history of psychology research paper topics

History of Psychology

Topics 2017

Topics for 2017

Here is a beginning list of ideas for paper topics.

One of the best strategies at the beginning is to go to the reserve desk at the library and get the Hilgard book to look at. For most of you, this should be one of your best early sources no matter what your topic is, so you might as well look at it as a beginning source of ideas as well.

You must establish a topic by Thursday, September 21.

I’ll be available to discuss various ideas with you, to help narrow it down once you are in a ballpark. As I explained in class, I want students to select topics in pairs, one on one side of an issue, the other on an apparently opposite side. This is a way to begin your task with a little bit of structure. Your actual topic will be MORE SPECIFIC than stated here. Taking a side of the issues as stated here is a beginning. Part of your project will be to narrow down and focus your topic.

Where there are obvious key words, I have put them in bold.

One very common type of topic is: Why was person x so famous at one time and so forgotten later? What does that tell us about change in psychology? A variation on this theme is: Why was person x so famous, then forgotten, then rediscovered?

Was Gestalt Psychology a failure or a success? To begin, I have one paper that argues that Gestalt psychology was a success, and another that argues it was a failure. Both were written in the same time period. Obviously you have to know what Gestalt psychology is, immerse yourself in some of it, as well as the context for its promulgation. By now, more articles on the subject have been written. In light of where things stand today, how do we evaluate the articles that I alluded to at the beginning?

John B. Watson was the founder of behaviorism and one of the most important psychologists in our history. Or –Behaviorism was so inevitable that Watson should NOT be regarded as its founder because it was developing anyway and would exist whether Watson had lived or not.

Behaviorism dominated psychology in the 1940’s and 1950’s. Or — Behaviorism never dominated psychology as much as people say it did.

Cognitive psychology was a true revolution in psychology. Or — Cognitive psychology was warmed over behaviorism with a few new words allowed.

Chomsky-inspired psycholinguistics changed psychology forever. Or — The effects of Chomsky passed quickly and had a very small impact.

Developments in neuroscience have led to real progress in psychology. Or — developments in neuroscience have been a distraction to psychology and have postponed attention to core problems.

Behaviorism was a necessary development in psychology; Or — Behaviorism should have sold itself as a branch of biology and not psychology. The latter position has been developed by Trinity alum, Robert Epstein (also B. F. Skinner’s last student).

George Miller ushered in the future for Psychologists, time after time. Or, George Miller was consistently wrong.

Münsterberg — Applied psychology and pure psychology: an important distinction. “Applied psychology” is not possible. “Applied psychology” is quite possible.

The arguments of Tolman vs. Hull and Spence within behaviorism were a very good example of the operation of “normal science” in the sense of Thomas Kuhn. The work of Tolman, as he argued against Hull and Spence sowed the seeds for a scientific revolution, as this concept was developed by Thomas Kuhn.

Titchener “sold” Wundt as an introspectionist — Was this was historically wrong?

Professional organizations emerge as disciplines develop. At least two have been organized first here at Trinity. What is their role? Formation of the APA; Philosophers break off; experimentalists try to break off several times; the founding of the APS. The role of smaller, more specialized organizations like SRCD and the Psychonomic Society. Interview faculty members as part of this.

Role of Journals – Mind, American Journal of Psychology (AJP Hall). Hall was an organizer. Up to Ecological Psychology (see me) perhaps.

Clinical Psychology – Witmer; Prince; Putnam; Shakow; Boulder model; WW II (let the Hilgard book be your guide).

Neuroscience –What happened to Lashley? There was a spate of research in the early to mid 20th century (from Lashley) that showed much complex activity learned by rats was not localized in any particular brain area . By 1955, emphases changed and the experimental results in neuroscience favored localization of function. Was this a change in fact or fashion?

Establishing labs – Hall vs. James. “Real” labs? Colleges and universities. Establishing psychology as a scientific discipline and at particular institutions regarded the founding of laboratories. What constituted a laboratory? How much did these really matter?

Intelligence – Binet, Terman, WW I, WW II — see the Hilgard book.

Language – Wundt, Blumenthal, Chomsky; Whorf-Sapir (Hartford origins), Roger Brown; What happened to syntax?

Trinity issues – Trinity psychology graduates, Edward S. Reed and Robert Epstein have published work in the history of psychology – You could examine the issues explored by either one. (1) Reed — In his philosophy (history) of science dissertation (it won an award), Reed argued that modern physics and modern psychology BOTH started with Descartes and that, therefore, psychology is not different from physics because psychology is young. (2) Epstein has argued that Watson made a mistake by trying to make behaviorism a part of psychology. Epstein says that misunderstandings could have been avoided if Watson developed behaviorism as a branch of biology instead.

Psychology at Trinity — from 1903. Interesting comparisons to Wesleyan. What are just “accidents” of history? Explore old catalogues and original text used here.

Developmental psych – from G. Stanley Hall? Many themes could be developed within developmental psychology, with the important stress that G. Stanley Hall was central in some way to most of it.

Wesleyan . Interesting comparisons: Charles H. Judd (ended up at Chicago) vs. Edward L. Thorndike (ended up at Columbia) vs. Walter Dearborn (ended up at Harvard)– All Wesleyan undergrads of about the same time. All ended up in Educational Psychology. But they got there by very different routes. Judd studied with Wundt; Thorndike with William James. Dearborn was influenced both by Dodge at Wesleyan and by Cattell.

MacDougall vs. Watson – 1924 debate.

Lewin vs. Spence at Iowa.

The effects of adopting English as the language of science around the world — the case of psychology.

Extra special topic — Pierre Janet and ties to developmental psychology and to Piaget. Janet is not all that well known, but there is a hard core group devoted to promoting him now to wider audiences.

History of Psych Syllabus

61 intriguing psychology research topics to explore

Last updated

11 January 2024

Reviewed by

Brittany Ferri, PhD, OTR/L

Psychology is an incredibly diverse, critical, and ever-changing area of study in the medical and health industries. Because of this, it’s a common area of study for students and healthcare professionals.

We’re walking you through picking the perfect topic for your upcoming paper or study. Keep reading for plenty of example topics to pique your interest and curiosity.

How to choose a psychology research topic

Exploring a psychology-based topic for your research project? You need to pick a specific area of interest to collect compelling data.

Use these tips to help you narrow down which psychology topics to research:

Focus on a particular area of psychology

The most effective psychological research focuses on a smaller, niche concept or disorder within the scope of a study.

Psychology is a broad and fascinating area of science, including everything from diagnosed mental health disorders to sports performance mindset assessments.

This gives you plenty of different avenues to explore. Having a hard time choosing? Check out our list of 61 ideas further down in this article to get started.

Read the latest clinical studies

Once you’ve picked a more niche topic to explore, you need to do your due diligence and explore other research projects on the same topic.

This practice will help you learn more about your chosen topic, ask more specific questions, and avoid covering existing projects.

For the best results, we recommend creating a research folder of associated published papers to reference throughout your project. This makes it much easier to cite direct references and find inspiration down the line.

Find a topic you enjoy and ask questions

Once you’ve spent time researching and collecting references for your study, you finally get to explore.

Whether this research project is for work, school, or just for fun, having a passion for your research will make the project much more enjoyable. (Trust us, there will be times when that is the only thing that keeps you going.)

Now you’ve decided on the topic, ask more nuanced questions you might want to explore.

If you can, pick the direction that interests you the most to make the research process much more enjoyable.

61 psychology topics to research in 2024

Need some extra help starting your psychology research project on the right foot? Explore our list of 61 cutting-edge, in-demand psychology research topics to use as a starting point for your research journey.

Psychology research topics for university students

As a university student, it can be hard to pick a research topic that fits the scope of your classes and is still compelling and unique.

Here are a few exciting topics we recommend exploring for your next assigned research project:

Mental health in post-secondary students

Seeking post-secondary education is a stressful and overwhelming experience for most students, making this topic a great choice to explore for your in-class research paper.

Examples of post-secondary mental health research topics include:

Student mental health status during exam season

Mental health disorder prevalence based on study major

The impact of chronic school stress on overall quality of life

The impacts of cyberbullying

Cyberbullying can occur at all ages, starting as early as elementary school and carrying through into professional workplaces.

Examples of cyberbullying-based research topics you can study include:

The impact of cyberbullying on self-esteem

Common reasons people engage in cyberbullying

Cyberbullying themes and commonly used terms

Cyberbullying habits in children vs. adults

The long-term effects of cyberbullying

Clinical psychology research topics

If you’re looking to take a more clinical approach to your next project, here are a few topics that involve direct patient assessment for you to consider:

Chronic pain and mental health

Living with chronic pain dramatically impacts every aspect of a person’s life, including their mental and emotional health.

Here are a few examples of in-demand pain-related psychology research topics:

The connection between diabetic neuropathy and depression

Neurological pain and its connection to mental health disorders

Efficacy of meditation and mindfulness for pain management

The long-term effects of insomnia

Insomnia is where you have difficulty falling or staying asleep. It’s a common health concern that impacts millions of people worldwide.

This is an excellent topic because insomnia can have a variety of causes, offering many research possibilities.

Here are a few compelling psychology research topics about insomnia you could investigate:

The prevalence of insomnia based on age, gender, and ethnicity

Insomnia and its impact on workplace productivity

The connection between insomnia and mental health disorders

Efficacy and use of melatonin supplements for insomnia

The risks and benefits of prescription insomnia medications

Lifestyle options for managing insomnia symptoms

The efficacy of mental health treatment options

Management and treatment of mental health conditions is an ever-changing area of study. If you can witness or participate in mental health therapies, this can make a great research project.

Examples of mental health treatment-related psychology research topics include:

The efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for patients with severe anxiety

The benefits and drawbacks of group vs. individual therapy sessions

Music therapy for mental health disorders

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for patients with depression

Controversial psychology research paper topics

If you are looking to explore a more cutting-edge or modern psychology topic, you can delve into a variety of controversial and topical options:

The impact of social media and digital platforms

Ever since access to internet forums and video games became more commonplace, there’s been growing concern about the impact these digital platforms have on mental health.

Examples of social media and video game-related psychology research topics include:

The effect of edited images on self-confidence

How social media platforms impact social behavior

Video games and their impact on teenage anger and violence

Digital communication and the rapid spread of misinformation

The development of digital friendships

Psychotropic medications for mental health

In recent years, the interest in using psychoactive medications to treat and manage health conditions has increased despite their inherently controversial nature.

Examples of psychotropic medication-related research topics include:

The risks and benefits of using psilocybin mushrooms for managing anxiety

The impact of marijuana on early-onset psychosis

Childhood marijuana use and related prevalence of mental health conditions

Ketamine and its use for complex PTSD (C-PTSD) symptom management

The effect of long-term psychedelic use and mental health conditions

Mental health disorder research topics

As one of the most popular subsections of psychology, studying mental health disorders and how they impact quality of life is an essential and impactful area of research.

While studies in these areas are common, there’s always room for additional exploration, including the following hot-button topics:

Anxiety and depression disorders

Anxiety and depression are well-known and heavily researched mental health disorders.

Despite this, we still don’t know many things about these conditions, making them great candidates for psychology research projects:

Social anxiety and its connection to chronic loneliness

C-PTSD symptoms and causes

The development of phobias

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) behaviors and symptoms

Depression triggers and causes

Self-care tools and resources for depression

The prevalence of anxiety and depression in particular age groups or geographic areas

Bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorder is a complex and multi-faceted area of psychology research.

Use your research skills to learn more about this condition and its impact by choosing any of the following topics:

Early signs of bipolar disorder

The incidence of bipolar disorder in young adults

The efficacy of existing bipolar treatment options

Bipolar medication side effects

Cognitive behavioral therapy for people with bipolar

Schizoaffective disorder

Schizoaffective disorder is often stigmatized, and less common mental health disorders are a hotbed for new and exciting research.

Here are a few examples of interesting research topics related to this mental health disorder:

The prevalence of schizoaffective disorder by certain age groups or geographic locations

Risk factors for developing schizoaffective disorder

The prevalence and content of auditory and visual hallucinations

Alternative therapies for schizoaffective disorder

Societal and systematic psychology research topics

Modern society’s impact is deeply enmeshed in our mental and emotional health on a personal and community level.

Here are a few examples of societal and systemic psychology research topics to explore in more detail:

Access to mental health services

While mental health awareness has risen over the past few decades, access to quality mental health treatment and resources is still not equitable.

This can significantly impact the severity of a person’s mental health symptoms, which can result in worse health outcomes if left untreated.

Explore this crucial issue and provide information about the need for improved mental health resource access by studying any of the following topics:

Rural vs. urban access to mental health resources

Access to crisis lines by location

Wait times for emergency mental health services

Inequities in mental health access based on income and location

Insurance coverage for mental health services

Systemic racism and mental health

Societal systems and the prevalence of systemic racism heavily impact every aspect of a person’s overall health.

Researching these topics draws attention to existing problems and contributes valuable insights into ways to improve access to care moving forward.

Examples of systemic racism-related psychology research topics include:

Access to mental health resources based on race

The prevalence of BIPOC mental health therapists in a chosen area

The impact of systemic racism on mental health and self-worth

Racism training for mental health workers

The prevalence of mental health disorders in discriminated groups

LGBTQIA+ mental health concerns

Research about LGBTQIA+ people and their mental health needs is a unique area of study to explore for your next research project. It’s a commonly overlooked and underserved community.

Examples of LGBTQIA+ psychology research topics to consider include:

Mental health supports for queer teens and children

The impact of queer safe spaces on mental health

The prevalence of mental health disorders in the LGBTQIA+ community

The benefits of queer mentorship and found family

Substance misuse in LQBTQIA+ youth and adults

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Psychology Paper Topics: A List of Topic Ideas

Categories Psychology Education

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If you have ever had to write a paper for one of your psychology classes, then you probably know that choosing psychology paper topics can sometimes be tricky. Fortunately, there are plenty of great topics to inspire your paper and help you finish your assignment.

In this article, find ideas that you can use for a psychology paper topic.

Table of Contents

How to Choose a Psychology Paper Topic

If you are going to write a psychology paper, the first thing you need to do is pick a good topic. This is often easier said than done.

In some cases, your instructor might assign you a topic, or at least narrow your range of options by providing a general subject area on which to focus your paper.

But in many cases, choosing the topic of your psychology paper is entirely up to you—and that’s where things can get tricky. How do you choose a great topic? What if you pick something too specific and struggle to find sources? Or what if you go too broad and end up biting off more than you can chew?

Following a few simple steps can make the topic selection process a lot easier.

Choose a General Subject

Part of what makes picking a topic for a psychology paper so difficult is how overwhelmed by the information you feel. Make it easier on yourself by restricting your options to at least a general topic area.

Narrow Down to a More Specific Topic

Once you’ve chosen a general area, you can then narrow your paper topic down to something much more specific and manageable.

For example, you might start by deciding that you want to write your paper on a topic within a specific branch of psychology . From there you might further narrow your focus down to a much narrower subject area within that branch

So imagine that you’re writing a psychology research paper in your general psychology course. Your instructor has given you free rein to select any topic you please, so you begin by deciding to write your paper on a social psychology topic.

Now that you have a general idea, you drill down further and decide to research and write your paper on how prejudice forms and ways to minimize it.

General Psychology Topics

Because general psychology classes cover such a wide range of topics, you have a very large selection of subject ideas to choose from. Start by choosing a general topic, and then narrow your focus down so that you can fully cover the subject.

Some ideas include:

An issue paper: Tackle one of the current issues in psychology, such as parity in mental health care or involving psychologists in military interrogations.
Profile a famous psychologist: Select a well-known psychologist and then write a profile exploring his or her life, theories, and career.
Explore a well-known psychology experiment: Write a paper on a classic psychology study, such as the Milgram Obedience Experiment or the Stanford Prison Experiment.
Write about a topic within personality psychology: Personality psychology focuses on the traits and dispositions that contribute to overall personality. This is one of the largest topics within psychology so there are plenty of fascinating research topics from which to choose. Some specific topics that might interest you include whether personality can change, different theories of personality development and the Big Five theory of personality.

Okay, let’s just imagine that you’re having a bad case of writer’s block. You understand the basic approach for picking a good topic, but nothing seems to be catching your interest. You’re looking for some more inspiration to get you started.

Here are just a few great topics for psychology papers that you might want to consider:

Write About Psychology Controversies

The history of psychology is not always positive, and if you enjoy writing about controversial topics, psychology’s history is rich with material.

The use of lobotomies to treat mental illness
The history of mental asylums in the United States
The use and effects of electroconvulsive therapy
Conversion therapy and its damaging effects
Attachment therapy
Controversial experiments such as Milgram’s obedience experiment or Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison experiment
The debate over the nature of intelligence
The impact of the eugenics movement on psychology
Controversies surrounding the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

Write About a Mental Health Condition

Writing about the history, prevalence, and treatment of a specific mental condition can be an interesting topic for a psychology paper. Some options you might consider include:

Eating disorders
Anxiety disorders
Borderline personality disorder
Schizophrenia
Substance abuse and addictions
Developmental disorders

Classics in the History of Psychology

An internet resource developed by Christopher D. Green York University , Toronto , Canada ISSN 1492-3173

(Return to Classics index )

Documents Sorted by Topic

Last updated 17 January 2010 .

19th- & 20th-Century Psychology

Can't find what you want? Be sure to check out our Links to Related On-Line Documents at Other Sites .

Ancient Thought

Plato . (ca. 360 BC). Timaeus (B. Jowett, Trans.)

Aristotle . (ca. 350 BC). De anima (J. A. Smith, Trans.)

Aristotle . (ca. 350 BC). On memory and reminiscence (J. I. Beare, Trans.)

For additional works by the Presocratics, Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Euclid, Lucretius, Epictetus, Galen, Plotinus, and Augustine, see the Links to Documents at Other Sites page.

Medieval & Renaissance Thought

For works by Aquinas, Roger Bacon, Pico, and Machiavelli see the Links to Documents at Other Sites page.

Modern Philosophical Thought

Berkeley, George . (1732). An essay towards a new theory of vision (4th ed.) . (First edition published 1709).

Bowen, Francis. (1860). Remarks on the latest form of the development theory . Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, n.s., VIII , pp. 98-107, communicated March 27, April 10 and May 1, 1860. Reprinted in G. Daniels (Ed.) (1968). Darwinism comes to America . Waltham, MA: Blaisdell, pp. 66-74.

McCosh, James . (1874). Religious aspects of the doctrine of development . In P. Schaff & S. Prime (Eds.). History, essays, orations, and other documents of the sixth general conference of the Evangelical Alliance, held in New York, October 2-12, 1873 , New York , pp. 269-271 . Reprinted in G. Daniels (Ed.) (1968). Darwinism comes to America . Waltham , MA : Blaisdell, pp. 96-101.

Herbart, J. F. (1877). Possibility and necessity of applying mathematics in psychology (H. Haanel, Trans.). Journal of Speculative Philosophy, 11 , 251-264.

Fiske, John . (1902). Herbert Spencer's service to religion . Essays Historical and Literary, New York, II, pp. 232-237 . Reprinted in G. Daniels (Ed.) (1968). Darwinism comes to America . Waltham, MA: Blaisdell, pp. 106-110.

Royce, Josiah . (1902). Recent logical inquiries and their psychological bearings . Psychological Review , 9 , 105-133. [Royce's APA Presidential Address about the potential impact of then-recent developments in the philosophy of mathematics for the psychology of thinking.]

Stumpf, Carl. (1930). Autobiography of Carl Stumpf . In C. Murchison (Ed.), History of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 1, pp. 389-441). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press. [The great German psychologist's summary of his life's work.]

Titchener, E. B. (1921). Brentano and Wundt: Empirical and experimental psychology . American Journal of Psychology , 32 , 108-120.

Creighton, J. E. (1902). The purposes of a philosophical association . Philosophical Review , 11 , 219-237.

For additional works by Descartes, Hobbes, Pascal, Locke, Leibniz, Spinoza, Berkeley , Voltaire, Hume, Smith, Malthus, Kant, Hegel, Marx, Mill, Brentano, Mach, Peirce, James, Dewey, Husserl, Russell, Mead, and Merleau-Ponty see the Links to Documents at Other Sites page.

American Psychological Association

American Psychological Association. (1894). Proceedings of the Preliminay Meeting (1892), the First Annual Meeting (1892), and the Second Annual Meeting (1893) .

Münsterberg, Hugo . (1899). Psychology and history . Psychological Review , 6 , 1-31. [1898 APA Presidential Address.]

Royce, Josiah . (1902). Recent logical inquiries and their psychological bearings . Psychological Review , 9 , 105-133. [1902 APA Presidential Address.]

Calkins, Mary Whiton . (1906). A reconciliation between structural and functional psychology . Psychological Review , 8, 61-81. [1905 APA Presidential Address.]

Angell, James Rowland . (1907). The province of functional psychology . Psychological Review , 14 , 61-91. [1906 APA Presidential Address.]

Washburn, Margaret Floy . (1922). Introspection as an objective method . Psychological Review , 29 , 89-112. [1921 APA Presidential Address.]

Boring, Edwin G. (1929). The psychology of controversy . Psychological Review , 36 , 97-121. [1928 APA Presidential Address.]

Lashley, Karl S. (1930). Basic neural mechanisms in behavior . Psychological Review , 37 , 1-24. [1929 APA Presidential Address.]

Fernberger, Samuel W. (1932). The American Psychological Association: A historical summary, 1892-1930 . Psychological Bulletin , 29 , 1-89.

Thurstone, L. L. (1934). The vectors of mind . Psychological Review , 41 , 1-32. [1933 APA Presidential Address.]

Allport, Gordon W. (1940). The psychologist's frame of reference . Psychological Bulletin , 37 , 1-28. [1939 APA Presidential Address.]

Cattell, James McKeen . (1943). The founding of the Association and of the Hopkins and Clark Laboratories . Psychological Review , 50 , 61-64.

Fernberger, Samuel W. (1943). The American Psychological Association 1892-1942 . Psychological Review , 50 , 33-60.

Guthrie, Edwin R. (1946). Psychological facts and psychological theory . Psychological Bulletin , 43 , 1-20. [1945 APA Presidential address.]

American Psychological Association . (1947). Recommended graduate training program in clinical psychology . American Psychologist , 2 , 539-558. [The report that proposed the so-called "Boulder Model".]

Rogers, Carl R. . (1947). Some observations on the organization of personality . American Psychologist , 2 , 358-368. [1947 APA Presidential Adrress.]

Cronbach, Lee J. (1957). The two disciplines of scientific psychology . American Psychologist , 12 , 671-684. [1957 APA Presidential Address.]

Harlow, Harry F. (1958). The nature of love . American Psychologist , 13 , 573-685. [1958 APA Presidential Address.]

Köhler, Wolfgang . (1959). Gestalt psychology today . American Psychologist , 14 , 727-734. [1959 APA Presidential Address.]

Behaviorism

Watson, John B. (1907). Studying the mind of animals . The World Today, 12 , 421-426. [A rare, early, popular statement of functionalism by the "founder" of behaviourism.]

Yerkes, Robert M. & Dodson, John D. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation . Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology , 18 , 459-482.

Yerkes, Robert M. & Morgulis, Sergius . (1909). The method of Pawlow in animal psychology . Psychological Bulletin , 6 , 257-273.

Thorndike, Edward L. (1911). Animal intelligence .

Introduction to Thorndike (1911) by R. H. Wozniak.

Dunlap, Knight . (1912). The case against introspection . Psychological Review , 19 , 404-413.

Watson, John B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it . Psychological Review , 20 , 158-177

Introduction to Watson (1913) by Christopher D. Green
Commentary on Watson (1913) by Robert H. Wozniak

Titchener, Edward B. (1914). On "Psychology as the behaviorist views it" . Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society , 53 , 1-17.

Watson, John B. (1916). Behavior and the concept of mental disease . Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods , 13 , 589-597.

Watson, John B. (1920). Is thinking merely the action of language mechanisms? British Journal of Psychology , 11 , 87-104.

Watson, John B. & Rayner, Rosalie . (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 3 , 1-14.

Washburn, Margaret Floy . (1922). Introspection as an objective method . Psychological Review , 29 , 89-112.

Tolman, Edward C. (1922). A new formula for behaviorism . Psychological Review , 29 , 44-53.

Lashley, Karl S. (1923). The behavioristic interpretation of consciousness . Psychological Bulletin , 30 , 237-272, 329-353.

Jones, Mary Cover . (1924). A laboratory study of fear: The case of Peter . Pedagogical Seminary , 31 , 308-315.

Introduction to Jones (1924) by Alexandra Rutherford.

Pavlov, Ivan P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex (G. V. Anrep, Trans.). (Original work published 1927)

Watson, John B. & MacDougall, [ 1 ] William . (1929). The battle of behaviorism: An exposition and an exposure .

Lashley, Karl S. (1930). Basic neural mechanisms in behavior . Psychological Review , 37 , 1-24.

Morgan, C. Lloyd . (1930). Autobiography of C. Lloyd Morgan . In C. Murchison (Ed.), History of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 2, pp. 237-264). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.

Yerkes, Robert M. (1930). Autobiography of Robert M. Yerkes . In C. Murchison (Ed.), History of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 2, pp. 381-407). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.

Hull , Clark L. (1934a). The concept of the habit-family hierarchy and maze learning: Part I . Psychological Review , 41 , 33-54.

Hull , Clark L. (1934b). The concept of the habit-family hierarchy and maze learning: Part II . Psychological Review , 41 , 134-152.

Hull , Clark L. (1935). The conflicting psychologies of learning -- A way out. Psychological Review , 42 , 491-516.

Jastrow, Joseph . (1935). Has psychology failed? American Scholar , 4 , 261-269.

Skinner, B. F. (1935). Two types of conditioned reflex and a pseudo type . Journal of General Psychology , 12 , 66-77.

Konorski, J. & Miller, S. (1937). On two types of conditioned reflex . Journal of General Psychology, 16 , 264-272.

Skinner, B. F. (1937). Two types of conditioned reflex: A reply to Konorski and Miller . Journal of General Psychology , 16 , 272-279.

Guthrie, Edwin R. (1946). Psychological facts and psychological theory . Psychological Bulletin , 43 , 1-20.

Skinner, B. F. (1948). 'Superstition' in the pigeon . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 38 , 168-172.

Tolman, Edward, C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men . Psychological Review , 55 (4), 189-208.

Skinner, B. F. (1950). Are theories of learning necessary? Psychological Review , 57 , 193-216.

Hebb, D. O. (1955). Drives and the C.N.S. (conceptual nervous system) . Psychological Review , 62 , 243-254.

Harlow, Harry F. (1958). The nature of love . American Psychologist , 13 , 573-685.

Breland, Keller & Breland, Marian . (1961). The misbehavior of organisms . American Psychologist , 16 , 681-684.

Menabrea, Luigi F. (1842/1843). Sketch of the analytical engine invented by Charles Babbage, Esq. (A.A. Lovelace, Trans.). Scientific Memoirs, 3 , 666-731. (Original work published 1842 in Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève , No. 82)

Lovelace, Ada . (1843). Notes by the translator [to L.F. Menabrea's "Sketch of the analytical engine invented by Charles Babbage, Esq."] . Scientific Memoirs, 3 , 666-731.

Introduction to Menabrea/Lovelace (1842/1843) by Christopher D. Green

Galton, Francis . (1880). Statistics of mental imagery . Mind , 5 , 301-318.

Ebbinghaus, Hermann . (1885/1913). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology (Henry A. Ruger & Clara E. Bussenius , Trans.). (Originally published 1885)

Introduction to Ebbinghaus (1885/1913) by Robert H. Wozniak.

Jastrow, Joseph. . (1891). A study in mental statistics . New Review , 5 , 559-568.

Calkins, Mary Whiton . (1896). Association: An essay analytic and experimental . Psychological Review Monographs Supplement , 1 (2).

Royce, Josiah . (1902). Recent logical inquiries and their psychological bearings . Psychological Review , 9 , 105-133. [Royce's APA Presidential Address about the potential impact of recent development in the philosophy of mathematics for the psychology of thinking.]

Münsterberg, Hugo . (1908/1925). On the witness stand .

Münsterberg, Hugo . (1913). Psychology and industrial efficiency .

Introduction to Münsterberg (1913) by R. H. Wozniak.

Stroop, J. Ridley . (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 18 , 643-662.

Thouless, Robert H. (1935). The tendency to certainty in religious belief . British Journal of Psychology, 26 , 16-31. [This .pdf version thanks to Burke Brown, U. Toronto.]

Heider, Fritz . (1946). Attitudes and cognitive organization . Journal of Psychology , 21 , 107-112.

Bruner, Jerome S. & Goodman, Cecile C. (1947). Value and need as organizing factors in perception . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 42 , 33-44.

Bruner, Jerome S. & Postman, Leo . (1949). On the perception of incongruity: A paradigm . Journal of Personality , 18 , 206-223.

Miller, George A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information . Psychological Review , 63 , 81-97.

Developmental Theory

Darwin, Charles . (1877). A biographical sketch of an infant . Mind , 2 , 285-294.

Hall, G. Stanley . (1904). Adolescent girls and their education . From Adolescence: Its psychology and its relations to physiology, anthropology, sociology, sex, crime, religion, and education (Vol. 2, Chapter 17).

Binet, Alfred . (1905/1916). New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals . In E. S. Kite (Trans.), The development of intelligence in children . Vineland, NJ: Publications of the Training School at Vineland. (Originally published 1905 in L'Année Psychologique , 12 , 191-244.)

Introduction to Binet (1905/1916) by Henry L. Minton.
Commentary on Binet (1905/1916) and Terman (1916) by Henry L. Minton

Witmer, Lightner . (1907). Clinical psychology . Psychological Clinic , 1 , 1-9.

Thorndike, Edward L. (1910). The contribution of psychology to education . Journal of Educational Psychology , 1 , 5-12.

Terman, Lewis M. (1916). The uses of intelligence tests . From The measurement of intelligence (chapter 1). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Introduction to Terman (1916) by Henry L. Minton.
Commentary on Binet (1905/1916) and Terman (1916) by Henry L. Minton.

Baldwin, James Mark . (1930). Autobiography of James Mark Baldwin . In C. Murchison (Ed.), History of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 1, pp. 1-30). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.

Clark, Kenneth B. & Clark, Mamie K. (1939). The development of consciousness of self and the emergence of racial identification in negro preschool children . Journal of Social Psychology, S.P.S.S.I. Bulletin , 10 , 591-599.

Clark, Kenneth B. & Clark, Mamie K. (1940). Skin color as a factor in racial identification of negro preschool children . Journal of Social Psychology, S.P.S.S.I. Bulletin , 11 , 159-169.

Sherif, Muzafer, Harvey, O. J., White, B. Jack, Hood, William R., & Sherif, Carolyn W. (1954/1961). Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The Robbers Cave experiment .

Bandura, Albert, Ross, Dorothea, & Ross, Sheila A. (1961). Transmisssion of aggressions through imitation of aggressive models . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 63 , 575-582.

Evolutionary Theory

Gray, Asa. (1860). [Review of] The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection . American Journal of Science and Arts (March). Reprinted in 1876 in Darwiniana: Essays and Reviews Pertaining to Darwinism . [A review by Harvard's professor of Natural history, and Darwin 's greatest defender in North America .]

Galton, Francis . (1865). Hereditary talent and character . Macmillan's Magazine , 12 , 157-166, 318-327.

Introduction to Galton's Hereditary genius (1869) by Robert H. Wozniak.

Wright, Chauncey . (1870). Limits of natural selection . North American Review (October).

Darwin, Charles . (1871). The descent of man . Part One: Descent or Origin of Man (ch. 1-7).

Wright, Chauncey . (1873). Evolution of self-consciousness . North American Review (April).

Madden, E. H.(1963). The metaphysics of self-consciousness . Chapter 7 of Chauncey Wright and the foundations of pragmatism (pp. 128-142). Reprinted by permission of University of Washington Press.

Galton, Francis . (1875). History of twins . Human faculty and its development (pp. 155-173).

James, William . (1879). Are we automata? Mind, 4 , 1-22.

Morgan, C. Lloyd (1896). On modification and variation . Science , NS 4 , No. 99, 733-740.

Experimental Psychology

Dewey, John . (1884). The new psychology . Andover Review , 2 , 278-289.

Peirce, Charles Sanders & Jastrow, Joseph (1884). Small differences in sensation . Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, 3, 73-83 . [Peirce's probabilistic critique of Fechner's concept of the discrimination threshold. Possibly the first published American experimental psychological study.]

Hall, G. Stanley . (1885). The new psychology . Andover Review , 3 , 120-135, 239-248.

Cattell, James McKeen. (1888). The psychological laboratory at Leipsic . Mind , 13 , 37-51.

Sanford, Edmund C. (1891-1893). A laboratory course in physiological psychology . American Journal of Psychology , 4 , 141-155, 303-322, 474-490; 5 , 390-415, 593-616.

Baldwin, James Mark (1892). The psychological laboratory in the University of Toronto . Science , 19 (no. 475), 143-144.

Calkins, Mary Whiton . (1892). Experimental Psychology at Wellesley College . American Journal of Psychology , 5 , 464-271.

Hume, James Gibson . (1892). Physiological psychology . Minutes of the Twenty-First Annual Convention of the Ontario Teachers' Association , pp. 86-106.

Cattell, James McKeen. (1893/1947). Attention and reaction (R. S. Woodworth, Trans.). In James McKeen Cattell, Man of science (Vol. 1: Psychological Research, pp. 252-255, R. S. Woodworth, Trans.). Lancaster, PA: The Science Press, 1947. (Originally published as "Aufmerksamkeit und Reaction" in Philosophische Studien , 8 . 403-406.[Calls into question L. Lange's sensorial/muscular reaction findings, setting up the foundations of functionalism -- see 1895-96 Titchener and Baldwin papers.]

Jastrow, Joseph . (1893). The section of psychology . in M.P. Hardy (Ed.), Official Catalogue -- World's Columbian Exposition (Part. vii, pp. 50-60).

Münsterberg, Hugo . (1893a). The new psychology and Harvard's equipment for teaching it . Harvard Graduate Magazine , 1 (2), 201-209.

Münsterberg, Hugo . (1893b). Psychological laboratory of Harvard University .

Hill, A. B. & Watanabe, R. (1894). "Sensorial" and "muscular" reactions . American Journal of Psychology , 6 , 242-246. [Supervised by E. B. Titchener, in support of L. Lange's findings.]

Krohn, William O. (1894). Facilities in experimental psychology in the colleges of the United States . In Report of the Commissioner of Education for the year 1890-'91 (Vol. 2, pp. 1139-1151).

Baldwin, James Mark . (1895). Types of reaction . Psychological Review , 2 , 259-273.

Titchener, Edward B. (1895a). Simple reactions . Mind , 4 , 74-81.

Titchener, Edward B. (1895b). The type-theory of simple reaction . Mind , 4 , 506-514.

Baldwin, James Mark . (1896). The 'type-theory' of reaction . Mind , 5 , 81-90.

Titchener, Edward B. (1896). The 'type-theory' of simple reaction . Mind , 5 , 236-241.

Cattell, James McKeen. (1898). The psychological laboratory . Psychoogical Review , 5 , 655-658.

Titchener, Edward B. (1898b). A psychological laboratory . Mind , 7 , 311-331.

Abbott, Albert H. (1900). Experimental psychology and the laboratory in Toronto . University of Toronto Monthly , 1 , 85-98, 106-112.

Introduction to Abbott (1900) by Christopher D. Green.

Cattell, James McKeen . (1928). Early psychological laboratories . Science , 67 , 543- 548.

Harlow, Harry F. (1962). Fundamental principles for preparing psychology journal articles . . Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55 , 893-896.

Functionalism & Pragmatism

Bowen, Francis. (1860). Remarks on the latest form of the development theory . Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, n.s., VIII , pp. 98-107, communicated March 27, April 10 and May 1, 1860 . Reprinted in G. Daniels (Ed.) (1968). Darwinism comes to America . Waltham , MA : Blaisdell, pp. 66-74.

Madden, E. H.(1963). The metaphysics of self-consciousness . Chapter 7 of Chauncey Wright and the foundations of pragmatism (pp. 128-142). Reprinted by permission of University of Washington Press .

James, William . (1884). What is an emotion? Mind , 9 , 188-205.

Lange, Carl Georg . (1885). The mechanism of the emotions . Trans. by Benjamin Rand, first appeared in Rand, Benjamin (Ed.)(1912). The classical psychologists (pp. 672-684).

James, William . (1887). Consciousness of lost limbs . Proceedings of the American Society for Psychical Research, 1 , 249-258.

Lange, Ludwig. (1888/2009). New experiments on the process of the simple reaction to sensory impressions . (Trans. By David D. Lee of Neue Experimente über den Vorgang der einfachen Reaction auf Sinneseindrücke.) Philosophische Studien, 4 , 479-510. (in .pdf). [The article by Wundt's future assistant that claimed distinct "sensory" and "muscular" types of reaction, thereby setting off a debate (Cattell, Baldwin, Titchener, Angell) that led to the school of Functionalism.]

James, William . (1890). The principles of psychology .

Introduction to James (1890) by Robert H. Wozniak.

James, William . (1892). The stream of consciousness . From Psychology (chapter XI). Cleveland & New York, World.

Dewey, John . (1894). The ego as cause . Philosophical Review , 3 , 337-341.

Baldwin, James Mark . (1895). Types of reaction . Psychological Review , 2 , 259-273

Dewey, John . (1896) The reflex arc concept in psychology . Psychological Review , 3 , 357-370.

Caldwell, W. (1898). Professor Titchener's view of the self . Psychological Review , 5 , 401-408.

Titchener, Edward B. (1898a). The postulates of a structural psychology . Philosophical Review , 7 , 449-465.

Caldwell, W. (1899). The postulates of a structural psychology . Psychological Review , 6 , 187-191.

Titchener, Edward B. (1899). Structural and functional psychology . Philosophical Review , 8 , 290-299.

Baldwin, James Mark . (1901). Dictionary of philosophy and psychology . [under construction, A-O]

Thorndike, Edward L. & Woodworth, Robert S. (1901a). The influence of improvement in one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions (I) . Psychological Review , 8 , 247-261.

Thorndike, Edward L. & Woodworth, Robert S. (1901b). The influence of improvement in one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions: II. The estimation of magnitudes . Psychological Review , 8 , 384-395.

Thorndike, Edward L. & Woodworth, Robert S. (1901c). The influence of improvement in one mental function upon the efficiency of other functions: III. Functions involving attention, observation, and discrimination . Psychological Review , 8 , 553-564.

James, William . (1904a). Does consciousness exist? Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods , 1 , 477-491.

Introduction to James (1904a, 1904b) by Eugene Taylor & Robert H. Wozniak.

James, William . (1904b). A world of pure experience . Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods , 1 , 533-543, 561-570.

James, William (1904c). The Chicago school . Psychological Bulletin , 1 , 1-5.

Calkins, Mary Whiton . (1906). A reconciliation between structural and functional psychology . Psychological Review , 8, 61-81.

Angell, James Rowland . (1907). The province of functional psychology . Psychological Review , 14 , 61-91.

James, William . (1907). The energies of men . Science , N.S. 25 (No. 635), 321-332.

Mead, George H . (1913). The social self . Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods , 10 , 374- 380.

Gestalt Theory

Koffka, Kurt (1922). Perception: An introduction to the Gestalt-theorie . Psychological Bulletin , 19 , 531-585.

Introduction to Koffka (1922) by Christopher D. Green.

Wertheimer, Max . (1938). Laws of organization in perceptual forms . In W. Ellis, W (Ed. & Trans.), A source book of Gestalt psychology (pp. 71-88). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (Original work published in 1923 as Untersuchungen zur Lehre von der Gestalt II, in Psychologische Forschung , 4 , 301-350.)

Köhler, Wolfgang . (1959). Gestalt psychology today . American Psychologist , 14 , 727-734.

History of Psychology

Hall, G. Stanley . (1879). Philosophy in the United States . Mind , 4 , 89-105.

Münsterberg, Hugo . (1899). Psychology and history . Psychological Review , 6 , 1-31.

Buchner, Edward Franklin . (1903). A quarter century of psychology in America: 1878-1903 . American Journal of Psychology , 14 , 666-680.

Baldwin, James Mark . (1913). History of psychology: A sketch and an interpretation .

Griffith, Coleman R. (1921). Some neglected aspects of a history of psychology . Psychological Monographs , 30 , 17-29.

Griffith, Coleman R. (1922). Contributions to the history of psychology -- 1916-1921 . Psychological Bulletin , 19 , 411-428.

Boring, Edwin G. (1929). The psychology of controversy . Psychological Review , 36 , 97-121.

Garvey, C. R. (1929). List of American psychology laboratories . Psychological Bulletin , 26 , 652-660.

Calkins, Mary Whiton . (1930). Autobiography of Mary Whiton Calkins . In C. Murchison (Ed.), History of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 1, pp. 31-62). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.

Janet, Pierre . (1930). Autobiography of Pierre Janet . In C. Murchison (Ed.), History of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 1, pp. 123-133). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press. [The great French psychiatrist's own summary of his life's work.]

Terman, Lewis M . (1930). Autobiography of Lewis M. Terman . In C. Murchison (Ed.), History of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 2, pp. 297-331). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.

Washburn, Margaret Floy . (1930). Autobiography of Margaret Floy Washburn . In C. Murchison (Ed.), History of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 2, pp. 333-358). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.

Woodworth, Robert S. . (1930). Autobiography of Robert S. Woodworth . In C. Murchison (Ed.), History of psychology in autobiography (Vol. 2, pp. 359-380). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.

Krstic, Kruno . (1964). Marko Marulic -- The author of the term "psychology" . Acta Instituti Psychologici Universitatis Zagrabiensis , no. 36, pp. 7-13. [Rare study of the origin of the term "psychology".]

Intelligence Testing

Cattell, James McKeen . (1886a). The time taken up by cerebral operations, Parts 1 & 2 . Mind , 11 , 220-242.

Cattell, James McKeen . (1886b). The time taken up by cerebral operations, Part 3 . Mind , 11 , 377-392.

Cattell, James McKeen . (1887). The time taken up by cerebral operations, Part 4 . Mind , 11 , 524-538.

Cattell, James McKeen . (1890). Mental tests and measurements . Mind , 15 , 373-381.

Baldwin, James Mark, Cattell, James McKeen, & Jastrow, Joseph . (1898). Physical and mental tests . Psychological Review , 5 , 172-179.

Spearman, Charles . (1904). "General intelligence," objectively determined and measured . American Journal of Psychology , 15 , 201-293.

Goddard, Henry Herbert . (1913). The Kallikak family: A study in the heredity of feeble-mindedness .

Hollingworth, Leta S. (1914). Variability as related to sex differences in achievement: A critique . American Journal of Sociology , 19 , 510-530.

Fullerton, Hugh S. (1921). Why Babe Ruth is greatest home-run hitter . Popular Science Monthly , 99 (4), 19-21, 110.

Thurstone, L. L. (1934). The vectors of mind . Psychological Review , 41 , 1-32.

Neuropsychology

Broca, Paul (1861a). Perte de la parole, ramollissement chronique et destruction partielle du lobe antérieur gauche du cerveau Bulletin de la Société Anthropologique , 2 , 235-238.

English translation of Broca's Loss of speech, chronic softening and partial destruction of the anterior left lobe of the brain by C. D. Green.

Broca, Paul (1861b). Remarques sur le siége de la faculté du langage articulé, suivies d'une observations d'aphémie (perte de la parole) Bulletin de la Société Anatomique , 6 , 330-357.

English translation of Broca's Remarks on the Seat of the Faculty of Articulated Language, Following an Observation of Aphemia (Loss of Speech) by C. D. Green.

Franz, Shepherd Ivory . (1912). New phrenology . Science , N.S. 35 (No. 896), 321-328.

Hebb, Donald O. (1955). Drives and the C.N.S. (conceptual nervous system) . Psychological Review , 62 , 243-254.

Fechner, Gustav Theodor (1860). Elements of psychophysics , Sections VII ("Measurement of sensation") and XVI ("The fundamental formula and the measurement formula") (Trans. by Herbert S. Langfeld, first appearing in B. Rand (Ed.) (1912), The classical psychologists ).

Introduction to Fechner (1860) by Robert H. Wozniak.

De Varigny, M. Henry . (1894). Le laboratoire de psychologie expérimentale de l'Université de Madison . Revue Scientifique , vol. 1 , tome 1, 624-629.

English translation of De Varigny's The experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Madison by C.D. Green.

Personality

Calkins, Mary Whiton (1908a). Psychology as science of self. I: Is the self body Or has it body? . Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods , 1 , 12-20.

Calkins, Mary Whiton (1908b). Psychology as science of self. II: The nature of the self . Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods , 3 , 64-68.

Calkins, Mary Whiton (1908c). Psychology as science of self. III: The Description of Consciousness . Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods , 5 , 113-122.

Calkins, Mary Whiton . (1915). The self in scientific psychology . American Journal of Psychology , 26 , 495-524.

Allport, Floyd H. & Allport, Gordon W. (1921). Personality traits: Their classificiation and measurement . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 16 , 6-40.

Allport, Gordon W. (1927). Concepts of trait and personality . Psychological Bulletin , 24 , 284-293.

Allport, Gordon W. (1937). The functional autonomy of motives . American Journal of Psychology , 50 , 141-156.

Maslow, Abraham H. (1943). A theory of human motivation . Psychological Review , 50 , 370-396.

Rogers, Carl R. . (1946). Significant aspects of client-centered therapy . American Psychologist , 1 , 415-422.

Rogers, Carl R. (1947). Some observations on the organization of personality . American Psychologist , 2 , 358-368.

Psychoanalysis & Psychotherapy

Poe, Edgar Allan , (1850). Mesmeric revelation .

Freud, Sigmund . (1900). The interpretation of dreams (3 rd ed.). (A. A. Brill, Trans.).

Freud, Sigmund (1901). The psychopathology of everyday life . (A. A. Brill, Trans.).

Freud, Sigmund . (1910). The origin and development of psychoanalysis . American Journal of Psychology , 21 , 181-218.

Introduction to Freud (1910) by Raymond E. Fancher
Commentary on Freud (1910) by Raymond E. Fancher.

Jung, Carl G. (1910). The association method . American Journal of Psychology , 31 , 219-269.

Freud, Sigmund . (1914/1917). The history of the psychoanalytic movement (A. A. Brill, Trans.).

Rivers, William H.R. (1920). Instinct and the unconscious: A contribution to a biological theory of the psycho-neuroses .

Jung, Carl G. (1921/1923). General description of the types . Chapter 10 of Psychological types (H.G. Bayes, Trans.). (Original work published 1921)

American Psychological Association . (1947). Recommended graduate training program in clinical psychology . American Psychologist , 2 , 539-558.

Rogers, Carl R. . (1947). Some observations on the organization of personality . American Psychologist , 2 , 358-368.

Eysenck, Hans J. (1952). The effects of psychotherapy: An evaluation . Journal of Consulting Psychology , 16 , 319-324.

Szasz, Thomas S. (1960). The myth of mental illness . American Psychologist , 15 , 113-118.

Social Psychology

Triplett, Norman. (1898). The dynamogenic factors in pacemaking and competition . American Journal of Psychology , 9 , 507-533.

Hollingworth, Leta S. (1916). Social devices for impelling women to bear and rear children . American Journal of Sociology , 22 , 19-29.

Clark, Kenneth B. & Clark, Mamie K. (1940). Skin color as a factor in racial identifcation of negro preschool children . Journal of Social Psychology, S.P.S.S.I. Bulletin , 11 , 159-169.

Miller, N., Sears, R.R., Rosenzweig, S., Bateson, G., Levy, D.M., Hartmann, G.W., & Maslow, A.H. (1941). Symposium on the frustration-aggression hypothesis . Psychological Review , 48 , 337-366.

Festinger, Leon & Carlsmith, James M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 58 , 203-210.

Statistics & Methodology

Fisher, Ronald A. (1925). Statistical methods for research workers .

Allport, Gordon W. (1940). The psychologist's frame of reference . Psychological Bulletin , 37 , 1-28. [Allport's APA Presidential Address.]

MacCorquodale, Kenneth & Meehl, Paul E. (1948). On a distinction between hypothetical constructs and intervening variables . Psychological Review , 55 , 95-107.

Cronbach, Lee J. & Meehl, Paul E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests . Psychological Bulletin , 52 , 281-302.

Cronbach, Lee J. (1957). The two disciplines of scientific psychology . American Psychologist , 12 , 671-684.

Rozeboom, William W. (1960). The fallacy of the null-hypothesis significance test . Psychological Bulletin , 57 , 416-428.

University of Toronto

Baldwin, James Mark. (1891). To the Editor . American Journal of Psychology , 3 , 593.

Hume, James Gibson . (1895). Psychology in the University of Toronto . Psychological Review , 2 , 172. [Abstract of paper presented at the 1894 meeting of the American Psychological Association.]

Hume, James Gibson . (1897). The practical value of psychology to the teacher . Toronto: George N. Morang. (Originally delivered before the Ontario Teachers' Association, Toronto, 1897.)

Hume, James Gibson . (1898). Contributions of psychology to morality and religion . Psychological Review , 5 , 162-163. [Abstract of paper presented at the 1897 meeting of the American Psychological Association.]

Hume, James Gibson . (1909). The proper affiliation of psychology: With philosophy or the natural sciences . Psychological Bulletin , 6 , 65-67. [Abstract of paper presented at the 1908 meeting of the Southern Society for Philosophy and Psychology.]

Hume, James Gibson . (1909). The import of pragmatism for the hsitory of philosophy . Philosophical Review , 18 , 176-177. [Abstract of paper presented at the 1908 meeting of the American Philosophical Association.]

Hume, James Gibson . (1910). The significance of suicide . Philosophical Review , 19 , 179-180. [Abstract of paper presented at the 1910 meeting of the American Philosophical Association.]

Young, George Paxton . (1911). The ethics of freedom: Notes selected, translated, and arranged by his pupil James Gibson Hume . Toronto: University Press.

Hume, James Gibson . (1916). Scientific truth and the scientific spirit . University of Toronto Monthly , 16 , 443-445.

Brett, George S. (1922). Psychology in the university . Univeristy of Toronto Monthly , , 298-300.

Hume, James Gibson . (1922). Evolution and personality . In Philosophical essays presented to John Watson (pp. 298-330). Kingston, ON: Queen's University.

Brett, George S. (1929). Introduction to psychology . Toronto: Macmillan of Canada.

Baldwin, James Mark . (1930). Autobiography of James Mark Baldwin . In Murchison, Carl. (Ed.), History of Psychology in Autobiography (Vol. 1, pp. 1-30). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.

Women & Psychology

Nevers, Cordelia C. & Calkins, Mary W. (1895). Dr. Jastrow on community of ideas of men and women . Psychological Review , 2 , 363-367.

Jastrow, Joseph . (1896). Community of ideas of men and women . Psychological Review , 3 , 68-71.

Calkins, Mary Whiton . (1896a). Association: An essay analytic and experimental . Psychological Review Monographs Supplement , 1 (2).

Calkins, Mary Whiton. (1896b). Community of ideas of men and women . Psychological Review , 3 , 426-430.

Thompson, Helen Bradford . (1903). The mental traits of sex .

Ladd Franklin, Christine . (1904). Endowed professorships for women . Publications of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae , Series III, No. 9, pp. 53-61.

Gordon, Kate . (1905). Wherein should the education of a woman differ from that of a man . School Review , 13 , 789-794.

Ladd Franklin, Christine . (1908). Report of the committee on the endowment of fellowships . From "Proceedings" in the Publications of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae , Series III, No. 17, pp. 143-146. Woolley, Helen Thompson . (1910). A Review of the recent literature on the psychology of sex . Psychological Bulletin , 7 , 335-342.

Hollingworth, Leta S. (1914a). Functional periodicity: An experimental study of the mental and motor abilities of women during menstruation .

Hollingworth, Leta S. (1914b). Variability as related to sex differences in achievement: A critique . American Journal of Sociology , 19 , 510-530.

Hollingworth, Leta S. (1922). Differential action upon the sexes of forces which tend to segregate the feebleminded . Journal of Abnormal Psychology & Social Psychology , 17 , 35-57.

Howes, Ethel Puffer . (1922). Accepting the universe . Atlantic Monthly , 129 , 444-453.

Boring, Edwin G. (1951). The woman problem . American Psychologist, 6 , 679-682.

Wundt & Structuralism

Wundt, Wilhelm Max . (1874/1902/1904). Principles of physiological psychology (Edward Bradford Titchener, Trans.) (from the 5th German ed., published 1902; 1st German ed. published 1874.)[Classic text by the founder of the first psychological research laboratory.]

Introduction to Wundt (1874/1902/1904) by R. H. Wozniak.

Wundt, Wilhelm Max . (1896/1897). Outlines of psychology (Charles Hubbard Judd, Trans.).

Introduction to Wundt (1896/1897) by R. H. Wozniak.

Titchener, Edward B. (1912). The schema of introspection . American Journal of Psychology , 23 , 485-508.

Marbe, Karl . (1930). Autobiography of Karl Marbe . In C. Murchison (Ed.), History of Psychology in Autobiography (Vol. 1, pp. 181-213). Worcester, MA: Clark University Press.

[1] This name is spelled "McDougall" in every other one of his publications that I (CDG) can find, but it is spelled "MacDougall" in the published version of this work.

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While the psychology of today reflects the discipline's rich and varied history, the origins of psychology differ significantly from contemporary conceptions of the field. In order to gain a full understanding of psychology, you need to spend some time exploring its history and origins.

How did psychology originate? When did it begin? Who were the people responsible for establishing psychology as a separate science?

Why Study Psychology History?

Contemporary psychology is interested in an enormous range of topics, looking at human behavior and mental process from the neural level to the cultural level. Psychologists study human issues that begin before birth and continue until death. By understanding the history of psychology, you can gain a better understanding of how these topics are studied and what we have learned thus far.

From its earliest beginnings, psychology has been faced with a number of questions. The initial question of how to define psychology helped establish it as a science separate from physiology and philosophy.

Additional questions that psychologists have faced throughout history include:

Is psychology really a science?
Should psychologists use research to influence public policy, education, and other aspects of human behavior?
Should psychology focus on observable behaviors, or on internal mental processes?
What research methods should be used to study psychology?
Which topics and issues should psychology be concerned with?

Background: Philosophy and Physiology

While psychology did not emerge as a separate discipline until the late 1800s, its earliest history can be traced back to the time of the early Greeks. During the 17th-century, the French philosopher Rene Descartes introduced the idea of dualism, which asserted that the mind and body were two entities that interact to form the human experience.

Many other issues still debated by psychologists today, such as the relative contributions of nature vs. nurture , are rooted in these early philosophical traditions.

So what makes psychology different from philosophy? While early philosophers relied on methods such as observation and logic, today’s psychologists utilize scientific methodologies to study and draw conclusions about human thought and behavior.

Physiology also contributed to psychology’s eventual emergence as a scientific discipline. Early physiological research on the brain and behavior had a dramatic impact on psychology, ultimately contributing to applying scientific methodologies to the study of human thought and behavior.

Psychology Emerges as a Separate Discipline

During the mid-1800s, a German physiologist named Wilhelm Wundt was using scientific research methods to investigate reaction times. His book published in 1873, "Principles of Physiological Psychology," outlined many of the major connections between the science of physiology and the study of human thought and behavior.

He later opened the world’s first psychology lab in 1879 at the University of Leipzig. This event is generally considered the official start of psychology as a separate and distinct scientific discipline.

How did Wundt view psychology? He perceived the subject as the study of human consciousness and sought to apply experimental methods to studying internal mental processes. While his use of a process known as introspection is seen as unreliable and unscientific today, his early work in psychology helped set the stage for future experimental methods.

An estimated 17,000 students attended Wundt’s psychology lectures, and hundreds more pursued degrees in psychology and studied in his psychology lab. While his influence dwindled as the field matured, his impact on psychology is unquestionable.

Structuralism: Psychology’s First School of Thought

Edward B. Titchener , one of Wundt’s most famous students, would go on to found psychology’s first major school of thought . According to the structuralists , human consciousness could be broken down into smaller parts. Using a process known as introspection, trained subjects would attempt to break down their responses and reactions to the most basic sensation and perceptions.

While structuralism is notable for its emphasis on scientific research, its methods were unreliable, limiting, and subjective. When Titchener died in 1927, structuralism essentially died with him.

The Functionalism of William James

Psychology flourished in America during the mid- to late-1800s. William James emerged as one of the major American psychologists during this period and publishing his classic textbook, "The Principles of Psychology," established him as the father of American psychology.

His book soon became the standard text in psychology and his ideas eventually served as the basis for a new school of thought known as functionalism.

The focus of functionalism was about how behavior actually works to help people live in their environment. Functionalists utilized methods such as direct observation to study the human mind and behavior.

Both of these early schools of thought emphasized human consciousness, but their conceptions of it were significantly different. While the structuralists sought to break down mental processes into their smallest parts, the functionalists believed that consciousness existed as a more continuous and changing process.

While functionalism quickly faded a separate school of thought, it would go on to influence later psychologists and theories of human thought and behavior.

The Emergence of Psychoanalysis

Up to this point, early psychology stressed conscious human experience. An Austrian physician named Sigmund Freud changed the face of psychology in a dramatic way, proposing a theory of personality that emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind.

Freud’s clinical work with patients suffering from hysteria and other ailments led him to believe that early childhood experiences and unconscious impulses contributed to the development of adult personality and behavior.

In his book "The Psychopathology of Everyday Life " Freud detailed how these unconscious thoughts and impulses are expressed, often through slips of the tongue (known as "Freudian slips" ) and dreams . According to Freud, psychological disorders are the result of these unconscious conflicts becoming extreme or unbalanced.

The psychoanalytic theory proposed by Sigmund Freud had a tremendous impact on 20th-century thought, influencing the mental health field as well as other areas including art, literature, and popular culture. While many of his ideas are viewed with skepticism today, his influence on psychology is undeniable.

The Rise of Behaviorism

Psychology changed dramatically during the early 20th-century as another school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominance. Behaviorism was a major change from previous theoretical perspectives, rejecting the emphasis on both the conscious and unconscious mind . Instead, behaviorism strove to make psychology a more scientific discipline by focusing purely on observable behavior.

Behaviorism had its earliest start with the work of a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov . Pavlov's research on the digestive systems of dogs led to his discovery of the classical conditioning process, which proposed that behaviors could be learned via conditioned associations.

Pavlov demonstrated that this learning process could be used to make an association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

An American psychologist named John B. Watson soon became one of the strongest advocates of behaviorism. Initially outlining the basic principles of this new school of thought in his 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It , Watson later went on to offer a definition in his classic book "Behaviorism " (1924), writing:

"Behaviorism...holds that the subject matter of human psychology is the behavior of the human being. Behaviorism claims that consciousness is neither a definite nor a usable concept. The behaviorist, who has been trained always as an experimentalist, holds, further, that belief in the existence of consciousness goes back to the ancient days of superstition and magic."

The impact of behaviorism was enormous, and this school of thought continued to dominate for the next 50 years. Psychologist B.F. Skinner furthered the behaviorist perspective with his concept of operant conditioning , which demonstrated the effect of punishment and reinforcement on behavior.

While behaviorism eventually lost its dominant grip on psychology, the basic principles of behavioral psychology are still widely in use today.

Therapeutic techniques such as behavior analysis , behavioral modification, and token economies are often utilized to help children learn new skills and overcome maladaptive behaviors, while conditioning is used in many situations ranging from parenting to education.

The Third Force in Psychology

While the first half of the 20th century was dominated by psychoanalysis and behaviorism, a new school of thought known as humanistic psychology emerged during the second half of the century. Often referred to as the "third force" in psychology, this theoretical perspective emphasized conscious experiences.

American psychologist Carl Rogers is often considered to be one of the founders of this school of thought. While psychoanalysts looked at unconscious impulses and behaviorists focused on environmental causes, Rogers believed strongly in the power of free will and self-determination.

Psychologist Abraham Maslow also contributed to humanistic psychology with his famous hierarchy of needs theory of human motivation. This theory suggested that people were motivated by increasingly complex needs. Once the most basic needs are fulfilled, people then become motivated to pursue higher level needs.

During the 1950s and 1960s, a movement known as the cognitive revolution began to take hold in psychology. During this time, cognitive psychology began to replace psychoanalysis and behaviorism as the dominant approach to the study of psychology. Psychologists were still interested in looking at observable behaviors, but they were also concerned with what was going on inside the mind.

Since that time, cognitive psychology has remained a dominant area of psychology as researchers continue to study things such as perception, memory, decision-making, problem-solving, intelligence, and language.

The introduction of brain imaging tools such as MRI and PET scans have helped improve the ability of researchers to more closely study the inner workings of the human brain.

Psychology Continues to Grow

As you have seen in this brief overview of psychology’s history, this discipline has seen dramatic growth and change since its official beginnings in Wundt’s lab. The story certainly does not end here.

Psychology has continued to evolve since 1960 and new ideas and perspectives have been introduced. Recent research in psychology looks at many aspects of the human experience, from the biological influences on behavior on the impact of social and cultural factors.

Today, the majority of psychologists do not identify themselves with a single school of thought. Instead, they often focus on a particular specialty area or perspective, often drawing on ideas from a range of theoretical backgrounds. This eclectic approach has contributed new ideas and theories that will continue to shape psychology for years to come.

Women in Psychology History

As you read through any history of psychology, you might be particularly struck by the fact that such texts seem to center almost entirely on the theories and contributions of men. This is not because women had no interest in the field of psychology, but is largely due to the fact that women were excluded from pursuing academic training and practice during the early years of the field.

There are a number of women who made important contributions to the early history of psychology, although their work is sometimes overlooked.

A few pioneering women psychologists included:

Mary Whiton Calkins , who rightfully earned a doctorate from Harvard, although the school refused to grant her degree because she was a woman. She studied with major thinkers of the day like William James, Josiah Royce, and Hugo Munsterberg. Despite the obstacles she faced, she became the American Psychological Association's first woman president.
Anna Freud , who made important contributions to the field of psychoanalysis. She described many of the defense mechanisms and is known as the founder of child psychoanalysis. She also had an influence on other psychologists including Erik Erikson.
Mary Ainsworth , who was a developmental psychologist, made important contributions to our understanding of attachment . She developed a technique for studying child and caregiver attachments known as the "Strange Situation" assessment.

A Word From Verywell

In order to understand how psychology became the science that it is today, it is important to learn more about some of the historical events that have influenced its development.

While some of the theories that emerged during the earliest years of psychology may now be viewed as simplistic, outdated, or incorrect, these influences shaped the direction of the field and helped us form a greater understanding of the human mind and behavior.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

2 History of Psychology

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Understand the importance of Wundt and James in the development of psychology
Appreciate Freud’s influence on psychology
Understand the basic tenets of Gestalt psychology
Appreciate the important role that behaviorism played in psychology’s history
Understand basic tenets of humanism
Understand how the cognitive revolution shifted psychology’s focus back to the mind

Psychology is a relatively young science with its experimental roots in the 19th century, compared, for example, to human physiology, which dates much earlier. As mentioned, anyone interested in exploring issues related to the mind generally did so in a philosophical context prior to the 19th century. Two men, who worked in the 19th century, are generally credited as being the founders of psychology as a science and academic discipline that’s distinct from philosophy. Their names were Wilhelm Wundt and William James. This section will provide an overview of the shifts in paradigms that have influenced psychology from Wundt and James through today.

Wundt and Structuralism

Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) was a German scientist who was the first person to be referred to as a psychologist. His famous book entitled Principles of Physiological Psychology was published in 1873. Wundt viewed psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience, and he believed that the goal of psychology was to identify components of consciousness and how those components combined to result in our conscious experience. Wundt used introspection (he called it “internal perception”), a process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible , making the human mind like any other aspect of nature that a scientist observed. Wundt’s version of introspection used only very specific experimental conditions in which an external stimulus was designed to produce a scientifically observable experience of the mind (Danziger, 1980). The first stringent requirement was the use of “trained” or practiced observers, who could immediately observe and report a reaction. The second requirement was the use of repeatable stimuli that always produced the same experience in the subject and allowed the subject to expect and thus be fully attentive to the inner reaction. These experimental requirements were put in place to eliminate “interpretation” in the reporting of internal experiences and to counter the argument that there is no way to know that an individual is observing their mind or consciousness accurately since it cannot be seen by any other person. This attempt to understand the structure or characteristics of the mind was known as structuralism. Wundt established his psychology laboratory at the University at Leipzig in 1879. In this laboratory, Wundt and his students conducted experiments on, for example, reaction times. A subject, sometimes in a room isolated from the scientist, would receive a stimulus such as light, image, or sound. The subject’s reaction to the stimulus would be to push a button, and an apparatus would record the time to reaction. Wundt could measure reaction time to one-thousandth of a second (Nicolas & Ferrand, 1999).

Photograph A shows Wilhelm Wundt. Photograph B shows Wundt and five other people gathered around a desk with equipment on top of it.

However, despite his efforts to train individuals in the process of introspection, this process remained highly subjective, and there was very little agreement between individuals. As a result, structuralism fell out of favor with the passing of Wundt’s student, Edward Titchener, in 1927 (Gordon, 1995).

James and Functionalism

William James (1842–1910) was the first American psychologist who espoused a different perspective on how psychology should operate. James was introduced to Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection and accepted it as an explanation of an organism’s characteristics. Key to that theory is the idea that natural selection leads to organisms that are adapted to their environment, including their behavior. Adaptation means that a trait of an organism has a function for the survival and reproduction of the individual, because it has been naturally selected. As James saw it, psychology’s purpose was to study the function of behavior in the world, and as such, his perspective was known as functionalism . Functionalism focuses on how mental activities help an organism fit into its environment . Functionalism has a second, more subtle meaning in that functionalists were more interested in the operation of the whole mind rather than of its individual parts, which were the focus of structuralism. Like Wundt, James believed that introspection could serve as one means by which someone might study mental activities, but James also relied on more objective measures, including the use of various recording devices, and examinations of concrete products of mental activities and of anatomy and physiology (Gordon, 1995).

Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

Perhaps one of the most influential and well-known figures in psychology’s history was Sigmund Freud . Freud (1856–1939) was an Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by patients suffering from “hysteria” and neurosis. Hysteria was an ancient diagnosis for disorders, primarily of women with a wide variety of symptoms, including physical symptoms and emotional disturbances, none of which had an apparent physical cause. Freud theorized that many of his patients’ problems arose from the unconscious mind. In Freud’s view, the unconscious mind was a repository of feelings and urges of which we have no awareness. Gaining access to the unconscious, then, was crucial to the successful resolution of the patient’s problems. According to Freud, the unconscious mind could be accessed through dream analysis, by examinations of the first words that came to people’s minds, and through seemingly innocent slips of the tongue. Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences , and this particular perspective dominated clinical psychology for several decades (Thorne & Henley, 2005).

Photograph A shows Sigmund Freud. Image B shows the title page of his book, A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis.

Freud’s ideas were influential, and you will learn more about them when you study lifespan development, personality, and therapy. For instance, many therapists believe strongly in the unconscious and the impact of early childhood experiences on the rest of a person’s life. The method of psychoanalysis, which involves the patient talking about their experiences and selves, while not invented by Freud, was certainly popularized by him and is still used today. Many of Freud’s other ideas, however, are controversial. Drew Westen (1998) argues that many of the criticisms of Freud’s ideas are misplaced, in that they attack his older ideas without taking into account later writings. Westen also argues that critics fail to consider the success of the broad ideas that Freud introduced or developed, such as the importance of childhood experiences in adult motivations, the role of unconscious versus conscious motivations in driving our behavior, the fact that motivations can cause conflicts that affect behavior, the effects of mental representations of ourselves and others in guiding our interactions, and the development of personality over time. Westen identifies subsequent research support for all of these ideas.

More modern iterations of Freud’s clinical approach have been empirically demonstrated to be effective (Knekt et al., 2008; Shedler, 2010). Some current practices in psychotherapy involve examining unconscious aspects of the self and relationships, often through the relationship between the therapist and the client. Freud’s historical significance and contributions to clinical practice merit his inclusion in a discussion of the historical movements within psychology.

Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology

Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967) were three German psychologists who immigrated to the United States in the early 20th century to escape Nazi Germany. These men are credited with introducing psychologists in the United States to various Gestalt principles. The word Gestalt roughly translates to “whole”; a major emphasis of Gestalt psychology deals with the fact that although a sensory experience can be broken down into individual parts, how those parts relate to each other as a whole is often what the individual responds to in perception. For example, a song may be made up of individual notes played by different instruments, but the real nature of the song is perceived in the combinations of these notes as they form the melody, rhythm, and harmony. In many ways, this particular perspective would have directly contradicted Wundt’s ideas of structuralism (Thorne & Henley, 2005).

Unfortunately, in moving to the United States, these men were forced to abandon much of their work and were unable to continue to conduct research on a large scale. These factors along with the rise of behaviorism (described next) in the United States prevented principles of Gestalt psychology from being as influential in the United States as they had been in their native Germany (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Despite these issues, several Gestalt principles are still very influential today. Considering the human individual as a whole rather than as a sum of individually measured parts became an important foundation in humanistic theory late in the century. The ideas of Gestalt have continued to influence research on sensation and perception.

Structuralism, Freud, and the Gestalt psychologists were all concerned in one way or another with describing and understanding inner experience. But other researchers had concerns that inner experience could be a legitimate subject of scientific inquiry and chose instead to exclusively study behavior, the objectively observable outcome of mental processes.

Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

Early work in the field of behavior was conducted by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936). Pavlov studied a form of learning behavior called a conditioned reflex, in which an animal or human produced a reflex (unconscious) response to a stimulus and, over time, was conditioned to produce the response to a different stimulus that the experimenter associated with the original stimulus. The reflex Pavlov worked with was salivation in response to the presence of food. The salivation reflex could be elicited using a second stimulus, such as a specific sound, that was presented in association with the initial food stimulus several times. Once the response to the second stimulus was “learned,” the food stimulus could be omitted. Pavlov’s “classical conditioning” is only one form of learning behavior studied by behaviorists.

John B. Watson (1878–1958) was an influential American psychologist whose most famous work occurred during the early 20th century at Johns Hopkins University. While Wundt and James were concerned with understanding conscious experience, Watson thought that the study of consciousness was flawed. Because he believed that objective analysis of the mind was impossible, Watson preferred to focus directly on observable behavior and try to bring that behavior under control. Watson was a major proponent of shifting the focus of psychology from the mind to behavior, and this approach of observing and controlling behavior came to be known as behaviorism . A major object of study by behaviorists was learned behavior and its interaction with the inborn qualities of the organism. Behaviorism commonly used animals in experiments under the assumption that what was learned using animal models could, to some degree, be applied to human behavior. Indeed, Tolman (1938) stated, “I believe that everything important in psychology (except … such matters as involve society and words) can be investigated in essence through the continued experimental and theoretical analysis of the determiners of rat behavior at a choice-point in a maze.”

Behaviorism dominated experimental psychology for several decades, and its influence can still be felt today (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Behaviorism is largely responsible for establishing psychology as a scientific discipline through its objective methods and especially experimentation. In addition, it is used in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy. Behavior modification is commonly used in classroom settings. Behaviorism has also led to research on environmental influences on human behavior.

B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) was an American psychologist. Like Watson, Skinner was a behaviorist, and he concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences. Therefore, Skinner spoke of reinforcement and punishment as major factors in driving behavior. As a part of his research, Skinner developed a chamber that allowed the careful study of the principles of modifying behavior through reinforcement and punishment. This device, known as an operant conditioning chamber (or more familiarly, a Skinner box), has remained a crucial resource for researchers studying behavior (Thorne & Henley, 2005).

Photograph A shows B.F. Skinner. Illustration B shows a rat in a Skinner box: a chamber with a speaker, lights, a lever, and a food dispenser.

The Skinner box is a chamber that isolates the subject from the external environment and has a behavior indicator such as a lever or a button. When the animal pushes the button or lever, the box is able to deliver a positive reinforcement of the behavior (such as food) or a punishment (such as a noise) or a token conditioner (such as a light) that is correlated with either the positive reinforcement or punishment.

Skinner’s focus on positive and negative reinforcement of learned behaviors had a lasting influence in psychology that has waned somewhat since the growth of research in cognitive psychology. Despite this, conditioned learning is still used in human behavioral modification. Skinner’s two widely read and controversial popular science books about the value of operant conditioning for creating happier lives remain as thought-provoking arguments for his approach (Greengrass, 2004).

Maslow, Rogers, And Humanism

During the early 20th century, American psychology was dominated by behaviorism and psychoanalysis. However, some psychologists were uncomfortable with what they viewed as limited perspectives being so influential to the field. They objected to the pessimism and determinism (all actions driven by the unconscious) of Freud. They also disliked the reductionism, or simplifying nature, of behaviorism. Behaviorism is also deterministic at its core, because it sees human behavior as entirely determined by a combination of genetics and environment. Some psychologists began to form ideas that emphasized personal control, intentionality, and a true predisposition for “good” as important for our self-concept and our behavior. Thus, humanism emerged. Humanism is a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans . Two of the most well-known proponents of humanistic psychology are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers (O’Hara, n.d.).

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) was an American psychologist who is best known for proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior. Although this concept will be discussed in more detail in a later chapter, a brief overview will be provided here. Maslow asserted that so long as basic needs necessary for survival were met (e.g., food, water, shelter), higher-level needs (e.g., social needs) would begin to motivate behavior. According to Maslow, the highest-level needs relate to self-actualization, a process by which we achieve our full potential. Obviously, the focus on the positive aspects of human nature that are characteristic of the humanistic perspective is evident (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Humanistic psychologists rejected, on principle, the research approach based on reductionist experimentation in the tradition of the physical and biological sciences, because it missed the “whole” human being. Beginning with Maslow and Rogers, there was an insistence on a humanistic research program. This program has been largely qualitative (not measurement-based), but there exist a number of quantitative research strains within humanistic psychology, including research on happiness, self-concept, meditation, and the outcomes of humanistic psychotherapy (Friedman, 2008).

A pyramid with 5 levels representing Maslow's Heirarhcy of Needs. A full image description follows.

Carl Rogers (1902–1987) was also an American psychologist who, like Maslow, emphasized the potential for good that exists within all people. Rogers used a therapeutic technique known as client-centered therapy in helping his clients deal with problematic issues that resulted in their seeking psychotherapy. Unlike a psychoanalytic approach in which the therapist plays an important role in interpreting what conscious behavior reveals about the unconscious mind, client-centered therapy involves the patient taking a lead role in the therapy session. Rogers believed that a therapist needed to display three features to maximize the effectiveness of this particular approach: unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy. Unconditional positive regard refers to the fact that the therapist accepts their client for who they are, no matter what he or she might say. Provided these factors, Rogers believed that people were more than capable of dealing with and working through their own issues (Thorne & Henley, 2005).

Humanism has been influential to psychology. Both Maslow and Rogers are well-known names among students of psychology (you will read more about both men later in this text), and their ideas have influenced many scholars. Furthermore, Rogers’ client-centered approach to therapy is still commonly used in psychotherapeutic settings today (O’Hara, n.d.)

View a brief video of Carl Rogers describing his therapeutic approach: Carl Rogers on Person-Centered Therapy Video .

The Cognitive Revolution

Behaviorism’s emphasis on objectivity and focus on external behavior had pulled psychologists’ attention away from the mind for a prolonged period of time. The early work of humanistic psychologists redirected attention to the individual human as a whole, and as a conscious and self-aware being. By the 1950s, new disciplinary perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science were emerging, and these areas revived interest in the mind as a focus of scientific inquiry. This particular perspective has come to be known as the cognitive revolution (Miller, 2003). By 1967, Ulric Neisser published the first textbook entitled Cognitive Psychology , which served as a core text in cognitive psychology courses around the country (Thorne & Henley, 2005).

Although no one person is entirely responsible for starting the cognitive revolution, Noam Chomsky was very influential in the early days of this movement. Chomsky (1928–), an American linguist, was dissatisfied with the influence that behaviorism had had on psychology. He believed that psychology’s focus on behavior was short-sighted and that the field had to re-incorporate mental functioning into its purview if it were to offer any meaningful contributions to understanding behavior (Miller, 2003).

A mural on the side of a building. The mural includes Chomsky's face, along with some newspapers, televisions, and cleaning products. At the top of the mural, it reads “Noam Chomsky.” At the bottom of the mural, it reads “the most important intellectual alive.”

European psychology had never really been as influenced by behaviorism as had American psychology; and thus, the cognitive revolution helped reestablish lines of communication between European psychologists and their American counterparts. Furthermore, psychologists began to cooperate with scientists in other fields, like anthropology, linguistics, computer science, and neuroscience, among others. This interdisciplinary approach often was referred to as the cognitive sciences, and the influence and prominence of this particular perspective resonates in modern-day psychology (Miller, 2003).

The science of psychology has had an impact on human well-being, both positive and negative. The dominant influence of Western, white, and male academics in the early history of psychology meant that psychology developed with the biases inherent in those individuals, which often had negative consequences for members of society who were not white or male. Women, members of ethnic minorities in both the United States and other countries, and individuals with sexual orientations other than heterosexual had difficulties entering the field of psychology and therefore influencing its development. They also suffered from the attitudes of white, male psychologists, who were not immune to the nonscientific attitudes prevalent in the society in which they developed and worked. Until the 1960s, the science of psychology was largely a “womanless” psychology (Crawford & Marecek, 1989), meaning that few women were able to practice psychology, so they had little influence on what was studied. In addition, the experimental subjects of psychology were mostly men, which resulted from underlying assumptions that gender had no influence on psychology and that women were not of sufficient interest to study.

An article by Naomi Weisstein, first published in 1968 (Weisstein, 1993), stimulated a feminist revolution in psychology by presenting a critique of psychology as a science. She also specifically criticized male psychologists for constructing the psychology of women entirely out of their own cultural biases and without careful experimental tests to verify any of their characterizations of women. Weisstein used, as examples, statements by prominent psychologists in the 1960s, such as this quote by Bruno Bettleheim: “. . . we must start with the realization that, as much as women want to be good scientists or engineers, they want first and foremost to be womanly companions of men and to be mothers.” Weisstein’s critique formed the foundation for the subsequent development of feminist psychology that attempted to be free of the influence of male cultural biases on our knowledge of the psychology of women and, indeed, of both genders.

Crawford & Marecek (1989) identify several feminist approaches to psychology that can be described as feminist psychology. These include re-evaluating and discovering the contributions of women to the history of psychology, studying psychological gender differences, and questioning the male bias present across the practice of the scientific approach to knowledge.

Multicultural Psychology

Culture has important impacts on individuals and social psychology, yet the effects of culture on psychology are under-studied. There is a risk that psychological theories and data derived from white, American settings could be assumed to apply to individuals and social groups from other cultures, but this is unlikely to be true (Betancourt & López, 1993). One weakness in the field of cross-cultural psychology is that in looking for differences in psychological attributes across cultures, there remains a need to go beyond simple descriptive statistics (Betancourt & López, 1993). In this sense, it has remained a descriptive science, rather than one seeking to determine cause and effect. For example, a study of characteristics of individuals seeking treatment for a binge eating disorder in Hispanic American, African American, and Caucasian American individuals found significant differences between groups (Franko et al., 2012). The study concluded that results from studying any one of the groups could not be extended to the other groups, and yet potential causes of the differences were not measured.

The history of multicultural psychology in the United States is a long one. The role of African American psychologists in researching the cultural differences between African American individuals and social psychology is but one example. In 1920, Cecil Sumner was the first African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology in the United States. Sumner established a psychology degree program at Howard University, leading to the education of a new generation of African American psychologists (Black, Spence, and Omari, 2004). Much of the work of early African American psychologists (and a general focus of much work in the first half of the 20th century in psychology in the United States) was dedicated to testing, and intelligence testing in particular (Black et al., 2004). That emphasis has continued, particularly because of the importance of testing in determining opportunities for children, but other areas of exploration in African-American psychology research include learning style, sense of community and belonging, and spiritualism (Black et al., 2004).

The American Psychological Association has several ethnically based organizations for professional psychologists that facilitate interactions among members. Since psychologists belonging to specific ethnic groups or cultures have the most interest in studying the psychology of their communities, these organizations provide an opportunity for the growth of research on the impact of culture on individual and social psychology.

Before the time of Wundt and James, questions about the mind were considered by philosophers. However, both Wundt and James helped create psychology as a distinct scientific discipline. Wundt was a structuralist, which meant he believed that our cognitive experience was best understood by breaking that experience into its component parts. He thought this was best accomplished by introspection.

William James was the first American psychologist, and he was a proponent of functionalism. This particular perspective focused on how mental activities served as adaptive responses to an organism’s environment. Like Wundt, James also relied on introspection; however, his research approach also incorporated more objective measures as well.

Sigmund Freud believed that understanding the unconscious mind was absolutely critical to understanding conscious behavior. This was especially true for individuals that he saw who suffered from various hysterias and neuroses. Freud relied on dream analysis, slips of the tongue, and free association as means to access the unconscious. The psychoanalytic theory remained a dominant force in clinical psychology for several decades.

Gestalt psychology was very influential in Europe. Gestalt psychology takes a holistic view of an individual and his experiences. As the Nazis came to power in Germany, Wertheimer, Koffka, and Köhler immigrated to the United States. Although they left their laboratories and their research behind, they did introduce America to Gestalt ideas. Some of the principles of Gestalt psychology are still very influential in the study of sensation and perception.

One of the most influential schools of thought in psychology’s history was behaviorism. Behaviorism focuses on making psychology an objective science by studying overt behavior and deemphasizing the importance of unobservable mental processes. John Watson is often considered the father of behaviorism, and B. F. Skinner’s contributions to our understanding of the principles of operant conditioning cannot be underestimated.

As behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory took hold of so many aspects of psychology, some began to become dissatisfied with psychology’s picture of human nature. Thus, a humanistic movement within psychology began to take hold. Humanism focuses on the potential of all people for good. Both Maslow and Rogers were influential in shaping humanistic psychology.

During the 1950s, the landscape of psychology began to change. The science of behavior began to shift back to its roots of focus on mental processes. The emergence of neuroscience and computer science aided this transition. Ultimately, the cognitive revolution took hold, and people came to realize that cognition was crucial to a true appreciation and understanding of behavior.

Review Questions

Critical thinking questions.

In its early days, psychology could be defined as the scientific study of mind or mental processes. Over time, psychology began to shift more towards the scientific study of behavior. However, as the cognitive revolution took hold, psychology once again began to focus on mental processes as necessary to the understanding of behavior.

Behaviorists studied objectively observable behavior partly in reaction to the psychologists of the mind who were studying things that were not directly observable.

Personal Application Questions

Freud is probably one of the most well-known historical figures in psychology. Where have you encountered references to Freud or his ideas about the role that the unconscious mind plays in determining conscious behavior?

Image Descriptions

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Image Description: A pyramid shape divided into five horizontal sections that are labelled. From top to bottom, the triangle’s sections are labeled as follows:

Self-actualization corresponds to “Inner fulfillment”;
Esteem corresponds to “Self-worth, accomplishment, confidence”;
Social corresponds to “Family, friendship, intimacy, belonging”;
Security corresponds to “Safety, employment, assets”;
Physiological corresponds to “Food, water, shelter, warmth.”

[Return to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs image]

Media Attributions

“ Carl Rogers on Person-Centered Therapy Video ” by PsychotherapyNet . Standard YouTube License.

focuses on how mental activities help an organism fit into its environment.

focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences

approach of observing and controlling behavior

a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans.

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History of Psychology

During ancient times, rudimentary manifestations of psychology found expression through the roles of priests, shamans, wizards, seers, medicine men, sorcerers, and enchanters. These diverse practitioners combined elements of magic, religion, and herbal remedies in their endeavors to alleviate both physical and psychological distress experienced by their patients. Over time, these nascent practices gradually transformed into the distinct domains of medicine, religion, and psychology, while retaining vestiges of their interconnected influences. Presently, these fields continue to coexist, each leaving its mark and intermingling with the others in various ways.

History of Psychology in Classical Antiquity

The period we know as classical antiquity begins with the Homeric period and concludes with Hellenic cultural diffusion.

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Homeric Foundations
Pre-Socratic Philosophy
Plato’s Psychology
Hippocrates’ Psychology
Aristotle’s Psychology
Stoic and Epicurean Psychology

History of Psychology in the Middle Ages

The Middle Ages has often been criticized by twentieth-century psychologists, with scholars like Edwin Boring, the author of “A History of Experimental Psychology” (New York, 1929), suggesting that late medieval thought leaned heavily on theology, which consequently created resistance to scientific exploration. Similarly, Gregory Zilboorg, in his work “History of Medical Psychology” (New York, 1941), asserted that medieval medical practitioners hesitated to delve into both normal and abnormal psychology, often attributing mental illness to demonic possession or witchcraft.

However, contemporary historians of psychology have revisited these notions and found them lacking in solid evidence. In fact, many historians have taken a more nuanced stance on the Middle Ages, acknowledging that medieval thinkers—philosophers, physicians, and theologians alike—did engage in discussions and debates about human behavior, albeit without extensive experimental testing. This revised perspective counters the claims that the mentally ill were routinely subjected to cruelty during the Middle Ages and paints a more compassionate picture of the era, highlighting the complexities of their theories and the broader cultural context in which they existed.

The Middle Ages
Medieval Psychology
Medieval Cognitive Psychology
Mental Illness in the Middle Ages

History of Psychology during Renaissance through the Enlightenment

The Renaissance marked a revival of interest in individual personality, laying the groundwork for the eventual emergence of psychology in the seventeenth century. This renewed curiosity gained further significance in the eighteenth century and eventually evolved into a formalized science in the nineteenth century. The historical trajectory of the term “psychology” itself mirrors this evolution. Although its etymological origins are rooted in Greek—where “psuche” refers to “soul” and “logos” to “word”—forming the compound “psychology,” its usage had sporadic beginnings in the 1600s and only gained widespread acceptance in the nineteenth century. During earlier periods, discussions centered on a “science of human nature” or referred to it as “mental” or “moral” science.

It’s worth noting that psychology was just one among several human sciences that emerged over the five centuries following 1400. However, these disciplines took considerable time to mature into their present forms. In fact, the concept of a student of human nature encompassed a diverse range of fields, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, and political science. The convergence of these disciplines into their distinct modern identities occurred over an extended period of development.

The Renaissance
The Scientific Revolution
The Rise of Psychology
Human Nature, Morality, and Society

History of Psychology in the Nineteenth Century

Central Controversies
Mind or Matter?
Innovations
Institutions
Founding Psychologies

The culmination of World War I marked the conclusion of both the nineteenth century and the psychological paradigms that defined that era. The devastating atrocities of the war shattered the optimistic belief in continual progress that had characterized the preceding century. The conflict was perceived by many as a manifestation of the Freudian unconscious, laying bare the depths of human darkness. Germany, in particular, faced a profound crisis across its political, cultural, and philosophical domains, prompting psychologists to present alternative worldviews to replace the ones that had crumbled.

Gestalt psychology, alongside its philosophical partner phenomenology, emerged as a response to this crisis. This new approach proposed a holistic analysis of consciousness, seeking to reaffirm traditional humanistic values. Throughout the war, psychology took a pragmatic turn, as psychologists engaged in various military projects. This shift was most pronounced in the United States, where applied psychology was already gaining prominence. Post-war, the field of applied psychology in the US saw an exponential growth in the number of practitioners, leading to significant tensions between academic researchers and professionals in practice.

In 1913, shortly before the war’s outbreak, John B. Watson initiated the behaviorism movement, which would go on to dominate American psychology throughout the twentieth century. Psychological ideas increasingly influenced how individuals perceived themselves, others, and their societies. By 1918, what had begun as an obscure scientific pursuit led by small groups of individuals was emerging as the foundational basis for a newly forming psychological society.

History of Psychology in the Early Twentieth Century

During the early 1900s, the landscape of American psychology retained a relatively modest scale. Nevertheless, it found itself positioned favorably for advancement due to its wealth of intellectual ideas concerning mental processes that had been cultivated in the preceding century. This reservoir of ideas allowed the nascent discipline to flourish. The field could readily capitalize on the expanding landscape of colleges and universities, establishing its presence and interacting with an intrigued public that exhibited a growing interest in all things “psychological.” This environment facilitated psychology’s progress, and by the conclusion of World War II, the discipline had firmly cemented its influential role within American society. Moreover, it had engendered a plethora of subspecialties, each offering solutions to an array of intellectual and societal quandaries.

In less than half a century, psychology underwent a rapid expansion across various dimensions. It flourished in terms of scientific output, the breadth of topics it addressed, and its practical applications. This surge in growth, however, was not without its implications. As the discipline burgeoned in terms of practitioners and specialized domains, it underwent a pronounced reduction in the eclectic intellectual perspectives and methodologies that had characterized its early years. This evolution encapsulated a trajectory of prosperity followed by a curtailment of the scientific avenues available for comprehending and analyzing the human psyche and behaviors.

Ideas Galore
Psychology in Society
Methods of Inquiry
Schools and Systems
Behaviorism
Testing and Classifying

History of Psychology after World War II

Behaviorism vs. Gestalt Psychology
Cognitive Revelation
Humanistic Psychology
Professional Developments

Upon a cursory examination of the landscape of psychology since the conclusion of World War II, one might be led to perceive the discipline as grappling with significant challenges. It appears to be contending with formidable contenders such as biology and computer science, which seem poised to offer alternative explanations for its phenomena. The division between its fundamental scientific underpinnings and its practical applications appears insurmountable. Critics even question its status as a legitimate science, and some assert that its principles are inadequately established to warrant practical implementation. Even from within its own circles, there are proponents advocating for its relocation from the realm of sciences to that of the humanities. The field’s very conceptual foundations, particularly the inquiry into whether humans are purpose-driven organisms or mechanistic robots, remain unsettled. Its therapeutic interventions face criticism for their purported inefficacy. Additionally, a noticeable gender imbalance in recruitment threatens to bias its developmental trajectory. The widespread popularity of psychology in mainstream culture could potentially dilute its capacity to maintain a focused disciplinary identity.

However, the lens through which one views these challenges will profoundly shape their outlook on psychology’s future. These matters can be framed with either an optimistic or pessimistic perspective. While undeniable challenges lie ahead, an air of pessimism seems unjustified. It would be more sensible to interpret these challenges as indicative of the inherent challenges that accompany the maturation of a dynamic and crucial realm of knowledge in human affairs. Just as growth pains in individuals rarely lead to fatal outcomes and are usually surmounted, psychology’s challenges appear to be navigable. Indeed, there is a strong indication that the discipline will triumph over these obstacles and continue to offer a distinctive and invaluable contribution to knowledge throughout the twenty-first century.

Psychology in The 21st Century

As the turn of the millennium approached, a noteworthy transformation unfolded within the field of psychology—there was a discernible shift from behavioral perspectives to cognitive perspectives. This marked a departure from the exclusive reliance on empirical sources as the primary means of acquiring knowledge, making room for the inclusion of rationality as a legitimate source of understanding. In the initial years of the new millennium, psychology embarked on yet another transformation, perhaps a return to its origins. Within psychology, and more broadly across society, there has been a palpable embrace of spirituality, reclaiming faith as a credible and legitimate wellspring of knowledge. This trend is mirrored in the contemporary lexicon, where terms like intuition and faith have resurfaced with vigor (a prime illustration being the resounding success of Malcolm Gladwell’s best-selling book, Blink, which centers on intuitive thinking). This renewed acceptance of non-empirical avenues for knowledge underscores a profound shift in the zeitgeist.

The rapid advancements in information technology, exemplified by the ubiquity of the Internet and the prevalence of 24-hour news networks, have democratically democratized access to various dimensions of psychology. This growing accessibility is emblematic of the global reach of psychological knowledge. This expanding globalization of psychology finds resonance even within the latest iteration of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), which now underscores the necessity for mental health professionals to be attuned to cultural nuances while diagnosing and treating mental illnesses. This acknowledgment further amplifies the recognition of psychology as a versatile and culturally sensitive discipline, capable of engaging with the complex tapestry of human experiences across the globe.

Read more about Psychology in The 21st Century .

In the dynamic landscape of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, where economic decisions are often driven by bottom-line considerations, there appears to be an almost inevitable alignment with the ideas propounded by Francis Bacon at the dawn of the scientific revolution in 1620. Bacon’s assertion, “Human knowledge and human power meet in one; for where the cause is not known the effect cannot be produced,” reverberates with renewed resonance in the contemporary context. Within this milieu, all scientific disciplines find themselves compelled to offer practical insights and tangible benefits to remain relevant.

In this regard, psychology is no exception. As succinctly encapsulated in the mission statement of the American Psychological Association (APA), the aim of the discipline is multifaceted: to advance psychology as both a science and a profession, thereby contributing to the advancement of health, education, and the overall well-being of humanity. It can be argued that psychology, like an emerging individual, is progressing toward a stage of maturity where it is increasingly positioned to substantiate its practical utility. As society grapples with complex challenges and intricate interplays of human behavior, psychology’s potential to offer valuable insights and actionable knowledge stands affirmed.

The evolving zeitgeist, underscored by a pervasive drive for meaningful outcomes and the imperative to address contemporary societal concerns, is propelling psychology to demonstrate its effectiveness in guiding decision-making, improving mental health, enhancing educational practices, and fostering well-being. By embracing this pragmatic imperative, psychology not only ensures its continued relevance but also underscores its commitment to making a positive impact on individuals and society at large. Just as Francis Bacon’s vision intertwined knowledge and power, the current trajectory of psychology appears to be converging knowledge and utility, culminating in a discipline that is poised to deliver meaningful contributions in a world driven by empirical insight and applied wisdom.

Women and Minorities in the History of Psychology

In July 1892, the eminent psychologist G. Stanley Hall convened a small assembly of his peers at Clark University, leading to the establishment of the American Psychological Association (APA). The organization’s inaugural meeting occurred in December of the same year, with an additional 31 members, all of whom were white males (Fernberger, 1932). However, as psychology evolved during the first half of the 20th century, the demographic composition of the field began to shift. This transformation was most pronounced in the representation of women, while attention to the inclusion of non-white psychologists remained limited.

The proportion of women in psychology experienced incremental growth until the late 1960s. The catalyst for significant change emerged with the advent of the second wave of the women’s movement in the early 1970s, propelling a sustained increase in the number of women in the field. In 1960, only 17.5 percent of all doctoral degrees awarded in psychology in the United States went to women. However, by the turn of the millennium in 2000, this figure had surged to 66.6 percent, marking a profound transformation in the gender distribution of the discipline (Women’s Programs Office, 2006). Notably, psychology, particularly its applied domains, is presently experiencing a shift toward being predominantly occupied by women.

Concurrently, the 1960s witnessed transformative cultural and political movements that influenced the representation of minority psychologists. The civil rights movement and the emergence of black nationalism laid the groundwork for black psychologists to challenge the predominantly white and Eurocentric landscape of psychology. Their activism served as a beacon, inspiring other ethnic minority groups, such as Latino/Latina psychologists and Asian American psychologists, to assert their voices and concerns within the discipline. While progress in the diversification of psychology has been gradual compared to the integration of women, ethnic minority psychologists, both men and women, have persistently endeavored to reshape the theoretical, institutional, and practical underpinnings of the field.

First-Wave “Feminist” Psychologists
Women in Psychology at Mid-Century
Second-Wave Feminism and Psychology
Early African American Psychologists
The Clarks’ Contributions
The Association of Black Psychologists

Conducting Research on the History of Psychology

Every day, psychologists contribute to the annals of history, whether through seemingly trivial actions like sending an email or momentous achievements such as receiving a Nobel Prize. These actions, along with their contextual backdrop, become the historical data that enrich the narrative of our field. When distilled by historians of psychology, these data take on the form of stories that offer insight into the evolution of our science and profession.

The synthesis of meaning from historical data often takes the form of courses on the history of psychology, a staple in both undergraduate and graduate psychology curricula for many decades (Fuchs & Viney, 2002; Hilgard, Leary, & McGuire, 1991). Consequently, the majority of psychology students are exposed to this subject matter and its significance.

But why do psychologists hold such a keen interest in their own history? The words of two prominent British historians, Robin Collingwood (1946) and Edward H. Carr (1961), provide insight. Collingwood asserted that the “proper object of historical study… is the human mind, or more properly the activities of the human mind” (p. 215). Carr, on the other hand, suggested that “the historian is not really interested in the unique, but what is general in the unique” and that the study of history centers on understanding causes and continually asking “Why?” (pp. 80, 113). In essence, the study of history allows us to delve into the intricacies of the human mind, generalize beyond individual cases, and uncover the motivations, personalities, experiences, and expectations that underlie human behavior. A historical account does not rest content with a mere description of events; it seeks to thoroughly comprehend events and phenomena, unraveling the underlying reasons, such as the motivations behind an incident like the Kent State University shootings on May 4, 1970.

Collingwood’s perspective positions history as “the science of human nature” (p. 206), a definition that overlaps with psychology’s domain. While debates about the scientific nature of history are ongoing, historians employ empirical methods and hypothesis-driven inquiries similar to those used by psychologists. This close alignment between the two fields makes the study of history a natural extension of our psychological interests.

Historians of psychology embark on a journey to grasp the discipline’s evolution by dissecting the convergence of individuals, locations, and events within broader societal, economic, and political contexts. In the past four decades, the history of psychology has gained recognition as a legitimate area of research and scholarship. Enhanced tools, methodologies, and training for historians have yielded a significant body of research that enriches discussions about our collective past, the meaning underlying our present diversification, and the prospects for our future. This research paper will delve into the principles and practices of researching the history of psychology.

Theory Research
Methods Research
Applications Research

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PMC10042744

Psychology and Spirituality: Reviewing Developments in History, Method and Practice

Sally sargeant.

1 Psychology and Health Communications, Southern Cross University Faculty of Health, Bilinga, Gold Coast, QLD 4226 Australia

Jacqui Yoxall

2 Chair of Discipline (Allied Health) and Director of Clinical Services, Southern Cross University Faculty of Heath, Lismore, NSW 2480 Australia

This paper begins with an overview of the governing principles of psychology as a discipline, and outlines the key paradigm shifts that potentially aligned with concepts of spirituality from the early twentieth century to contemporary theory. The discussion then moves to consider how research methods in psychology can contribute to understanding how spirituality is measured and described. We consider the contribution of validated surveys, and how qualitative methods can access the lived experience of spiritual phenomena. More specifically, the psychological constructs of "Flow" and properties associated with psychological capital are posited in relation to characteristics that define a spiritual experience. Finally, we draw attention to how exploration how spirituality of individuals may be addressed, and the scope for including spiritual appreciation in competencies required in psychological practice.

Introduction: Aims and Scope

At the outset, it is important to articulate the aims of this paper. Charting a path between the title components is an attempt to link the parallel, crossing, and indeed divergent paths of spirituality and psychology. While the topics herein are presented as foundations upon which to build a discussion about the relationship between a broad concept and academic discipline, it is not a comprehensive review. For example, while aspects of how spirituality can be measured within the survey methods often deployed in psychology, a full review of questionnaires measuring spirituality is not present. Such an endeavour would warrant a separate paper, as the development, testing, and refining of such measures deserves appropriate attention that extends beyond the scope of this discussion. Furthermore, spirituality (as opposed to religion) is discussed with relation to psychology here. The specific reason for this is due to spirituality generally being a broader concept that embraces individual approaches to the pursuit what is sacred. Religion is generally characterised by a more prescriptive approach to pursuing the sacred (Hill et al., 2000 ), which to a large extent counters the tenets of individual differences that fortify routes to psychological well-being. It is for this reason that we champion spirituality as the concept to explore in relation to psychology.

Historically Positioning Spirituality within the Discipline of Psychology

As a discipline, psychology traverses the arts and sciences. Our behaviours, emotions, and cognitions are inextricably linked to everything we experience in our lives, from the ordinary to the extraordinary. To unpack the relationship between psychology and spirituality, it is necessary to explore how the discipline of psychology emerged from a wealth of philosophical questions to the standards of scientific inquiry it upholds today. It was towards the end of the nineteenth century that Wilhelm Wundt, described as often the “Father of Psychology” (Burton et al., 2018 ), championed mental processes and the integral positioning of the mind in human existence:

From the standpoint of observation, then, we must regard it as a highly probable hypothesis that the beginnings of the mental life date from as far back as the beginnings of life at large . (Wundt, 1904 , 31.)

Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, not deeming experiments as the only routes of enquiry to determine psychological knowledge and promoting the necessity to study elements of the mind. This flexibility was, however, short-lived. Wundt’s student, Edward Titchener, argued that the mind was instead comprised of components and that if these components could be defined and understood then the structural processes of the mind could be explored. He used introspection as a tool to examine the component of consciousness. This generated the rise in experimental psychology and became known as “structuralism” (Titchener, 1902 ).

Another school of thought simultaneously emerged. “Functionalism” asserted that psychological processes were determined by individuals’ functioning in, and adaptation to their environment. In 1890, William James had proposed that there was little utility in building a typology of consciousness, and instead asserted that explanation rather than description warranted greater attention (Hart, 1981 ). Structuralism and functionalism were the key platforms upon which psychology began to exhibit its academic presentation. The latter framework leant itself to incorporating spirituality as a potential component through which to understand and explain consciousness. For example, if someone engaged in spiritual practice, his or her adaptation to their environment could partially be explained. This association was not, however, made apparent at that time.

Psychological inquiry then became ensconced within what is perhaps the most well-known paradigm of psychodynamic theory. With Sigmund Freud at the helm of psychoanalysis, emphasis partially shifted from the study of conscious awareness to the argument that powerful unconscious motives determined our actions (Holmes, 2017 ). Freudian concepts, such as denial and repression, are still discussed in popular psychology today, despite the difficulties in testing such theories with any degree of scientific rigour.

Scientific objectivity and experimentation gathered momentum through another major psychological approach—behaviourism. The core premise of behaviourism is that only measurable aspects of behaviour should be considered and that internal events are neither relevant nor necessary to understand in order to effect behaviour change. The main assumptions within this approach focused on learning that was not influenced by internal or inherited factors, but was, rather, specifically in response to the environment. Ivan Pavlov is the most well-known proponent of behaviourism. His studies about the digestion of dogs, and his work in training dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell still warrant inclusion in contemporary psychology teaching programs (Akpan, 2020 ). Pavlov introduced an important descriptor relating to behavioural response—conditioning. The pairing of an experience with a stimulus produces an ongoing association between the stimulus and the physiological response to that experience. John B. Watson’s work was a powerful demonstration of the influence of frightening experiences on learning and behaviour, and the maintenance of behavioural responses to traumatic events into the longer term (Watson, 1913 ). Our understanding of aspects of human response to trauma today—particularly the concept of “triggers” to traumatic memories and associated physiological arousal—are based upon these theories. In proposing that learning and subsequent behaviour occurs as a result of punishment or reward, B.F. Skinner ( 1953 ) progressed behaviourism further into the twentieth century. The shaping of human behaviour using operant conditioning methods continues today to be the basis of most forms of animal training and human behaviour modification strategies. However, absolute disregard of internal experiences, including emotions, beliefs, and attitudes, was very difficult for some psychology scholars to accept. So too was Skinner’s ultimate premise that free will does not actually exist and that all behaviour, human and animal, is simply determined by environment.

Although behaviourism promoted experimentation, objectivity, and further legitimised psychology as a science, there was little room for considering introspection and the subjective experience of what it was to be human. The deterministic stance of behaviourism began to be questioned as theorists championed individual needs and aspirations as essential parts of psychological inquiry. Ultimately Skinner’s work was so focused on observable and measurable behaviours that the “Skinnerian Era” promoted a counter-reaction from those who maintained that the internal, “unseen” workings of one’s inner world is a core component of the human experience. One of the most well-known proponents of this counter-reaction was Abraham Maslow.

Maslow ( 1943 ) proposed that all human beings have an inherent motivation to develop and grow towards better existence. Influenced by the atrocities of the Second World War, Maslow argued that before psychological or spiritual growth can occur, a person must have the basic requirements of daily life—shelter and food. The hierarchy of needs detailed specific human needs in a model of overlapping stages, including basic needs, safety needs, social needs, self-esteem and ultimately concluding at a stage he termed, “self-actualisation”—becoming the most that one can be. Even though the hierarchy of needs was more of a concept than a working model that could be operationalised and measured, the idea of such an inherent drive to seek a better-self continues to be cited across clinical, professional, and educational psychology domains today, also cementing a firm place in popular psychology.

When examining the role of spirituality in psychology, Maslow’s theories could be considered as the early contemporary return to considering the spiritual mind within the human experience. The concept of self-actualisation and what this may encompass for different individuals has been extensively debated in scientific literature and utilised widely in therapeutic work, including responses to chronic disease and illness (Bayoumi, 2012 ), palliative care (Zalenski & Raspa, 2006 ), posttraumatic stress (Lonn & Dantzler, 2017 ), and addiction (Best et al., 2008 ), and offending behaviour and rehabilitation. In his later years, Maslow expanded upon his proposed hierarchy by adding the stage of Transcendence. Transcendence was conceptualised as the stage beyond being the best version of oneself that a person can be, to something beyond the self, for the benefit of others or the community or world—that is, altruism or spirituality. The desire to reach this level of development, that one’s existence and meaning involves a level of spirituality is proposed to be the highest level of human consciousness (Koltko-Rivera, 2006 ).

Although criticised for a lack of scientific evidence to support his theories, Maslow’s work formed the early stages of a new psychological approach, known as Humanism, which was pioneered by Carl Rogers (Rogers, 1951 , 1959 ). Humanism rejected the tenets of behaviourism and augmented Maslow’s work. When appraising the progression of conceptual issues in psychology, this movement was by far the closest connection to aspects of spirituality—simply by acknowledging the variations in individual needs to self-actualise, the door was open for spiritual needs to be embedded within the tiered stages of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and clearly aligned to the later addition of Transcendence to that hierarchy.

The Rogerian approach to understanding aspects the underpinning principles of the “therapeutic relationship” and person-centred counselling practiced by psychologists and various other health practitioners to the current day (Rogers, 1951 ). In practice, the Rogerian therapeutic relationship created a safe space of unconditional positive regard, within which personal insights could be realised and psychological/emotional growth could occur. The concept of unconditional positive regard could be argued to be akin to aspects of a spiritual perspective or approach to relationships with others—that is, the conscious decision to set aside any biases, emotions, attitudes, or beliefs in order to generate and offer positive regard to another person without any conditions or expectations attached.

The oscillations of psychology between philosophical and scientific inquiry veered closely towards the spiritual, particularly during the 1960s when the Humanism movement was at its strongest. The fundamental question was whether human behaviour was passive and controlled (and therefore determined) by the environment within which a person existed, or whether internal experiences (emotions, beliefs, intentions, values, etc.) should be considered to best understand how we experience, and interpret, reality.

Psychology as a discipline advanced through the twentieth century, with the affiliation to the observable, the concrete, and the elevation of experimental methods as agents in psychological research remaining in focus. Earlier theories of behaviour expanded to accommodate the influence of human thought, attitudes, beliefs, and emotions, which could be tested to some degree by self-reporting of such thoughts. As before, psychological theories that were most amenable to scientific examination provided an evidence base for interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy and as a result this area of thought and work flourished. This left limited space for the consideration of spiritualism and religiosity, and a clear division between behaviour, thought, emotion, and the soul. Although the Positive Psychology movement of the 1990s, spearheaded by Martin Seligman (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 ), essentially brought about a contemporary wave of Humanism, and argued for a focus on psychological well-being rather than psychopathology, support for it remained generally in popular psychology because of the same challenges with measurement and observation that had plagued this area of enquiry in the 1950s. The advancement of the rigorous application of the hypothetical deductive method added to the viewing of psychology as a science, which effectively consigned spirituality and religion to clergy and related professions, while psychologists directly addressed behaviour.

Measuring and Defining Spirituality in a Psychological Context

It is useful at this juncture to consider the alignment between methodological paradigms with psychology and spirituality. Psychology developed in a tradition of quantitative research within the scientific method, which specifically sought to define and measure identified variables relevant to the research question. Although qualitative paradigms were acknowledged, this form of enquiry did not command attention in psychology until the latter half of the twentieth century. By the 1980s, psychologists who had studied largely in the realm of quantitative methods championed the need for more qualitative approaches to become more visible. More specifically, they advocated for the same rigour and quality standards to be applied to such methods.

Qualitative methods generate in-depth data and therefore provide scope for exploration of particular phenomena instead of explanation. The increased use of lengthy interviews, focus groups, diary methods, and photo-elicitations has vastly expanded the ability of psychology researchers to pursue subjective experience, and investigate what experiences mean to individuals through consideration of data collection methods. Table Table1 1 provides a basic comparison of the philosophical underpinnings of positivist and phenomenological paradigms that govern these methodological frameworks. These methodologies lend themselves to explorations of spirituality in human experience, framed within psychological context. An enhancing component of qualitative methods is the requirement to demonstrate quality checks in the deployment of these methods through processes of reflection and reflexivity (Willig, 2019 ). Rather than simply directing research questions to subjects /study participants, researchers and psychologists are required to consider how their own actions, questions, assumptions, and beliefs affect the course of inquiry, thereby leaving sufficient room for spiritual experiences and beliefs to be explored and accounted for, depending on the research question and context.

Characteristics of positivist and phenomenological inquiry

So far, this commentary has centred on the scope of psychology to include aspects of spirituality though its theoretical developments and methodological boundaries. It has addressed issues of measurement and experimentation, along with the broader philosophical paradigms aligned to psychology, and how spirituality might be positioned within these schools of thought. However, another possibility arises that potentially bridges these different paradigms, which is the question of how to measure aspects of spirituality. To date, this challenge has been approached both from a quantitative and qualitative perspective.

A key non-experimental method that forms the backbone of much research in social psychology is the self-report survey. Surveys have been developed in many forms, from open-ended questions to closed statements that force the respondent to pick from a limited number of predetermined responses. Although this method can still be influenced by researcher bias, there are many examples of reliable surveys used in psychology and other disciplines that have multiple uses, ranging from informing medical diagnoses (e.g. Beck et al., 1961 ), to identifying personality types (e.g. McCrae & Costa, 1987 ). Certain behaviours and moods that are well documented and argued to be universally agreed upon, at least in regard to the American Psychiatric Association ( 2013 ) or World Health Organisation ( 2016 ), are easily inserted into surveys measuring psychological constructs. However, measurement of a construct without such a delineated set of observable characteristics, such as spirituality, is infinitely more complex. Spirituality is difficult to define, as noted by Chiu et al. ( 2004 ), as it means different things to different individuals, groups, and cultures. It is reasonable then to question whether spirituality can be “measured”.

As spirituality has become more widely recognised as a component of healthcare worthy of attention, there is growing evidence attesting to the merits of measuring spirituality and documenting its relevance to clinical settings. However, spirituality is not considered a univariate construct to measure. Established questionnaires within this subject area often address a particular aspect of spirituality, such as “spiritual well-being” or “spiritual coping”. A systematic review by Monod and colleagues ( 2011 ) examined 35 questionnaires that measured spirituality in clinical research and proposed a typology of instruments to reflect the multivariate nature of this complex area.

The earliest one identified emerged in 1983; the Spiritual Well-Being Scale (SWBS). The SWBS was developed in response to a perceived lack of recognition for the significance of religion and existentialism in assessing quality of life in connection with well-being. The questionnaire comprised of 20 items and was found to be reliable on test–retest bases. A later addition to measurement scales in this domain was the Spirituality Index of Well-being, a 12-item scale comprising statements relating to self-efficacy and life schema (e.g. I haven’t found my life’s purpose yet). It was found to correlate more strongly with established measures of well-being rather than the SWBS (Frey et al., 2005 ), thereby signalling a degree of utility within health psychology research.

Other examples of self-report surveys and measures fall within the dimension of spiritual coping. The Spiritual Beliefs Inventory (SBI-15) is a 15-item questionnaire designed to assess religious and existential beliefs and has been used within a quality-of-life framework for assessing adjustment to illness (Holland et al., 1998 ). Other measures were developed to examine the role of spiritual coping in general areas and in response to specific events, including traumatic events. A notable example is the use of the Spiritual Support Scale, in a study exploring the role of spiritual coping following events of the 11 September 2001, terrorist attacks (Ai et al., 2005 ). Understanding human response to trauma is important to psychologists, not only in regard to the experience of grief, loss, shock, and sometimes psychopathology. Posttraumatic growth and personal and spiritual development have also been observed to be a response to trauma for some people, which resonates with the aforementioned tenets championed by Maslow, Rogers, and Seligman.

Suggested Psychological Frameworks of Spiritual Experiences

Unlike strong negative emotional reactions generated by worldwide events, some every day experiences can generate feelings of well-being and spiritual connectedness for some people. Research indicates that distinctly productive activities and situations can generate a feeling of spiritual well-being, with the sense that everything runs smoothly and without complication. Many people may describe an intense period of productivity or concentration as being “in the zone”. The concept of “Flow” was popularised by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi ( 1990 ), largely though his seminal work on human optimal experience. Within this work, he described Flow as a meaningful state that made life worth living, stating that “you know what up need to do is possible to do, even though difficult, and sense of time disappears. You forget yourself. You feel part of something bigger” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990 , as cited in Moore, 2020 ). Earlier in this paper a definition of spirituality observed a search for the “sacred”, a clear indication of something possibly intangible and certainly greater that oneself. Csikszentmihalyi also asserted that Flow was characterised by a loss of self-consciousness—implying that the perception that one’s actions and performance are driven by greater influences, and thereby potentially aligning these influences within a spiritual as well as a psychological domain.

Flow has been examined in many contexts, including sport, creativity, and workplaces. Within sports psychology and research into athletic performance, Flow in connection with spirituality is identified as a key facilitator of peak execution (Watson & Nesti, 2005 ). While measurable performance excellence is observed by quantifiable outcomes in competitive sport, holistic, and personal well-being are other factors that enable an individual to flourish. In another context relating to emotional experiences of performing music and or choral singing, the search for meaning in performance was aligned with experiencing Flow. In a qualitative study, Lamont ( 2012 ) found that individuals reported positive emotions as a result of individual and group performance. However, in Lamont’s study, participants did not describe “losing themselves” in the sense that Csikszentmihalyi originally theorised, suggesting that the Flow state may not always be characterised by this. Lamont surmised that this may be due to priming and practicing music that is not necessarily chosen by those performing, but simultaneously argues that the Flow state still occurs and may be aligned to spiritual experiences.

These explorations of Flow in sporting and musical contexts lead to other considerations of how psychological factors linked to spirituality manifest in individuals and in groups. Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1986 ) posits that we behave differently in groups to when we are alone. Empirical research on Flow, and emotional experiences in spirituality affirms this to a degree, in a comparison of experiences between people attending a Catholic mass (group), individuals engaging in Zen meditation, and a control group (Rufi et al., 2016 ). Those attending the mass returned higher scores and statistical significance in five out of the nine dimensions on the Flow State Scale—these being ability level (challenge), clear goal, control, action-awareness merging, and concentration (Jackson & Marsh, 1996 ). Although this is insufficient to imply certainty, it demands further attention to the implications of spiritual experiences being attained more easily in group rather than individual contests.

While we can locate examples in certain social and environmental contexts within psychological research, it is harder to find evidence of spirituality specifically in connection with psychological therapeutic practice. However, the tenets of fulfilment, optimisation, and Flow in connection to spirituality all fall within the positive psychology movement and the work of Martin Seligman. Positive psychology has brought us closest to the exploration of one’s spiritual self as part of work towards establishing psychological well-being within a meaningful and satisfying “good life”. As referenced earlier, the emergence of positive psychology in the 1990s was somewhat of a return to some of the humanistic theories of the 1960s. Within the positive psychology field, spirituality is considered as an aspect of the human experience, and often as a tool to enhance resilience in the face of adversity, and as a compass for navigation of a fulfilled life. Positive psychology has allowed public, non-academic access to the psychology discipline in a greater capacity than before. The rise of popular psychology focusing on mindfulness, meditation, acceptance, and other strategies (adopted from Buddhism and other belief systems) is now scattered throughout the grey psychological literature. However, the scientific evidence base to some of this work is still be established.

Seligman’s work on the enhancement of the human experience rather than a focus on dysfunction captured a wider popular audience of the potential contribution of psychology to the daily lives that people lead. Positive psychology and the concept of Flow gathered momentum towards the end of the 1990s, and by 2000, advances occurred in the empirical and theoretical development of promoting optimal experience and emotional health. Seligman advanced the work of Csikszentmihalyi, acknowledging the loss of self-consciousness as a result of Flow and exploring the how kindness and or altruism mediated the Flow state. This program of work yielded classification of six virtues—wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence—effectively a typology of ideals to lead an optimal life within a positive psychology framework (Peterson & Seligman, 2004 ). Following a cross cultural study of religious texts, “spirituality and transcendence” was a clearly identified virtue, attainable through cultivation of signature strengths and an apparent declaration of the alignment of spiritualty to psychological well-being. The emphasis on strengths and virtues mirrors the concept of having psychological reserves within which to determine the links between the psychological and the spiritual, and leads to another term that has recently entered the domain of positive psychology.

“Psychological capital” (or Psycap, a shortened version) largely emerged within a business/corporate context and is often referred to in leadership focussed literature. It is, however, also a concept that overtly acknowledges spirituality as a potential contributory factor in attaining high psychological capital. Psycap is largely defined according to four criteria deemed to determine an individual’s development of a positive psychological state through (1) necessary confidence and efficacy to address challenging tasks, (2) sustaining optimism through to completion of said tasks, (3) persevering and, if necessary, changing plans to attain various goals, and 4) deploying resilience in adversity (Luthans et al., 2015 ). When assessing characteristics of spirituality alongside those aligned to Psycap, there are clear parallels which affirm the former as a potentially major contributor to Psycap. An example is those of a spiritual leaning being able to cope with hardships—within and outside of occupational contexts (Pargament, 1997 ). The relationship of Psycap to Flow is also important. As discussed earlier, Flow is characterised by distortion of time and loss of self in task completion. Psycap also introduces authenticity of self as a positive component; authenticity in itself as historically been described as an “absence of self-deception” and being true to oneself (Sartre, 1966 ), which further connects the characteristics that complement spirituality and resonate with the Rogerian ideals of Humanism.

Flow, Psycap, authenticity and the general popularity associated with positive psychology lends a theoretical hand to understanding the intersection of psychology and spirituality. However, the application of spiritual content within psychological practice is somewhat hard to identify. At this point, it is useful to examine the presence (or absence) of spirituality in competencies required to become a practicing psychologist or engage in clinical supervision.

Spirituality in Psychological Practice and Competencies

Although paradigm shifts in the history of psychology do not directly speak to a relationship with spirituality, it is fair to say this relationship is more than just a flirtation. Psychologists have been involved in the assessment and therapeutic treatment of individuals since the aftermath of the Second World War. Interest in personality research grew after the atrocities of the conflict and also in rehabilitation of wounded soldiers adjusting to civilian life. People began to question how affected individuals coped with trauma associated with physical and sociological disruption. Specifically, the growth of social psychology stemmed from the incomprehension of cruelty that human beings inflicted upon others as evidenced by the Holocaust and the persecution of Jewish people (Byford & Tileagă, 2014 ).

This upsurge in interest of social explanation and adaptation in the most extreme of circumstances led to the dominance of clinical and counselling psychology, which was concerned with assessment and treatment of clinical symptoms and conditions, or generally the easing of psychological angst and pain associated with the experience of being human (Bazar, 2015 ). Equally, as noted earlier, it was during this time that a strong dominance of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) emerged due to its inherent qualities of measurability and acceptance of being “evidence based”, whereas more existential or humanistic approaches to counselling and intervention were less measurable and quantifiable (Ruggiero et al., 2018 ). Cognitive Behavioural Therapy remains one of the most recognised frameworks in the application of psychology today.

The influence of positive psychology, and particularly Seligman’s strength-based and virtues framework, is clearly visible in practice approaches and popular culture. Daily expressions of gratitude are encouraged, as are counting acts of kindness and visualising one’s best possible self. (Vella-Broderick, 2011 ). Empirical studies have also shown how positive psychology interventions have successfully alleviated depression and mood disorders, and have progressed from correlation studies to evidencing this association through meta-analytic approaches (Santos et al., 2013 ; Varghese et al., 2021 ).

The evidence, therefore, of positive psychology and associated spiritual domains adding value to the discipline on a theoretical basis and assisting individuals though psychological intervention is considerable. Yet, these associations are not widely broadcasted or explicitly advocated in competency frameworks or standards within educational accreditation bodies and practice regulators. Despite more recent meta-analytic work that has addressed patients’ perspectives on religion and spiritualist in psychotherapeutic practice (Captari et al., 2018 ), there remains a shortage of worldwide scientific literature that links spirituality to psychology or spiritual care to the practice of clinical, forensic, or other applied areas of the discipline. In Australia, psychology discipline competencies identified by the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA) and the Psychology Board of Australia do not directly refer to spiritual or pastoral care, but acknowledge other constructs related to this within as general health and well-being—not unlike the aforementioned Psycap principles.

Pre-registration Psychology education is also primarily focused on objective inquiry and research methodology, rather than placing emphasis on subjectivity and thereby departing from the phenomenological principles designed to access lived experience (Australian Psychology Accreditation Council, 2019 ). Instead, competencies mandated within accrediting bodies or associations that potentially address the scope of spirituality are to be found in the post training, wherein certain practice specialities (e.g. counselling, community) are aligned to examining the presence of spirituality in assessment and treatment. Interestingly, some more direct work centres on competencies outside of regulatory bodies in the form of measuring spiritual competence in therapeutic circumstances. North American research recently attended to this domain acknowledging the historical absences of spirituality being documented within formal competency frameworks. While aforementioned scales measured spirituality as a construct, more detailed work proposed specific attitudinal, knowledge-based and skill-based competencies is evident (Vieten et al., 2013 ). Of particular significance was the recommendation that psychologists can differentiate between spirituality and religion as constructs, alongside helping clients explore their spiritual background and addressing related problems if necessary.

Calls to address such needs are gathering momentum, stating that that failure to do so places psychologists at risk of unintentional failure in building therapeutic alliances (Vieten & Lukoff, 2022 ). This suggests a positive direction in bringing spirituality more overtly into psychotherapeutic practice, with empirical studies also reporting that clients are increasingly open to discussing religious/spiritual influences on their well-being (Terepka & Hatfield, 2020 ); however, there remains a lack of distinction between religiosity and spirituality, in such works which may confound successful integration.

Identifying specific problems brings a slightly divergent angle to this commentary, which has so far couched spirituality within some related concepts such as Flow, Psycap, and authenticity in a largely positive light. The competencies proposed by Vieten and Lukoff ( 2022 ) encourage recognition of psychological problems that may arise from traumatic experiences relating to organised religion, suggesting the spiritual abuse can and must not be discounted within any competency framework. Spiritual abuse has been defined as:

“coercion and control of one individual by another [..] manipulation and exploitation, enforced accountability, censorship and decision making, requirements for secrecy, pressure to conform, misuse of scripture or the pulpit to control behaviour, [..] the suggestion that the abuser has a “divine” position, isolation from others, especially those external to the abusive context” (Oakley & Kinmond, 2013 . 25).

Further work proposing safeguarding policy within the UK also identified key areas aligned to manipulation, shame, and blame as a consequence of spiritual abuse (Oakley & Kinmond, 2014 ). While not declaring a range of competencies for psychologists and counsellors in this context, the authors make clear links between these themes and the potential of psychology to make valuable contributions to assisting those affected, and educating key stakeholders such as spiritual leaders and educators to recognise how maladaptive behaviour or mental ill-health manifests as a result of spiritual abuse.

Whether supporting clients to live an optimal life by exploring aspects of spirituality, or being alert to signs of harmful consequences of spiritual abuse, it is clear that despite the lack of mandated competencies there is ample scope for psychology to play a critical part in any care relating to this area. Numerous attempts to evaluate religious and spiritual competence in health professions reveal counselling to be the most visible discipline aligned to competence measurement and development, yet psychology as an overarching science has not capitalised on this link in the same way. As outlined earlier, the reluctance to move away from psychology as a “hard” science may account for this—a philosophical standpoint that has not escaped recent appraisal in documenting possible barriers to competency development (Vieten et al., 2013 ). Another notable barrier concerns psychologists’ possible uncertainty about their role or scope of practice in addressing spiritual concerns, which may hinder or restrict opportunities to establish and maintain a therapeutic alliance (Mrdjenovich et al., 2012 ). Whatever the barriers or enablers, it is clear that opportunities exist to develop and formalise competencies or safeguarding policies amongst psychological associations worldwide.

General Discussion

Spirituality is an expansive subject with many definitions. However, it is always concerned with the “inner world” and “inner experience” of humankind, and a set of beliefs that guide one’s interpretation of the meaning and purpose of one’s own life, that of others, and the connection to greater things beyond the human experience. It is, therefore, pertinent to see where connections between spirituality and the discipline of (and practice within) psychology lie. To do so necessitates an appraisal of critical developments throughout the history of the discipline, in which certain schools of thought were aligned to or disconnected from anything concerning the spiritual. Paradigm shifts also generate further thought about methods and methodological principles within psychological science, specifically about aspects of measurement and if/how this can be achieved with singular or multiple dimensions of spirituality.

Dimensions of Spirituality

When considering specific dimensions of spirituality (e.g. the measurement of spiritual coping) it is reasonable to argue that this advances knowledge of how a traumatic event can lead to an uplifting experience, especially when a psychological response includes a connection to spiritual experiences that are difficult to define and measure. However, specific developments in psychology that conceptually align alongside spiritual dimensions present potential explanatory models as to how these dimensions transpire. Flow and Psycap are highlighted as examples, both of which materialised in the last 50 years, but it is important to acknowledge that such developments should not be considered in isolation as determinants of direct links between psychology and spirituality. Such research and development is unlikely to occur without larger disciplinary paradigm shifts that shape methodological, theoretical, and conceptual frameworks.

An Evolving Relationship

Other health disciplines have started to explore the role of spirituality in health and well-being, and also in regard to psychological dysfunction and disorder, psychology has to some degree, remained a cautious observer. It is only in the last two decades or so that spirituality has been more carefully considered, most commonly within social psychology and the exploration of personal beliefs, attitudes, and values, and the impact of the same on behaviour. Psychology and spirituality are evidently aligned at a therapeutic level, yet it is surprising how spiritual constructs are not overtly acknowledged in training contexts or therapeutic practice. While these connections may not always be evident, there is balance in the attempts to measure spirituality and Flow within the scientific framework. The associations identified between psychology and spirituality can inform how spiritual enquiry can assist us in promoting psychological well-being, by acknowledging the history of psychology through to current paradigms.

When trying to articulate how psychological enquiry can help us to understand how and when we embrace what might be spiritual encounters in our lives it is important, if not necessary, to consider historical and current developments in the discipline. Psychologists are called upon to address subjective reality in various realms; however, the dominant historical narrative positioning it as a science does not prepare us well for spiritual care. Understanding oneself and critically enquiring into one’s own biases and attitudes is not part of culture of work, training, or mentoring. Thankfully, the more recent focus on positive psychology—personal growth, development, attainment, and a focus on strength-based approaches—contributes to the discussion of meaning and subjective reality. Psychologists are becoming increasingly involved in all aspects of healthcare, including, but not limited to—rehabilitation, adaptation and response to injury and illness; pain management; aged care; palliative care; oncology; mental health and illness; and human response to trauma. As a discipline, psychology has the power to address all aspects of human adaptation, behaviour, and growth. Given this potential, the inclusion of spirituality alongside psychology in the search for explanatory models of who we are, and what we can achieve, could surely be deemed a positive addition. Human search for meaning is integral to this.

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Research Paper Guide

Psychology Research Paper Topics

200+ Engaging Psychology Research Paper Topics for Students in 2024

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Easy Psychology Research Topics For Students

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Mental Health Awareness and Support Programs for High School Students

Psychology Research Paper Topics for College Students

The Psychology of Procrastination: Causes and Solutions
Mental Health Stigma in College Settings: Breaking Down Barriers
Examining the Relationship Between Academic Stress and Performance Anxiety
The Impact of College Transition on Students' Mental Health
Understanding the Psychology of Imposter Syndrome Among College Students
The Psychology of Group Projects: Dynamics and Conflict Resolution Strategies
The Role of Identity Development in College Students' Psychological Well-being
Cultural Adjustment Challenges Among International College Students
Examining the Impact of Student Debt on Mental Health and Well-being
The Psychology of Career Decision-Making Among College Students

Research Topics in Psychology for University Students

The Influence of Personality Traits on Academic Achievement in University Students
Understanding the Psychology of Leadership: Traits and Behaviors
Psychological Resilience in the Face of Adversity: Factors and Interventions
Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Psychological Disorders and Treatment
The Impact of Technology on Human Interaction and Communication Patterns
Cognitive Development Across the Lifespan: Theories and Applications
Workplace Psychology: Organizational Behavior and Employee Motivation
Exploring the Link Between Emotional Intelligence and Success in University Students
The Psychology of Creativity: Processes and Influencing Factors
Stress Management Techniques for University Students: Mindfulness and Relaxation Strategies

Criminal Psychology Research Paper Topics

Understanding the Motives Behind White-Collar Crimes
Juvenile Delinquency: Risk Factors and Intervention Strategies
The Role of Psychopathy in Criminal Behavior
Psychological Effects of Wrongful Convictions on Innocent Individuals
The Influence of Media Portrayals on Perceptions of Crime and Criminality
Psychological Profiling in Criminal Investigations: Advantages and Limitations
The Relationship Between Substance Abuse and Criminal Behavior
Forensic Assessment of Competency to Stand Trial: Issues and Considerations
Gender Differences in Criminal Behavior: Biological and Sociocultural Factors
The Psychological Effects of Incarceration on Inmates and Their Rehabilitation

Biological Psychology Research Paper Topics

The Role of Neurotransmitters in Mental Health Disorders
Brain Plasticity: Mechanisms and Implications for Learning and Memory
Genetic Influences on Behavior: Twin and Adoption Studies
The Neuroscience of Addiction: Understanding Brain Circuitry and Reward Pathways
Neuro Develop Mental Illness: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments
The Role of Hormones in Aggression and Social Behavior
Neuroimaging Techniques in Studying Brain Structure and Function
Neurological Basis of Psychiatric Disorders: Insights from Brain Imaging Studies
Animal Models in Biological Psychology Research: Ethical Considerations and Validity
Epigenetics and Behavior: Interactions Between Genes and Environment

Developmental Psychology Research Paper Topics

Attachment Theory: Parent-Child Relationships and Emotional Development
Cognitive Development in Infancy: Piagetian and Vygotskian Perspectives
The Impact of Parenting Styles on Child Behavior and Personality Development
Language Acquisition in Children: Theories and Stages of Development
Socialization and Peer Influence in Adolescence: Effects on Identity Formation
Understanding the Long Term Effects of Divorce on Children's Developmental Outcomes
The Role of Play in Child Development: Cognitive, Social, and Emotional Benefits
Developmental Trajectories of Mental Health Disorders in Adolescence
The Influence of Early Childhood Education on Academic Achievement
Neurodevelopmental Disorders in Children: Diagnosis and Intervention Strategies

Forensic Psychology Research Topics

Eyewitness Testimony: Reliability and Factors Affecting Accuracy
The Psychology of False Confessions: Causes and Consequences
Competency to Stand Trial Evaluations: Legal and Ethical Considerations
Risk Assessment in Criminal Justice: Predicting Recidivism and Dangerousness
Criminal Responsibility and Insanity Defense: Psychological and Legal Perspectives
Psychological Autopsy: Investigating Psychological Factors in Criminal Cases
Jury Decision-Making: Biases and Influences on Legal Outcomes
Interrogation Techniques: Ethical and Psychological Considerations
Psychological Factors in Wrongful Convictions: Exonerations and Lessons Learned
The Role of Forensic Psychology in Child Custody Evaluations

Abnormal Psychology Research Paper Topics

Understanding the Spectrum of Mood Disorders: Depression, Bipolar, and Cyclothymia
Anxiety Disorders: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment Approaches
Schizophrenia: Neurobiological, Psychological, and Social Factors
Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders: PTSD and Acute Stress Disorder
Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders: Understanding Obsessions and Compulsions
Dissociative Disorders: Identity, Amnesia, and Depersonalization
Sleep Disorders: Insomnia, Narcolepsy, and Parasomnias
Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Autism Spectrum Disorder and ADHD
Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders: Assessment and Treatment Approaches
Gender Dysphoria: Understanding Gender Identity and Transgender Health

Cognitive Psychology Research Topics

Memory Processes: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval
Problem-Solving and Decision-Making: Heuristics and Biases
Cognitive Development: Piagetian and Information-Processing Perspectives
Working Memory: Capacity, Function, and Individual Differences
Executive Functions: Inhibition, Shifting, and Updating
Cognitive Neuroscience: Brain Mechanisms of Cognitive Processes
Concept Formation and Categorization: Psychological and Neural Basis
Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Modeling: Applications in Psychology
Cognitive Rehabilitation: Strategies for Improving Cognitive Functioning
Metacognition: Monitoring and Regulating Cognitive Processes

Clinical Psychology Research Topics

Anxiety Disorders: Assessment, Diagnosis, and Treatment Options
Schizophrenia Treatment: Medications, Therapy, and Psychosocial Interventions
Couples Therapy: Approaches and Effectiveness in Improving Relationship Satisfaction
Substance Use Disorders: Prevention, Assessment, and Treatment Modalities
Trauma-Focused Therapies: EMDR, Prolonged Exposure, and Narrative Exposure Therapy
Group Therapy: Benefits, Process, and Techniques for Facilitating Change
Suicide Prevention: Risk Assessment, Intervention Strategies, and Postvention Support
Eating Disorder Treatment: Multidisciplinary Approaches and Relapse Prevention Strategies
Psychodynamic Psychotherapy: Theory, Techniques, and Applications in Clinical Practice
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT): Skills Training and Effectiveness in Treating Borderline Personality Disorder

Positive Psychology Research Paper Topics

The Science of Happiness: Determinants and Measurement of Subjective Well-being
Resilience: Factors and Interventions for Building Psychological Strength
Gratitude and Well-being: Benefits of Cultivating a Thankful Mindset
Character Strengths and Virtues: Assessing and Enhancing Personal Qualities
Posttraumatic Growth: Thriving in the Aftermath of Adversity
Purpose in Life: Meaningfulness and Well-being Across the Lifespan
Empathy and Altruism: The Psychological Benefits of Helping Others
Strengths-Based Therapy: Utilizing Personal Strengths to Overcome Challenges
Humor and Laughter: Therapeutic Benefits for Physical and Mental Health
Positive Parenting: Strategies for Fostering Resilient and Happy Children

Social Psychology Research Topics

Conformity and Obedience: The Influence of Group Dynamics on Individual Behavior
Attitudes and Attitude Change: Theories and Applications in Persuasion
Prejudice and Discrimination: Causes, Consequences, and Interventions
Group Cohesion and Cooperation: Factors That Promote Effective Teamwork
Interpersonal Relationships: Attachment Styles and Relationship Satisfaction
Stereotypes and Stereotyping: Cognitive Processes and Implications for Behavior
Aggression and Violence: Biological, Psychological, and Sociocultural Factors
Prosocial Behavior: The Motivations and Benefits of Helping Others
Intergroup Relations: Conflict Resolution and Reconciliation Strategies
Social Perception and Judgment: Biases and Heuristics in Social Cognition

Lifespan Psychology Research Paper Topics

Prenatal Development: Influences on Fetal Growth and Maternal Health
Adolescent Identity Development: Exploring Identity Formation and Self-Concept
Adult Attachment Styles: Continuity and Change Across the Lifespan
Midlife Crisis: Myth or Reality? Examining Psychological Changes in Middle Adulthood
Retirement and Aging: Psychological Adjustment and Well-being in Later Life
Longevity and Health: Factors That Contribute to Healthy Aging and Quality of Life
Aging and Memory: Exploring the Effects of Aging on Memory Processes
End-of-Life Care: Psychosocial Factors in Palliative and Hospice Care Settings
Wisdom and Aging: Psychological Perspectives on Wisdom Development
Resilience in Older Adults: Coping Strategies and Adaptation to Life Transitions

History of Psychology Research Paper Topics

Origins of Psychology: Philosophical and Scientific Foundations
Structuralism vs. Functionalism: Early Schools of Thought in Psychology
Freud and Psychoanalysis: Contributions to Modern Psychology and Criticisms
Behaviorism: The Rise and Fall of Behaviorist Principles in Psychology
Gestalt Psychology: Insights into Perception and Cognitive Processes
Humanistic Psychology: The Person-Centered Approach and Self-Actualization
Evolutionary Psychology: Darwinian Perspectives on Human Behavior and Cognition
Feminist Psychology: Critiques of Traditional Theories and Gender Bias in Research
Psychobiography: Studying the Lives of Psychologists and Their Contributions
Development of Clinical Psychology: Evolution of Diagnosis and Treatment Approaches

Interesting Psychology Topics for Presentation

The Power of Nonverbal Communication: Body Language and Facial Expressions
The Psychology of Motivation: Understanding What Drives Human Behavior
Emotional Intelligence: The Key to Success in Relationships and Career
The Science of Happiness: Strategies for Cultivating a Fulfilling Life
The Psychology of Memory: How We Remember and Forget Information
Stress Management Techniques: Coping Strategies for Dealing with Chronic Pain
The Science of Sleep: Exploring the Importance of Rest and Recovery
The Psychology of Creativity: Unlocking Your Creative Potential
Understanding Personality Types: The Big Five and Beyond
The Psychology of Decision-Making: Strategies for Making Better Choices

Psychology Research Topics on Social Media

Social Media Addiction: Causes, Consequences, and Interventions
Cyberbullying: Prevalence, Effects, and Prevention Strategies
FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) and Its Effects on Mental Health and Well-being
Influencer Marketing: Psychological Persuasion Techniques and Consumer Behavior
Privacy Concerns on Social Media: Trust, Control, and Online Safety
The Psychology of Viral Content: What Makes Posts Go Viral?
Online Social Support Networks: Benefits and Limitations for Mental Health
Social Media and Body Image: Comparisons, Ideals, and Self-Esteem
The Role of Social Media in Political Polarization and Echo Chambers
Digital Detox: Strategies for Balancing Screen Time and Real-Life Connections

Psychology Research Topics Related to Human Development

The Influence of Parenting Styles on Child Development: Authoritative, Authoritarian, and Permissive Approaches
Sibling Dynamics and Their Effects on Social and Emotional Development in Childhood
The Impact of Family Structure and Dynamics on Adolescent Mental Health and Well-being
Transitioning to Adulthood: Challenges and Opportunities in Emerging Adulthood
Gender Development: Biological and Sociocultural Influences on Gender Identity Formation
The Influence of Socioeconomic Status on Academic Achievement and Educational Attainment Across the Lifespan
Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma: Understanding the Effects of Historical and Familial Trauma on Development
Resilience in Childhood: Protective Factors and Coping Strategies in the Face of Adversity
Cultural Variations in Parenting Practices and Their Implications for Child Development
Aging Well: Promoting Healthy Aging and Quality of Life in Later Adulthood

Psychology Research Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy

The Efficacy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy in Treating Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis
Borderline Personality Disorder: Causes and Evidence-Based Treatment Approaches
Internet Addiction Disorder: Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment Strategies
Neurobiological Mechanisms of Depression: Insights from Brain Imaging Studies and Pharmacological Interventions
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) for Emotion Dysregulation: Skills Training and Mindfulness Practices
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): Neurodevelopmental Profiles, Early Detection, and Intervention Strategies
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Children: Assessment, Diagnosis, and Multimodal Treatment Approaches
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Etiology, Symptomatology, and Exposure Response Prevention Therapy
Schizophrenia: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Psychosis, Social Skills Training, and Medication Management
Bipolar Disorder: Neurobiological Correlates, Mood Stabilization, and Psychoeducation Strategies

Experimental Psychology Research Topics

Memory Processing Mechanisms in Human Brain
Perception and Attention: Investigating Selective Attention and Visual Perception
Learning and Conditioning: Classical and Operant Conditioning Paradigms and Learning Strategies
Cognitive Processes in Decision Making: Heuristics, Biases, and Rational Decision Making
Social Cognition and Attitudes: Attitude Formation, Persuasion Techniques, and Implicit Bias
Sensation and Perception: Psychophysical Methods and Sensory Thresholds
Motor Control and Coordination: Motor Learning, Skill Acquisition, and Movement Analysis
Emotion and Affect: Studying Emotional Processing, Expression, and Regulation
Neuroimaging Techniques: Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), Electroencephalography (EEG), and Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)
Psychometric Testing and Assessment: Developing and Validating Psychological Measures and Instruments

How to Select a Good Psychology Research Paper Topic

Selecting a good research paper topic is a crucial step in the paper writing process. It lays the foundation for your study and determines its scope and direction.

Here are some key steps to consider when choosing a topic:

Identify Your Interests: Start by exploring areas of psychology that genuinely interest you. Whether it's cognitive, developmental, or social psychology, selecting a topic that aligns with your passions will make the research process more engaging and rewarding.
Consider Current Trends: Stay informed about the latest developments and trends in the field of psychology. Browse recent publications, attend conferences, and follow relevant journals to identify emerging topics and areas of research that are generating interest and attention.
Narrow Down Your Focus: Once you've identified a general area of interest, narrow down your focus to a specific topic or research question. Consider the scope of your study, the available resources, and the feasibility of conducting research within your chosen area.
Evaluate the Literature: Conduct a thorough review of the existing literature to gain insights into previous research findings, gaps in the literature, and areas that warrant further investigation. Look for unanswered questions, controversies, or areas where conflicting findings exist.
Consider Practical Implications: Think about the practical implications of your research topic and its potential relevance to real-world issues or applications. Consider how your findings could contribute to theoretical advancements, clinical practice, or public policy.
Brainstorm Potential Research Questions: Generate a list of potential research questions or hypotheses that align with your chosen topic. Consider the feasibility of addressing these questions within the constraints of your study, including time, resources, and ethical considerations.

How to Write a Good Psychology Research Paper?

Writing a good psychology research paper can be a structured process if you follow these steps:

Select a Compelling Topic: Choose a research topic that interests you and is relevant. Ensure it's specific, researchable, and has a clear research question.
Review Existing Literature: Conduct a thorough literature review to understand the current state of knowledge on your topic.
Formulate a Hypothesis: Based on your research question and literature review, create a clear and testable hypothesis.
Design Your Study: Decide on your research method (experimental, survey, observational, etc.) and create a detailed research design.
Collect Data: Execute your study, following your design meticulously. Ensure ethical considerations are met.
Analyze Data: Use appropriate statistical tools to analyze your data. Interpret the results in the context of your hypothesis.
Organize Your Paper: Follow a standard research paper outline or structure with sections like Introduction, Method, Results, and Discussion. Write clearly and concisely.
Cite Sources: Properly cite all sources using a recognized citation style (e.g., APA, MLA).
Edit and Proofread: Revise your paper for clarity, coherence, and grammar. Proofread to eliminate errors.
Seek Feedback: Have peers or mentors review your paper for feedback and suggestions.

Check out this video to learn how to write a research paper more in-depth!

Remember, a good psychology research paper is not just about the content but also the presentation. By following these steps and paying attention to detail, you'll increase your chances of producing a high-quality research paper that contributes to the field.

All in all, selecting a good topic for psychology research papers is an essential aspect of conducting meaningful and impactful research in the field of psychology.

By choosing topics from the above list, researchers can ensure that their ideas are both engaging and academically practical.

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200 Plus Psychology Research Paper Topics for Students

Psychology research holds an extraordinary power to unravel the human mind’s and behavior’s complexities. The key to unlocking this power lies in selecting the right research topic. It’s like picking up a topic that can lead to remarkable discoveries and profound insights. Speaking of which, this blog post presents over 200 awe-inspiring psychology research paper topics for students and researchers alike. Of course, a Best Affordable writing service can help, but these topics will allow you to handle your assignment independently. Let’s get started!

Table of Contents

Best Techniques for Choosing a Perfect Psychology Research Paper Topic

Here are some of the best techniques to help you in selecting the perfect psychology research topic:

Personal Interest

Think about what sparks your interest in psychology. Pick something that intrigues you, and you’d like to learn more about. This way, the research will be much more enjoyable and motivating for you to dig deeper.

Literature Review

Do a thorough search of the psychology literature to get a sense of all the research that has been done. See what questions have been answered, what hasn’t been answered, and what new and interesting trends have emerged. That’ll help you hone in on a topic that could be meaningful for the field.

Brainstorming

Try having some brainstorming sessions to come up with ideas for research topics. Jot down any thoughts that come to mind, even if they initially seem a bit out there. Look into different parts of psychology that interest you, like different theories or applications.

Consult with Professors and Peers

See if you can get advice from experienced teachers or mentors who know their stuff and can give you helpful tips and advice. Talking to other people in the same field as you can also help to give you new ideas and help you figure out what to research.

Feasibility and Resources

Consider whether you have the resources, data, and time for your chosen topic. Ensure you have the right research materials, data-gathering techniques, and ethical issues figured out for your topic.

Relevance and Impact

Think about how important your research topic is. Does it tackle a big problem or add something new to the field of psychology? Consider the effects and implications of your research to ensure it makes a real difference.

Narrowing Down

Once you’ve got some ideas for potential topics, look at them and see how they match up with factors like the amount of research you’d need to do, how realistic it is, and whether it fits with the goals you have for your studies. Pick something specific enough to get into it but broad enough that there’s a lot to explore.

200 Unique and Impressive Psychology Research Topics

Here’s the list of impressive psychology research topics:

Clinical Psychology Research Paper Topics

Clinical psychology is a fascinating science branch, even though it can be complicated. When it comes to picking research topics, students can find themselves stuck. But this list is the answer.

Clinical Contributions to the Psychology
Psychological and emotional processes of revenge
Compare two different psychological disorders
Comparison and contrast between two different types of therapy.
How people’s lives are affected by anxiety disorders
Disorder diagnosis and clinical treatment
Symptoms and effects of long-term childhood trauma
Impact of trauma-based disorders on daily life functioning
Emotional and sexual abuse, differences, and symptoms
Use and Effectiveness of online therapy in clinical psychology
Most effective treatments for treating childhood behavioral disorders
Influence of the aging process on mental illness
Psychological trauma due to fear of war
The trauma of living in a war
Identification and Early Intervention of Victims of recent trauma

Cognitive Psychology Research Paper Topics

If you are into cognitive psychology, check out this list of great research topics .

Choice behavior: Analytical Study
Speech perception and communication
Sentence processing and language acquisition
Short-term and long-term memory: Psychology of forgetting
Retrieval from memory, nature, and analysis
Visual and auditory imagery: Mechanisms and behaviors
Control and dynamics of the Memorial system
Reading and Understanding
Conceptual representation and categorization
Visual perception and optical behaviors
Speech and auditory recognition and characterization
Focus and division of attention
Cognitive processing
Collective and individual obedience–psychological explanation
Reasoning process – Study in comparison between adults and children
Why do some people stay young and some age prematurely
The ability to read and spell in children with disabilities

Developmental Psychology

Here’s another list of fascinating topics on the interesting subject of psychology.

Do the kids who eat breakfast do better in school than those who don’t?
Impact of parenting style on Children’s physical activity level
How lack of involvement or authoritarian parents’ behavior impacts their children’s activity level
Are bullied students more likely to have lower grades than their non-bullied peers?
Impacts of Bullying on a Child’s academic progress
Changes in short-term memory as we age
Do brain games like word searches, sudoku, and word matching help older adults sharpen their cognitive skills?
Does birth order have an impact on a child’s behaviour regarding procrastination ? Are firstborns less likely to procrastinate?

Evolutionary Psychology Research Paper Topics

Being a psychology student, you must know how the field has evolved. Here you go with the list:

History and Foundations of Psychology
Socio-family deprivation and institutionalization of minors
Pyschopedagogical study of gifted children
Authority and consequences as determining criteria for understanding and remembering stories of socio-conventional content
Personality and functions of the teacher according to non-directive orientations
Qualitative analysis: concept and possibilities through graphic language
Motivation, interest, and aptitude of the mentally handicapped toward sport
Assessment of thinking skills in situations of social interaction
Conditioning Dimensions in the Practice of school integration
Associative Competition in human learning
Students conceptions and conceptual change
A longitudinal study on the knowledge of the digestive process in Primary Education
Self-esteem and achievement Motivation of schoolchildren

Forensic Psychology Research Paper Topics

If forensic psychology is your interest, you can go with a topic from this list.

Juridical and Legal Psychology
Forensic Psychopathology
Advice and experts in the judicial field
Evaluation and Intervention in Separation and divorce processes
Evaluation and treatment of victims (domestic violence, sexual abuse, head injuries, etc.)
Evaluation, treatment, and Prognosis of Adult and juvenile delinquents
Assessment of Psychic Damage
psychology of testimony
Evaluation of Civil and labor capacity
Court internment.
Research and Training in Forensic Psychology
Guardianship and Custody of minors (capacity of the spouses)
Establish visiting regime and monitoring of it
Adoption and guardianship of minors.
The psychological effect of Separation or Divorce
Nullity processes
Deprivation of parental authority

Health Topics for Psychology Research Paper

Health and psychology are pretty much interrelated. Find out more about these research topics before you proceed to create a psychology research paper outline .

Health promotion and disease prevention
Reproductive Health
Children’s Health and the Role of Psychology
Health of adolescents
Patient care and Intervention with aesthetic requests
Historical evolution of the causal interpretation of the health-disease process
The Psychology of Health: the construction of a Field
Health Psychology: background, definition, and Perspectives
Health psychology: conceptual and historical aspects
Health psychology perspectives in the United States
Psychology and collective health
Psychological pathologies and their social dimension
Stress and social support
Psychological care for chronic patients
Overt disease at diagnosis
Risk factors. Stress. Personal variables
Adaptation and adjustment to the disease
Psychology of Death and Coping with Death

Neuropsychology Topics for Paper

Here you go with another list of hot psychology research topics related to neuropsychology:

Concept and History of Neuropsychology
Biological bases of higher mental processes
Diagnostic and evaluation techniques in Neuropsychology
Memory disturbances: Amnesia
Agnosia’s: Deficits in object recognition
Aphasias: Language disorders
Apraxia: Movement control disorders
Alternatives that you can currently use to maintain a healthy mind
Symptoms and treatment of motion sickness
The Intervention of virtual reality in Neurorehabilitation
Causes of acquired brain damage
Sleep Disorders and the Intervention of Neuropsychology
The effects of alcohol on the brain
Elastic epilepsy and its way of affecting the patient
Causes, symptoms, and treatments of Gelastic Epilepsy
Neuroeducation and its implementation in the classroom
Benefits of neuropsychological exercises in Patients and Society
Disorders in the Development of Oral and written language
Post-stroke depression and the Impact it leaves on the patient
The Mozart Effect and its Intervention in the Brain

Occupational Psychological Topics to Research

This one is a mildly touched area regarding psychology research. It means you have a greater chance of surprising your professor by choosing a topic from here.

Anxiety and its Impact on work performance
Work efficiency parameters from an emotional approach
Emotional effects of work stress
Variables of the personality of an individual with emotional disorders
Behavior and organizational development of a Worker
Perspectives of the Quality of working life and its effective organizational relationship
Methodology designed to promote the comprehensive development of personnel in a government company
Action plan to improve relations between senior managers and subordinates
Emotional marketing strategies to increase employee confidence
Sexual harassment at work: Causes and measures of prevention
Diversity, inclusion, and equity: How does it impact labor organizations
Work well-being and its influence
How to encourage employee motivation
Psychometric Evaluations in the Workplace
Measures to control work stress
Work Stress in Pakistan
Proposal of strategies for the selection, evaluation, and training by competencies
Incidences of psychosocial risks that affect the work performance of the subordinates

Analytical Psychology Research Paper Topics

What’s the Role of Analytics in Psychology? Find out this and more by researching a topic from this list.

Articulation of psychic opposites
The Individual process of naturalness of growth
The deployment of the self
Psychic transformation
Psychic functions in opposition
Jung as an Analytical psychologist
The Jungian Creative Unconscious
Opposites and self-regulation of the psyche

Applied Psychology Topics for Research

Research these topics and learn how psychology can do wonders for human beings.

How some background music in a work environment can contribute to higher productivity
What kind of prompts will inspire people to volunteer their time to charities
Strategies that work best to motivate workers
Research to find the treatment approach is most effective in reducing anxiety.
A program for the development of prosocial behaviors in kindergarten children
Collaborative episodes regulated by an academic peer in problem-solving
Functional analysis of the behavior
The economy from inter behaviorism
Inter behavioral analysis of contingencies (perspective)
Analysis of reading adjustment of deaf students

Behavioral Psychology Research Paper Topics

It’s very important to know what impacts people’s moods.

Psychological effects produced by the pandemic
Anxiety disorders
Mood disorders
Couple’s therapy
Youth Child Therapy
Innovative Technologies to Apply in Psychology
Internet addiction
Third generation therapies
Psychological evaluation
Statistics and psychometrics

Community Psychology Topics for Research

How important is psychology for the well-being of a community? Research on these topics and get to know them.

The benefits of putting a psychologist in Community Social Services
State of development, progress, and obstacles for the communal healing
The Psychology of Social Intervention as a conceptual framework
Definition and institutional background of the System of Social Services
Background and analysis of the insertion process of psychologists
Analysis of the policy construction process
The tension generated by care models and palliatives used in social policies
Tension regarding strategies participatory and empowering

Consumer Psychology Topics

There’s also a science behind a consumer preferring one product or one seller over the other. Find that out with these consumer psychology research topics.

Consumer behavior
A Strategic Model of Economic and Social Networks
Social network theory
Communication and power
Personal influence: the individual in the process of mass communication
Networks and groups: models of strategic formation
Structural Investigation of Supply Networks
The evolving brand logic: A service-dominant logic perspective
Consumer Co-creation in New Product Development

If you want to make a big splash in the field of psychology research, it all starts with choosing the right topic. Hopefully, this blog post was helpful in letting you know about some interesting topics for your psychology research. If you are still in sixes and sevens about how to write a psychology research paper, just count on the professional expertise of our writers to get you through.

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History of Psychology Research Paper

Sample History of Psychology Research Paper. Browse other research paper examples and check the list of research paper topics for more inspiration. If you need a religion research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our research paper writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

Psychology occupies a middle position among the sciences, between methodological orientations derived in part from the physical and biological sciences and a subject matter extending into the social and human sciences. The struggle to create a science of both subjectivity and Behavior and the eﬀort to develop professional practices utilizing that science’s results provide interesting examples for the reach, and also the limits, of scientiﬁc ideals in modern life. This research paper presents a brief account of the social and cultural relations of psychological thought and practice from the eighteenth through the twentieth centuries.

Academic Writing, Editing, Proofreading, And Problem Solving Services

Get 10% off with 24start discount code, 1. routes to institutionalization, 1700–1914.

From the earliest times philosophical arguments about the nature of humans and of human knowledge have included claims about mental states and psychological processes. Protestant scholastics ﬁrst used the term ‘psychology’ in discussions of the relation of soul and body in the sixteenth century. Christian Wolﬀ’s systematic accounts of ‘rational’ and ‘empirical’ psychology published in 1732 and 1734, respectively, marked out a distinct subject of scholarship, with journals and practitioners, a subject matter and intended methods of study. But that subject generally remained a teaching and research ﬁeld within philosophy and pedagogy. The introduction of so-called ‘physiological’ psychology in the middle third of the nineteenth century and the institutionalization of laboratory instruction on the model of the natural sciences soon thereafter had a major impact on the development of the discipline. However, experimental psychology never succeeded in dominating the ﬁeld entirely. The institutionalization of psychology took diﬀerent forms in diﬀerent parts of Europe and the USA.

1.1 Britain And France

Britain was the home of the statistical research practices pioneered by Francis Galton. These practices targeted not psychological processes assumed to be essentially similar in all individuals, but rather distributions of performances among individuals. In Essay on Human Faculty (1883) and other works, Galton attempted to show that both physical and mental capabilities are quantitatively distributed in the same way, and that both are therefore inherited to the same—large—extent. In a 1904 paper, Charles Spearman took the approach a step further by distinguishing between ‘general intelligence,’ or ‘g,’ a factor underlying all performances in a test series and presumed to be hereditary, and so-called ‘s’ factors accounting for diﬀerential performance on speciﬁc tests, presumed to be teachable. By the second third of the twentieth century, this emphasis on individual diﬀerences expressed in statistical terms had become a predominant research mode in both academic and applied psychology in the English-speaking world. Even so, as late as the 1920s there were only six university chairs for psychology in England. Psychological practitioners of various kinds far outnumbered academics in the membership of the British Psychological Association at the time of its founding in 1901.

In France, philosophers Hippolyte Taine and Theodule Ribot shared a coherent vision of the ﬁeld as a synthesis of medical and philosophical approaches. However, Ribot’s university course in psychology, ﬁrst oﬀered at the Sorbonne in 1885, was located in the Faculty of Letters rather than the Faculty of Sciences, while the laboratory demonstrations took place in the Faculty of Medicine. Despite this fragmented situation, he encouraged younger scholars, such as the physician Pierre Janet and the biologist Alfred Binet, to adopt a natural scientiﬁc approach.

When he became director of the ﬁrst psychological laboratory in France, located in the Sorbonne’s Faculty of Sciences, in 1890, Binet attempted to establish an explicitly biological science of higher mental processes, which he called ‘individual psychology.’ In 1894 he founded France’s ﬁrst scientiﬁc psychological journal, L’Annee Psychologique. A commission from the Ministry of Education led to his publication, with Theodore Simon, of the ﬁrst intelligence tests in 1905. The tests’ purpose was not to measure intelligence directly—Binet doubted that this was possible—but rather to establish practical criteria for separating ‘subnormal’ from normal children, in order to provide the former with special education. But schoolteachers opposed the use of the tests in France, and here, as in England, extensive academic institutionalization of psychology did not follow.

1.2 Germany And The USA

Germany is generally regarded as the homeland of scientiﬁc psychology. In response to Immanuel Kant’s claim that mental events, lacking the attribute of space, could not be measured, Johann Heinrich Herbart presented a program for the measurement of sensations in 1816. In 1860, physicist and philosopher Gustav Theodor Fechner realized the program, with modiﬁcations, in his psychophysics—the measurement of relations between external stimuli and justnoticeable diﬀerences in sensation. Working in part with Fechner’s techniques and in part with methods derived from laboratory physiology, Wilhelm Wundt established the ﬁrst continuously operating laboratory for ‘physiological psychology,’ as he called it, in Leipzig in 1879. Other approaches widely received at the time included the ‘medical psychology’ of Rudolph Hermann Lotze, Franz Brentano’s descriptive Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint (1874) and the Volkerpsychologie launched in 1860 by Moritz Lazarus and Haim Steinthal, which took an ethnological, linguistic, and historical approach. Other experimenters, such as Georg Elias Muller and Carl Stumpf, worked parallel to Wundt, but pursued quite diﬀerent research programs.

In Wundt’s and other German laboratories, in contrast to the situation in the UK or France, experimenter and subject were generally equal in status and often changed roles. German experimenters employed mechanical apparatus to control stimulus presentation, but they supplemented their data charts with extended records of their subjects’ self-observations. In this way they engaged in an instrument-aided version of the self-discovery traditional to members of the German educated middle classes. Thanks to journals such as the Zeitschrift fur Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane, founded in 1890, as well as the Society for Experimental Psychology, founded in 1904 with Muller as ﬁrst chairman, the ‘new psychology’ was on ﬁrm ground in Germany by 1905. But there was no agreement on the subject matter and methods of the discipline.

One reason for this was what Kurt Danziger (1990) has called the ‘positivist repudiation’ of Wundt by experimenters, including Muller, Hermann Ebbinghaus and Oswald Kulpe. Though Wundt denied that experimental methods were suﬃcient to study the higher mental processes, these scientists extended apparatus-driven experimental techniques from sensation and perception to memory and thinking. Wundt opposed premature eﬀorts to apply laboratory techniques in real-world situations, but William Stern, Karl Marbe, and others assessed the veracity of witnesses’ testimony in court and tested the performances of schoolchildren at diﬀerent times of day or the skills of industrial workers. In addition, an explicitly humanistic philosophical tradition persisted, with competing conceptions of the subject matter, method, and practical uses of psychology.

At the turn of the century, neo-Kantians and other philosophers attacked the intrusion of ‘psychologism’ into their ﬁeld; in 1912, over 110 German teachers of philosophy signed a public statement opposing the appointment of psychologists to professorships in philosophy. But this protest failed, because state oﬃcials were not convinced that the discipline had any obvious link to professional or civil service training. Until the Nazi era, experimenting psychologists in Germany maintained their own laboratories, journals, and association, but generally continued to compete for chairs in philosophy.

Wundt’s US students transferred the new experimental psychology from Germany to the USA in the 1880s and 1890s, but the positivistic concepts they employed to justify using such tools were quite diﬀerent from Wundt’s. The sheer size of the country as well as the decentralized structure of the emerging US university supported rapid institutionalization. By 1910 there were more psychological laboratories in the USA than universities in Germany. The founding of the American Psychological Association in 1892 predated that of corresponding European societies. Despite this rapid growth, the new discipline exhibited some continuity with the past. Instruction in psychology had long been part of the required philosophy courses taught by college presidents such as James McCosh at Princeton. These courses and their teachers encouraged an orientation toward moral issues and concentration on useful knowledge rather than the emphasis on empirical foundations for philosophy of mind prevalent in Germany.

Also formative of the discipline in the USA was the work of Darwin and Spencer. Evolutionary thinking reinforced the emphasis on biological functions vs. mental faculties, and also encouraged comparison of adult humans with children and animals. Such views supported evolutionary theories of cognition like those of James Mark Baldwin, and also granted psychologists so inclined the authority to present themselves as agents of human betterment. Education and child study thus came to be of central concern to US psychology; here John Dewey, G. Stanley Hall, and Edward Thorndike were the opinion leaders, though they advanced diﬀerent research and reform programs.

William James combined science and reform in his own way. Himself an evolutionist in certain respects, he created, with Dewey and James Rowland Angell, a distinctly American functional psychology. Though committed to psychology as a natural science, he criticized the tendency to substitute psychologists’ conceptions of reality for their subjects’ reported experiences in his classic text, The Principles of Psychology (1890). He favored a more expansive conception of the subject matter of psychology, but his later eﬀorts to study the experiences of psychics and mystics with the same objectivity as those of ‘normal’ adults was not widely accepted. Instead, an emphasis on social usefulness that presupposed an engineering model of science became central to the establishment of psychology in the USA.

Disagreements on the scope and methods of psychology in the USA paralleled those in Germany. A group of experimentalists led by Edward Bradford Titchener, which began to meet separately from the APA in 1904, did not oppose applied work per se, but insisted on rigorous method both within and outside the lab. In contrast, activists like Hall, who pioneered the use of questionnaires in the USA, were less concerned with laboratory-style rigor than with translating moral issues into scientiﬁc ones.

In this atmosphere, intelligence testing became more popular in the USA than in France. Henry H. Goddard, director of a training school for so-called ‘feeble-minded’ children, propagated the tests as instruments of human betterment. Lewis M. Terman revised the Binet–Simon scale for use in US schools in 1915, and thus linked ‘mental age’ to school class years. This move proved well suited to US schools as sorters of a socially and ethnically diverse population.

1.3 Common Features Of The ‘New’ Psychology

Despite these multiple routes to institutionalization and diﬀerences in approach, certain common features of the ‘new’ psychology can be identiﬁed. One of these common features was a reliance on measuring instruments to establish objectivity and acquire scientiﬁc standing. With their apparatus for the controlled presentation of stimuli and measuring reaction times, experimental psychologists reconstituted the object to which their eﬀorts were addressed. What had been mental and moral capacities became psychical functions; and the sensing, perceiving, conscious mind became an instrument that functioned, or failed to function, in a measurably ‘normal’ way.

A second common feature of the ‘new’ psychology was the use of physiological analogies based in turn on mechanical physics and technology. The term ‘inhibition,’ for example, blended organic and machine metaphors and applied them to both human action and to society. Soon after scientists and engineers applied the idea of energy conservation to human labor in order to create a science of work intended to make the ‘human motor’ run more eﬃciently, Emil Kraepelin and others extended the eﬀort to ‘mental work’; Hugo Munsterberg gave the result the name ‘psychotechnics.’

A third common feature of the ‘new’ psychology was a studied vagueness about the mind–body relationship. Many psychologists asserted some version of psychophysical parallelism or claimed a functional relationship of mind and brain, but few were very precise about the nature of that relationship. A fourth common feature was the contested use of the term ‘experimental’ itself. Until late in the century, the term psychologie experimentale referred in both France and Germany to seances. The experimentalists actively opposed spiritualism and attempted to expose quack practitioners, but James, Pierre Janet, and others studied altered mental states in psychics and mystics.

This broader view was not widely accepted, due to a ﬁfth common feature of the ‘new’ psychology—a tendency to restrict its subject matter to topics that could be addressed by the natural scientiﬁc methods and apparatus then available, such as psychophysics, sensory psychology, attention span, and retention. One result was an uneasy tension between eﬀorts to preserve the notion of a volitional, active mind and the actual stuﬀ of experimental research—measurable reactions to external stimuli. Another result was the exclusion of social or ‘crowd’ psychology; measuring instrument experimental methodology was plainly not applicable to group Behavior.

A sixth common feature of the new psychological science was its gendered dimension. The head–heart dichotomy and the worship of the (female) ‘beautiful soul’ persisted through the nineteenth century; but its role in the ‘new’ psychology was ambivalent. The generalized, ‘normal’ adult mind that the experimentalists usually claimed to be their subject matter was at least implicitly the common property of both sexes, but the vocabulary and practices of objective science carried unmistakably masculine symbolism.

2. The Era Of Competing Schools, 1910–45

The struggle for intellectual dominance in early twentieth-century psychology has been depicted since the 1930s as a battle of competing ‘schools.’ This view has its uses, but it conveys the false impression that all schools competed on an equal basis everywhere. Behaviorism captured both expert and popular attention in the USA in the 1920s, but the new approach was hardly taken seriously in other countries until after 1945. The ‘reﬂexology’ of Russian physiologists Ivan Pavlov and V. M. Bekhterev did not become a dominant approach in psychology even in the USSR until the 1940s. Gestalt psychology and other initiatives from Germany were received with interest but also with skepticism in other countries. Psychoanalysis had established itself as an international movement by the 1920s, but acquired few academic adherents at the time.

In German-speaking Europe, the ‘crisis of psychology’ announced by Vienna professor Karl Buhler in a 1927 book reﬂected continuing disagreement about subject matter and methods. The most widely received view internationally was that of Gestalt psychology, developed by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koﬀka. They claimed, among other things, that immediately perceived structures (Gestalten) and relationships rather than isolated sensations are the primary constituents of consciousness, and employed holistic vocabulary to ground a rigorously natural-scientiﬁc world view. Felix Krueger, head of the Leipzig school of ‘holistic psychology’ (Ganzheitspsychologie), emphasized the role of feeling in perception and espoused Neo-Romantic cultural conservatism. William Stern’s personalism focused on the individual as a ‘psychophysical whole’ in a way consistent with political liberalism.

The situation of psychology as a profession in Germany was equally contested. The challenge of philosopher Eduard Spranger’s ‘humanistic’ psychology, as well as alternative professional practices such as handwriting analysis advocated by Ludwig Klages and typological personality diagnostics such as that of Ernst Kretschmer, raised the pressure to develop modern research instruments congruent with German cultural tradition. In Austria, the work of the Vienna Psychological Institute formed a bridge between old and new, theory and practice, Europe and America. Karl Buhler’s department of general psychology conducted basic cognition research in the tradition of Brentano. At the same time, in rooms located at the city’s adoption center, the institute’s department of child and youth psychology, led by Charlotte Buhler, created performance measures for assessing the Behavioral development of infants modeled on those of Arnold Gesell at Yale. In addition, Rockefeller Foundation funding supported the sociographic and survey research of the institute’s Research Center for Economic Psychology under Paul Lazarsfeld in the late 1920s and early 1930s. All this put the Vienna institute, along with those in Jena and Hamburg, in the forefront of the transition to practice-oriented basic research in German-speaking psychology.

In the USA, multiple versions of Behaviorism competed for attention in the 1920s. As proclaimed by John B. Watson in 1913, radical Behaviorism excluded consciousness altogether from psychological science in favor of ‘prediction and control’ of Behavior; in his later writings Watson advocated Pavlovian conditioning as a form of social engineering. Far more signiﬁcant within the discipline at the time were the social science and child development programs generously funded by the Laura Spellman Rockefeller Foundation. The workers in these programs were not doctrinaire Behaviorists, but they believed that measuring children’s growth and IQ test scores over time would produce scientiﬁc norms of human development, and hoped to utilize this knowledge to rationalize society. Critics of Behaviorism called on Gestalt psychology for support, while Harvard professor Gordon Allport and other prominent psychologists advocated a person-centered conception of psychology.

The 1930s were dominated by competing versions of neo-Behaviorism. Edward Tolman tried to integrate purposive motivation and cognitive processes into Behavior theory, going so far as to claim that white rats framed ‘hypotheses’ as to which maze route would yield an expected food reward. Clark Hull developed an elaborate model for learning theory based on what he took to be Newton’s physics, and tried to expand the model from the habit hierarchies of classical conditioning to personality theory. Finally, B. F. Skinner developed operant conditioning in the 1930s, producing careful measurements of the relative likelihood of simple Behaviors such as rats or pigeons pressing a bar to obtain pellet, of food under rigorously controlled conditions and suspending all eﬀorts to explain such Behavior.

A prominent non-Behaviorist eﬀort to bring systematic theorizing into psychology was that of Berlin emigre Kurt Lewin. Lewin advocated experimental study of ideal-typical Behavioral situations, exempliﬁed in his Iowa studies of ‘democratic’ and ‘authoritarian’ leadership in children’s groups. Lewin and his US competitors shared an admiration for classical physics and a willingness to draw upon philosophy of science, especially operationism and logical positivism, to legitimate their positions. They diﬀered in their basic conceptual foundations and also in the physics they chose to emulate. The competition was resolved only by the rapid fragmentation of the discipline in the 1950s.

In Britain and France psychology remained relatively weakly institutionalized in this period in comparison with Germany and the USA. Yet precisely this situation enabled a wide range of alternatives to US Behaviorism to ﬂourish. In the UK, Cyril Burt, originally a London school oﬃcial and later professor at University College, London, adapted and expanded Charles Spearman’s concept of general and speciﬁc intelligence in studies of educational performance, delinquency, and so-called ‘backward’ children. He then developed a mathematical basis for factorial approaches to intelligence and personality testing. Controversy over accusations that he manipulated or even invented some of his twin research and other data did not emerge until after his death. During the same period, Cambridge professor Frederick Bartlett published the pioneering study Remembering (1932), in which he established the role of learned schemata in retention and laid the foundations for considering memory as a process of active reconstruction rather than rote recall.

In France, psychology remained divided between medicine and philosophy; there was no separate degree until 1947. One result was that alongside the strictly experimental work of Henri Pieron, Binet’s successor as director of the Psychological Laboratory at the Sorbonne, philosophers and sociologists considered psychological issues in broader and less positivistic ways. One example was the debate over Lucien Levy- Bruhl’s concept of ‘primitive’ mentality, which contributed to the emergence of the ‘mentalities’ concept of the Annales school in history. In French-speaking Switzerland, biologist and philosopher Jean Piaget, building in part upon Eduard Claparede’s functional psychology, began his pioneering studies of cognitive development in children.

2.1 Dynamics Of Professionalization To 1945

The turning point for the public visibility of professional psychology in the USA came with the mass use of intelligence tests in the US Army during World War II. The route of application ran here not from the ‘normal’ to the ‘pathological,’ but rather from socially marginal populations—the so-called ‘feeble-minded’ and schoolchildren—to ‘normal’ adults. The interaction of applied psychology and the professional oﬃcer corps reshaped both the aims of intelligence testing, the test instrument itself, and ultimately conceptions of the objects being assessed. Intelligence became not intellectual or problem-solving capacity alone, but a sum of skills and (presumably hereditary) aptitudes for certain kinds of learning.

‘Binet testing,’ as it was then called, fueled the professionalization of psychology in both the USA and UK during the 1920s. Quantitative assessment and classiﬁcation instruments spread rapidly in both basic research and professional practice, primarily because the products thus created supported the functions required by administrators, initially in schools and later also in industry and social service agencies. During this period the ﬁeld became more open to women; but a gender hierarchy emerged, with industrial psychology remaining male-dominated, while female ‘Binet testers’ and social workers took on more people-oriented functions. During World War II, ﬁelds of application included the employment of social psychology in morale research and applied human relations, incorporation of psychophysics and experimental psychology into studies of human-ma- chine interactions, and diagnostic testing in clinical psychology, as well as the use of intelligence and personality testing in personnel management. All this led in turn to signiﬁcant basic research programs in the postwar period.

The professionalization of psychology in Germany took a rather diﬀerent course. During World War I, eﬀorts focused on the adaptation of techniques from psychophysics to develop sound-ranging devices, and to test the visual discrimination ability of drivers and pilots. More important after the Nazi takeover of power were the rapid growth of military psychology as a result of German rearmament, and the resulting shift from psychotechnical skills testing to ‘intuitive’ character diagnosis. The primary purpose here was elite oﬃcer selection, rather than sorting large numbers of average recruits. Paper-and-pencil and skills tests were secondary to the extended observation of oﬃcer candidates in simulated command situations. The personality characteristics sought had considerable aﬃnities to the traditional virtues of the Prussian oﬃcer—the will to command and the ability to inspire troop loyalty. In contrast, diagnostic eﬀorts based on Nazi ‘race psychology’ could not be translated into professional practice.

In the USA, too, personality diagnostics ultimately became a road to professionalization. However, in contrast to Germany, quantitative methods based on techniques of factor analysis developed by L. L. Thurstone and others predominated, despite competition from ‘projective’ tests such as the Rorschach in the 1930s and 1940s. The history acquired a gendered dimension in the construction of ‘female’ and ‘male’ traits in early personality research.

3. The Postwar Era: ‘Americanization’ And The Alternatives

In the USA, the postwar years saw explosive expansion and diﬀerentiation in both the scientiﬁc and professional realms. The establishment of a divisional structure within the APA in 1947—already negotiated during the war—reﬂected this process. Despite the optimism of the time, it proved diﬃcult to subsume all aspects of psychology’s protean identity within single university departments or graduate programs. Fragmentation was most obvious in the diﬀerent research practices institutionalized in experimental, social, and personality psychology.

Cognition returned to the laboratory in this period, supported in part by reliance on methodological conventions patterned on those of the Behaviorists, such as rigorous separation of independent and dependent variables, in part by computer-centered models of mental processes. In contrast to the statistical inference techniques and the corresponding computational models of mind that came to be preferred in cognition research, the preferred research tools in educational psychology were the correlational methods pioneered by Galton. A comparable methodological split distinguished neo-Behavioristic learning theory from experimental social psychology and personality theory. Nonetheless, experimental studies of social inﬂuence on perception by Solomon Asch and of prejudice by Gordon Allport, as well as T. W. Adorno and colleagues’ The Authoritarian Personality study (1950) captured the imagination of many in the ﬁeld. The popularity of such studies reﬂected a widespread tendency of the period to psychologize, and thus individualize, social problems. Meanwhile, developmental psychology took the work of Piaget as a touchstone for numerous studies closely related to the practical needs of schools for age-related developmental norms.

By the 1970s, the sheer numbers of psychologists (over 70,000, over 100,000 by the end of the century) had reached levels that could not have been imagined 50 years earlier. The growth was worldwide, but more than two-thirds of the total were Americans. The openness of both discipline and profession to women continues; today more than half the doctorates in the ﬁeld go to women. Gender divisions also continue, with women being most numerous in developmental and educational psychology and men in experimental, industrial, and personnel psychology. Nonetheless, the broad institutional anchorage of psychology in the USA was more than suﬃcient to assure that the research and professional practices instituted there would spread throughout the world, and that alternative viewpoints coming from Asia, Africa, or Latin America would generally be marginalized.

The most important exceptions to the overall trend were the impact of Piaget in developmental psychology, and the reception of work by British psychologists Hans Eysenck and Raymond Catell in personality testing and diagnostics. In cognition research, the work of Bartlett and the achievements of Soviet researchers such as Alexander Luria were mobilized to lend respectability and theoretical sophistication to the resurgent ﬁeld in the USA. Nonetheless, the allpervasive inﬂuence of computer metaphors and the associated information-processing models were plainly of Anglo-American origin.

The history of the psychological profession after 1945 continued to be aﬀected by contingent local circumstances. The rise of clinical psychology in the USA was originally driven by the need to deal with large numbers of mentally ill veterans after World War II. The new ﬁeld ultimately brought forth its own basic research in both clinical and academic settings, which led to the emergence of scientiﬁc communities based on methodological norms quite diﬀerent from those of experimental or developmental psychologists. In addition, an eclectic, so-called ‘humanistic’ psychology movement arose in opposition to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, and became widely popular in psychotherapy, social work, and the emerging ﬁeld of counseling psychology.

In Europe, the rise of clinical psychology came approximately 10 years later than in the USA. There, in contrast to the USA, the supremacy of personality diagnostics and its quantitative tools had already been established in basic research before the professionalization of the clinical ﬁeld. Another important diﬀerence was that clinical training in academic settings in Europe was based far more on cognitive and Behavioral techniques than on psychoanalysis. Barriers to the academic institutionalization of psychoanalytic research and training were surmounted only in exceptional cases.

What had been a predominantly European ﬁeld at the beginning of the twentieth century has become deeply dependent on US research styles and professional practices. US predominance has been con- tested by dissident local-language movements, most notably in France and Germany. Most signiﬁcant, however, is the contrast between US predominance worldwide and the insecure standing of trained psychologists in the USA itself. Vagueness and confusion in the use of the term ‘psychologist’ in public discussion have been remarkably consistent over time; the term itself lacks legal protection in any case. The fact that the popularity of self-help books does not depend on whether their authors are psychologists or not indicates that even in the USA, where most of the world’s psychologists live and work, trained academics and professionals can hardly claim hegemony over psychological discourse in the public sphere to the degree that physical scientists can in their ﬁelds.

4. Conclusion

Given this situation, it might well be asked why such a shakily legitimated ﬁeld has acquired such an important role in the twentieth-century. Roger Smith (1998) suggests that the discipline drew its authority from and simultaneously gave voice to a culture and society in which everyone ‘became her or his own psychologist’ (p. 577). Nikolas Rose (1996) argues that psychological practices make possible particular kinds of social authority, assembled at ﬁrst ad hoc, then grafted onto all activities aimed at simplifying the administration of modern life by producing calculable individuals and manageable social relations, from law and penal administration to education and parenting. No single science or profession has monopolized the codiﬁcation and certiﬁcation of these activities.

The predominance of Behaviorism in the USA in the middle third of the twentieth century was an episode in a much larger story. However, it is a characteristic episode, for both the discourse of prediction and control and its associated practices have persisted, even as the so-called cognitive revolution reintroduced mentalistic vocabularies. One reason for this appears to be that not only the members of the discipline and profession called psychology, but the modern culture and society in which they function, require and may even desire both technocratic discourse and the instruments that embody and enact it.

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A paradigmatic case in the present research is the study of the theory of mind. Discovering how subjects represent their own mind and other minds was proposed in 1978 by Premack and Woodruff as a problem of research on primates, and in a short time, it has become one of the main topics in developmental research (Premack and Woodruff, 1978). It ...
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The present paper will cover topics that are not frequently combined in a review, despite the fact that they all include the empirical investigation of grief. In the first section I will discuss some important historical and contemporary developments in the field of bereavement research, including theoretical models that can be used to ...
Psychology and Spirituality: Reviewing Developments in History, Method
Abstract. This paper begins with an overview of the governing principles of psychology as a discipline, and outlines the key paradigm shifts that potentially aligned with concepts of spirituality from the early twentieth century to contemporary theory. The discussion then moves to consider how research methods in psychology can contribute to ...
Research Area: History of Psychology
The purpose of this study is to reveal and understand trends of research concerning choice of research topic, research question, and research methodology in psychology in Bangladesh. ... We review published research papers (from 1972-2010). From the very beginning, Bangladeshi research followed Western trends. Areas of research were general ...
PDF History and Systems of Psychology
Major Research Paper (counts 50% of your grade): The topic of your paper will be up to you but approval of all topics must be made in advance by the instructor and must be made no later than September 18. This research project is to result in a historical paper, the details of which will be explained in class (see pp. 5-6 for additional ...
200+ Psychology Research Paper Topics to Get Started
Biological Psychology Research Paper Topics. The Role of Neurotransmitters in Mental Health Disorders. Brain Plasticity: Mechanisms and Implications for Learning and Memory. Genetic Influences on Behavior: Twin and Adoption Studies. The Neuroscience of Addiction: Understanding Brain Circuitry and Reward Pathways.
179 Psychology Research Paper Topics For 2022
If you are into cognitive psychology, check out this list of great research topics. Choice behavior: Analytical Study. Speech perception and communication. Sentence processing and language acquisition. Short-term and long-term memory: Psychology of forgetting. Retrieval from memory, nature, and analysis.
History of Psychology Research Paper
The history acquired a gendered dimension in the construction of 'female' and 'male' traits in early personality research. 3. The Postwar Era: 'Americanization' And The Alternatives. In the USA, the postwar years saw explosive expansion and diﬀerentiation in both the scientiﬁc and professional realms.

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Mental health in post-secondary students

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The Origins of Psychology

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Why Study Psychology History?

Background: Philosophy and Physiology

Psychology Emerges as a Separate Discipline

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The Third Force in Psychology

Psychology Continues to Grow

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2 History of Psychology

Wundt and Structuralism

James and Functionalism

Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

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Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

Maslow, Rogers, And Humanism

The Cognitive Revolution

Multicultural Psychology

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