried skydiving, and chased the northern lights. "And it's a great conversation starter during an interview," he adds.

5. Apply New Perspectives

Gaining insight into different business practices can help you learn to look at old problems in new ways when you return home. This type of creative problem solving will be an asset no matter what your next assignment is.

"When you finally make your way back to a domestic role, you've now become an expert in two completely different professional structures," says Alexander. "You've seen what works and what doesn't in a global setting, and you can lead the group on new ways of thinking that may lead to more success."

6. Expand Your Network

Get out and build connections, both at your assignment and beyond. "Because of traveling, I have friends all over the world," says Gupta. He now has connections across five continents that he can tap into when looking for a reference or career advice.

Luckily, maintaining the professional network you build abroad is now easier than ever before. Social media, LinkedIn, and apps like WhatsApp can help you stay in contact with your colleagues and mentors.

7. Market Yourself and Build Your Career

When you return home, don't forget to incorporate your experience into your personal branding. You want to make sure prospective employers know how your new skills, perspectives, and connections set you apart. Think: How can I rework my resume and reframe interview answers to showcase what I've learned?

Depending on your experience, you may even refocus your career or choose employers who will use your global mindset. If you want more opportunities to go abroad, many multinational organizations offer international assignments. With offices in more than 150 countries, Abbott has numerous internships and development programs for students in finance, information technology, engineering, manufacturing, environmental health, and quality assurance.

Look for companies expanding in emerging markets, too. This can give you the unique opportunity to get in at the ground level and learn how to evolve a product or service to match the local market.

No matter what you choose or where you go, an international assignment can provide you with the unique opportunity to grow personally and professionally—and hopefully have a little fun along the way too.

This post was sponsored by Abbott .

10 Tips for Managing Successful International Assignments

20 Apr / 2021 | By TMA World

International assignments can be one of the most rewarding and life-changing experiences in an individual’s career. Yet international assignments are expensive for the employer – and a surprisingly high number of them fail. There are various reasons for this, but culture shock, failure of the employee to perform in their new post and dissatisfaction with the assignment itself are cited as common causes. How can you best prepare employees for international assignments – and help them make the assignment a success? Here are some tips.

1. Make a business case for international assignments

Sending an employee to live and work overseas is expensive. Is there a case for doing this? Would a local hire be better, or is there absolutely nobody else for the job? If there is nobody locally, does the individual have the right skills and mindset? Are they open to living and working in different cultures? What benefit will their overseas experience bring to the company when they return?

2. Consider the individual’s position

Employers need to be sensitive to personal situations when considering sending someone overseas. Posting an LGBTQ individual to, say, a conservative Muslim country is not impossible, but requires serious consideration and extra support. The same applies to an employee’s partner and family; is there anything that might put them at risk in the new destination?

3. Manage expectations

Employees need to be prepared for the fact that life during international assignments will be different, and not necessarily glamorous and exotic. There will be cultural barriers to overcome, as well as homesickness and culture shock to deal with. Families and spouses need to be prepared for the changes. New relationships will need to be built in the workplace and a new structure fitted into. Going with realistic expectations is better than plunging into international assignments unprepared, and having it turn out to be a disappointment.

4. Prepare for cultural immersion

Embarking on a programme of cross-cultural training is invaluable before taking up international assignments; individuals learn to understand their own mindset and prejudices as well as what to expect in the new culture. There are less formal ways to prepare, too. Would-be assignees for international posts could should be encouraged to build up a picture of the new culture by reading literature, newspapers and blogs. They should listen to podcasts and even watch movies to put together the jigsaw of everyday life in the new place.

5. Arrange mentoring schemes

A cross-cultural mentor might be a colleague in the new office, or a co-worker who is in the destination, or has experience of it. Ideally, new expat workers should have a mentor in the new destination and one at home; it is very easy for expatriates to feel cut adrift from the familiarity of their old office and colleagues. Typical discussion points with a mentor might include management style, hierarchy, gender issues, meeting etiquette, negotiating and decision making. Essentially, though, a mentor should be a sounding board on whom the expat can rely when problems crop up.

6. Encourage a positive attitude

Even having a few simple memos and pointers can help newly landed expats through difficult times. Learning not to compare their old culture with the new one; remembering that the new culture is different but not necessarily wrong; understanding different approaches to time management; and starting out with the basic assumption that people in the new culture are friendly and welcoming, even if there are hiccups in communicating with them. This is all part of cross-cultural communication training.

7. Offer language training

Even if English is the international language of business, and even if English is the language of the workplace in the new country, a basic conversational command of the destination language will go a long way towards integrating into society and overcoming culture shock. This is important for trailing spouses, too; culture shock can be even worse for a spouse who has less structure to their day and lacks the confidence to build a life of their own.

8. Keep communication focused

Mentoring aside, a company should have a formal reporting scheme while the employee is abroad on assignment. Checking in regularly is the best way to stay appraised of how the assignment is progressing, what new ideas and useful information have been picked up, and dealing with any problems before they escalate. Companies should make the most of the assignee’s time abroad by encouraging them to share their experiences – by blogging, for example, or participating in video conferences.

9. Provide support for sufferers of culture shock

Culture shock is a serious condition; it can lead to depression, a sense of isolation and even illness. Almost everybody suffers from culture shock in some way. Most people get through it but some fail to adapt, feeling lonely, resenting the new culture, maintaining an illusion that everything back home is superior. Acknowledging culture shock and finding small ways to deal with it should all be part of preparation for life abroad, for example, working to establish a network of friends, both expats and people from the new culture; keeping busy; and making an effort as a family to explore the new culture; visiting markets, trying out restaurants and arranging enjoyable activities for weekends, like a trip to the beach. Craving the comforts of home is not wrong; it’s normal.

10. Remember that reintegrating is just as important

Many of these issues apply to the end of international assignments. A posting abroad can be a life-changing experience and it’s not uncommon for individuals to return home with new skills and ambitions to find that they are different – and that their old friends, colleagues and workplace have changed, too. Some of the positives of an overseas posting are increased confidence, a broader world view, better empathy and more creativity when it comes to problem solving. Employers need to harness these new qualities, not just expect the individual to slot back in. Preparation should be made several months before an assignee returns. What new skills do they have? How do they see themselves fitting in? What opportunities might be available for them? Fail to prepare and the chances are, they’ll take their new skills elsewhere.

Our blended learning solutions ensures your global travelers, international assignees and their families will be successful. Our learning process can be fully adapted to suit the needs of your organization. Our training is delivered across coaching sessions, instructor led training and online learning pathways.  Click here to read our brochure for more information . 

Interested in how introducing a cultural intelligence tool in your business could help to create a more borderless workforce? We’d love to show you our groundbreaking platform.

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Lessons from an international assignment

Robert S. DeVries

An international assignment has long been seen as providing executives with an opportunity for personal growth and professional development, while enabling companies to place executives in markets where specific capabilities are needed or to spread corporate values and best practices throughout the organization. With business footprints expanding and international markets becoming increasingly important drivers of revenue and profit growth, companies need executives who are global thinkers with broad-based business perspectives and the agility to master an array of markets, cultures, competitors and workforce differences.

As these capabilities become even more important, having a meaningful assignment outside one’s own market has become a critical element of executive experience and is likely to become a prerequisite for career advancement at a growing number of multinational companies.

We asked several senior executives to think back to their first or most memorable international assignment and share how those experiences helped to shape or influence their leadership styles. What surprised them the most? What did they learn and how have they continued to apply those lessons in their current leadership roles? Finally, what advice would they give to other executives about succeeding in an international assignment?

Philippe Bourguignon

Vice chairman, revolution places, and ceo, club med, what surprised you.

Someone who was born and raised in his country and, when he is 25, 28, 30, is posted abroad, obviously, learns so much during his first assignment. I was raised in Morocco. My father worked for a U.S. company, and I came to the U.S. almost every year when I was a young boy. Therefore, I’ve been exposed and living international from basically almost the time I was born. It is more a way of life, and, by the way, this has been a huge gift. My two children were born in New York and raised in the U.S., and today they are totally bicultural.

What have you learned?

I like to say that I’ve learned patience in Asia, and I’ve learned what competition means in the U.S., because I’m from a country where there is no patience and limited competition.

What I also learned by working internationally is that if you keep good sense — remain grounded in basic business judgment and rules — you can work in any foreign environment. Good sense is key. Some people try too hard to be too local, understand everything, but you will never understand a foreign country as well as you understand your native country, even if you speak the language. But good sense is the same everywhere.

What advice would you give to others based on your experience?

To an executive, my advice would be to listen and be humble. Listening is very important. Be humble and respectful. The tendency, particularly if you go into emerging countries, is to consider that everything else is not as well done. But being humble and respectful of people buys you tremendous mileage no matter where you go. You need to be more humble abroad than you are at home and more respectful.

When you are abroad, things are over-amplified. Being abroad over-amplifies your body language, your words and your decisions. Whatever you say is listened to twice as carefully as when you say it at home. You are watched much more closely than you are at home — for both good and bad.

John Doumani

Managing director, australasia for fonterra cooperative group, what did you learn.

The business issues were not that hard to discover, but the bigger issues for me were actually more cultural. The culture in the U.K. was similar to here, and there was a relatively informal work environment where you can joke around a bit. This is my style and it translated really well. However in Italy and the U.S., the work environment is more formal, and I had to adjust my style to be conscious of this. Had I not done so, I would not have been able to be effective working for the organization. You have to be very careful not to offend people. If you want people to follow your leadership, you have to engage them in a way that works for them.

Seventy percent of what you know about business will translate, but the other 30 percent — the difference between success and failure quite often — comes down to truly understanding the business dynamics that might be different. Market dynamics vary greatly in terms of regulations, trade and competitive structures. You’ve got to make sure you get your head around this because it will affect your ability to implement what you want to do, and you have to modify whatever you do to fit in.

The bigger issue is to be really sensitive to cultural differences. There’s no shortcut in being able to do this other than to have an open mind and be willing to accept any differences. You can’t go with the attitude of, “I’m just going to do what I do and if they don’t like it, stuff it!” The first thing is to accept that the cultural issues are really important. Accept the fact that it may be different and be really open-minded. The sooner you identify and are open to any differences, the better.

Philip Earl

Executive vice president and general manager, publishing for activision blizzard, what most surprised you.

Having worked in Saudi Arabia, having worked in Australia, having worked in Los Angeles, what surprised me the most is that there are more similarities than differences in the people across countries.

I learned the importance of understanding the pace of change: how much to do and how quickly. You have to be very astute in understanding the capabilities of the organization in the marketplace. It can be too fast, but can also be too slow. There is no right or wrong answer. You have got to accept that you can have a very strong strategy and you can have a very good vision, but unless you bring the team with you, it is just disconnected. Your people capability platform will determine whether to go faster or slower.

What people leadership insights have you gained?

Something interesting I have learned is the fact that people are motivated by different things, and understanding what most drives a specific individual lies at the heart of leadership. Often you assume people are concerned about money. It almost always isn’t the case. There has to be a base level of remuneration, but in three years working with video games people, I have Harvard graduates who just want to work in that industry; it motivates them to be part of something amazing. It is a passion for them. Some people are motivated by a very strong sense of family and a sense of community. If you are not careful and gloss over individual motivations, you never get the most out of people. You have got to understand people. There can be 10 nuances of what motivates them, and if you get that right, despite cultural differences, you can usually do quite well.

My advice is to “be in.” When you go to a new market, don’t hang around on the side; just get in there. Absorb the culture, language, food, sport, everything. You get a reaction from your work colleagues that is really incredible and makes you feel that you really want to be here, and as a consequence, they see you as an expat wanting to be here.

Conrado Engel

Chief executive officer, hsbc bank brazil.

The most important thing was how careful you have to be about managing cultural differences. People react differently to situations, and this is very challenging. For example, the way you interact with a Chinese company is completely different from an Indian one. Individuals can interpret situations very differently. Early during my assignment in Hong Kong, after a meeting where we were assigned tasks for a particular project, I asked an executive for a status update prior to the due date. I realized later that this made the executive feel very uncomfortable, because, as he said, he would fulfill his commitments; it was part of his responsibility. Again, it demonstrates the importance of understanding cultural differences.

What personal or professional lessons from your international experience have remained with you?

Managing any business is about managing people. Dealing with different cultures and reactions is crucial. I learned to listen more and reflect more before taking immediate action. I also learned that people can significantly benefit from each other’s experience. For example, I believe that my experience in dealing with crisis management as a Brazilian executive was very beneficial to the HSBC Group when I was in Hong Kong.

You have to visit people, go and visit the countries and the operations, and establish strong professional connections. Personal relationships may also help. Understanding the cultural environment is of vital importance. Learning how to navigate a large organization like HSBC — with a strong internal culture, with very strong roots in Asia — is also critical for success.

It is always best to listen, comprehend and then act.

Kirk Kinsell

President of the americas, intercontinental hotels group.

Based in London, with responsibilities for Europe and Africa, the things that surprised me were the diversity of thinking and the distinctive cultures and, therefore, how people felt, how people thought, how they processed information and what was important to them varied tremendously. As a result, there was more dialogue, which oftentimes meant debate. Having to have that broader discussion on issues was intriguing, challenging and fulfilling. Initially, the discussion can feel like it’s slowing things down, but when you reset expectations and build in opportunities for debate, what I have found is that, even though people may not agree with the ultimate decision, the process allows people to align and walk out of a meeting on the same page.

What personal or professional lessons have remained with you?

I made it a point to get underneath the differences between my new environment and what I was used to at home, and understand the history and the stories behind the surface. I began to appreciate the differences for how they enrich the environment that I was in, creating a more holistic and colorful tapestry from an aesthetic standpoint.

Coming back to the United States, I find myself wanting to go deeper with people who I otherwise would have thought were just like me. As a result, I think I have the potential to build stronger relationships. I have the potential to be a better leader. Because our job as leaders is to unlock the potential of the people we work with and the people we have the privilege of leading and managing. And, therefore, I can get perhaps a better perspective of who they are and their motivations and how they align with the company’s purpose and objectives.

What advice would you give others based on your experience?

To another American, I would say dialing down the fact that you’re American and dialing up being a global citizen is probably a much more effective way of engaging people. It doesn’t mean that you change your principles or your beliefs or your value system; it means being sensitized to how you come across. Saying things like, “We do it this way back there” — meaning that was the only good way — can come off as being too American, too know-it-all, too celebratory, too cheerleading, too shallow, all those things that are sometimes attributed to being American.

Murilo Portugal

President of febraban (brazilian federation of banks).

My most relevant international experience was to work with International Monetary Fund. It provided me a great opportunity to understand the reality of other countries. Since I was responsible for the fund’s relations with 81 countries in all five continents — from advanced countries such as Sweden to developing countries such as Bhutan — I had to understand different environments and market dynamics. In this role, I came into direct contact with the reality of different countries, different economic cycles and stages of development, from crisis to growth moments. What did not surprise me, unfortunately, was the reaction in some places to the economic crisis in 2008, in particular, the difficulty of entering into a discussion with governments and the denial about the gravity of the problems.

Do not postpone the inevitable. Trying to escape an inevitable conclusion will increase the costs related to the decision, but it is hard to define what you should fight for, and what to give up.

What personal or professional lessons from the experience have remained with you?

Life is the best teacher. The only problem is that there is only one pedagogy. You learn when you hit a wall, and usually you have to go through this painful process to learn. Even if you rationally know what to do, usually you only change when you hit a wall, because of the limitations in the decision-making process and human behavior.

Respect the level of the professionals who work with you, and learn how to best deal with very smart people and motivate them. Well-qualified people, of course, have their own ambitions and personal interests. It is critical to maintain the enthusiasm of people in a multicultural environment, and devote time for that. You have to be a manager of people, otherwise you will fail even if you are capable of managing processes and tasks. Technical knowledge alone will not make you successful.

This article is included in Point of View 2012 .

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Managing International Assignments: Employer Guidance

Anne morris.

• 28 August 2024

IN THIS SECTION

Organisations deploy personnel on international assignment for many reasons. Whether you are addressing an internal skills gaps, supporting leadership development or looking to improve working relations across borders, for any international assignment to be successful, there will be a multitude of legal, immigration, tax and pensions risks to manage when sending employees overseas.

Global mobility programmes have traditionally been developed with a uniform approach, driven largely by cost management and operational efficiencies. However, organisations are increasingly taking a more flexible and bespoke approach to overseas assignments in order to attain advantage in areas such as compliance and talent development and retention.

While a one-size-fits-all approach to the fundamentals of mobility management may be a commercial reality, overlaying this should be areas of specific consideration and capability that can be adapted to the specific needs and risks of each international assignment. This allows for greater focus on the assignment’s commercial objectives and the agility to respond to the organisation’s changing global mobility needs .

International assignment objectives

From the outset of any successful assignment project, there should be clarity of objectives. Why as an organisation is the decision being made to invest in sending an employee to perform services in a different country?

International assignments can offer value in many areas, many of which typically present in the longer-term.

Internal knowledge transfer is a common assignment objective to address talent or skills shortages within overseas regions. Deploying key talent with specialist knowledge and skills to train and upskill local team members can help to resolve local labour or skill supply issues. The cost/benefit analysis can explore potential missed opportunities or delays resulting from shortages in the local talent market.

International assignments are also highly effective in building relationships and improving intercultural working. This could be relationships within an organisation, with local clients and intermediaries or local authorities. Face to face interaction remains highly effective and valuable in building influence on the ground and can offer significant potential for advantage over competitors.

Beyond relationships, value is also created in the knowledge gained by assignees working overseas, from insight into local customs and culture, improved language capability and a general understanding of how business is ‘done’ within the region and helping to adapt organisational protocol to suit the local environment. Combined with the assignee’s existing market and organisational knowledge, they can offer a global perspective with local details, bringing considerable potential to build competitive differentiation.

With clarity of objective, you can then consider whether an international assignment is the most appropriate solution . Is it possible to hire or promote locally? Would multiple, shorter trips be as effective in performance terms but with lower cost implications? International assignments demand significant investment and it will be important to assess cost projections against expected return and value to the organisation.

International assignment structures

As well as clarity of objectives, a successful international assignment also requires clarity of contractual terms, both to manage the expectations and understanding of the assignee, and also for the mobility team to identify support needs and potential risks.

Now more than ever, organisations are developing portfolios of mobility programmes to enable an agile approach to global mobility that responds to the organisation’s changing needs for international personnel mobility. Assignments come in increasingly different shapes and sizes, from permanent relocations or temporary exchanges, secondments or transfers to a different region or to a different organisation.

While organisations demand greater flexibility and agility from their global mobility programmes, underpinning the activity should be an appropriate assignment structure with a supporting contractual agreement that enables compliance with regulatory and legal duties.

When considering which structure to adopt, organisations will need to consider a range of factors including the type of assignment and the relevant environmental context such as regulatory, immigration, employment law, tax, pension implications.

For international assignments, where the employee is moving from the home country employer to a host country employer, the employer could consider a number of assignment structures, including:

• The employee continues to be employed solely by the home employer.
• The employment contract with the home employer is suspended for the duration of the assignment while the employee enters into a new employment contract with the host employer.
• The employment contract with the home employer is terminated with a promise of re-employment at the end of the assignment while the employee enters into a new employment contract with the host employer.
• The employment contract with the home employer is suspended and the employee enters into a contract with an international assignment company (IAC) within the employer group
• The employment contract with the home employer is suspended and the employee enters into a contract with both an IAC and the host country employer.
• The employee remains resident in the home country and works in a host country under a commuter assignment.

Each type of assignment structure offers advantages and disadvantages which should be considered in light of the individual assignment. For example:

• Do employment laws in the host country require the assignee to be employed by a local entity?
• Would the assignee be agreeable to ending their home country contract and starting a new agreement with a new entity in the host country?
• Are there terms in the home country contract that would need protecting in any new agreement, such as restrictive covenants?
• Which jurisdiction would prevail, the host or home country?
• How would local laws interpret a situation where there is no contract of employment with the employer in the host country?
• Issues such as income and corporate tax, pension and employment rights and responsibilities will need to be identified and assessed against the specific assignment objectives and budget and the assignee profile and circumstances.

Employment law

Employment law implications come hand-in-hand with selecting an appropriate assignment structure.

Home-country employment contracts for employees on assignment from the UK to an overseas jurisdiction should generally be interpreted under the laws of England and Wales. If a host country contract is used, there should be specific provision in the agreement to determine which jurisdiction would prevail. However, neither position is guaranteed, for example where issues of domicile arise which may supersede any contractual provisions. Again the need is to assess on an individual assignment basis.

As well as explicit contractual considerations, employers should also be aware of any statutory rights or implied terms under UK law that may continue to apply even in the host country.

Specific provisions may also need to be made to ensure confidentiality and appropriate handling of commercial and sensitive information. While this may be standard or expected for senior employees, those on assignment should also be considered for such terms relevant to the type of assignment and the commercial objectives of the project.

Immigration options

Successful international assignments will invariably require careful consideration of the immigration requirements. Governments across the globe are adopting increasingly protectionist stances towards economic migrants, as policies seek to favour domestic workers. This means business travellers and visa holders are now facing greater scrutiny when applying for work visas and when trying to gain entry at the border.

Visa options and criteria vary between countries and are subject to frequent change. Where permission is required for the assignee to work in the host country, it will be important to ensure the assignee applies for the most appropriate route to meet the assignment need, whether that is a work permit or a business visitor visa. The immigration requirements and options will be determined in most part by the rules of the home and host countries, the nationality of the assignee (and any of their dependants who will be joining them overseas) and the nature of the activities the assignee intends to perform during their time in the host country.

For example, a British citizen may be eligible to travel to the US to attend sales meetings and work conferences for up to 90 days  without having to apply for a visa but to conduct ‘gainful employment’ they would need to look at a specific work visa, such as the L-1 visa for intracompany  transfers.

A further factor will be the specific requirements of the visa or permit. Work visas, for example, may require sponsorship of the employee by a local entity with valid sponsor status. The application process for work visas are typically resource-intensive and in many cases will require the employer to provide compelling evidence as to why the role or work cannot be performed by a worker resident in the host country.

Preparation will, therefore, be critical, ensuring there is sufficient time to consider the relevant immigration options in light of local rules, and to then make the required application. Complications may also arise where the employee does not meet certain requirements under the local rules, for example if they have a past criminal conviction or negative immigration record. This will require careful handling and, depending on the host country’s rules, may require submission of a visa waiver to explain the issue and provide assurances of the employee’s eligibility by requesting a discretionary decision on the application.

Assignee remuneration

Relocation packages are typically the biggest expense associated with an international assignment. While cost control will remain a concern, it is important for employers to ensure they are offering packages that are competitive within the market and that the package will support both the commercial objective of the assignment and compliance with associated legal and tax risks.

Home-based packages remain common, including those which may be markedly above local market compensation levels, particularly in circumstanecs where the assignment need is business-critical.

It may be possible however to look at offering a lower package than the home-based option, by either localising the package to harmonise with host nation levels or to develop a ‘local-plus’ offering that maintains a degree of competition, but this can be challenging to apply consistently across all assignment types and locations.

Again, consideration should be given to the individual assignment and the assignee. Millennial workers for example are generally understood to value international experience and the remuneration package may not be their primary concern where the opportunity for overseas exposure is available.

For organisations with a substantial cohort of international assignees and travellers, it may be more appropriate to build a compensation scheme specifically for globally-mobile personnel.

Importantly, assignees who will remain under an employment contract in their home country may continue to be subject to home country payroll while on assignment. This will also enable pension and benefits to be offered in the same way through the home country. Taxation, however, raises more complex issues, for example where withholding rules apply in the host country. This will require specialist guidance to ensure tax liabilities in the home and host country are correctly managed and met withiin the appropriate timeframes.

Need assistance?

International assignments are demanding on the employer and the employee, but have become critical given the business imperatives to meet talent and development needs and achieve competitive advantage .

Employers should not lose sight of the need to understand the specific risks of each individual assignment, which increasingly demand bespoke solutions. While compliance , efficiencies and cost control should be underpinned by a solid global mobility infrastructure of policies, systems and procedures, the current shift is away from a uniform approach to assignment management, instead moving towards more agile management of each assignment, shaped by the specific assignment objectives, budget and risks in relation to immigration, tax, remuneration and employment law.

DavidsonMorris’ specialist global mobility consultants provide expert guidance to employers on all aspects of international assignments, from programme management and implementation to strategic consultancy to ensure value and return on the mobility investment. We understand the commercial drivers behind mobilising workers and the need to ensure compliance without impacting return on mobility investment.

We work with senior management teams, HR and mobility professionals to develop strategies that ensure effective compliance risk management while supporting delivery of the organisation’s global mobility objectives. For advice on making the most of international assignments, speak to us .

International Assignment FAQs

What is an international assignment?

An international assignment is when an employee is temporarily relocated to work in another country on behalf of their employer. These assignments can vary in length and purpose, ranging from short-term projects to long-term placements or even permanent moves.

How long do international assignments typically last?

The duration of an international assignment can vary greatly. They can be as short as a few months or extend to several years. It depends on the needs of the business and the specific goals of the assignment.

Do I need to provide cultural training for employees going on international assignments?

Cultural training is highly recommended. It helps employees adapt to the cultural nuances of the host country, improving their effectiveness and reducing the risk of culture shock. This training can also support better communication and integration within the local team.

What legal considerations should I be aware of for international assignments?

There are several legal considerations, including obtaining the correct work visas and permits, understanding employment laws in the host country, and ensuring compliance with both UK and local regulations. It’s crucial to consult legal experts to avoid any pitfalls.

How can I support employees and their families during an international assignment?

Supporting employees and their families involves providing relocation assistance, helping with accommodation and schooling, offering language courses, and ensuring access to healthcare. Regular check-ins and a clear repatriation plan also help maintain their well-being.

What is the process for repatriating employees after an international assignment?

Repatriation involves planning for the employee’s return to the UK, both in terms of logistics and reintegration into the workplace. It includes arranging their move back, addressing any reverse culture shock, and ensuring they have a clear role and support upon their return.

How can I measure the success of an international assignment?

Success can be measured through various key performance indicators (KPIs) such as the achievement of business objectives, employee satisfaction, skill development, and the impact on the company’s global operations. Regular reviews and feedback from the employee and host team are also essential.

What risks are associated with international assignments?

Risks include geopolitical instability, health issues, and the potential for the assignment to fail if the employee cannot adapt. Mitigating these risks involves thorough planning, offering support systems, and having contingency plans in place.

Is it necessary to have a contingency plan for international assignments?

Contingency planning is vital to address any unexpected issues that may arise during an international assignment. This includes plans for emergency evacuation, alternative work arrangements, and ensuring continuous support for the employee and their family in case of unforeseen events.

Founder and Managing Director Anne Morris is a fully qualified solicitor and trusted adviser to large corporates through to SMEs, providing strategic immigration and global mobility advice to support employers with UK operations to meet their workforce needs through corporate immigration.

She is a recognised by Legal 500 and Chambers as a legal expert and delivers Board-level advice on business migration and compliance risk management as well as overseeing the firm’s development of new client propositions and delivery of cost and time efficient processing of applications.

Anne is an active public speaker, immigration commentator , and immigration policy contributor and regularly hosts training sessions for employers and HR professionals

• Anne Morris https://www.davidsonmorris.com/author/anne/ UK Register of Licensed Sponsors Guide
• Anne Morris https://www.davidsonmorris.com/author/anne/ Online Share Code Check: Complete Guide
• Anne Morris https://www.davidsonmorris.com/author/anne/ Check Share Code: User Guide
• Anne Morris https://www.davidsonmorris.com/author/anne/ UK International Agreement Visa Guide & Process

About DavidsonMorris

As employer solutions lawyers, DavidsonMorris offers a complete and cost-effective capability to meet employers’ needs across UK immigration and employment law, HR and global mobility .

Led by Anne Morris, one of the UK’s preeminent immigration lawyers, and with rankings in The Legal 500 and Chambers & Partners , we’re a multi-disciplinary team helping organisations to meet their people objectives, while reducing legal risk and nurturing workforce relations.

Read more about DavidsonMorris here . 

Legal Disclaimer

The matters contained in this article are intended to be for general information purposes only. This article does not constitute legal advice, nor is it a complete or authoritative statement of the law, and should not be treated as such. Whilst every effort is made to ensure that the information is correct at the time of writing, no warranty, express or implied, is given as to its accuracy and no liability is accepted for any error or omission. Before acting on any of the information contained herein, expert legal advice should be sought.

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Three Keys to Getting an Overseas Assignment Right

• Mark Alan Clouse and Michael D. Watkins

How to tackle a management role in a new cultural and regulatory environment.

Reprint: R0910N

The mergers that thrive postrecession will be those that focus not just on the numbers but on integrating and motivating employees. To extract lessons on how to manage the human side of M&A, Harvard Business School’s Kanter studied a dozen deals that overcame the usual barriers to success: employee shock, protests, and anxiety, all of which can fuel supplier unrest, government disapproval, and customer defections.

Procter & Gamble, for instance, faced the prospect of “blood on the floor” in its ranks when it bought Gillette, because headhunters went after Gillette managers. Yet P&G managed to retain a large percentage of them, and it enlisted employees in keeping suppliers, distributors, and customers happy. The company met cost and revenue targets within the first year, incorporated Gillette’s superior go-to-market processes, and continued to position itself for growth even as the current recession loomed.

Kanter highlights the key strategies behind effective integration by describing practices at P&G and two other companies: CEMEX, which needed to transfer know-how to acquired employees so they could absorb its processes quickly and meet global standards, and Publicis Groupe, which treated its mergers like reverse takeovers, allowing acquired talent to take the lead in building new capabilities.

The Idea in Brief

• International experience is as valuable as ever—particularly in today’s global organizations.

• But the personal challenges of an overseas assignment are also as daunting as they’ve ever been.

• Settling your family, adapting your communication style, and understanding the new regulatory environment are critical for transitioning successfully, the authors say.

Assuming a new leadership role is hard even in the best of circumstances: relationships are undefined, routines are unfamiliar, and expectations are often unclear. Now imagine yourself heading up a new unit or project in a corporate and national culture radically different from your own. To strengthen their CVs, many ambitious executives willingly learn new languages, uproot their families, and puzzle over local laws and customs.

• MC Mark Alan Clouse is the managing director of Kraft Foods Brazil. He was previously managing director of Kraft in greater China. Michael D. Watkins ([email protected]) is the chairman of Genesis Advisers, a Newton, Massachusetts–based leadership development firm. He is the author of The First 90 Days: Critical Success Strategies for New Leaders at All Levels (Harvard Business Press, 2003). His new book is Your Next Move (Harvard Business Press, 2009).

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The Mercer Mobility Exchange website and its divisional websites may be translated for your convenience using translation software powered by Google Translate, a free online language translation service that can translate text and web pages into different languages. Reasonable efforts have been made to verify the reliability of the translation service, however, no automated translation is perfect nor is it intended to replace human translators. Mercer does not guarantee the accuracy of the translated text. Some pages may not be accurately translated due to the limitations of the translation software. Text in images, PDF files, Word documents or other document types cannot be translated. The official text is the English version of the website. Any discrepancies or differences created in the translation are not binding and have no legal effect for compliance or enforcement purposes. If any questions arise related to the accuracy of the information contained in the translated website, please refer to the English version of the website which is the official version

Managing International Assignments: Compensation Approaches

A new international assignment landscape is challenging traditional compensation approaches

For many years, expatriate compensation has been focused on a dilemma: having assignees on expensive home-based expatriate package versus localization - which is about replacing expatriates with locals or at least transition expatriates from an expatriate package to a local salary. Many predicted that the traditional home-based balance sheet approach would gradually disappear. The predictions of the demise of the typical expatriate approach have been greatly exaggerated. We are witnessing the emergence of new compensation challenges instead, due to the complexity of having to manage multiple types of assignments and assignee categories.

The home-based approach still retains its utility for certain kinds of moves (e.g. business-critical assignments or moves to hardship locations). Local strategies are becoming more common but, due to the difficulty of applying them consistently in all transfer destinations, they are used only in some cases (moves between similar countries, developmental moves) and take multiple forms as “purely local” or local-plus approaches. Additional approaches like international compensation structures have emerged to address issues of global nomads.

The challenge for HR managers is, therefore, not so much to find the best approach applicable for all assignments as to deal with individual assignment complexity, envisage greater mobility policy segmentation and, if relevant for the company, map each compensation approach to a particular assignment in a consistent way.

The increasingly complex international assignment landscape: One size does not fit all anymore

Expatriates vs. Locals

One size fits all?

Let's localize assignees as soon as possible!

Expatriates

Rise of the third-country nationals

Need to add a cost efficient category for junior employees/developmental moves?

Traditional expatriates

Global nomads

Permanent transfers

Employee-initiated moves

Local or local plus?

Foreigners hired locally

Commuters (cross-border or regional

Multiple types of short-term/project/rotational assignments

Increasing number of home locations

Reviewing international assignment approaches in three steps:

Step 1: Understand the options available

Approaches linked to the host country (local or local-plus)

While these approaches sound logical and natural (when relocating assignees to a new country, they will be paid according to the local salary structure in that destination country) their practical implementation is often tricky. Few employees accept a salary decrease when moving to a low-paying country. It is often difficult to reintegrate assignees relocated to a high-paying country into their original salary structure due to their inflated base salary.

The host approach was historically not the most common for assignees on long-term assignments. However, we have witnessed a growing interest in recent years in host-based approaches – either a host approach or local-plus approach (host salary plus selected benefits or premiums) – as companies are trying to contain costs and as significant salary increases in many emerging markets make host strategies more attractive.

Approaches linked to the home country ("balance sheets")

Home-based approaches have been traditionally the most commonly used to compensate international assignees. Assignees on a home-based approach retain their home-country salary and receive a suite of allowances and premiums designed to cover the costs linked to expatriation. The equalization logic behind the balance sheet approach (no gain/no loss) encourages mobility by removing obstacles. Retaining the home-country salary facilitates repatriation. The balance sheet approach can, however, be costly. Many companies either look for alternatives or try to reduce the benefits and premiums included for less significant moves.

Other Solutions

Hybrid approaches attempt to combine the advantages of the home and host-based approaches. These often mean running a balance sheet calculation and comparing the results with the host market salary to determine what solution would make sense. A hybrid approach can work well for a small assignee population but it can generate inconsistencies when companies expand globally, and the assignee population grows significantly.

Finally, some companies rely on international compensation structures that do not use the host and the home structures at all. These might utilize the average salary in a selected group of high-paying countries where the companies operate. This approach facilitates mobility for global nomads and highly mobile employees. It is, however, often very expensive and doesn’t solve all assignment-related issues (e.g., currency issues, pension, taxation). It is typically used in specific industry sectors (e.g., energy and engineering) and for a few assignees (top level managers and global nomads.)

Step 2: Assessing assignment patterNs and business objectives

Assignment patterns

Are assignees moving between countries with similar salary levels, which would make the use of local or local plus easier or, on the contrary, are expatriates sent to host countries with different pay and benefits structures (low-paying to high-paying, or high-paying to low-paying country moves)? Are moves for a fixed duration – e.g., assignments lasting one to five years – or will the company rely on permanent transfers with no guarantee of repatriation?

Assignee Population

Are assignees coming mainly from the headquarter countries (typical for early stages of globalization) or is the number of third-country nationals already significant? A growing number of multinational companies report that the number of moves between emerging markets (“lateral moves”) is catching up with or exceeding the number from the headquarters, prompting a review of compensation approaches.

Are some assignees becoming true global nomads who move from country to country without returning home during their career? Employees, and especially the younger generations, are becoming much more mobile, but only a minority would be global nomads. These assignees are usually top-level managers, experts with unique skills, or globally mobile talent sourced from small or emerging countries where the absence of career opportunities perspective would preclude repatriation perspectives.

Company's philosophy and sector

Some industry sectors like services and finances relocate employees between major regional and financial hubs which facilitate the use of local approach, whereas energy and engineering companies transferred employees to hardship locations are a key feature of the business – and requires comprehensive expatriation packages often based on balance sheets and international salary structures.

Step 3: Assess segmentation needs

An increasing number of companies rely on expatriate policy segmentation to reconcile the cost control versus international expansion dilemma – how to have the same number of assignments or more without increasing the budget dedicated to international mobility. Segmentation means reallocating part of the budget to business critical assignees and limits the costs of non-essential moves.

Some of the commonly used assignment categories include strategic moves (business-critical), developmental moves (which benefit both the company and the employee), and self-requested move (requested by the employee but not essential to the business).

A consistent policy segmentation approach allows HR teams to present business cases or assignment options to management and provide a clearer understanding of the cost and business implications of relocation for different assignees.

It could also help manage exceptions into a well-defined framework based on a consistent talent management approach, as opposed to ad hoc deals.

Example of segmented compensation approach: the four-box model

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• Delivering flexibility
• Talent mobility: compensation dilemmas
• Long-term assignments: tips to manage expatriate allowances
• Global Mobility and Changing Reward Priorities
• Local Approaches for Internationally Mobile Employees
• Two Minutes to Understand Local Plus Compensation Approaches
• Four Steps in Revisiting Mobile Talent Compensation
• Practical Mobility Management: Compensation Tips for Long-Term Assignments
• Exploring Alternatives: Local Plus and Permanent Moves
• New Trends Reshaping Expatriate Compensation and Mobility Policies
• Paying Expatriates: Understanding Split Pay
• International Pay Structures: Why Are Companies Considering Them?
• Changes to Cost of Living Allowances: A Closer Look
• What Is the Relationship Between Family Size and Mercer Spendable Income Amounts?
• Cost of Living Housing Exceptions - Policy Flaw or Necessity?
• Home-Host Housing Options: What Makes Sense and Why
• Effective Short-term Assignment Per Diem Calculations
• How Do “Expat Lite” Programs Manage to Cut Costs?
• Localization and Local Plus Packages: An Alternative Deal for Foreign Talent
• Local Plus: Focusing on the Practicalities of an Increasingly Popular Concept

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Managing International Assignments: A Guide for HR Managers and Employees

Expanding globally brings tremendous opportunities for growth. But sending employees abroad also comes with challenges. As an HR manager, you want to ensure a smooth transition so your employees can hit the ground running in their new location. 

And as an employee, you want the relocation to go as seamlessly as possible so you can focus on your new role.

This guide covers key considerations for HR managers and employees to successfully manage international assignments.

For HR Managers

As an HR manager, you play a critical role in ensuring international assignments are a success. Here are some best practices when relocating employees globally:

Identify the Business Need

Before extending an international assignment offer, clearly identify the business need. Typical reasons include:

• Filling a skill gap
• Transferring knowledge
• Expanding to a new market
• Developing high-potential employees

Understanding the rationale will help determine the assignment length, position level, and candidate selection.

Choose the Right Candidate

Selecting the right person is crucial. Assess both technical qualifications and soft skills like adaptability, cultural sensitivity, and communication.

Look for signals of open-mindedness and flexibility during interviews. Ask questions like:

• How have you adapted to multicultural environments in the past?
• What challenges or frustrations have you faced abroad? How did you respond?
• How do you go about building relationships with colleagues from different backgrounds?

Check references thoroughly to confirm the candidate has the right experience and temperament to succeed.

Offer Cross-Cultural Training

Investing in cross-cultural training helps employees adapt faster once abroad. Training typically covers:

• Background on the host country culture
• Tips for communicating across cultures
• Guidance navigating daily life and etiquette
• Best practices for mingling with locals
• Stress management techniques

Employees walk away better prepared and more excited about the assignment. Partner with a relocation specialist like ARC Relocation to provide training.

Help with Visas and Immigration

Securing the proper work permits and visas is one of the most complex aspects of an international assignment. Requirements, paperwork, and processing times vary greatly by country.

To set your employees up for success, provide hands-on support with:

• Researching visa categories and documents needed. Categories may include work permits, work visas, and dependent visas for family members.
• Completing lengthy applications accurately to avoid delays. Mistakes can significantly slow down processing.
• Translating and authenticating necessary documents like bank records, medical history, police certificates, etc.
• Scheduling appointments and representing the employee in embassy meetings. Navigating bureaucracy is tricky.
• Covering visa fees and associated costs like document translations and health checks. These add up quickly.
• Tracking application status and troubleshooting issues if delays arise. Proactively communicating with authorities speeds things up.
• Coordinating timing with shipment of household goods and temporary accommodations. Visas need to be secured before departure.

Keep in mind that time frames range from two weeks for some work permits to six months or more for residency visas in places like Singapore. Research requirements early and account for the employee’s notice period.

Offer Relocation Services

Relocating is stressful enough without logistical headaches. Offer services like:

• Home finding trips
• Household goods shipping
• Temporary housing
• School search assistance for families
• Settling-in services

Work with ARC Relocation to coordinate end-to-end relocation services for a smooth employee move.

Provide Cultural Training for Family

An employee’s success often hinges on their family’s transition. Offer cultural training for spouses and kids covering topics like:

• Etiquette and customs
• Making friends abroad
• Maintaining mental wellness
• Finding a job for the spouse

This facilitates better adjustment and improves success rates.

Assign a Mentor

Connecting assignees with a home office mentor prevents “out of sight, out of mind” syndrome. The mentor can:

• Give visibility into promotions and department changes
• Offer advice for applying overseas experience
• Provide a sounding board on challenges

Schedule check-ins during home leaves too. This retains institutional knowledge.

Track Performance Consistently

Set clear expectations before departure and evaluate performance regularly. Account for cultural nuances when setting goals and metrics.

Schedule video check-ins to discuss successes, challenges, and additional support required. This prevents surprises come review time.

Plan a Smooth Repatriation

Start planning the return home well in advance. If not managed carefully, repatriation can spur turnover. Proactively take steps like:

• Solicit assignees’ job preferences
• Provide interview opportunities upon home leaves
• Offer career planning services and resume reviews
• Host a “welcome home” event for sharing insights

With preparation, you can retain and leverage talent that’s gained international expertise.

ARC Relocation can advise on repatriation best practices to keep global assignees engaged.

By investing upfront in selecting, preparing, and supporting employees, you significantly increase the odds of a successful international assignment. 

Don’t hesitate to enlist help from a relocation specialist like ARC Relocation to handle the heavy lifting. Their expertise will pay dividends through engaged, productive global teams.

For Employees

Receiving an offer to relocate internationally is incredibly exciting, but also challenging. Here are some tips to smooth your transition:

Understand the Assignment Terms

Review the details in your assignment letter thoroughly. Key points to look for:

• Location and duration
• Your role and responsibilities
• Salary, benefits, and incentives
• Relocation support provided
• Repatriation expectations

Don’t hesitate to ask questions to clarify anything that’s unclear. Getting aligned early prevents surprises later.

Discuss the Move with Family

Relocating affects your whole family. Have open conversations to understand everyone’s hopes and concerns. Topics to cover:

• Expected lifestyle abroad
• Schooling options if you have kids
• Career impacts for a working spouse
• Ways to stay connected to existing friends and family

Addressing concerns proactively eases the transition.

Embrace Cross-Cultural Training

Don’t underestimate the value of cultural training. It provides insights on:

• Etiquette and communication norms
• Building relationships with locals
• Daily life in your new home
• Managing stress and adjustment struggles

Arriving better prepared helps you adapt faster.

Learn the Local Language

Even basic language skills go a long way toward blending into the culture. Use resources like:

• Online lessons and mobile apps
• In-person or virtual tutoring
• Language meetups in your new hometown
• Labeling common items at home in the local language

Immerse yourself as much as possible before departure and after you arrive.

Network with Alumni

Connect with people in your company who have lived in your destination city before. They can share insider tips on things like:

• Housing and neighborhoods
• Schools and childcare
• Navigating transportation
• Where to shop for familiar foods and products from home
• Recruiting bilingual domestic help

Learning from others’ on-the-ground experience accelerates your adjustment.

Seek Out a Mentor

Ask your manager about pairing you with a home office mentor before you depart. Maintaining ties helps avoid feeling “out of sight, out of mind.” A mentor can advise you on things like:

• Promotion opportunities and organizational changes
• How to apply your overseas learnings
• Repatriation preparations

This ensures you stay connected to advance your career.

With preparation and a positive mindset, an international assignment can be a life-changing experience both professionally and personally. Immerse yourself in the culture and local community. 

Maintaining an open and flexible attitude goes a long way toward adaptation and happiness in your new home country.

Don’t hesitate to use relocation specialists like ARC Relocation to help with transition details big and small. Their expertise will help you and your family settle in smoothly.

Contact ARC Today for More Expert Relocation Advice and Guidance!

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18.7 The International Assignment

Learning objectives.

• Describe how to prepare for an international assignment.
• Discuss the acculturation process as an expatriate.
• Describe effective strategies for living and working abroad.

Suppose you have the opportunity to work or study in a foreign country. You may find the prospect of an international assignment intriguing, challenging, or even frightening; indeed, most professionals employed abroad will tell you they pass through all three stages at some point during the assignment. They may also share their sense of adjustment, even embrace of their host culture, and the challenges of reintegration into their native country.

An international assignment, whether as a student or a career professional, requires work and preparation, and should be given the time and consideration of any major life change. When you lose a loved one, it takes time to come to terms with the loss. When someone you love is diagnosed with a serious illness, the news may take some time to sink in. When a new baby enters your family, a period of adjustment is predictable and prolonged. All these major life changes can stress an individual beyond their capacity to adjust. Similarly, in order to be a successful “expat,” or expatriate, one needs to prepare mentally and physically for the change.

International business assignments are a reflection of increased global trade, and as trade decreases, they may become an expensive luxury. As technology allows for instant face-to-face communication, and group collaboration on documents via cloud computing and storage, the need for physical travel may be reduced. But regardless of whether your assignment involves relocation abroad, supervision of managers in another country at a distance, or supervision by a foreign manager, you will need to learn more about the language, culture, and customs that are not your own. You will need to compare and contrast, and seek experiences that lend insight, in order to communicate more effectively.

An efficient, effective manager in any country is desirable, but one with international experience even more so. You will represent your company and they will represent you, including a considerable financial investment, either by your employer (in the case of a professional assignment) or by whoever is financing your education (in the case of studying abroad). That investment should not be taken lightly. As many as 40 percent of foreign-assigned employees terminate their assignments early (Tu, H. and Sullivan, S., 1994), at a considerable cost to their employers. Of those that remain, almost 50 percent are less than effective (Tu, H. and Sullivan, S., 1994).

Preparation

With this perspective in mind, let’s discuss how to prepare for the international assignment and strategies to make you a more effective professional as a stranger in a strange land. First we’ll dispel a couple of myths associated with an idealized or romantic view of living abroad. Next we’ll examine traits and skills of the successful expatriate. Finally, we’ll examine culture shock and the acculturation process.

Your experience with other cultures may have come firsthand, but for most, a foreign location like Paris is an idea formed from exposure to images via the mass media. Paris may be known for its art, as a place for lovers, or as a great place to buy bread. But if you have only ever known about a place through the lens of a camera, you have only seen the portraits designed and portrayed by others. You will lack the multidimensional view of one who lives and works in Paris, and even if you are aware of its history, its economic development, or its recent changes, these are all academic observations until the moment of experience.

That is not to say that research does not form a solid foundation in preparation for an international assignment, but it does reinforce the distinction between a media-fabricated ideal and real life. Awareness of this difference is an important step as you prepare yourself for life in a foreign culture.

If the decision is yours to make, take your time. If others are involved, and family is a consideration, you should take even more care with this important decision. Residence abroad requires some knowledge of the language, an ability to adapt, and an interest in learning about different cultures. If family members are not a part of the decision, or lack the language skills or interest, the assignment may prove overwhelming and lead to failure. Sixty-four percent of expatriate respondents who terminated their assignment early indicated that family concerns were the primary reason (Contreras, C. D., 2009).

Points to consider include the following:

• How flexible are you?
• Do you need everything spelled out or can you go with the flow?
• Can you adapt to new ways of doing business?
• Are you interested in the host culture and willing to dedicate the time and put forth the effort to learn more about it?
• What has been your experience to date working with people from distinct cultures?
• What are your language skills at present, and are you interested in learning a new language?
• Is your family supportive of the assignment?
• How will it affect your children’s education? Your spouse’s career? Your career?
• Will this assignment benefit your family?
• How long are you willing to commit to the assignment?
• What resources are available to help you prepare, move, and adjust?
• Can you stand being out of the loop, even if you are in daily written and oral communication with the home office?
• What is your relationship with your employer, and can it withstand the anticipated stress and tension that will result as not everything goes according to plan?
• Is the cultural framework of your assignment similar to—or unlike—your own, and how ready are you to adapt to differences in such areas as time horizon, masculinity versus femininity, or direct versus indirect styles of communication?

This list of questions could continue, and feel free to add your own as you explore the idea of an international assignment. An international assignment is not like a domestic move or reassignment. Within the same country, even if there are significantly different local customs in place, similar rules, laws, and ways of doing business are present. In a foreign country, you will lose those familiar traditions and institutions and have to learn many new ways of accomplishing your given tasks. What once took a five-minute phone call may now take a dozen meetings and a month to achieve, and that may cause you some frustration. It may also cause your employer frustration as you try to communicate how things are done locally, and why results are not immediate, as they lack even your limited understanding of your current context. Your relationship with your employer will experience stress, and your ability to communicate your situation will require tact and finesse.

Successful expatriates are adaptable, open to learning new languages, cultures, and skilled at finding common ground for communication. Rather than responding with frustration, they learn the new customs and find the advantage to get the job done. They form relationships and are not afraid to ask for help when it is warranted or required. They feel secure in their place as explorer, and understand that mistakes are a given, even as they are unpredictable. Being a stranger is no easy task, but they welcome the challenge with energy and enthusiasm.

Acculturation Process

Acculturation , or the transition to living abroad, is often described as an emotional rollercoaster. Steven Rhinesmith provides ten steps that show the process of acculturation, including culture shock, that you may experience:

• Initial anxiety
• Initial elation
• Initial culture shock
• Superficial adjustment
• Depression-frustration
• Acceptance of host culture
• Return anxiety
• Return elation
• Reentry shock
• Reintegration

Humans fear the unknown, and even if your tolerance for uncertainty is high, you may experience a degree of anxiety in anticipation of your arrival. At first the “honeymoon” period is observed, with a sense of elation at all the newfound wonders. You may adjust superficially at first, learning where to get familiar foods or new ways to meet your basic needs. As you live in the new culture, divergence will become a trend and you’ll notice many things that frustrate you. You won’t anticipate the need for two hours at a bank for a transaction that once took five minutes, or could be handled over the Internet, and find that businesses close during midday, preventing you from accomplishing your goals. At this stage, you will feel that living in this new culture is simply exhausting. Many expats advise that this is the time to tough it out—if you give in to the temptation to make a visit back home, you will only prolong your difficult adjustment.

Over time, if you persevere, you will come to accept and adjust to your host culture, and learn how to accomplish your goals with less frustration and ease. You may come to appreciate several cultural values or traits and come to embrace some aspects of your host culture. At some point, you will need to return to your first, or home, culture, but that transition will bring a sense of anxiety. People and places change, the familiar is no longer so familiar, and you too have changed. You may once again be elated at your return and the familiar, and experience a sense of comfort in home and family, but culture shock may again be part of your adjustment. You may look at your home culture in a new way and question things that are done in a particular way that you have always considered normal. You may hold onto some of the cultural traits you adopted while living abroad, and begin the process of reintegration.

Figure 18.3

The international assignment requires adaptability.

JT – Euro Note Currency – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

You may also begin to feel that the “grass is greener” in your host country, and long to return. Expatriates are often noted for “going native,” or adopting the host culture’s way of life, but even the most confirmed expats still gather to hear the familiar sound of their first language, and find community in people like themselves who have blended cultural boundaries on a personal level.

Living and Working Abroad

In order to learn to swim you have to get in the water, and all the research and preparation cannot take the place of direct experience. Your awareness of culture shock may help you adjust, and your preparation by learning some of the language will assist you, but know that living and working abroad take time and effort. Still, there are several guidelines that can serve you well as you start your new life in a strange land:

• Be open and creative . People will eat foods that seem strange or do things in a new way, and your openness and creativity can play a positive role in your adjustment. Staying close to your living quarters or surrounding yourself with similar expats can limit your exposure to and understanding of the local cultures. While the familiar may be comfortable, and the new setting may be uncomfortable, you will learn much more about your host culture and yourself if you make the effort to be open to new experiences. Being open involves getting out of your comfort zone.
• Be self-reliant . Things that were once easy or took little time may now be challenging or consume your whole day. Focus on your ability to resolve issues, learn new ways to get the job done, and be prepared to do new things.
• Keep a balanced perspective . Your host culture isn’t perfect. Humans aren’t perfect, and neither was your home culture. Each location and cultural community has strengths you can learn from if you are open to them.
• Be patient . Take your time, and know a silent period is normal. The textbook language classes only provide a base from which you will learn how people who live in the host country actually communicate. You didn’t learn to walk in a day and won’t learn to successfully navigate this culture overnight either.
• Be a student and a teacher . You are learning as the new member of the community, but as a full member of your culture, you can share your experiences as well.
• Be an explorer . Get out and go beyond your boundaries when you feel safe and secure. Traveling to surrounding villages, or across neighboring borders, can expand your perspective and help you learn.
• Protect yourself . Always keep all your essential documents, money, and medicines close to you, or where you know they will be safe. Trying to source a medicine in a country where you are not fluent in the language, or where the names of remedies are different, can be a challenge. Your passport is essential to your safety and you need to keep it safe. You may also consider vaccination records, birth certificates, or business documents in the same way, keeping them safe and accessible. You may want to consider a “bug-out bag,” with all the essentials you need, including food, water, keys, and small tools, as an essential part of planning in case of emergency.

Key Takeaways

Preparation is key to a successful international assignment. Living and working abroad takes time, effort, and patience.

• Research one organization in a business or industry that relates to your major and has an international presence. Find a job announcement or similar document that discusses the business and its international activities. Share and compare with classmates.
• Conduct a search on expat networks including online forum. Briefly describe your findings and share with classmates.
• What would be the hardest part of an overseas assignment for you and why? What would be the easiest part of an overseas assignment for you and why?
• Find an advertisement for an international assignment. Note the qualifications, and share with classmates.
• Find an article or other first-person account of someone’s experience on an international assignment. Share your results with your classmates.

Contreras, C. D. (2009). Should you accept the international assignment? BNET . Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5350/is_200308/ai_n21334696 .

Rhinesmith, S. (1984). Returning home . Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Bureau for International Education.

Tu, H., & Sullivan, S. (1994). Business horizons . Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1038/is_nl_v37/ai_14922926 .

Business Communication for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Enhancing expatriates’ assignments success: the relationships between cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adaptation and performance

• Open access
• Published: 20 July 2020
• Volume 41 , pages 4291–4311, ( 2022 )

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• Ilaria Setti 1 ,
• Valentina Sommovigo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9273-5706 1 &
• Piergiorgio Argentero 1  

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Today’s increasingly global marketplace is resulting in more organizations sending employees to work outside their home countries as expatriates. Consequently, identifying factors influencing expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment at work and performance has become an increasingly important issue for both researchers and firms. Drawing on Kim et al. ( 2008 ), this study examines the critical elements to expatriate success, which are the relationships between cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adjustment at work, and assignment-specific performance. One-hundred and fifty-one expatriates working within the energy sector, who were mainly located in the Middle East completed questionnaires, investigating: cultural intelligence ( Cultural Intelligence Scale ), cross-cultural adjustment ( Expatriate Adjustment Scale ), performance (Expatriate Contextual/Managerial Performance Skills ), cultural distance (Kogut and Singh’ index), length of staying in the host country and international work experience. Findings indicated that the four cultural intelligence components were directly and indirectly (through cross-cultural adjustment at work) associated with performance. The positive relationship between motivational cultural intelligence and cross-cultural adjustment at work was stronger when cultural distance was low, when expatriates were at the beginning of a new international assignment, and when they had lower experience. Organizations can greatly benefit from hiring cross-culturally intelligent expatriates for international assignments, providing their employees with pre-departure training programs aimed at increasing cultural intelligence, and giving them organizational resources and logistical help to support them.

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Introduction

As globalization of trade encourages multinational corporations (MNCs) to operate in different geographic environments (Sambasivan et al. 2013 ), talent mobility has become one of the key channels through which to develop global organizations’ competitive advantages (Tarique and Schuler 2010 ). This requires the presence of a cross-culturally competent workforce that can manage overseas subsidiaries and liaise with foreign affiliates (Froese and Peltokorpi 2011 ). In this context, expatriates are considered as invaluable assets by MNCs (Wu and Ang 2011 ). Consequently, there have been numerous calls in psychology (e.g., Mol et al. 2005 ) for more research aimed at identifying the psychological factors driving expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment and performance.

In this context, cultural intelligence (CQ) represents an interesting variable since it is a malleable capability which can be developed through cross-cultural experiences (Chao et al. 2017 ) and specific trainings (Leung et al. 2014 ). CQ is defined as “an individual’s competence to function and manage effectively in culturally diverse settings” (Ang and Van Dyne 2008 , p. 3). CQ is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct which includes four main components: metacognitive CQ (i.e., cultural awareness), cognitive CQ (i.e., cultural knowledge), motivational CQ (i.e., motivation and self-efficacy in functioning in diverse cultural settings), and behavioural CQ (i.e., adoption of appropriate behaviours during cross-cultural interactions). Scholars have called for more research on the CQ dimensions (Ang et al. 2011 ) as the four CQ components have been differently associated with specific intercultural effectiveness outcomes (see Rockstuhl and Van Dyne 2018 for a review).

This study responds to this call by analysing the relationships between specific CQ dimensions, cross-cultural adjustment (CCA; i.e., psychological comfort in a foreign country; Black and Gregersen 1999 ) at work and assignment-specific performance. This latter construct, which refers to the ability to accomplish certain assignment specific tasks (e.g., replacement planning; Caligiuri 1997 ), was chosen in this paper as main dependent variable because successfully executing assignment-specific duties is frequently the main constituent of success, which is evaluated by the home office (Earley and Ang 2003 ). Aside from performance, this study focused on work CCA, namely the extent to which expatriates become psychologically comfortable handling assignment duties and meeting performance expectations (Chen et al. 2010 ; Shaffer et al. 2006 ). Work CCA is one of the three dimensions of CCA, together with general (i.e., general living conditions) and interaction (i.e., interactions with locals) components (Black et al. 1991 ). This paper concentrated on work CCA as it is more predictive of performance than the other CCA dimensions (Chew et al. 2019 ).

The role of overall CQ as a meaningful antecedent of overall CCA (e.g., Chen et al. 2014 ; Rockstuhl and Van Dyne 2018 ) and job performance (e.g., Malek and Budhwar 2013 ; Ramalu et al. 2012 ) has been identified, whereas the literature on the role of the four CQ facets in facilitating work CCA is less consistent (e.g., Ott and Michailova 2018a , 2018b ). The literature on the effect of CQ on performance indicates an intricate association between the variables, the relevance of the specific CQ dimensions, and the role of work CCA in this association (ibidem). Thus, while some researchers found a direct positive CQ-performance association (e.g., Chen et al. 2011 ; Lee et al. 2013 ), there is also evidence that the impact of CQ on performance may be mediated by work CCA (e.g., Jyoti and Kour 2017a , 2017b ; Lee et al. 2013 ).

Additionally, a closer look to the literature on the boundary conditions under which specific CQ dimensions may enhance work CCA and, in turn, assignment-specific performance reveal numerous gaps. To fil this gap, this study aimed to analyse how and when specific CQ facets were more - or less - likely to facilitate assignment-specific performance. To this end, this paper concentrated on cultural distance (CD, i.e., the extent to which the culture of destination differs from expatriates’ home country on various values; Shenkar 2001 ), length of stay in the host country and work international experience. Indeed, although some studies analysed the moderating role of CD in the relationships between various individual features and outcomes in the expatriation area (e.g., Chen et al. 2010 ; Zhang 2013 ), the research on the effect of CD on the association between CQ dimensions and work CCA remains limited. Moreover, even though some studies demonstrated that the length of residence in the local country influenced both CQ (e.g., Li et al. 2013 ) and CCA (e.g., Ramalu et al. 2010 ), no previous research, to the best of our knowledge, has investigated the enhancing effect of length of stay on the association between specific CQ assets and work CCA. Furthermore, though some investigations showed that work experience played a moderating role in the CQ-CCA relationship (e.g., Lee and Sukoco 2010 ; Jyoti and Kour 2017a , 2017b ), no study, to our knowledge, has considered the moderated mediated effect of the four CQ dimensions and work experience - through work CCA - on assignment-specific performance.

Therefore, our research questions are as follows: do the four CQ dimensions directly and indirectly, through work CCA, impact on assignment-specific performance? And what are the effects of CD, length of stay in the host country and previous international experience with regard to this? In answering these questions, this paper drew on Kim et al. ( 2008 ) which presented, for the first time, propositions that delineated the relationships between CQ, CCA and performance analysing them together, so that scholars and practitioners could reach a better understanding of each of these. The authors proposed that overall CQ – conceptualized as the result of its four components – would be directly and indirectly, through each of the three dimensions of CCA, associated with overall performance. Additionally, the authors suggested that the CQ-CCA relationship would be positively moderated by CD, so that such relationship would be stronger when CD would be greater.

The main contribution of the present work is to extend this model by analysing whether specific dimensions of CQ – rather than overall CQ - were related to assignment-specific performance – rather than overall performance. Moreover, this research moves an important step forward in the expatriate literature as it identifies, beyond CD – as proposed by the model - other understudied boundary conditions for CQ effects (i.e., work experience and length of stay in the host country).

In doing so, the study was undertaken on the relatively under-investigated population of expatriates working within the energy sector in the Middle East for several reasons. First, some Middle East countries, such as the United Arab Emirates (UAE), have experienced unprecedented growth over the past years (Bealer and Bhanugopan 2014 ). Second, such nations remain relevant economic hubs in the Middle Eastern region, that attract numerous expatriates from Western countries (ibidem), especially within the energy sector (Finaccord 2018 ). For instance, in 2017 Saudi Arabia hosted the largest number of expatriates, whereas in the UAE expatriates constituted the 87.8% of the total population (ibidem). Nevertheless, only a few studies have concentrated on this population. Third, since most of our research respondents were from Latin America, the subsequent national cultural dissimilarities were likely to result in significant CCA difficulties. Thereby, we contribute to literature surrounding organizational behaviour and psychology as well as international human resource management.

In the next section, we provide theoretical arguments for the reasons why each of the four CQ dimensions might be uniquely posited to contribute to expatriates’ assignment-specific performance and work CCA. We describe each component in more detail, and we give rationale for the mediating role of work CCA. Subsequently, we present conceptual logic for our proposed effects of CD, length of stay in the host country and international work experience in the association between specific CQ components and work CCA. After that, we present the sample investigated and the methodology adopted. Then, we report the results and discuss our findings. Finally, we present theoretical and managerial implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research as well as conclusion.

The Relationship between CQ Dimensions and Expatriates’ Assignment-Specific Performance

The construct of CQ attracted ever-increasing attention since other existing formulations of intelligence, such as emotional intelligence (EQ) or social intelligence (SI), do not provide a comprehensive explanation in culturally diverse situations (Groves and Feyerherm 2011 ). Indeed, both EQ and SI are culture bound, such that although these two forms of intelligence may enable individuals to better understand social situations, this does not turn automatically into successful CCA (Caputo et al. 2018 ). Thus, individuals who have high EQ and SI in one culture may not easily adapt to cross-cultural interactions due to misinterpretations of culture-specific situational cues. Conversely, CQ is culture free and regards a general array of abilities particularly relevant on settings characterized by cultural diversity.

Drawing on Kim et al. ( 2008 ), CQ is related to expatriates’ performance, such that culturally intelligent expatriates may successfully function across cultural settings. We present below conceptual logic for our proposed relationships for each of the CQ dimensions with performance, describing each component in more detail.

Meta-cognitive CQ refers to an individual’s level of conscious cultural awareness of - and control over - cognitions during cross-cultural interactions. Self-awareness and cognitive flexibility can promote expatriates’ performance by facilitating their understanding of culturally appropriate role expectations (Ang et al. 2007 ). Indeed, individuals high in meta-cognitive CQ are better at adjusting their existing knowledge to meet changing environmental demands (ibidem). Thus, they can compensate for cognitive capability when previously acquired knowledge is unreliable, avoiding potential problems. Additionally, in unpredictable situations, their meta-cognitive skills provide them with a means by which supplement the lack of overt cues (Fernandez-Duque et al. 2000 ). This may stimulate the adoption of effective solutions to perform well (Tobias and Everson 2002 ). Meta-cognitive CQ may also facilitate expatriates’ performance by enhancing intercultural creative collaboration (Chua et al. 2012 ), conflict management (Caputo et al. 2018 ), decision-making and task performance (Ang et al. 2007 ) as well as knowledge transfer from headquarters to subsidiaries (Vlajčić et al. 2019 ). Thus, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 1a: meta-cognitive CQ will be positively related to assignment-specific performance.

Cognitive CQ refers to an individual’s general knowledge of norms, practices, and conventions in foreign countries gained from personal experiences and education (Ang et al. 2007 ). Expatriates high in cognitive CQ possess sophisticated mental maps of culture, which allow them to anticipate similarities and differences across cultures (Brislin et al. 2006 ). As a result, they may perform well in foreign workplaces because their in-depth knowledge about diverse cultures enables them to reach a greater understanding of cultural expectations. Additionally, such knowledge leads them to adopt culturally appropriate behaviours by facilitating decision-making, cultural judgment (Ang et al. 2007 ), intercultural negotiation (Groves et al. 2015 ), conflict management (Caputo et al. 2018 ) and knowledge transfer from headquarters to subsidiaries (Vlajčić et al. 2019 ). Thereby, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 1b: cognitive CQ will be positively related to assignment-specific performance.

Motivational CQ refers to individual’s ability to direct attention to understand cultural diversity and maintain energy concentrated on learning about - and operating in - new cultural settings, even when situations are challenging (Ang et al. 2007 ). Expatriates high in motivational CQ are motivated intrinsically and by their efficient beliefs of adaptive capabilities to interact with colleagues from different backgrounds (Templer et al. 2006 ). As a result, they may direct their energy toward learning role expectations, positively coping with problems, and striving to address challenges. Motivational CQ may also facilitate expatriates’ performance by easing intercultural collaboration and negotiation (Chua et al. 2012 ), communication effectiveness (Presbitero and Quita 2017 ), integrative information behaviours (Imai and Gelfand 2010 ), and conflict management (Caputo et al. 2018 ). Therefore, we formulated the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1c: motivational CQ will be positively related to assignment-specific performance.

Behavioural CQ reflects the individual’s ability to communicate in a culturally sensitive way and exhibit culturally appropriate (verbal and non-verbal) behaviours when interacting with people from other cultures (Ang et al. 2007 ). This involves having a wide repertoire of overt behavioural responses which fits to a variety of cross-cultural situations, in addition to using culturally appropriate words, body language and conversation style (ibidem). Expatriates high in behavioural CQ can choose appropriate verbal and physical actions when interacting with locals (Ang and Van Dyne 2008 ). This behavioural flexibility may help them to enact culturally appropriate role-related behaviours and meet assignment-specific expectations (ibidem). This may reduce miscommunications and enhance performance (Ng et al. 2012 ; Rose et al. 2010 ). Accordingly, behavioural flexibility was positively related to task performance within intercultural environments (e.g., Chen et al. 2011 ), conflict management (Caputo et al. 2018 ), and intercultural negotiation effectiveness (Groves et al. 2015 ). Then, we hypothesized the following:

Hypothesis 1d: behavioural CQ will be positively related to assignment-specific performance.

The Relationship between CQ Dimensions and Expatriate Adjustment at Work

In line with Kim et al. ( 2008 ), culturally intelligent individuals are better able to adjust to the host country because they are more likely to gain appropriate emotional and informational support through interactions with locals. Then, CQ represents an important factor driving expatriate CCA which may explain individual dissimilarities in adapting to foreign contexts. We provide below theoretical arguments for the reasons why each of the CQ facets might be uniquely positioned to contribute to work CCA.

To date, relatively little research has been conducted to analyse the relationship between meta-cognitive CQ and work CCA, producing mixed results. Indeed, whereas some investigations have found that meta-cognitive CQ exerts a positive influence on work CCA (e.g., Lin et al. 2012 ; Guðmundsdóttir 2015 ), other studies have revealed a nonsignificant effect (e.g., Jyoti and Kour 2015 ; Jyoti et al. 2015 ). Expatriates high in meta-cognitive CQ tend to reflect on cultural dissimilarities before a cross-cultural interaction and develop action plans for how they will interact with locals. This planning prompts cultural learning, problem-solving and interactions with host colleagues, which may reduce uncertainties related to expatriation and, then, facilitate work CCA (Earley and Ang 2003 ; Earley et al. 2006 ). Thus, we proposed the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2a: metacognitive CQ will be positively related to work CCA.

Whereas some studies have identified a positive influence of cognitive CQ on work CCA (e.g., Konanahalli et al. 2014 ), other investigations revealed a non-significant association between the two constructs (e.g., Jyoti and Kour 2015 ). Expatriates high in cognitive CQ have a greater understanding of cross-cultural differences (Brislin et al. 2006 ): they are better able to use their cultural knowledge in making decisions and thinking strategically to overcome transition problems. This, in turn, may improve their ability to adjust to the new workplace (Van Dyne et al. 2012 ). Thus, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 2b: cognitive CQ will be positively related to work CCA.

Expatriates high in motivational CQ are more psychologically prepared to adjust to the work demands expected in culturally diverse workplaces (Chen et al. 2010 ). Thus, they have confidence in their capabilities and intrinsic motivation to adjust to new workplaces (Palthe 2004 ) and display newly learn behaviours (Black et al. 1991 ). This may stimulate their involvement in culturally different modes of working and the accomplishment of their assignment objectives (Lin et al. 2012 ). Accordingly, empirical evidence supported that motivational CQ is positively associated with expatriates’ work CCA (Jyoti and Kour 2015 ; Jyoti et al. 2015 ). Thus, we predicted the following:

Hypothesis 2c: motivational CQ will be positively related to work CCA.

Whereas some studies have revealed that behavioural CQ was non-significantly (e.g., Huff et al. 2014 ; Konanahalli et al. 2014 ) or negatively (e.g., Guðmundsdóttir 2015 ; Malek and Budhwar 2013 ) related to work CCA, other investigations have found a positive association between the two constructs (e.g., Ng et al. 2012 ; Ramalu et al. 2011 ). Expatriates with greater behavioural CQ can use culturally appropriate expressions in communication, in addition to flexibly adapting their behaviour to create comfort zones for the other individual(s) involved in cross-cultural encounters (Earley and Peterson 2004 ). The ability to make such adaptations is likely to result in better work CCA because it facilitates communication with host colleagues, reducing the risk of cross-cultural misunderstandings (Ang et al. 2007 ). Therefore, we hypothesized the following:

Hypothesis 2d: behavioural CQ will be positively related to work CCA.

The Relationship between Expatriates’ Work CCA and Assignment-Specific Performance

When expatriates can successfully adjust to the work domain, they are less stressed and, then, have more personal resources to invest in job duties. In this case, they are likely to feel themselves as culturally competent and build closer relationships with local colleagues (Lee and Sukoco 2010 ; Chen et al. 2010 ). As a result, expatriates who are culturally adjusted to their new workplaces are more likely to perform well on their international assignments than those who are unable to adjust well (Lee and Kartika 2014 ; Wu and Ang 2011 ). Therefore, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 3: work CCA will be positively related to assignment-specific performance.

The Mediating Role of Work CCA

Prior research suggested that CCA might mediate the association between CQ and performance (Kim and Slocum 2008 ; Wang and Takeuchi 2007 ). Despite this development, the empirical evidence on the role played by work CCA in mediating the relationship between specific CQ dimensions and assignment-related tasks has been relatively limited in the expatriate literature, requiring further research (e.g., Jyoti and Kour 2015 ; Lee et al. 2014 ). Kim et al. ( 2008 ) proposed that CQ may work through work CCA to affect expatriate performance as the extent to which expatriates are able to successfully adapt to a new work setting may impact on individual work outcomes. They argued that “a smooth transition across work assignments is critical to an expatriate’s success because the work-role that is executed in the host country may be quite unfamiliar, even though the task is the same as it was in their home country, due to different cultural contexts” (ibidem, p. 76). Therefore, expatriates who have greater CQ are more likely to successfully adjust to their new work setting which, in turn, will enable them to reach high levels of performance. Overall, relevant intercultural skills, such as abilities to revise cultural assumptions (meta-cognitive CQ), elaborate sophisticated metal maps about cultures (cognitive CQ), channel one’s own energies toward functioning (motivational CQ) and exhibit appropriate actions (behavioural CQ) in culturally diverse settings, are all factors which are expected to decrease the misunderstandings in role expectations and facilitate interactions with local colleagues (Ramalu et al. 2012 ). As a result, culturally intelligent expatriates, who are better able to cope with stress related to uncertainties (Sambasivan et al. 2017 ), may more easily feel comfortable in any cultural setting they are working in. Then, work CCA holds the potential to be a proximal intercultural effectiveness outcome which may partially mediate the effects of the four CQ dimensions on more distal effectiveness outcomes, such as assignment specific performance. Hence:

Hypothesis 4: work CCA will mediate the relationship between specific dimensions of CQ (Hp4a: meta-cognitive CQ, Hp4b: cognitive CQ, Hp4c: motivational CQ, Hp4d: behavioural CQ) and assignment-specific performance.

The Moderating Role of Cultural Distance

The individual’s capability to successfully adjust abroad is related to the novelty of the foreign culture. A large difference between the country of origin and the destination requires more transitions, which results in more adjustment difficulties than in a country with a similar culture (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. 2005 ). Said differently, adjustment is more challenging when the host country is more culturally distant (Wang and Varma 2019 ). In this context, individual differences may become particularly salient. Indeed, prior investigations revealed that CD moderates the relationship between individual characteristics and various outcomes in the expatriation field, such as effectiveness (Chen et al. 2010 ), adjustment (Zhang 2013 ), and intention to work abroad (Remhof et al. 2013 ). Among individual characteristics, CQ seems to be a variable highly likely to interact with CD on work CCA because of its relevance on settings characterized by cultural diversity. In line with Kim et al. ( 2008 ), “as CD increases, it is expected that CQ would become more, rather than less, critical to expatriates’ adjustment and success” (Kim et al. 2008 , p. 78). Accordingly, CD strengthens the CQ-CCA association since the greater cultural challenges inherent in more culturally distant settings demand more cross-cultural competencies. In this context, those with greater CQ may be better equipped to overcome such challenges and, then, better able to adjust and perform well than those with lower CQ. Thus, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 5: CD will strength the relationship between CQ, in all its dimensions (Hp5a: metacognitive CQ, Hp5b: cognitive CQ, Hp5c: motivational CQ, Hp5d: behavioural CQ), and work CCA, such that the positive effect of CQ dimensions through work CCA on assignment-specific performance will be stronger when the home-host CD will be greater.

The Moderating Role of Length of Residence in the Host Country

Previous investigations on CCA have showed that length of residence in the host country influences CCA (e.g., Li et al. 2013 ; Ramalu et al. 2010 ). According to the U-Curve of CCA framework (Black and Mendenhall 1991 ), the first twelve months in a foreign country are characterized by frustration as the newcomer must deal with living in the host country on a daily basis, overcoming the so-called “cultural shock stage”. CQ may become critical to overcome such highly challenging period because culturally intelligent expatriates can more easily use their cultural knowledge and develop action plans to solve transition problems (meta-cognitive and cognitive CQ; Earley et al. 2006 ). In addition, CQ may be salient because it drives expatriates to establish relationships with local colleagues and vicariously learn about appropriate behaviours (motivational CQ; Mendenhall and Oddou 1985 ). This may lead them to make appropriate behavioural adaptations (behavioural CQ). Thereby, expatriates high in CQ are more likely to learn quickly appropriate behaviours, which may decrease the anxiety related to not knowing how to behave in an unfamiliar environment. As a result, the time required to reach the adjustment stage may be shortened. Additionally, the longer the time spent in the host country, the greater the opportunities to build support systems, reach greater cultural knowledge, and become more efficacious in interacting with locals. This suggests that motivational CQ might be more critical in the initial stages of the adjustment process when individuals have to deal with daily challenges. Thus, we expected the following:

Hypothesis 6: the length of residence in the host country will moderate the relationship between CQ, in all its dimensions (Hp6a: metacognitive CQ, Hp6b: cognitive CQ, Hp6c: motivational CQ, Hp6d: behavioural CQ) and work CCA, such that the positive effect of CQ dimensions through work CCA on assignment-specific performance will be stronger when the length of residence will be lower.

The Moderating Role of International Work Experience

Culturally intelligent expatriates having longer experience of working abroad through vicarious learning can more easily make anticipatory adjustments to the new work setting before they ever experience it (Black et al. 1991 ). In this sense, they may benefit from prior international work experience because they can utilize it as an important source of information which facilitates the formation of realistic work expectations and accurate anticipatory work behavioural adaptations (Church 1982 ). Indeed, expatriates with greater CQ will be more likely to acquire more accurate information from their previous experience as, for instance, they will think critically about cultural knowledge and monitor the quality of that knowledge (Ang et al. 2007 ). This may increase attention and retention processes, leading them to make anticipatory adjustments in behaviours, which would turn out to be appropriate in the host workplace. This means that they will learn lessons from their prior experience and form comprehensive cognitive schemata, which will be useful to predict consequences across a variety of future situations (Takeuchi et al. 2005 ). As a result, prior experience will help expatriates with greater CQ to effectively handle future cross-cultural situations (Lee and Sukoco 2010 ; Shannon and Begley 2008 ). This will decrease the uncertainty and, therefore facilitate, the adjustment process (Black et al. 1991 ), leading to a better performance (Jyoti and Kour 2017a , 2017b ). Conversely, expatriates with lower CQ will be less likely to take advantage from their prior experience as the content of the information will be inaccurate and, then, their actual reproduction of the anticipatorily determined behaviours will prove to be inappropriate in the new workplace (Black et al. 1991 ). Furthermore, although some studies showed that prior experience had an enhancing effect on the CQ-CCA relationship (Lee 2010 ; Lee and Sukoco 2010 ; Jyoti and Kour 2017a , 2017b ), the research has not been consistently supportive (Vlajčić et al. 2019 ). Further to this, research analysing whether prior experience might exert an enhancing effect on the association between the four CQ dimensions and specific domains, such as work CCA, is still limited (Kusumoto 2014 ). Thus, we examined whether prior experience would strengthen the CQ- work CCA relationship, expecting the following:

Hypothesis 7: international work experience will moderate the relationship between CQ, in its dimensions (Hp7a: metacognitive, Hp7b: cognitive, Hp7c: motivational, Hp7d: behavioural), and work CCA, such that the culturally intelligent expatriates with greater experience will adapt more easily to the host workplace and, then, perform more effectively than those with lower experience.

As a conceptual framework, Fig.  1 illustrates our proposed model, incorporating our hypothesized relationships.

Proposed model regarding the relationships between the four components of cultural intelligence (CQ) and assignment-specific performance as well as the moderating role of cultural distance (CD), length of stay in the host country (LoS) and previous international work experience (WEX) in the association between CQ components and cross-cultural adaptation at work (work CCA)

Participants and Procedure

Our research sample consists of employees who were working in a company in the oil and gas industry with an extensive portfolio of projects around the world. Expatriates’ contacts details were gathered from organizational databases. Questionnaires were administrated in English (see Appendix 1 ), the official working language in the company, through a Web-based solution (i.e., mails and online questionnaires). Once respondents voluntarily agreed to participate, we obtained informed consent from them and ensured them the anonymity and confidentiality of their responses. Data were collected in the period between March and May 2018. In total, we contacted four hundred ninety-four expatriates. Of them, one hundred sixty-eight employees completed the survey (34% response rate). We excluded eight participants working in their home country and nine participants because they did not complete at least the 60 % of the survey. The descriptive statistics of the remaining participants ( N  = 151) are reported in Table 1 .

Most of research participants were Latin American expatriates assigned to Middle East countries. The Middle East, especially the Muslim and Arab countries of Sud Arabia, Oman and the UAE, represents a hot spot for international assignments (Raghu and Sartawi 2012 ). For instance, according to the data provided by the World Bank, the UAE’s population in 2020 is 9.89 million of whose the 88.52% is constituted by expatriates and immigrants (GMI 2020 ). Arab countries have practices and habits that contrast with those of the Latin American nations. Since the UAE’s culture is masculine in nature, a Latin American expatriate might have difficulties to adjust to a 100% male environment where there is a dress code for men as well (Konanahalli et al. 2012 ). Additionally, during the holy month of Ramadan the Muslim colleagues observe Ramadan fasting rules, which will require Latin Americans to be respectful of such religious observances (ibidem). According to GLOBE Project’s studies on cultural dimensions (House et al. 2004 ), the Middle East cultural cluster is characterized by high scores on collectivism, average scores on assertiveness, human orientation, institutional collectivism, performance orientation and power distance, while for future-orientation, gender egalitarianism and uncertainty avoidance the scores are low (for a detailed description of each cultural dimension see at the following link: https://globeproject.com/study_2004_2007 ). Although similar for some dimensions, the Middle East cluster differs from the Latin American cluster most significantly on the values of institutional collectivism, performance orientation and gender egalitarianism. These differences might translate in striking contrasts in terms of decision making, negotiation, conflict management, leadership styles and so on (e.g., Caputo et al. 2018 ; Caputo et al. 2019 ). In sum, it is likely that Latin American expatriates working in an Arab country will experience significant national cultural dissimilarities, which might lead them to adjustment difficulties.

CQ was assessed by The Cultural Intelligence Scale (Ang et al. 2007 ) which comprises four sub-scales: meta-cognitive CQ (four items, e.g. “I check the accuracy of my cultural knowledge as I interact with people from different cultures”, α =  .81 ) ; cognitive CQ (six items, e.g., “ I know the rules for expressing non-verbal behaviour in other cultures”, α =  .83); motivational CQ (five items, e.g., “ I enjoy interacting with people from different cultures”, α =  .89 ) ; behavioural CQ (five items, e.g., “ I change my verbal behaviour when a cross-cultural interaction requires it”, α =  .84 ) . This robust and reliable scale has been utilized by previous studies (e.g., Gozzoli and Gazzaroli 2018 ), confirming the existence of four specific CQ dimensions. Participants indicated how much they agreed with each statement concerning their cultural abilities on a seven-point Likert-type scale (1 =  strongly disagree 7 =  strongly agree ), where higher scores indicated higher CQ levels.

Work CCA was measured using three items from the Expatriate Adjustment Scale (Black and Stephens 1989 ). Participants rated their adjustment (e.g., “ How adjusted are you to performance standards and expectations in your job? ”, α =  .89) on a seven-point Likert-type scale (1 =  very unadjusted 7 =  very adjusted ), where greater scores indicated greater work CCA. This measure has been consistently validated by previous studies on expatriates (e.g., Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. 2005 ) confirming its construct validity among culturally different samples.

Assignment-specific performance was evaluated through five items from the Expatriate Contextual/Managerial Performance Skills (Caligiuri 1997 ). Participants were asked to rate their perceived ability in each of the job performance items (e.g., “ Your effectiveness at transferring information across strategic units (e.g., from the host country to headquarters) ”, α =  .73) on a five-point Likert-type scale (1 =  poor 5 =  outstanding ) , where greater scores indicated greater performance.

CD between expatriates’ home country and host country was computed through the index of Kogut and Singh ( 1988 ) in combination with Hofstede’s ( 2001 ) country-specific scores (i.e., power distance, individualism, masculinity, and uncertainty avoidance), consistent with prior studies (e.g., Ng et al. 2019 ).

Length of residence in the host country was measured in months in line with previous researchers (e.g., Chen et al. 2014 ). Participants indicated the period in the current country of destination in months (i.e., How long have you been working in your current country of residence? ).

International work experience was assessed in years, according to previous studies (e.g., Jyoti and Kour 2017a , b ). Respondents indicated how many years they had been working internationally (i.e., How many years had you spent working abroad before this assignment? ).

Control variables . We controlled for marital status (1 = single, 2 = engaged) and education level (1 = high-school, 2 = degree) because previous studies showed that work-family conflict - that is more likely to occur for married expatriates; Kupka and Cathro 2007 - and education level (e.g., Moon et al. 2012 ) may influence CCA; thereby, potentially affecting performance. Furthermore, we controlled for gender (1 = male, 2 = female) and age since prior investigations (e.g., Li et al. 2016 ; Vlajčić et al. 2019 ) have revealed contrasting results about the impact of age and gender on CQ and CCA. Additionally, we recognized that pre-departure cross-cultural training (i.e., Did you have any cross-cultural training before departure? 1 = yes, 2 = no) might be associated with CCA as some studies showed that expatriates who received cross-cultural pre-departure training were more likely to successfully adjust to the host environment (e.g., Evans 2012 ). Since previous studies found that length of stay in the host country and international work experience could affect both CQ (e.g., Wang et al. 2017 ; Moon et al. 2012 ) and CCA (e.g., Ramalu et al. 2010 ; Lee and Kartika 2014 ), we considered the role of these constructs as control variables. Moreover, we acknowledged that CD might impact on CCA, such that the greater the CD, the greater the adjustment difficulties (e.g., Wang and Varma 2019 ). None of the control variables significantly correlated with - or had any significant impact on - the variables of interest within our models, which is why we decided to exclude them from all subsequent analyses and present models without these controls. This is in line with recommended practices (Aguinis and Vandenberg 2014 ).

Descriptive Analyses

We conducted descriptive statistics and correlations among the study variables using SPSS version 20 (Morgan et al. 2012 ). The four CQ dimensions were significantly and positively correlated with each other and with both work CCA and performance (see Table 2 ). The average inter-item correlations between CQ and outcomes was .24, suggesting that items did contain sufficiently unique variance to not be isomorphic with each other (Piedmont 2014 ).

Confirmatory Factor Analyses and Assessment of Common Method Bias

Firstly, using Mplus Version 7 (Muthén and Muthén 1998-2012 ), a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with the maximum likelihood method was carried out to examine the factor structure of the study variables. Results from CFA revealed that the six-factor model (i.e., four CQ dimensions, work CCA, performance) outperformed all the alternative models (χ 2 [335] = 782.70, CFI = .78, TLI = .76, RMSEA = .09, SRMR = .10). However, to obtain a satisfactory fit (χ 2 [330] = 221.59, CFI = .90, TLI = .90, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .07), it was necessary to take into account the high correlation existing among some items (see Table   3 ). The resulting models were built considering the modification indices which were used in this satisfactory model. Moreover, to control for common method bias, an unmeasured latent method factor was added to the hypothesized CFA model and allowed manifest indicators to load on their respective latent constructs as well as on the method factor (Podsakoff et al. 2012 ). Results indicated that the hypothesized six-factor model yielded a better fit to the data after inclusion of the method factor (Δ χ 2 [302] = 480.28, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .06, CFI = .91, TLI = .90). The method factor explained only 24% of the variance in the items, which is below the average amount of method variance (25%) reported in self-reported research (Podsakoff et al. 2012 ). Accordingly, common method bias does not appear to have a substantial impact on the present study. Finally, a second order CFA was tested, confirming that CQ loaded into its respective four sub-dimensions (χ 2 [327] = 505.460, CFI = .91, TLI = .90, RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .07).

Hypotheses Testing

Given our relatively small sample size, the Partial Least Squares (PLS) method, which is a variance-based structural equation modelling, was considered as particularly appropriate to simultaneously test whether each of the four CQ dimensions were related to performance directly and indirectly, as mediated by work CCA. Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) represents a multivariate modelling technique suitable for the analysis of multiple dependent and independent latent constructs (Mathwick et al. 2008 ). This technique computes relationships between all variables simultaneously and does not necessitate multivariate normality (Zhou et al. 2012 ). Since CQ includes four components, a hierarchical component model (HCM) was created to assess the mediation model (Lohmoller 1989 ). This allowed us to reduce the number of associations in the model, making the model more parsimonious and resistant to collinearity problems (Hair et al. 2017 ). PLS-SEM methodology, utilizing a HCM, enables to examine each component of CQ independently through a higher-order construct that, by theoretical classification of HCM modelling, is a full mediator (Hair et al. 2017 ) in the process of direct and indirect associations between each component of CQ and performance. Using PLS-SEM, it is possible to evaluate each dimension separately, in addition to providing a diverse theoretical explanation for each dimension (Ott and Michailova 2018a , 2018b ). The repeated indicator approach was utilized in a reflective-formative type of HCM using SmartPLS v. 3.2.6. (Ringle et al. 2017 ) to further confirm the measurement model which was previously tested. This model comprises six reflective constructs and one second-order construct which contains latent variable scores for the four dimensions of CQ (a similar methodological approach was also taken by Vlajčić et al. 2019 ). All the items showed statistically significant and satisfactory loadings values (> 0.7; de Pablo González et al. 2014 ). The composite reliabilities of all seven constructs were acceptable as values were above 0.80 and below 0.95 (Nunnally and Bernstein 1994 ; see Table 2 ). The convergence validity was acceptable as all the average variance extracted (AVE) values were above the recommended value of 0.5 (Hair et al. 2010 ). Discriminant validity of our constructs was further confirmed as correlations between each pair of latent constructs do not exceed the square root of each construct’s AVE (Fornell and Larcker 1981 ), apart from the second-order formative construct (CQ-HCM) and the latent constructs it includes, as anticipated by Hair et al. ( 2017 ). These results further confirmed the discriminant validity of our constructs of interest.

Subsequently, the structural model was evaluated using a bootstrapping procedure (10,000 sub-samples; Hernández-Perlines et al. 2016 ). Structural coefficients presented in the PLS model (see Table 4 ) indicated that the dimensions of meta-cognitive ( β  = .10, t  = 4.13, p  < .001), cognitive ( β  = .12, t  = 3.58, p  < .001), motivational ( β  = .15, t  = 4.12, p  < .001), and behavioural ( β  = .12, t  = 3.68, p  < .001) CQ were directly and positively associated with performance. Thereby, Hypotheses 1a , 1b , 1c and 1d were confirmed. Additionally, the dimensions of meta-cognitive ( β  = .11, t  = 3.39, p  < .001), cognitive ( β  = .13, t  = 4.79, p  < .001), motivational ( β  = .17, t  = 4.30, p  < .001), and behavioural ( β  = .13, t  = 4.18, p  < .001) CQ were directly and positively related to work CCA. Thereby, Hypotheses 2a , 2b , 2c and 2d were confirmed. Work CCA ( β  = .19, t  = 1.96, p  < .05) was positively related to performance (see Fig.  2 ). Thereby, Hypothesis 3 was supported. Results from mediation models indicated that work CCA partially mediated the associations between meta-cognitive ( β  = .02, t  = 1.65, p  < .05), cognitive ( β  = .03, t  = 1.83, p  < .05), motivational ( β  = .03, t  = 1.84, p  < .05), and behavioural ( β  = .02, t  = 1.85, p  < .05) CQ and assignment specific performance. Therefore, Hypotheses 4a , 4b , 4c and 4d were confirmed. Moreover, our analysis of the structural model also includes the R 2 and Q 2 as indexes of model consistency and predictive relevance. The indicators of consistency were appropriate, even if CQ and its dimensions explained a weak amount of variation in the constructs of interest (R 2 (CCA) = .26; R 2 (performance) = .25). The predictive relevance of the indicators (Q 2 (CCA) = .70; Q 2 (performance) = .35) were in the large effect size range (Neter et al. 1990 ).

Results from models analysing the mediating effect of work CCA in the relationships between each of CQ dimension and assignment-specific performance

Further, we tested whether the strength of the relationship between CQ and performance through work CCA was conditional on the value of our expected moderators. To this end, we conducted moderated mediation models for each of the CQ dimensions using Mplus Version 7. CD weakened the relationship between motivational CQ and work CCA (β = −.06, p  < .05), but no significant interaction terms were revealed for the other CQ dimensions. Then, Hypotheses 5a , 5b and 5d were not supported. The moderated mediation effect of the interaction of motivational CQ and CD through work CCA on performance was significant (see Table 5 ). However, contrary to what expected based on Hypothesis 5c , results indicated that CD weakened the positive relationship between motivational CQ and work CCA, such that the relationship was stronger when CD was low and weaker when CD was high (β = .14, p  < .05 for low CD, β = .12, p < .05 for moderate CD, β = .11, p < .05 for high CD).

Length of residence in the host country weakened the positive association between motivational CQ and work CCA (β = −.19, p  < .01). The moderated mediation effect of motivational CQ and time of residence in the host country through work CCA on performance was particularly significant for expatriates who had been working in the host country for a shorter time (β = .44, p  < .05), but, even if it was still significant, the enhancing effect of length of residence in the host region on the motivational CQ-work CCA relationship decreased with the passage of time (β = .37, p < .05 and β = .31, p < .05; for those working in the foreign country for an average and a longer period of time, respectively; see Table 5 ). Thereby, Hypothesis 6c was supported, whereas Hypotheses 6a , 6b and 6d were rejected.

Experience moderated the relationship between motivational CQ and work CCA (β = −.35, p  < .01), but not the associations between the other CQ dimensions. However, contrary to what expected based on Hypothesis 7c , the moderated mediation effect of motivational CQ and experience through work CCA on performance was stronger for expatriates who had lower international work experience (β = .47, p  < .05) than for those who had moderate (β = .36, p < .05) or longer (β = .24, p < .05) experience (see Table 5 ). Therefore, Hypotheses 7a , 7b and 7d were rejected and Hypothesis 7c was not confirmed given that the direction was opposed to what expected.

The validity of the hypothesized models was assessed by comparing each of them (i.e., in terms of BIC and AIC comparative indices) with three competing models, as described in detail in Table 6 . The models with motivational CQ were the better-fitting models compared to those which included other CQ dimensions as antecedents.

Several findings emerged from this research which make a meaningful contribution to the existing literature on expatriates (see Fig.  3 for an overview of the confirmed hypotheses).

Model representing the hypotheses which were confirmed

First, each of the four CQ components were related to assignment-specific performance, both directly and indirectly, as partially mediated by work CCA. Then, culturally intelligent expatriates are likely to minimize cultural blunders and meet role expectations which, in turn, reduces the likelihood of misunderstandings, increasing performance (Moynihan et al. 2006 ). Moreover, they can successfully adjust to the host workplace, which enables them to channel their energies to improve their performance in assignment-specific tasks (Malek and Budhwar 2013 ; Shaffer et al. 2006 ).

Second, contrary to what expected based on Kim et al. ( 2008 ), CD is more likely to attenuate, rather than amplify, the positive effect of motivational CQ on work CCA in less culturally distant settings, such that the culturally intelligent expatriates are more likely to adjust to the host workplace and, then, perform well when CD is low. A plausible explanation is that when expatriates are confronted with more culturally different workplaces, their motivational CQ might not be sufficient to overcome the challenges posed by more complex assignments due to the greater cultural unfamiliarity (Chen et al. 2010 ; Vlajčić et al. 2018 ; Wang and Varma 2019 ).

Third, the length of residence in the host country weakens the positive relationship between motivational CQ and work CCA, such that motivational CQ is particularly salient when expatriates are in the initial stages of the adjustment process. Said differently, the greater the initial level of motivational CQ, the shorter the time required to adjust to the host country. Therefore, even if motivational CQ facilitates work CCA at any time, expatriates who are at the beginning of their assignment are likely to benefit more from motivational CQ than those who are in the host region from a longer time (Firth et al. 2014 ). Even if they were confronted with failures in their attempts of reproducing the new behaviours, cross-culturally motivated expatriates would be likely to persist at trying to imitate such behaviours longer than those with lower motivational CQ (Bandura 2002 ). This will increase the chances of receiving feedbacks, which will result in displaying appropriate behaviours; thereby, facilitating their adjustment to the new workplace and, then, their performance.

Fourth, motivational CQ is more salient for expatriates who are on their first assignment than for those who have longer experience in international assignments. Even if they have limited experience, the cross-culturally motivated expatriates tend to be more self-confident about their ability to interact with culturally diverse colleagues. They are also more willing to learn about unfamiliar cultures and experiment themselves in imitating culturally appropriate behaviours. Said differently, motivational CQ may counterbalance expatriates’ lack of experience, enabling them to adjust to the host workplace and, then, perform well.

Theoretical Implications

This research has several key contributions to expatriate literature. Firstly, this study extends Kim et al. ( 2008 ) by investigating whether specific CQ dimensions were associated with performance directly and indirectly, as mediated by work CCA. Additionally, by identifying, beyond CD, length of stay in the host country and work experience as boundary conditions for CQ effects, this research helps explain the mixed findings obtained in prior investigations on CQ.

Secondly, this study provides further evidence for the differential role of CQ dimensions (e.g., Rockstuhl and Van Dyne 2018 ) by testing mediating and moderating mechanisms which explain how and when each CQ facet is more - or less - likely to facilitate work CCA and performance.

Thirdly, our findings add to a growing body of literature on expatriate adjustment (e.g., Chew et al. 2019 ; Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. 2005 ) by confirming the key role of work CCA, which represents a primary factor of interest to MNCs as it is crucial for assignment-specific performance.

Fourthly, this study deepens our understanding of boundary conditions for CQ effects by showing that, of the four CQ factors, only motivational CQ was qualified by CD, length of stay and experience. On the one hand, this suggests that cognitive, metacognitive, and behavioural CQ dimensions had a positive influence on work CCA and, then, assignment-specific performance, regardless of CD, length of stay and experience. In the absence of moderation from such factors, we can confirm that, even if expatriates are on their first assignment, at the beginning of their assignment or assigned to a highly culturally diverse country, a prediction of their success can be based on cognitive, metacognitive and behavioural CQ dimensions. Such dimensions can be particularly useful in promoting performance, since the demanding work setting entails high degrees of culture-related cognitive processing, cultural awareness, and behavioural flexibility to enable for efficient problem solving (Stahl et al. 2009 ). On the other hand, this allows to consider the boundary conditions that provide insights into when motivational CQ has a stronger influence on work CCA and, then, assignment-specific performance. Even motivational CQ is a relevant skill for expatriates at any time of their assignment, expatriates benefited more from motivational CQ when they were working in the host country for a shorter period or when they had lower experience. Motivational CQ plays a peculiar role which differentiates this dimension from the others. Indeed, culturally motivated expatriates are driven to prove themselves in a large quantity of intercultural work situations (Ng et al. 2019 ), despite the challenges experienced at the beginning of a novel assignment. Furthermore, motivational CQ may compensate the lack of work experience by strengthening use of skills and resilience in the face of cultural difficulties (Bandura 2002 ). However, the positive effect of motivational CQ on CCA is necessary yet not sufficient for overcoming the challenges posed by more culturally distant workplaces, as such environments demand less familiar task requirements from expatriates. This makes the effort arouse by motivational CQ less relevant (Chen et al. 2010 ). Overall, this study adds substantially to our understanding of how motivation-related processes may contribute uniquely to expatriate effectiveness.

Practical Implications

The current study has practical implications for MNCs and international human resource management. Firstly, the finding that all CQ dimensions are related to expatriates’ performance suggests that recruiters should select and hire culturally intelligent candidates for international assignments. By evaluating applicants’ CQ and by emphasizing CQ as a critical credential that candidates – especially those with lower international experience - should have, HR representatives can select the most suitable candidates, assigning more cross-culturally motivated expatriates to foreign assignments, if possible, in less culturally distant countries.

Secondly, organizations should provide expatriates with pre-departure training programs aimed at increasing their CQ. For instance, training can offer several scenarios for work so that expatriates may be adequately prepared to comprehend and master different situations (e.g., cultural habits) when facing problems in the host country (Lin et al. 2012 ). Since our findings suggest that motivational CQ is particularly relevant to work CCA, training programs could include a module on motivational CQ (Earley and Peterson 2004 ). For example, training based on dramaturgical exercises, including role plays and simulations about intercultural interactions could be useful tools to build efficacy regarding cross-cultural challenges (ibidem). Furthermore, managers should consider fostering expatriates’ motivation prior to their assignments by emphasizing benefits related to international assignments (e.g., opportunity to develop global career competencies or monetary incentives; Hajro et al. 2017 ) and by stimulating their curiosity about diverse cultures.

Thirdly, considering the mediating role of work CCA in the relationship between CQ and performance, interventions should be implemented to enable expatriates – especially those who are on their first assignment or at the beginning of a new assignment – to receive organizational social support (i.e., from both home and host-country managers and peers) and logistical help (e.g., housing, schooling) to facilitate reaching the adjustment stage (Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. 2005 ). For instance, companies could consider arranging informal gatherings to help workers build strong bonds with local colleagues and assigning newcomers to experienced mentors (Chen et al. 2010 ). Moreover, MNCs should develop appropriate performance management systems for expatriates and expatriate-host country nationals interaction mechanisms to facilitate work CCA (Wang and Varma 2019 ).

Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

This research suffers from some limitations which may give venues for future research.

Some concerns regard the cross-sectional design of our study and the exclusive use of self-reported measures. To decrease the risk of common method bias, we followed Podsakoff et al.’ ( 2012 ) recommendations regarding questionnaire design. Additionally, we used the unmeasured method factor technique, showing that common method variance was not a major issue. Future studies should focus on non-same-source outcomes, collect data from multiple sources (e.g., interviews, observations of actual behaviours, performance ratings from supervisors), adopt a longitudinal design and analyse CQ at the team level (Ott and Michailova 2018a , 2018b ).

Since most of research participants were men, and gender has been previously found to affect the levels of performance among expatriates (e.g., Ramalu et al. 2012 ), this might have partially influenced our findings. However, the gender distribution in our sample is highly representative of expatriate workforce in the analysed sector. Future studies should control for other variables (e.g., openness to experience, having family accompanying in the host country).

A further limitation is related to the fact that possible selection bias due to the voluntary participation into the research cannot be ruled out. It is possible that those who experienced successful CCA experiences were more motivated to respond and, as such, are overrepresented.

Since majority of respondents were from Latin America, and cultural orientation has been revealed to impact differing coping styles, such as conflict management and negotiation styles (e.g., Caputo et al. 2018 ; Caputo et al. 2019 ), this might have partially affected our results. Therefore, more research on larger sample sizes is needed to investigate how the effect of CQ on expatriate performance might vary as a function of individual’s cultural values.

As the nature of global work assignment is expanding beyond the traditional expatriation (e.g., frequent international business travel; Shaffer et al. 2012 ), future studies should investigate the relationships between specific CQ dimensions, work CCA and performance by comparing expatriates employed in different international work arrangements and by collecting data also on international skilled migrants (Hajro et al. 2019 ).

Since CQ, EQ and SI are distinct but overlapping constructs which have been found to positively interact with each other (Crowne 2013 ), future investigations should analyse associations at the subcomponent level of CQ, EQ and SI to identify how specific dimensions of each may affect expatriate performance when the three forms of intelligence are examined together.

Future studies should also analyse conditions under which higher motivational CQ levels might undermine expatriate effectiveness (e.g., through complacency; Chen et al. 2010 ), including situations characterized by ambiguous tasks (e.g., Schmidt and DeShon 2010 ).

Finally, it would be especially important to detect further contextual variables (e.g., group climate, performance management practices; Chen et al. 2010 ; Wang and Varma 2019 ) that may facilitate expatriate performance, either directly or through interactions with specific CQ dimensions.

Even though the current cross-sectional study relied only on self-report measures, it was conducted on the relatively under-investigated population of expatriates working within the energy sector in the Middle East and it addressed some gaps in the literature by disentangling the complex relationship between CQ, CCA and performance. To this end, we tested mediating and moderating mechanisms which explain how and when specific CQ facets were more - or less - likely to facilitate assignment-specific performance. Each CQ dimension had a differential role in contributing to assignment-specific performance, directly and through work CCA. Conversely, of the four CQ factors, only motivational CQ was qualified by CD, length of stay and international work experience. Our findings indicated that motivational CQ was particularly salient in overcoming work CCA difficulties for expatriates who were at the beginning of their international assignment and who had lower experience. Moreover, motivational CQ related more positively to expatriate work CCA in less culturally distant countries. We conclude with the hope that our theoretical contributions will stimulate additional multilevel and longitudinal research on factors influencing work CCA and performance to gather further knowledge about cross-cultural management.

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Appendix 1: Measurements

Demographic items.

Thank you for participating in this study. Please pay close attention to each question provided and answer each question as honestly as possible by placing a mark in the provided space. Please take care in filling out this form.

1. Gender (Please Check One): [] Male [] Female.

2. Age (in years): ______.

3. Marital status (Please Check One): [] Single [] Married.

4. Education status (Please Check One): [] High school [] Degree.

5. Role (Please Check One):

[] 1. Administrative.

[] 2. Technical.

[] 3. Executive.

[] 4. Other.

6. How many years have you spent working abroad before this assignment: ______.

7. How many months have you been working in your current country of assignment? ______.

8. Did you have any cross-cultural training (any training that prepared you for relocation) before departure? (Please Check One): [] Yes [] No.

9. What is your country of origin? ______.

10. In which country are you currently living? ______

Cultural intelligence

Read each statement and select the response that best describes your capabilities.

Select the answer that BEST describes you AS YOU REALLY ARE .

1: Strongly disagree 2: Disagree 3: Somewhat disagree 4: Neither agree nor disagree 5: Somewhat disagree 6: Agree 7: Strongly Agree.

Cross-cultural adjustment at work

Please indicate how well adjusted (how comfortable) you are with each of the following aspects of living in your current city of residence. Use the following scale:

1: Very unadjusted 2: Unadjusted 3: Somewhat unadjusted 4: Neutral 5: Somewhat adjusted 6: Adjusted 7: Very adjusted.

• Assignment-specific performance

Please rate your level of work performance to the factors listed below using the following scale:

1: Poor 2: Below Average 3: Average 4: Above Average 5: Outstanding.

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Setti, I., Sommovigo, V. & Argentero, P. Enhancing expatriates’ assignments success: the relationships between cultural intelligence, cross-cultural adaptation and performance. Curr Psychol 41 , 4291–4311 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00931-w

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Intercultural and International Business Communication

The international assignment, learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe how to prepare for an international assignment.
• Discuss the acculturation process as an expatriate.
• Describe effective strategies for living and working abroad.

Suppose you have the opportunity to work or study in a foreign country. You may find the prospect of an international assignment intriguing, challenging, or even frightening; indeed, most professionals employed abroad will tell you they pass through all three stages at some point during the assignment. They may also share their sense of adjustment, even embrace of their host culture, and the challenges of reintegration into their native country.

An international assignment, whether as a student or a career professional, requires work and preparation, and should be given the time and consideration of any major life change. When you lose a loved one, it takes time to come to terms with the loss. When someone you love is diagnosed with a serious illness, the news may take some time to sink in. When a new baby enters your family, a period of adjustment is predictable and prolonged. All these major life changes can stress an individual beyond their capacity to adjust. Similarly, in order to be a successful “expat,” or expatriate, one needs to prepare mentally and physically for the change.

International business assignments are a reflection of increased global trade, and as trade decreases, they may become an expensive luxury. As technology allows for instant face-to-face communication, and group collaboration on documents via cloud computing and storage, the need for physical travel may be reduced. But regardless of whether your assignment involves relocation abroad, supervision of managers in another country at a distance, or supervision by a foreign manager, you will need to learn more about the language, culture, and customs that are not your own. You will need to compare and contrast, and seek experiences that lend insight, in order to communicate more effectively.

An efficient, effective manager in any country is desirable, but one with international experience even more so. You will represent your company and they will represent you, including a considerable financial investment, either by your employer (in the case of a professional assignment) or by whoever is financing your education (in the case of studying abroad). That investment should not be taken lightly. As many as 40 percent of foreign-assigned employees terminate their assignments early, Tu, H., & Sullivan, S. (1994). Business horizons . Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1038/is_nl_v37/ai_14922926 at a considerable cost to their employers. Of those that remain, almost 50 percent are less than effective. Tu, H., & Sullivan, S. (1994). Business horizons . Retrieved from FindArticles.com: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1038/is_nl_v37/ai_14922926

Preparation

With this perspective in mind, let’s discuss how to prepare for the international assignment and strategies to make you a more effective professional as a stranger in a strange land. First we’ll dispel a couple of myths associated with an idealized or romantic view of living abroad. Next we’ll examine traits and skills of the successful expatriate. Finally, we’ll examine culture shock and the acculturation process.

Your experience with other cultures may have come firsthand, but for most, a foreign location like Paris is an idea formed from exposure to images via the mass media. Paris may be known for its art, as a place for lovers, or as a great place to buy bread. But if you have only ever known about a place through the lens of a camera, you have only seen the portraits designed and portrayed by others. You will lack the multidimensional view of one who lives and works in Paris, and even if you are aware of its history, its economic development, or its recent changes, these are all academic observations until the moment of experience.

That is not to say that research does not form a solid foundation in preparation for an international assignment, but it does reinforce the distinction between a media-fabricated ideal and real life. Awareness of this difference is an important step as you prepare yourself for life in a foreign culture.

If the decision is yours to make, take your time. If others are involved, and family is a consideration, you should take even more care with this important decision. Residence abroad requires some knowledge of the language, an ability to adapt, and an interest in learning about different cultures. If family members are not a part of the decision, or lack the language skills or interest, the assignment may prove overwhelming and lead to failure. Sixty-four percent of expatriate respondents who terminated their assignment early indicated that family concerns were the primary reason. Contreras, C. D. (2009). Should you accept the international assignment? BNET . Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5350/is_200308/ai_n21334696

Points to consider include the following:

• How flexible are you?
• Do you need everything spelled out or can you go with the flow?
• Can you adapt to new ways of doing business?
• Are you interested in the host culture and willing to dedicate the time and put forth the effort to learn more about it?
• What has been your experience to date working with people from distinct cultures?
• What are your language skills at present, and are you interested in learning a new language?
• Is your family supportive of the assignment?
• How will it affect your children’s education? Your spouse’s career? Your career?
• Will this assignment benefit your family?
• How long are you willing to commit to the assignment?
• What resources are available to help you prepare, move, and adjust?
• Can you stand being out of the loop, even if you are in daily written and oral communication with the home office?
• What is your relationship with your employer, and can it withstand the anticipated stress and tension that will result as not everything goes according to plan?
• Is the cultural framework of your assignment similar to—or unlike—your own, and how ready are you to adapt to differences in such areas as time horizon, masculinity versus femininity, or direct versus indirect styles of communication?

This list of questions could continue, and feel free to add your own as you explore the idea of an international assignment. An international assignment is not like a domestic move or reassignment. Within the same country, even if there are significantly different local customs in place, similar rules, laws, and ways of doing business are present. In a foreign country, you will lose those familiar traditions and institutions and have to learn many new ways of accomplishing your given tasks. What once took a five-minute phone call may now take a dozen meetings and a month to achieve, and that may cause you some frustration. It may also cause your employer frustration as you try to communicate how things are done locally, and why results are not immediate, as they lack even your limited understanding of your current context. Your relationship with your employer will experience stress, and your ability to communicate your situation will require tact and finesse.

Successful expatriates are adaptable, open to learning new languages, cultures, and skilled at finding common ground for communication. Rather than responding with frustration, they learn the new customs and find the advantage to get the job done. They form relationships and are not afraid to ask for help when it is warranted or required. They feel secure in their place as explorer, and understand that mistakes are a given, even as they are unpredictable. Being a stranger is no easy task, but they welcome the challenge with energy and enthusiasm.

Acculturation Process

Acculturation , or the transition to living abroad, is often described as an emotional rollercoaster. Steven Rhinesmith Rhinesmith, S. (1984). Returning home . Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Bureau for International Education. provides ten steps that show the process of acculturation, including culture shock, that you may experience:

• Initial anxiety
• Initial elation
• Initial culture shock
• Superficial adjustment
• Depression-frustration
• Acceptance of host culture
• Return anxiety
• Return elation
• Reentry shock
• Reintegration

Humans fear the unknown, and even if your tolerance for uncertainty is high, you may experience a degree of anxiety in anticipation of your arrival. At first the “honeymoon” period is observed, with a sense of elation at all the newfound wonders. You may adjust superficially at first, learning where to get familiar foods or new ways to meet your basic needs. As you live in the new culture, divergence will become a trend and you’ll notice many things that frustrate you. You won’t anticipate the need for two hours at a bank for a transaction that once took five minutes, or could be handled over the Internet, and find that businesses close during midday, preventing you from accomplishing your goals. At this stage, you will feel that living in this new culture is simply exhausting. Many expats advise that this is the time to tough it out—if you give in to the temptation to make a visit back home, you will only prolong your difficult adjustment.

Over time, if you persevere, you will come to accept and adjust to your host culture, and learn how to accomplish your goals with less frustration and ease. You may come to appreciate several cultural values or traits and come to embrace some aspects of your host culture. At some point, you will need to return to your first, or home, culture, but that transition will bring a sense of anxiety. People and places change, the familiar is no longer so familiar, and you too have changed. You may once again be elated at your return and the familiar, and experience a sense of comfort in home and family, but culture shock may again be part of your adjustment. You may look at your home culture in a new way and question things that are done in a particular way that you have always considered normal. You may hold onto some of the cultural traits you adopted while living abroad, and begin the process of reintegration.

The international assignment requires adaptability. FIGURE 18.3: © 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation

The international assignment requires adaptability.

You may also begin to feel that the “grass is greener” in your host country, and long to return. Expatriates are often noted for “going native,” or adopting the host culture’s way of life, but even the most confirmed expats still gather to hear the familiar sound of their first language, and find community in people like themselves who have blended cultural boundaries on a personal level.

Living and Working Abroad

In order to learn to swim you have to get in the water, and all the research and preparation cannot take the place of direct experience. Your awareness of culture shock may help you adjust, and your preparation by learning some of the language will assist you, but know that living and working abroad take time and effort. Still, there are several guidelines that can serve you well as you start your new life in a strange land:

• Be open and creative . People will eat foods that seem strange or do things in a new way, and your openness and creativity can play a positive role in your adjustment. Staying close to your living quarters or surrounding yourself with similar expats can limit your exposure to and understanding of the local cultures. While the familiar may be comfortable, and the new setting may be uncomfortable, you will learn much more about your host culture and yourself if you make the effort to be open to new experiences. Being open involves getting out of your comfort zone.
• Be self-reliant . Things that were once easy or took little time may now be challenging or consume your whole day. Focus on your ability to resolve issues, learn new ways to get the job done, and be prepared to do new things.
• Keep a balanced perspective . Your host culture isn’t perfect. Humans aren’t perfect, and neither was your home culture. Each location and cultural community has strengths you can learn from if you are open to them.
• Be patient . Take your time, and know a silent period is normal. The textbook language classes only provide a base from which you will learn how people who live in the host country actually communicate. You didn’t learn to walk in a day and won’t learn to successfully navigate this culture overnight either.
• Be a student and a teacher . You are learning as the new member of the community, but as a full member of your culture, you can share your experiences as well.
• Be an explorer . Get out and go beyond your boundaries when you feel safe and secure. Traveling to surrounding villages, or across neighboring borders, can expand your perspective and help you learn.
• Protect yourself . Always keep all your essential documents, money, and medicines close to you, or where you know they will be safe. Trying to source a medicine in a country where you are not fluent in the language, or where the names of remedies are different, can be a challenge. Your passport is essential to your safety and you need to keep it safe. You may also consider vaccination records, birth certificates, or business documents in the same way, keeping them safe and accessible. You may want to consider a “bug-out bag,” with all the essentials you need, including food, water, keys, and small tools, as an essential part of planning in case of emergency.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Research one organization in a business or industry that relates to your major and has an international presence. Find a job announcement or similar document that discusses the business and its international activities. Share and compare with classmates.
• Conduct a search on expat networks including online forum. Briefly describe your findings and share with classmates.
• What would be the hardest part of an overseas assignment for you and why? What would be the easiest part of an overseas assignment for you and why?
• Find an advertisement for an international assignment. Note the qualifications, and share with classmates.
• Find an article or other first-person account of someone’s experience on an international assignment. Share your results with your classmates.
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5 Types of Global Assignments: What’s Best for Your Company?

Last Updated on August 22, 2024

Employers and employees have many reasons for sending employees and other talent on different types of global assignments worldwide . Sometimes, companies need to relocate their employees temporarily for a short-term finite assignment. In other scenarios, they must send talent abroad to work for a more extended assignment to facilitate a business objective successfully.

No matter the type of, or reason for, an international assignment, they are essential in global mobility programs and allow for avenues to ensure international organizations’ success.  

What are Global Assignments?

Global assignments require an employee to relocate internationally and undertake work in a destination country for a specified time. Global assignments can vary in duration , often differentiated by being classified as either short-term or long-term.   

Types of Global Assignments

HR professionals may wonder, “What is an example of a global assignment our company can utilize for the needs that arise in our industry?” Companies have various options for assignments when devising an optimal global mobility strategy.

Employers can leverage multiple forms of global assignments to meet their needs and maximize their ROI by choosing impactful yet cost-effective assignments based on assignment length, location and ultimate business need.

Short-Term Assignment

A short-term international assignment usually lasts for a year or less. Employers generally have a specific goal for the employees they send on short-term assignments, such as facilitating training, completing a particular project, or temporarily filling a vacancy.

Many short-term assignments are single-status, whereby only the employee travels, and dependents do not join for the time abroad. Companies may also make use of short-term assignment options when trying to reduce the cost of conducting work abroad despite a need to have talent present on location abroad.

Long-Term Assignment

Companies also often leverage long-term work assignments for various reasons. Employers often contemplate long-term assignments lasting one to three years. However, it is commonplace for employers to extend assignments due to continuing business needs, the preference of the employee, or a variety of other reasons. Many companies contemplate a maximum assignment length of five years, primarily due to cost. A stay of up to five years is still often considered temporary. Still, assignments longer than five years are more likely to be seen as permanent.

Employers typically send their employees on long-term international assignments for strategic reasons such as expanding the business into new markets, opening new offices, developing talent and establishing teams of global leaders.

Since long-term assignments last an extended period, employers have more factors to consider than those classified as short-term. One key consideration is that employees on long-term assignments will likely need to find housing, which may include renting or buying a house. Another is the tax component, as there are likely to be more significant tax implications where there is an extended stay in a given destination.

Employees with families are more likely to bring their dependents along on longer assignments, which means their family members may also need to find work or education options. You’ll also want to consider transportation and healthcare needs and tax obligations.

Business Travel    

Business travel resembles a short-term work assignment because employees don’t stay at the destination for an extended period. The main differentiator is the type of activities undertaken during business travel are much less associated with what’s classified as work and are, instead, typically limited to hands-off activities and business meetings.    

Employees often  stay in a foreign country for just a few days . However, business travel trips can last multiple weeks in some scenarios. Employees may also travel for business between several countries, creating added considerations employers should consider to ensure compliance.  

Remote Work Visas  

Remote work visas are available in many countries around the world. Some countries introduced them during the COVID-19 pandemic to stimulate their economies and encourage companies with remote work policies to send their talent there without formally relocating.

Remote work visas quickly gained traction, and governments continued establishing similar statuses. They are an increasingly popular option for companies that allow employees to work from anywhere on a remote basis.

The application cost per visa varies from country to country, as does the visa’s duration. Some countries will extend the validity of temporary remote work visas , while others contemplate only a finite period of stay for visa holders. Countries often require proof of income as part of these types of visa requests and may also have provisions for bringing dependents that potential applicants should consider.

Commuter Assignments  

Commuter assignments differ from long-term and short-term assignments because employees regularly commute from their home country to the destination jurisdiction.

While companies use short-term and long-term global assignments worldwide, commuter assignments are typically regional because employees cross neighboring borders. Commuter assignments can be good alternatives for employees who need to work in another country but prefer not to relocate entirely for personal reasons.

What Types of Global Assignments Should Companies Leverage?

HR professionals often ask, “What are the different types of global assignments we can use?”.

Businesses have different reasons for needing to send talent abroad for work assignments. Therefore, employers should carefully consider what they are trying to achieve when deciding what type of global mobility strategy to implement.

Along with the duration of the assignment, employers should consider the employee’s circumstances – are they hesitant to leave family behind, or do they have other obligations that would impact the length of the assignment? Cost is another critical consideration for employers when deciding on a global mobility strategy and will be a decision driver for most programs.

Employers must use various services to ensure a smooth transition no matter how long employees stay in another country. A global immigration services provider such as Envoy Global can partner with your organization to decide on the proper assignment strategy for the company and employee and support the acquisition of the necessary immigration status to allow for a compliant work engagement in the destination country.

Envoy offers valuable services to educate employers on all global assignment types and advise on the assignment strategy that will best ensure your organization’s success. Every company’s HR team partners with a Global Account Manager to create a successful and sustainable global mobility program, including guidance on best practices for leveraging global assignments.

With so many moving parts to global mobility, HR managers can rest assured that working with Envoy’s experienced team helps make relocating talent worldwide a seamless and efficient experience.

Content in this publication is for informational purposes only and not intended as legal advice, nor should it be relied on as such. Envoy is not a law   firm, and   does not provide legal advice. If you would like guidance on how this information may impact your   particular situation   and you are a client of the U.S. Law Firm, consult your attorney. If you are not a client of the U.S. Law Firm working with Envoy, consult another qualified professional. This website does not create an attorney-client relationship with the U.S. Law Firm.

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