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Indian Cinema Essay | Essay on Indian Cinema for Students and Children in English

February 13, 2024 by sastry

Indian Cinema Essay: Cinema is in today’s world the most popular means of entertainment. Millions of people watch cinema everyday all over the world not only as a means of entertainment, but also as an escape from the monotony, boredom, anxiety and troubles of life. It is a restful, pleasurable and entertaining way of rewinding and relaxing after a long day’s work. All the senses are captivated while viewing cinema and the next two and a half or three hours are spent in a wink.

Moreover, every class and section of society can afford this form of entertainment at their will and convenience.

You can read more  Essay Writing  about articles, events, people, sports, technology many more.

Long and Short Essays on Indian Cinema for Kids and Students in English

Given below are two essays in English for students and children about the topic of ‘Indian Cinema’ in both long and short form. The first essay is a long essay on Indian Cinema of 400-500 words. This long essay about Indian Cinema is suitable for students of class 7, 8, 9 and 10, and also for competitive exam aspirants. The second essay is a short essay on Indian Cinema of 150-200 words. These are suitable for students and children in class 6 and below.

Long Essay on Indian Cinema 500 Words in English

Below we have given a long essay on Indian Cinema of 500 words is helpful for classes 7, 8, 9 and 10 and Competitive Exam Aspirants. This long essay on the topic is suitable for students of class 7 to class 10, and also for competitive exam aspirants.

Indian cinema has a charm, flavour and magic of its own. It appeals not only to the film-crazy Indian public but also enchants a large number of audiences the world over. People who do not speak or understand Hindi still sing songs from Hindi films. An average Indian film is longer than films from other parts of the world, has a ginger-touch of love, hate, revenge, drama, tears, joys and also its own share of songs and dances. A typical Indian film has it all—all the spice and variety of life condensed into it, transporting the audience on a magic carpet to a totally different world where everything and anything is possible. Infact, Salman Rushdie has quoted:

“I have been a film buff all my life and believe that the finest cinema is fully the equal of the best novels.”

Down the years, cinema in India has reached its own destination, created its own history, touched its own milestones. From stereotyped love stories to action, to drama, to realistic, to fictional—the silver screen in its every aspect has mesmerised, captured and tantalised millions of every age, class, sex and community. The journey from silent films to talking pictures, from black and white to coloured has been long.

It has catered to the dreams and aspirations of many who have hungered for glamour and reached ‘Mumbai’ and it still does.

There have been two streams of cinema in India—one is the Commercial Cinema which has the sole aim of entertaining and making money in return. The second stream is the Parallel Cinema or the Art Cinema which aims at sensitising people on various social issues and problems of the society. While Commercial Cinema appeals to all sections of the society, Parallel Cinema appeals mainly to the intellectual class and the intelligentsia of the society. But a change has taken place over the last decade and a half. A general awareness among people has increased and Art Cinema is being more and more appreciated by a large number of people. Many a times, an art film does much better at the box-office than a mainstream commercial film. This has resulted in the thinning of the differentiating line between Art and Commercial Cinema.

Cinema has an educative value too. Because it exercises a deep influence upon the minds of the people; cinema can be used as a very effective reformative instrument. Statutory warnings are included to spread the awareness about the adversity of smoking has compelled many to quit the habit. Social awareness can be generated on issues like dowry, women education, abortion, girl foeticide, youth unrest, corruption, unemployment, poverty, illiteracy etc. Films like No One Killed Jessica, My Name Is Khan, The Attacks of 26/11 are some movies which have dealt with current sensitive issues.

Cinema can expose the evils prevalent in society. It is the most effective means of mass communication. Cinema also is a great unifying force in a diversified country like ours. People belonging to all communities and sections, speaking any language, watch the cinema with the same fascination and excitement. Moreover, people can go to places with cinema. We travel from Ooty to Shimla to Switzerland to Washington to Sydney. It also encourages the art of music, singing, dancing, script-writing, direction etc. It employs a large number of people from technicians to producers to spot boys to dress makers. Thousands of people earn their livelihood through cinema. Shahrukh Khan has aptly put the significance of cinema by saying:

“Cinema in India is like brushing your teeth in the morning. You can’t escape it.”

Short Essay on Indian Cinema 100 Words in English

Below we have given a short essay on Indian Cinema is for Classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. This short essay on the topic is suitable for students of class 6 and below.

The silver screen spreads and sells not just dreams but captivates the hearts of young boys and girls. If this medium is not used judiciously and wisely, it can distract the youth from the right direction. Thus, the film makers should undertake film making as a social responsibility and through films should give youth a sense of direction.

The trend of making films on famous novels and plays should be encouraged to spread good literature and its appreciation among common man. Sensible and relevant themes should be picked to make films. Films need not be didactic, but they still can pass on constructive messages subtly to the masses. Hence, if used with pure sensibility, cinema can help in bringing positive changes in the society and the attitudes of the people.

Indian Cinema Essay Word Meanings for Simple Understanding

• Monotony – boredom, dullness, tiresomeness
• Captivated – strongly attracted
• Enchants – to attract and delight
• Condensed – compressed, summarised
• Buff – a person who is very interested in a particular subject
• Mesmerised – fascinated, hypnotised
• Sensitising – cause (someone or something) to respond to certain stimuli, make sensitive
• Intelligentsia – an educated and intellectual elite
• Statutory – prescribed or authorised by or punishable under law
• Adversity – hardship, trouble, distress, suffering
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Essay on Indian Cinema

Students are often asked to write an essay on Indian Cinema in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Indian Cinema

Introduction.

Indian Cinema, also known as Bollywood, is one of the largest film industries in the world. It’s renowned for its vibrant music, dance, and a wide variety of genres.

Indian Cinema began over a century ago. The first Indian film, “Raja Harishchandra,” was released in 1913. Since then, it has evolved significantly.

Genres and Themes

Indian cinema encompasses various genres such as drama, comedy, and action. It often explores themes like love, family values, and social issues.

Impact and Influence

Indian Cinema has a global impact. It influences fashion trends, music, and even societal norms, reflecting the culture and ethos of India.

250 Words Essay on Indian Cinema

Introduction to indian cinema, the evolution of indian cinema.

From the silent black-and-white films of the early 20th century to the technicolor extravaganzas of today, Indian cinema has evolved significantly. The advent of sound in the 1930s brought a new dimension to storytelling, with the birth of “talkies” that combined dialogue, song, and dance in a unique blend. The post-independence period saw the emergence of parallel cinema, which focused on realistic narratives and social issues.

The Impact of Indian Cinema

Indian cinema has a profound influence on society. It shapes perceptions, fuels aspirations, and even impacts lifestyle choices. The powerful narratives of Indian cinema often serve as catalysts for social change, challenging stereotypes and breaking societal norms.

The Global Reach of Indian Cinema

Today, Indian cinema has a global footprint, with Bollywood films screened in over 90 countries. The industry has also made significant inroads into international film festivals, highlighting the universal appeal of its narratives.

Indian cinema is not just a form of entertainment, but a reflection of the country’s evolving socio-cultural fabric. As it continues to grow and evolve, it will remain a significant medium for storytelling, influencing millions of lives both in India and around the world.

500 Words Essay on Indian Cinema

Indian Cinema, often synonymously referred to as Bollywood, is a vibrant, multifaceted entity, a dynamic blend of art and commercialism. However, it is not limited to Bollywood alone; it encompasses a wide range of regional cinemas, each with its unique flavor and cultural nuances. Indian cinema has a rich history spanning over a century, and it has significantly influenced India’s socio-cultural fabric.

The Genesis of Indian Cinema

Indian cinema: a mirror to society.

Indian cinema has always been a mirror reflecting society’s changing dynamics. It has portrayed social issues, political scenarios, and cultural shifts, influencing and being influenced by them. Films like ‘Do Bigha Zamin’, ‘Neecha Nagar’, and ‘Mother India’ have highlighted socio-economic struggles, while others like ‘Garam Hawa’ and ‘Aandhi’ have delved into political narratives.

Commercialization and Evolution

From the 1970s onwards, commercialization began to dominate Indian cinema, leading to the rise of the ‘Masala’ genre, combining action, romance, and comedy. This period saw the emergence of megastars like Amitabh Bachchan, Rajesh Khanna, and Dharmendra. The late 1990s and the 21st century witnessed a new wave of Indian cinema, with a focus on urban narratives, global themes, and experimental storytelling.

Regional Cinema and Global Recognition

Indian cinema is not a monolith; it is a mosaic of diverse regional cinemas. Tamil, Telugu, Bengali, Marathi, and Malayalam cinemas have produced exceptional films and have significantly contributed to Indian cinema’s richness. Films like ‘Pather Panchali’, ‘Salaam Bombay’, and ‘Lagaan’ have gained global recognition, showcasing Indian cinema’s prowess on the international stage.

Indian Cinema in the Digital Age

The digital age has brought about a paradigm shift in Indian cinema. The rise of OTT platforms has democratized content consumption, leading to the advent of diverse narratives and innovative storytelling. This has also led to a blurring of lines between mainstream and parallel cinema, offering a platform for independent filmmakers.

Indian cinema is a powerful medium that transcends boundaries and languages. It is a reflection of the Indian ethos, capturing the country’s diverse cultural, social, and political landscapes. As it continues to evolve, Indian cinema promises to remain a significant part of India’s cultural identity, influencing and being influenced by the changing dynamics of Indian society.

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Essay on “Indian Cinema” Complete Essay for Class 10, Class 12 and Graduation and other classes.

Indian Cinema and social Responsibility

Essay No. 01

POINTS TO DEVELOP

Cinema –an important means of mass communication.

Different perspectives on cinema.

Social impact of cinema –concept of social responsibility.

present state of Indian films –impact on impressionable minds.

Profit motive alone should not guide film-makers.

What can be done to make Indian film-makers socially responsible.  

Since its beginning in Indian with the film Raja Harishchandra  (1913) , the cinema has remained a very important medium of mass communication. In its ability to combine entertainment with communication of ideas, it leaves the other media (except, of late, the television) far behind in reach and appeal. Also,  like literature, it has mirrored different times and has left an impact on successive generations. Any work of art reflects the conditions of the society in which it is born, and the hopes and aspirations, the frustrations and the contradiction present in any given social order. Cinema is no exception.

          There are different views regarding cinema. The producers and financiers consider it a lucrative business. For the actors and actresses it is a means earn money as well as satisfy look at it as yet another form of art. To some, it is an audio-visual transition of literature and its message, if any. For the government , cinema is a potential area of employment and reverie. But for a majority of filmgoers , it is a comparatively inexpensive and interesting form of entertainment. Whatever it may mean  to different people cinema is generally regarded as an art form meant to entertain the people by presenting before them motion pictures on the screen. Incorporating a gamut of elements story, dance, song, thrills, comedy and pathos.

          Beyond what the cinema means to individuals, however, the wide mass appeal of the cinema has invested it with a great deal of social influence. The nature of its influence –good or bad- naturally depends upon the social awareness of the people involved in it – the film-makers, the artists,  the audience and the government. Should cinema as an art form be required to have social responsibility? Social responsibility involves behaving in a manner that does not impair the values of society, does not lead to disintegration of society or cause it to become degraded in any way. Cinema may be socially responsible by depicting reality. At the same time with its power of influence and here we are accepting the view that the audio visual medium has the power to influence the viewer – it could easily gather support for progressive changes even while castigating social evils.

          Most of the early Indian films like Achhoot Kanya, Godan, and Aware, pursued their themes with social responsibility. Business or profit motive was certainly there one cannot deny that, nor can one object to it. But these films did not lose sight of the needs of society at large. They tried to promote nationalism, communal harmony, mutual cooperation and social solidarity. Films like Paigaam strove practices like caste exclusiveness, unsociability, and child marriage.

          Over the years, Indian Cinema has lost touch with social responsibility and has become a slave to the ‘box office syndrome’. Now crass commercial considerations could film –making it is all a question of  hits and flops at the box office. ‘Right’ ingredients are squeezed in, necessarily or unnecessarily , into the films to make a hit without thinking that these ingredients –sex., violence, etc. –cause  great injury to the social fabric and the people. At least, this is the trend in commercial or feature films. To cap it all, some film personalities have repeatedly asserted that their object is not to reform society.

          The low aesthetic quality of today’s films is directly proportional to the large number of unscrupulous , fly –by-night producers who are  interested merely in profit-making without any concern for the society. The financier who comes forward to back the production of a high –budget commercial film pleads that if he cannot be sure of handsome returns on his investment, he would rather turn to something else; why risk his money on a dubious venture? Worse are the distributors who will not touch a film if it does not have also sounded the death-knell for the ‘art’ films. But the people concerned must remember that have flopped with costly sets, top stars, sec, and violence have flopped while low budget films with light comedy, melodious songs and lacking the ‘right’ ingredients do good business.

          Indian cinema, deeply influenced by the stage, began with scripts based on mythological and historical plots. Gradually , themes came to be taken from novels, plays and stories of leading Indian litterateurs with  a broad social and  stories of leading Indian litterateurs with a broad social and moral vision. This tradition continued for a considerable time. Then the pious and progressive messages of the books gradually made a silent exit cheap scripts are now generally the norm , often openly plagiaristic. Variety is lacking. Double meaning dialogues are another common feature; at times, it is explicitly vulgar.

          An audience’s right to entertainment is quite just. It is also true that a majority of the audience today demands cheap entertainment afforded by the display of violence , sex and obscenity in films. The general public has little interest in realistic ‘art’ movies and is only attracted by the big names; something the low-budget movies cannot indulge in. the government also does not seem to be truly concerned about the affairs of the cinema, notwithstanding the ritualistic award-giving ceremonies, film festivals and tax concessions for pious sentiments such  as secularism and patriotism. The Censor Board’s ambiguous standards do not help matters much. For the censor Board, kissing is obscene but rapes, gruesome killing and vulgar dialogues do not invite the scissors.

          The overall result is that a majority of films today are juvenile stuff devoid of any social purpose, relevance or significance. The hero of a typical Indian film generally does not have to do anything for a living. His sole occupation in life appears to be winning the heart of his ‘dream-girl’ and fighting with the world for her sake. Or, if he does something for a living, his life style is much at variance with what he would earn from such a living. Similarly, the heroines do little except sing, dance and cry with the hero. An effect of this is that a majority of the youth outside the forces the youth to turn their eyes from the hard realities and essential duties in life. Such youth cause harm to themselves as well as to others.

          Today, the portrayal of women in Indian films has touched the nadir. There are few films in which heroines have been required to play stellar roles. She is an  atrociously made-up piece required to dance, sing, expose and vanish. Revenge being the leit motif of most films , she is reinforces the feelings of girls and women that they are body and vanity. A rape has become almost mandatory in most films and this is pictures in such a manner that instead of generating pathos and horror, the scene produces sexual excitement in the watcher. This perverse depiction victims of violence, and of this violence as an exciting and adventurous act could well be partly responsible for the increasing atrocities against women. 

          We have always had genre-based movies abounding in nauseating stereotypes like the long- suffering wife and mother, the corrupt and lecherous politician , the avaricious landlord and trader, a week kneed judiciary and a thoroughly corrupt and inept police. This trend is now reinforcing prejudices towards certain sections of the society and encouraging cynical disbelief in the entire system.

          The stunning luxuries of the filmi villains and their varied methods of collecting wealth help people to overlook the tendency to make fast money by hook or by crook. This is consequently, eroding the social norms and values which are generally established in a society after great industry and pain. When films glamorize violence, the impression able minds in the audience feel tempted to imitate it in real life. Some fall prey to criminal tendencies and get increasingly brutalized, while the social psyche in general gets desensitized to the violent acts as they see them repeatedly. It cannot be denied that violence holds a natural appeal for exuberant but immature minds. However, the heavy dose of violence dished out to them in the garb of entertainment pollutes young minds and sows seeds of chaos and anomie in public life.

          Furthermore , the extravagant and sophisticated life styles shown in the films, and the mercurial rise of the hero from rags to riches, heighten the aspirations of all and sundry, but there is naturally a wide gap between such aspirations and their fulfillment. Hence, the great frustrations pervasive in society.

          The constitution has provided for the freedom vocation and expression, but, at the same time, the filmmakers owe it to society  to ensure that they do not pander to prurient tastes and thereby poison the social psyche in a bid to earn more. Freedom of vocation, expression conscience or belief is acceptable but the stability and health of a society cannot be ignored. In any case, cinema must take cognizance of human collectivity and its associated values. One does not ask for ‘social reform’ form cinema, but it should at least eschew depraving the society of what it already has.

          Just throwing homilies at the film-makers or the film-watchers will not, however, work. Instead, we will have to act. The best means of creating social awareness and responsibility among the film-makers is to form as discriminating and well-informed public opinion. In this respect, the role of film-critics becomes important. They can teach readers and viewers, how to discriminate between the good  and the bad films. The most important criterion on which they can base their judgment is the social relevance of what is exposed to view in the films.

          In a country like India with a high percentage of illiteracy and poverty, cinema has an important role to play. It has unqualified potential to inform and educate people’s minds. According to Elia Kazan the famous film director, “Cinema is the most humanizing piece of expression that we have in the world today. It is the hope of the world, where people are shown in all their humanity … through it you are made aware of  the brotherhood of man.”

Essay No. 02

Cinema in India

  In India Cinema has been a very important means of entertainment. Here, cinema has seen a century at growth, and it has gone very far in the heights of progress.

Originally, in India the cinema was a movie only and it was so called because we could only see the stars acting, and there was no sound, no talking, no dialogue and no songs. The audiences could only see action. As time passed by, these movies got converted into talkies and, at that time dialogues got introduced in the pictures. This made the movies more interesting and entertaining. Also, in the beginning, cinema was only in black and white, but with the passage of time colour entered cinema and black and white pictures got converted to coloured films. Thus, with dialogues and colour films entered a phase of great improvement. This was not the end of the improvements due in cinema there was a lot more to come.

In the early stages, each actor and actress had to sing his/ her songs. This curtailed the entry of stars in the movie career. However, our technical advancement soon saw to this problem and it was with the coming of background singing the restriction on entries to cinema got removed. Soon people who could not sing also entered the career as, there was provision for another man/ woman to sing for him/ her from the background. The problem of not taking in for acting people who could not sing was thus solved and Indian cinema saw another hurdle being crossed. Now with this impetus to those who could not sing, the entry of people in cinema was duly widened.

With the passage of time there has been a continue technological advancement in Indian cinema. In the 20th Century, Indian cinema took huge strides towards growth and, today, at the turn of the 21 st   Century Indian cinema stands at par with Hollywood cinema. May be we still have a lot to learn from Hollywood but this much is undoubted that, Indian cinema stands second only to Hollywood, specially in terms of its turn out of movies and movie stars. In the earlier times with the orthodox views about dancing, singing and acting, cinema was not considered to be a respectable career, not meant to be followed by the youth of good respectable families. However, today the boys and girls who join cinema as a career are children from good wealthy and respectable families, and cultured families. This is because there has been a sea change in the thinking processes of the modern people. Also, this change has helped in the improvement of the turnout of cinema.

From the earliest times of the existence of cinema in India, it has always been the most popular and the cheapest mode of entertainment. This is why it got the impetus that brought it to this level of success, and its present size. Even today, cinema in India is very popular but, with the advent of the TV and many other avenues for entertainment, it has become a little less important in the average person’s entertainment list. Besides, the VCP and VCR have further decreased the habit of going out to the cinema halls to see movies. When a picture is available at home, why would anyone like to go to a cinema hall? Thus, though going to cinema halls has come down the popularity of the cinema is still on the upward swing. The cinema in India has, in spite of all hazards retained its unchallenged popularity. It still remains the most liked mode of entertainment both for the Indian gentry and the Indian masses.

  It is a matter of pride that, Indian cinema has not only remained popular in India, but it has increased its boundaries elsewhere in world. It is very popular in most of the foreign countries, more so due to the Millions of Indians residing in foreign countries. The latest position just heard about Indian cinema is that Cannes is interested in showing Indian cinemas over there a great achievement of the cinema industry indeed Kudos to the Indian cinema.

Essay No. 03

Indian Cinema

Cinema is now over a hundred years old. History of Indian cinema began with the production of Pundalik in 1912 by R.G. Torney and N.G. Chitre. This was followed by Raja Harish Chandra produced in 1913 by D.G. Phalke, the father of Indian cinema. In the beginning, films were silent as there was no sound, no dialogue. But in 1931, with the production of Alam Ara, began the era of talkie films. Indian cinema has seen a phenomenal growth and advancement during these years. The Indian film industry is the biggest in the world, employing thousands of workers, technicians, actors, singers, dancers, producers, dialogue and script writers, musicians and other artists. A huge and staggering amount of money has been invested in the industry. India is the largest producer of feature films in the world. The number of feature films produced annually in India may soon touch four figures or more. Hindi feature films dominate the scene, followed by those in Telugu, Tamil and other languages. Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata are the leading film-producing centres.

Cinema has been very popular in the country. Its mass appeal is. irresistible. Due to its audiovisual character, it has been a great and abiding influence on the people. They are influenced to a great extent in their way of living by what they see in films on the large silver screen and on the television. The video and cable boom, coupled with satellite communication, has further fired the craze. The popularity of, and craze for, films has given rise to video piracy and the people engaged in it are virtually minting money. Besides feature films, telefilms and serials are viewed by a large spectrum of audience, spread over all the sections of the society. Foreign films dubbed in Hindi and other Indian languages are also becoming popular.

Cinema is an important and integral part of electronic mass media in India. It is very powerful as a means of mass communication, entertainment, education, information and formation of public opinion. Its visual and persuasive appeal is unmatched and it wields considerable power to influence its vast audience. Its potentialities and possibilities are vast, to touch the masses as an expression of art, culture, human thoughts and sensibilities. Under its stimulus mass public awakening can be generated, national integrity, unity, communal harmony and eradication of such evils as dowry and superstitions, etc., can be achieved. There cannot be a more powerful, touching and appealing medium than cinema.

Indian cinema has produced many outstanding and trail-blazing films, both in Hindi and regional languages. But their number is not heartening at all. The majority of our films conform to an established formula, and are produced to make quick and large profits. A host of the films of the seventies, led by Sholay, belong to this category. They are full of sex, songs, and violence — super block-busters, produced keeping mainly the box office in view. Formula films, full of stock, stereotype situations, scenes bordering obscenity, melodrama, exciting music and dances are there in thousands. They do not offer any inspiring, regenerating healthy entertainment to the audience as they fail to reflect our profound social changes and values, rich cultural heritage full of variety, colour and fascination. They fail to mirror the ultimate synthesis emerging out of the conflict between tradition and modernism, beliefs and scientific temper. Against this grey and dull background, such films as Pother Panchali, Pyasa, Mother India, Jagriti, JagteRaho, MeraNaam Joker, Akrosh, ArdhaSatya, Lagaan and a host of others, shine like jewels. The new wave art cinema also known as budget films, which are seen as a reaction to the run-of-the will and romantic stuff, gave us some very fine films. The National Film Development Corporation (NFDC), established in April 1980, helps in producing low-budget, yet good quality films. The NFDC also encourages foreign co-productions. Gandhi and Salaam Bombay are the two examples of very successful co-productions. NFDC helps production of films based on good scripts to be produced and directed by well-known producers and directors. The Corporation’s conscientious attempt to expose Indian audiences to a variety of high quality foreign films is also laudable. It sends its delegates to international film festivals to promote Indian Cinema. It also plays host to many buyers of films from foreign countries. Indian films are exported to over 100 countries.

We have the Central Board of Film Certification, consisting of eminent personalities in the field. The Board examines films for certification before they are publicly screened and exhibited. But, unfortunately, there are hundreds of films which should not have been certified at all for public exhibition. These films invariably revolve round the ‘boy meets girl’ formula, with cheap songs, dances, stereotyped love triangle and a lot of sex and violence. They have neither social relevance nor appeal to the aesthetic sensibilities of the audience. There is a lot of repetition in them. The same age-old story is often served with different titles. Far removed from real situations of life, they cater to the tastes of uneducated, ill-cultured and unrefined cine-goers. Outrage, crime, violence, sex, rape, excitement, crude cabaret dances, unrealistic situations and scenes are common features of these masala and formula films.

These have adversely affected the conduct, character and morals of the public in general, and those of children and young men and women of the country in particular. Many of our modern crimes have a direct relation to these films. These films have helped a great deal in the rise of the crime-graph.

The suspected nexus between the film world and the underworld dons, mafi groups, smugglers and drug-traffickers is very disturbing. The bane of the Indian film industry is that it is ultimately in the hands of some very rich and unscrupulous sections of society. They always have the box-office before their eyes and want to earn huge, quick and easy profits. They believe in hit box-office films and throw away all their social obligations to the wind. Their main emphasis is on entertainment, and that too cheap and vulgar entertainment. The production of films on purely commercial lines has created a vicious circle.

It is the duty of film-makers not only to cater to the tastes of the masses but also to create healthy and desirable cinema. No doubt the overwhelming majority of cine-goers and film-viewers lack refined, sharp sensibilities, aesthetic sense and good moral taste, but it is the fault of the industry that it should succumb so abjectly to such pressure, throwing overboard all norms of social behaviour, decency, human and cultural values and demands of accepted modesty. What we need today are decent, clean, cultural, social, bold, innovative, well-balanced, artistic and technically beautiful films based on scripts of reputed and socially responsible writers. The expenses of film production can be reduced by reducing the length and duration of films. Methods and ways and means should be devised to effect economy in the production of films, so that one does not have to go to unscrupulous and unprincipled financial barons. It is sheer madness to run after mega-budget, block-buster film production. Modesty, balance, social relevance, human values, realism blended with idealism, rationality, and sobriety, etc., should be our guiding principles in the production of films. As far as children’s films are concerned, we are a very poor nation. For the production of good healthy and successful films for children, we need devoted, patient, imaginative, contented yet reasonably ambitious, poetical and scientific temper. Against this grey and dull background, such films as Pother Panchali, Pyasa, Mother India, Jagriti, Jagte Raho, Mera Naam Joker, Akrosh, Ardha Satya, Lagaan and a host of others, shine like jewels. The new wave art cinema also known as budget films, which are seen as a reaction to the run-of-the will and romantic stuff, gave us some very fine films. The National Film Development Corporation (NFDC), established in April 1980, helps in producing low-budget, yet good quality films. The NFDC also encourages foreign co-productions. Gandhi and Salaam Bombay are the two examples of very successful co-productions. NFDC helps production of films based on good scripts to be produced and directed by well-known producers and directors. The Corporation’s conscientious attempt to expose Indian audiences to a variety of high quality foreign films is also laudable. It sends its delegates to international film festivals to promote Indian Cinema. It also plays host to many buyers of films from foreign countries. Indian films are exported to over 100 countries.

The suspected nexus between the film world and the underworld dons, mafia groups, smugglers and drug-traffickers is very disturbing. The bane of the Indian film industry is that it is ultimately in the hands of some very rich and unscrupulous sections of society. They always have the box-office before their eyes and want to earn huge, quick and easy profits. They believe in hit box-office films and throw away all their social obligations to the wind. Their main emphasis is on entertainment, and that too cheap and vulgar entertainment. The production of films on purely commercial lines has created a vicious circle.

It is the duty of film-makers not only to cater to the tastes of the masses but also to create healthy and desirable cinema. No doubt the overwhelming majority of cine-goers and film-viewers lack refined, sharp sensibilities, aesthetic sense and good moral taste, but it is the fault of the industry that it should succumb so abjectly to such pressure, throwing overboard all norms of social behaviour, decency, human and cultural values and demands of accepted modesty. What we need today is decent, clean, cultural, social, bold, innovative, well-balanced, artistic and technically beautiful films based on scripts of reputed and socially responsible writers. The expenses of film production can be reduced by reducing the length and duration of films. Methods and ways and means should be devised to effect economy in the production of films, so that one does not have to go to unscrupulous and unprincipled financial barons. It is sheer madness to run after mega-budget, block-buster film production. Modesty, balance, social relevance, human values, realism blended with idealism, rationality, and sobriety, etc., should be our guiding principles in the production of films. As far as children’s films are concerned, we are a very poor nation. For the production of good healthy and successful films for children, we need devoted, patient, imaginative, contented yet reasonably ambitious, poetical people with a touch of child-like simplicity and innocence. It seems that in spite of such great popularity and boom, Indian cinema is standing at the crossroads without any sense of destination and direction, sans sanity, sans sublimity. Yet there are hopes and expectations because we have lot of exceptional talent, resources and skills required for the job, only the orientation is lacking.

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Indian Cinema

India has one of the oldest and largest film industries in the world. It was in early 1913 that an Indian film received a public screening. The film was Raja Harischandra. Its director, Dadasaheb Phalke is now remembered through a life-time achievement award bestowed by the film industry in his name. At that point of time it was really hard to arrange somebody to portray the role of females. Among the middle classes, that association of acting with the loss of virtue, female modesty, and respectability has only recently been put into question. 

While a number of other film-makers, working in several Indian languages, pioneered the growth and development of Indian cinema, the studio system began to emerge in the early 1930s. Its most successful early film was Devdas (1935), whose director, P.C. Barua also appeared in the lead role. The Prabhat Film Company, established by V. G. Damle, Shantaram, S. Fatehlal, and two other men in 1929, also achieved its first success around this time. Damle and Fatehlal's Sant Tukaram (1936), made in Marathi was the first Indian film to gain international recognition. 

The social films of V. Shantaram, more than anything else, paved the way for an entire set of directors who took it upon themselves to interrogate not only the institutions of marriage, dowry, and widowhood, but the grave inequities created by caste and class distinctions. Some of the social problems received their most unequivocal expression in Achhut Kanya ("Untouchable Girl", 1936), a film directed by Himanshu Rai of Bombay Talkies. The film portrays the travails of a Harijan girl, played by Devika Rani, and a Brahmin boy, played by Ashok Kumar. 

The next noteworthy phase of Hindi cinema is associated with personalities such as Raj Kapoor, Bimal Roy, and Guru Dutt. The son of Prithviraj Kapoor, Raj Kapoor created some of the most admired and memorable films in Hindi cinema. 

Awaara (The Vagabond, 1951), Shri 420 (1955), and Jagte Raho (1957) were both commercial and critical successes. Bimal Roy's Do Bigha Zamin, which shows the influence of Italian neo-realism, explored the hard life of the rural peasantry under the harshest conditions. In the meantime, the Hindi cinema had seen the rise of its first acknowledged genius, Guru Dutt, whose films critiqued the conventions of society and deplored the conditions which induce artists to relinquish their inspiration. From Barua's Devdas (1935) to Guru Dutt's Sahib, Bibi aur Gulam,the motif of "predestined love" looms large: to many opponents, a mawkish sentimentality characterizes even the best of the Hindi cinema before the arrival of the new or alternative Indian cinema in the 1970s. 

It is without doubt that under the influence of the Bengali film-makers like Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak, and Mrinal Sen, the Indian cinema, not only in Hindi, also began to take a somewhat different turn in the 1970s against the tide of commercial cinema, characterized by song-and-dance routines, insignificant plots, and family dramas. Ghatak went on to serve as Director of the Film and Television School at Pune, from where the first generation of a new breed of Indian film-makers and actors - Naseeruddin Shah, Shabana Azmi, Smita Patil, and Om Puri among the latter was to emerge. 

These film-makers, such as Shyam Benegal, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani, and Saeed Mirza, exhibited a different aesthetic and political sensibility and were inclined to explore the caste and class contradictions of Indian society, the nature of oppression suffered by women, the dislocations created by industrialism and the migration from rural to urban areas, the problem of landlessness, the impotency of ordinary democratic and constitutional procedures of redress, and so on. 

The well-liked Hindi cinema is characterized by important changes too numerous to receive more than the slightest mention. The song-and-dance routine is now more systematized, more regular in its patterns; the 'other', whether in the shape of the terrorist or the unalterable villain, has a more gloomy presence; the nation-state is more fixated in its demands on our loyalties and curtsy; the Indian Diaspora is a larger presence in the Indian imagination and so on. These are only some considerations: anyone wishing to discover the world of Indian cinema should also replicate on its presence in Indian spaces, its relation to vernacular art forms and mass art. 

The Indian film industry, famously known as Bollywood, is the largest in the world, and has major film studios in Mumbai (Bombay), Calcutta, Chennai, Bangalore and Hyderabad . Between them, they turn out more than 1000 films a year to hugely appreciative audiences around the world. For nearly 50 years, the Indian cinema has been the central form of entertainment in India, and with its increased visibility and success abroad, it won't be long until the Indian film industry will be well thought-out to be its western counterpart- Hollywood. Mainstream commercial releases, however, continue to dominate the market, and not only in India, but wherever Indian cinema has a large following, whether in much of the British Caribbean, Fiji, East and South Africa, the U.K., United States, Canada, or the Middle East. 

Indian Art Cinema

India is well known for its commercial cinema, better known as Bollywood. In addition to commercial cinema, there is also Indian art cinema, known to film critics as "New Indian Cinema" or sometimes "the Indian New Wave" (see the Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema). Many people in India plainly call such films as "art films" as opposed to mainstream commercial cinema. From the 1960s through the 1980s, the art film or the parallel cinema was usually government-aided cinema.

Indian Commercial Cinema

Commercial cinema is the most popular form of cinema in India. Ever since its inception the commercial Indian movies have seen huge following. Commercial or popular cinema is made not only in Hindi but also in many other regional languages of East and South India. Let's look at some of the general conventions of commercial films in India. Commercial films, in whatever languages they are made, tend to be quite long (approx three hours), with an interval. Another important feature of commercial cinema in India is music. 

Regional Cinema India

India is home to one of the largest film industries in the world. Every year thousands of movies are produced in India. Indian film industry comprises of Hindi films, regional movies and art cinema. The Indian film industry is supported mainly by a vast film-going Indian public, though Indian films have been gaining increasing popularity in the rest of the world, especially in countries with large numbers of emigrant Indians.

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Essay on Indian Cinema — The Reality And The Ideal

Before the advent of the television on the scene, cinema was the one and the only means of entertainment for the elite as well as for the masses, the radio and the transistor did provide the news and the music but the visual effects of a greater effect and interest.

It was virtually from the year 1913 that cinema has its history in India — its initiation took place when on May 3, 1913 Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, better known as Dadasaheb Phalke released the first Indian silent film — Raja Harishchandra.

Then the conventional Indian Society could not tolerate a woman acting on the stage and men dressed as women played the part of female characters.

Taramati, the wife of Raja Harishchandra, and other female characters were represented in the picture by males disguised and attired as women. Hardly would or could anybody, then even imagine that actresses would not only be acting but that they could go to any extent of nudity and sexual overtures — cuddling and kissing and wildly shaking hips and getting into close embrace with male actors — as of today.

Nothing of today could ever be in the yesterday. Gradually, with the advancement of technology and with the invasion of the West on our culture and on our ways of life, coloured — rather technicoloured pictures began to be produced and all social inhibitions were cast aside.

The first talkies, black and white film was Alam Ara, screened in 1931; Devika Rani acted as the heroine in the Himanshu Rai production and that set in motion the female actresses queuing up on the screen.

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Devika Rani playing the role of Achuut Kanya with Ashok Kumar as the hero opposite to her brought her a great fame for her role and acting.Thereafter the duo became a hit as hero and heroine and acted opposite the each other in several other films.

That film also created a social flutter as it was the story of a Brahman youngman — Ashok Kumar in love with an untouchable girl —The Achuut Kanya Devika Rani. Nadira was still another lady who acted as a villain-bashing heroine and excelled in her role which virtually became her traditional role ever after.

‘Patita’ was one other film on the social scene of the then society where a woman — victim of physical assault, is accepted by the hero as his wife with full knowledge of the background of her life.

‘Dahej’ was one other film which attacked the dowry system and its ill- effects. Social themes, particularly the social problems which the social order of the times was facing caught the imagination of the producers. Films were made with a mission and left their impact on the masses that thronged the picture halls.

Cinema always had its impact on the minds of the spectators — that was the only means of message carrier along with the entertainment that it provided Crowds went to the cinema halls and even the illiterate could understand the spoken word and learn from the theme.

And gradually when Technicolor was added to the show, the charm heightened still more. Thus cinema has come to stay as a great trend-setter in all fields — the thought, the ways, the looks, the dress — virtually in everything.

Though it is all a made-up story that is presented on the screen but the young mind of men and women, even that of the children gets deeply influenced by what they see on the screen and they even try to enact it in their real life.

The dream theme very often does not turn into a reality and so many young men and young women it is learnt have gone off the track trying to convert the dream into a reality and suffering frustration and even disaster in life. This only goes to prove the point how and to what extent cinema casts its influence on society.

Indian film makers have fully exploited this malleable mental make-up of the masses. Sensuality, sex and eroticism are the common attractions of the common man and pictures after pictures have been produced and are being produced — the themes remain practically the same, nothing very original in them but the hackneyed mistaken identities, kidnapped children restored to parents after a long suffering, struggle, violence and torture, heroes and heroines supposed to be dead found living; they unexpectedly meet and ultimately get joined together in the nuptial knot.

Impossibilities are made possible — how and why one does not understand but the audience revels in the single hero all bruised and bleeding and virtually dead, suddenly springs back on his legs to give a sound thrashing to a horde of assaulters on the other side.

One feels as if it is Hanuman of the mythology who has been reborn in the form of the hero. Even the most muscular of the assaulters are turned into pulp by a much less muscular hero.

All this can never happen in real life but it is a common thing to happen and re-happen in the Indian films. Violence, rape and such hair-raising sensational scenes are a common sight; people pay for the high rates of tickets — as they today are — only to see the impossible to happen.

Very common is the scene when the fight between the hero and his opponents leads them to some godown full of empty drums which come tumbling down over the opposite group, opposite to the hero.

The body language of the heroine is yet another attraction presented on the screen — how much of the concealed stands revealed — that makes for the success of the actress and the director.

And then, where and when do we find the hero or the heroine with a horde of his or her associates dancing for time unlimited on the broad roads of a city or even over the top of the running train. Shahrukh Khan’s dance sequence on the top of the toy-train in Darjeeling became a hit and the song — wholly unrelated to any part of the theme of the story — a perfect catch song.

How many have ever been found dancing over the train top but in Indian cinema all this is possible and permitted. In one the pictures — and this has been in not one but in many — that the hero can overtake a car going on a circular winding hill road by running on foot and taking short cuts and tumbling down from the hill top over pebbles, stones and thorny bushes and jumps straight over the car where the villain is carrying away the heroine.

The car loses balance and goes down the ridge hundreds of feet below overturning half a dozen times but all the occupants come out, though bruised, still quite alive — living and kicking. Even if the car on the normal road skids and falls into the way side ditch, the occupants have been reported to get killed but hurrah, to the Indian film maker nothing of that sort happens in the above- noted scene.

One only wonders how the film makers can afford to befool their audience in this manner but they only say and rightly too that when the audience is prepared to believe and prepared to be befooled why should they not exploit them.

There has recently been lot many films produced with ‘Dil’ — being one of their watchwords in the titles. Even fresh titles are being found hard to find — that is the paucity of imagination.

But there is the other side of the whole scenario too. Right from the thirties, film makers have struck upon the social and historical themes with success and those are really films worthy of praise. ‘Achuut Kanya\ l Chandidas’,’Punarmilari of the thirties then ‘Mughale Azam ‘Sikandar’Anarkali’, ‘Mirza Ghalib’, ‘Pukaf ‘Mother India’,’Do Bigha Zamiri had the social and the historical genre very well brought forth—there one found the art in every form — acting, dialogues, songs and settings and conveyed the message that they were set to convey.

In the later scenario, ‘Jhanak Jhanak Payal Baaje’, ‘Pakeeza’, ‘Manthari, ‘Bhumika’ ‘Umrao Jaari have been pictures with a theme and with a lot of art.

This recent age while on one side has to its credit so many cheap catchy themes to be named — there are pictures with a nationalistic and patriotic fervor, ‘Garam Hawa’, ‘Border J , ‘Hey Ram’ can be named as just a few specimen of the new thinking that cinema is not just a means for entertainment but with its mass appeal, it must give to the society some food for thought, it should serve to arouse some higher and nobler sentiments and thoughts.

Let this mass media uplift the masses — let some message be conveyed — it is a mighty task that the film makers should realise and rise to. They can contribute a lot to the making of the new India.

We have welcomed the new millennium with ardent hopes — the nation looks up for something great and the film makers should not only revel in the thought how they can mint more and more money; let them, just for a while, sit and think — Do they have any commitment to the country of their birth with the great weapon in their hands? Something for sometime but something for all times — that thought alone can give to the present producers and directors to niche for them a place in the history of modern India.

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Bollywood , Hindi-language sector of the Indian moviemaking industry that began in Bombay (now Mumbai ) in the 1930s and developed into an enormous film empire.

(Read Martin Scorsese’s Britannica essay on film preservation.)

After early Indian experiments in silent film, in 1934 Bombay Talkies, launched by Himansu Rai, spearheaded the growth of Indian cinema. Over the years, several classic genres emerged from Bollywood: the historical epic, notably Mughal-e-Azam (1960); the curry western, such as Sholay (1975); the courtesan film, such as Pakeezah (1972), which highlights stunning cinematography and sensual dance choreography; and the mythological movie, represented by Jai Santoshi Maa (1975).

Stars, rather than plots, were often the driving force behind the films. Beginning in 1936, when Ashok Kumar and Devika Rani emerged as the first major star pair, the Indian public developed an insatiable appetite for news about their screen heroes. This interest continued with male actors such as Raj Kapoor , Dilip Kumar , and Dev Anand in the 1950s and ’60s, Rajesh Khanna in the ’70s, Amitabh Bachchan in the ’80s, and Shah Rukh Khan in the ’90s. Popular female icons included Madhubala in the 1950s, Mumtaz in the ’60s, Zeenat Aman in the ’70s, Hema Malini in the ’80s, and Madhuri Dixit and Kajol in the ’90s.

At the turn of the 21st century, the Indian film industry—of which Bollywood remained the largest component—was producing as many as 1,000 feature films annually in all of India’s major languages and in a variety of cities, and international audiences began to develop among South Asians in the United Kingdom and in the United States . Standard features of Bollywood films continued to be formulaic story lines, expertly choreographed fight scenes, spectacular song-and-dance routines, emotion-charged melodrama , and larger-than-life heroes. Indian actor, model, and singer  Priyanka Chopra Jonas , married to pop star Nick Jonas of the  Jonas Brothers ,  rose to international stardom after she was crowned Miss World in 2000 and became one of India’s highest-paid actresses, in and out of Bollywood.

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Indian cinema : a very short introduction

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Women and Indian Cinema—A Tale of Representation

The Indian cinematic industry has been among the nation’s most popular source of entertainment, spanning decades of performances since its inception in the 1930s. Despite the masses flocking to the theatres and blockbusters making it big, a majority of the films released have something in common—men are portrayed with characters that meet the society’s definition of masculinity while female roles are reduced to misogynistic ideals. As a result, the lack of equality both on and off-screen has raised questions on gender stereotyping, the quality of media being viewed by the public, and the misinterpretation of a balanced society.

Several films enforce their views on the perfect woman, often through supporting characters—they play love interests or indulge in careers that seem ‘nurturing’, coming off as frail and submissive beings with very little room for thought and argument. Besides being a far cry from reality, such films create an inaccurate impression of the capabilities and interests of women and thus indirectly plant the seeds of inequality in the minds of people.

Adjectives used to describe males(left) and females(right) in Bollywood movies. ( Credits: Analyzing Gender Stereotyping in Bollywood Movies  )

The evolution of women in the Bollywood industry can be observed through the viewer’s gaze. Influenced by factors such as politics, economic structure, and culture, the perception of women by film enthusiasts and the like have helped define boundaries both on-screen and behind the scenes. In his 1972 essay on art criticism, Ways of Seeing , English art critic and novelist John Berger said, “ Men act, women appear. Men watch, women watch themselves being watched ”, adding to his analysis on the representation of women across media while bringing up the concept of the ‘male gaze’. Keeping in mind the unrealistic ideals displayed in several films, and the lack of women representation behind movies, it does not come as a surprise that the Indian film industry is often looked upon as a male-dominated environment.

As per a 2017 report by the  Geena Davis Institute , only one in ten directors in Bollywood are women. Other statistics reveal that the screen time for females was a mere 31.5 per cent, against the 68.5 per cent received by male actors. Due to the disparity in the number of men when compared to women in key off-screen processes such as script-writing, film-making, and direction, female characters in Bollywood have been presented through the eyes of a largely male perspective, resulting in the age-old stereotypes and gender biases that prevail in films.

Percentage of screen-on time for males and females over the years. ( Credits: Analyzing Gender Stereotyping in Bollywood Movies )

Being an easily accessible form of entertainment, cinema has become the most popular mode of leisure and entertainment. The Indian film industry has an extended viewership across the globe with approximately  3.6 billion people  swarming the big-screens. In a country where actors transcend their profession and become heroes that are idolised and adored, a part of the responsibility falls on them to rid the movie industry of such misconceptions and misrepresentation.

Kabir Singh , one of the highest-grossing movies of 2019, was scrutinised for the way it portrayed an abusive relationship as a form of love, and showcased the main lead, played by Shahid Kapoor, as an entitled man-child who treats his lover like his property. Singh is the epitome of toxic masculinity, yet, is forgiven and wins his lady back in the end. The box-office success of such an unapologetic glorification of misogyny shows how there is still a long way to go. Most Bollywood romances throughout the ages have solely been an expression of male desire with women having no agency of their own. For instance, stalking is glorified in innumerable songs with the hero relentlessly pursuing the object of his desire until the woman being pursued gives in to his unpleasant advances. Bollywood item songs frequently showcase scantily-clad women dancing to lewd lyrics and men ogling the star of the song. These songs are also a part of the problem and promote the dangerous idea that catcalling and sexual harassment of women is acceptable. A few Bollywood films have attempted to tackle the topic of feminism, however, with the primary goal for a film being a monetary success, faux-feministic movies have begun to enter the picture.

However, changing times have brought into the limelight several successes directed by women— Gully Boy by Zoya Akhtar, Deepa Mehta’s Fire and Earth , and the popular film English Vinglish by Gauri Shinde, are a few of the many pieces that are slowly bringing in a much-needed change to the industry, through representation of women from all walks of life. Pink , starring Tapsee Pannu and Amitabh Bachchan, was a progressive and empowering film that dealt with the topic of the consent of women. Lipstick Under My Burkha, directed by Alankrita Shrivastava, ran into several issues with the Central Board of Film Certification which raised questions on the double standards of the film body’s decisions, taking into account that the same board regularly approves of movies containing derogatory jokes about women. Actresses such as Priyanka Chopra and Anushka Sharma are producing and backing movies with women in empowering roles,  and Kangana Ranaut with Queen  and Vidya Balan with Kahaani are synonymous with strong female leads in movies.

Although great strides have been recently taken to portray relatable women from different walks of life, they are accompanied by certain caveats. Mission Mangal showcased the hard work and dedication of the women scientists of ISRO to make India’s Mars mission successful. Despite having a stellar female cast, the movie was promoted with Akshay Kumar in a lead role, which speaks a lot about the audience’s attitude towards women-centric films. Patriarchy is deeply ingrained in the very roots of Indian society and its mindset, which in turn is reflected in its films. Cinema is mostly seen as a form of escapism and hence caters to the larger male audience. Cinema is business-driven and filmmakers don’t want to stray away from the established stereotypes to give pathbreaking roles to women. It, thus, also falls on the viewers to break this vicious cycle of supply and demand by making progressive movies successful.

In its eighty-year history, Bollywood has seen female leads take on many forms—from the sacrificing mother or a pleading damsel in distress to a woman in charge of her own destiny. The change is slow and much delayed, but the representation of empowered women onscreen is steadily increasing. Testimony to this is the success of films such as  Tumhari Sulu, NH10, Neerja, Parched, among others that prove that actresses can be trusted to carry an entire film on their shoulders. Yet, there is much work to be done and there should be greater empathy and sensibility towards showcasing real women and the problems they face.

Featured Image Credits: www.imdb.com

Hello there! I’m the Editor-in-Chief of the MIT Post. I am curious and passionate deep thinker who has written on a wide variety of topics, and loves listening to music and read in her free time.

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Indian Cinema: A Very Short Introduction

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One film out of every five made anywhere comes from India. From its beginnings under colonial rule through to the heights of Bollywood, Indian cinema has challenged social injustices such as caste, the oppression of Indian women, religious intolerance, rural poverty, and the pressures of life in the burgeoning cities. Indian Cinema: A Very Short Introduction delves into the political, social, and economic factors which have shaped Indian cinema into a fascinating counterculture. Covering everything from silent cinema through to the digital era, it examines how the industry reflects the complexity and variety of Indian society through the dramatic changes of the 20th century, and into the beginnings of the 21st.

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Introduction: Indian Popular Cinema as a Slum's Eye View of Politics

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Paroj Banerjee

In the Indian context the use of the word 'slum' only appeared in the late 19th century and in vernacular practices the terms used to denote poor people's housing is much more encompassing. Furthermore, slum centric representations of urban marginality, both celebratory and derogatory, fail to capture the vibrancy and variety in Mumbai's urban community, writes Paroj Banerjee.

Om P R A K A S H Dwivedi

This chapter examines the ontological conditions of urban life in postcolonial India. By looking at some of the post-millennial Indian novels in English, it attempts to theorize urbanism and its consequences for the poor and slum-dwellers. The chapter makes a claim that the story of modernity and the concomitant progress of humanity has also been a story of mass exclusion, a chasm in the social division, denial of human rights, and, hence, a crisis of our moral imagination. This stems from the fact that urban life is essentially consumerist and hence divisive in nature. The scale and degree of one's consumption, therefore, become qualifying parameters of who can find healthy breathing space in urban life. The chapter concludes by making a case for strong and engaging frameworks of social assets to ensure a democratic life in cities.

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Janet M Wilson

This essay is framed by arguments about India’s uneven neoliberal globalization-- the conditions of precarity, limited rights and poverty alongside changing professional opportunities for slum dwellers -- and it draws on recent conceptualisations of the cosmopolitan subaltern, based on the connectivity, solidarities and affective bonds enabled by globalization in its discussion of new constructions of subalternity. Representations of the male urban subject examined in two acclaimed texts about the Mumbai slums --Danny Boyle’s film Slumdog Millionaire (2008) and Katherine Boo’s literary nonfiction Beyond the Beautiful Forevers (2012) – are shown to reveal a variety of western mediated images of consciousness and agency as shaped by social and political changes brought about by globalization. The article argues that such reconstructions through narrative have their basis in field work research such as the case study and interview, usually undertaken in anthropology and ethnography, which has established that subjectivity can be defined through memory and reflection. It concludes that while accommodating space for individual agency and embracing normative concepts of rights and citizenship, the texts, especially Slumdog Millionaire, nevertheless do not forward collective claims for communal belonging, rights and ownership.

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Making the Modern Slum

Sheetal Chhabria

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Bombay was beset by crises such as famine and plague. Yet, rather than halting the flow of capital, these crises served to secure it. In colonial Bombay, capitalists and governors, Indian and British alike, used moments of crisis to justify interventions that delimited the city as a distinct object and progressively excluded laborers and migrants from it. Town planners, financiers, and property developers joined forces to secure the city as a space for commerce and encoded shelter types as legitimate or illegitimate. By the early twentieth century, the slum emerged as a particularly useful category of stigmatization that would animate city-making projects in subsequent decades. Sheetal Chhabria locates the origins of Bombay’s now infamous “slum problem” in the broader histories of colonialism and capitalism. She not only challenges assumptions about colonial urbanization and cities in the global south, but also provides a new analytical approach to urban history. Making the Modern Slum shows how the wellbeing of the city–rather than of its people–became an increasingly urgent goal of government, positioning agrarian distress, famished migrants, and the laboring poor as threats to be contained or excluded.

Mediapolis: Journal of Cities and Culture, Vol. 4, No. 3

Igor Krstić

How have slums been represented onscreen? In the first installment of a three-part series, Igor Krstić considers the history of the cinematic representation of slums and examines the capacity of visual media to portray the complex relationships between capitalism and urban development.

Tara van Dijk

Marie Sagnières , Letitia Al

Economic and Political Weekly

Sanjukta Poddar

No one narrator can gauge the true shape of an entity as elep­h­antine as the metropolis of Bombay. Sheetal Chhabria and Debashree Mukherjee, however, in their respective accounts of colonial Bombay, masterfully identify the beating heart of this elep­hant–capital. Their works, though occu­pied with two distinct narrative arcs of the city’s history, can be discussed alo­ngside each other. They both showcase the power wielded by the capital in ­urban life and the consequences of such domination on the people who inhabit the city, on their bodies, their livelihoods, their modes of dwelling, and their creative energies. The common grounds for a discussion of these two books also arise from the fact that both are homa­ges to the working-class “humans of Bombay” without whom capital would remain an inert proposition. In so doing, both books engage afresh with the idea of capital and its constitutive role in the economy, society, and culture of the met­ro­politan life.

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The image of Shakespeare in Indian cinema

The fact that William Shakespeare has suddenly become a point of attraction to Indians is not factually true. Shakespeare has remained omnipresent in literary critique by scholars for a very long time. Perhaps we are noticing the appeal now because of a flood of varied celluloid representations of Shakespeare’s works, Indian filmmakers across the map are showing interest in.

The earliest documented reference one could discover is Shakespeare Through Eastern Eyes by Ranjee Shahani, published in 1932 during the heights of Indian nationalism and the Round Table Conference. Shahani aspired to bring out an Indian response to the plays by taking into account differences between race, culture and ethnicity. Smarajit Dutt’s critical texts on Hamlet, Othello , and Macbeth all carry the subtitle ‘An Oriental Study’ are emphatic about describing their critical objectives. Other scholars have tried to bring out comparisons between Kalidasa and Shakespeare’s works which have prioritised Kalidasa over Shakespeare, concluding that while Kalidasa inscribed a national identity, Shakespeare could be termed “provincial. [1]

In the over 450 years of his demise, Shakespeare has passed on more than just his works. He has inspired several generations of filmmakers across the world with ideas through his plays which offer some of the best ingredients for a mainstream film in any language and that could belong to any culture, ethnic backdrop, time-space paradigms, relationships, and so on. His works have the universality to transcend the confines of the written word, albeit in an English that is no longer in vogue, with characters that belong to a different era and a different culture and backdrop altogether.

The question that arises in this context is – Can a celluloid transposition of a Shakespeare play be termed an “adaptation,” a “transcreation,” a “translation”, an “interpretation”, a “contemporisation” or even “appropriation” or a “re-localisation in terms of language, culture, geography” and so on? The plethora of Indian films, be it in Hindi, Bengali, or any other regional languages prove that they are all of these and some more because they add to the Bard’s creations in their own way. One reason for the large number of celluloid versions of Shakespeare may have sprung from the fact that Indian cinema, in spite of being the largest producer of films across the world, is considered to be “lowbrow and unworthy of attention.” The filmmakers, perhaps subconsciously aspired to break through this low perception by the world outside, and ventured to correct this wrong notion about Indian cinema in general and Bollywood in particular. [2]

Khoon Ka Khoon (1935), an Indian adaptation of Hamlet , written by Mehdi Ahsan has Sohrab Modi enacting Hamlet, Naseem Bano as Ophelia, and Shamshad Bai as Gertrude. Following Sohrab Modi, in 1941, J. J. Madan adapted The Merchant of Venice for his Hindi film titled, Zalim . Romeo and Juliet was adapted of late by Sanjay Leela Bhansali as Goliyon Ki Rasleela Ramleela (2013) in a Gujarati milieu. The Montague-Capulet family rivalry was reflected in the Rajadi-Sanera family conflict. Death of Ram (Romeo) and his beloved Leela (Juliet) finally ended the bloodshed between their families. [3] It was a highly glamorised, lavishly mounted, star-studded, exaggerated melodrama that played more around the erotic nuances between the lovers than on the familial conflict, though the matriarch did her bit of loud acting and designed posturing.

In the latter half of the twentieth century, this trend of adaptation flourished with the release of Angoor (1982) directed by Sampooran Singh Kalra (Gulzar). Angoor was a remake of Bhrantibilas (1963), a Bengali comedy film based on a Bengali play of the same name, written by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. Vidyasagar’s play was an adaptation of Shakespeare’s The Comedy of Errors . A recent remake of Angoor directed by Sajid Khan titled, Hamshakals was a distortion that turned out to be a horror and thankfully, flopped in its theatrical release.  The Bengali celluloid version of Bhrantibilas , however, was a major commercial hit and is a favourite among television couch potatoes even today.

Jiban Narah’s Poetry, A True Voice of Assam

“The missing person” slips into his own words.

For Saleem Peeradina

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As a Teenager in Europe, I Went to Nudist Beaches All the Time. 30 Years Later, Would the Experience Be the Same?

In July 2017, I wrote an article about toplessness for Vogue Italia. The director, actor, and political activist Lina Esco had emerged from the world of show business to question public nudity laws in the United States with 2014’s Free the Nipple . Her film took on a life of its own and, thanks to the endorsement from the likes of Miley Cyrus, Cara Delevingne, and Willow Smith, eventually developed into a whole political movement, particularly on social media where the hashtag #FreeTheNipple spread at lightning speed. The same year as that piece, actor Alyssa Milano tweeted “me too” and encouraged others who had been sexually assaulted to do the same, building on the movement activist Tarana Burke had created more than a decade earlier. The rest is history.

In that Vogue article, I chatted with designer Alessandro Michele about a shared memory of our favorite topless beaches of our youth. Anywhere in Italy where water appeared—be it the hard-partying Riviera Romagnola, the traditionally chic Amalfi coast and Sorrento peninsula, the vertiginous cliffs and inlets of Italy’s continuation of the French Côte d’Azur or the towering volcanic rocks of Sicily’s mythological Riviera dei Ciclopi—one was bound to find bodies of all shapes and forms, naturally topless.

In the ’90s, growing up in Italy, naked breasts were everywhere and nobody thought anything about it. “When we look at our childhood photos we recognize those imperfect breasts and those bodies, each with their own story. I think of the ‘un-beauty’ of that time and feel it is actually the ultimate beauty,” Michele told me.

Indeed, I felt the same way. My relationship with toplessness was part of a very democratic cultural status quo. If every woman on the beaches of the Mediterranean—from the sexy girls tanning on the shoreline to the grandmothers eating spaghetti al pomodoro out of Tupperware containers under sun umbrellas—bore equally naked body parts, then somehow we were all on the same team. No hierarchies were established. In general, there was very little naked breast censorship. Free nipples appeared on magazine covers at newsstands, whether tabloids or art and fashion magazines. Breasts were so naturally part of the national conversation and aesthetic that Ilona Staller (also known as Cicciolina) and Moana Pozzi, two porn stars, cofounded a political party called the Love Party. I have a clear memory of my neighbor hanging their party’s banner out his window, featuring a topless Cicciolina winking.

A lot has changed since those days, but also since that initial 2017 piece. There’s been a feminist revolution, a transformation of women’s fashion and gender politics, the absurd overturning of Harvey Weinstein’s 2020 rape conviction in New York, the intensely disturbing overturning of Roe v Wade and the current political battle over reproductive rights radiating from America and far beyond. One way or another, the female body is very much the site of political battles as much as it is of style and fashion tastes. And maybe for this reason naked breasts seem to populate runways and street style a lot more than they do beaches—it’s likely that being naked at a dinner party leaves more of a permanent mark than being naked on a glamorous shore. Naked “dressing” seems to be much more popular than naked “being.” It’s no coincidence that this year Saint Laurent, Chloé, Ferragamo, Tom Ford, Gucci, Ludovic de Saint Sernin, and Valentino all paid homage to sheer dressing in their collections, with lacy dresses, see-through tops, sheer silk hosiery fabric, and close-fitting silk dresses. The majority of Anthony Vaccarello’s fall 2024 collection was mostly transparent. And even off the runway, guests at the Saint Laurent show matched the mood. Olivia Wilde appeared in a stunning see-through dark bodysuit, Georgia May Jagger wore a sheer black halter top, Ebony Riley wore a breathtaking V-neck, and Elsa Hosk went for translucent polka dots.

In some strange way, it feels as if the trends of the ’90s have swapped seats with those of today. When, in 1993, a 19-year-old Kate Moss wore her (now iconic) transparent, bronze-hued Liza Bruce lamé slip dress to Elite Model Agency’s Look of the Year Awards in London, I remember seeing her picture everywhere and feeling in awe of her daring and grace. I loved her simple sexy style, with her otherworldly smile, the hair tied back in a bun. That very slip has remained in the collective unconscious for decades, populating thousands of internet pages, but in remembering that night Moss admitted that the nude look was totally unintentional: “I had no idea why everyone was so excited—in the darkness of Corinne [Day’s] Soho flat, the dress was not see-through!” That’s to say that nude dressing was usually mostly casual and not intellectualized in the context of a larger movement.

But today nudity feels loaded in different ways. In April, actor and author Julia Fox appeared in Los Angeles in a flesh-colored bra that featured hairy hyper-realist prints of breasts and nipples, and matching panties with a print of a sewn-up vagina and the words “closed” on it, as a form of feminist performance art. Breasts , an exhibition curated by Carolina Pasti, recently opened as part of the 60th Venice Biennale at Palazzo Franchetti and showcases works that span from painting and sculpture to photography and film, reflecting on themes of motherhood, empowerment, sexuality, body image, and illness. The show features work by Cindy Sherman, Robert Mapplethorpe, Louise Bourgeois, and an incredible painting by Bernardino Del Signoraccio of Madonna dell’Umiltà, circa 1460-1540. “It was fundamental for me to include a Madonna Lactans from a historical perspective. In this intimate representation, the Virgin reveals one breast while nurturing the child, the organic gesture emphasizing the profound bond between mother and child,” Pasti said when we spoke.

Through her portrayal of breasts, she delves into the delicate balance of strength and vulnerability within the female form. I spoke to Pasti about my recent musings on naked breasts, which she shared in a deep way. I asked her whether she too noticed a disparity between nudity on beaches as opposed to the one on streets and runways, and she agreed. Her main concern today is around censorship. To Pasti, social media is still far too rigid around breast exposure and she plans to discuss this issue through a podcast that she will be launching in September, together with other topics such as motherhood, breastfeeding, sexuality, and breast cancer awareness.

With summer at the door, it was my turn to see just how much of the new reread on transparency would apply to beach life. In the last few years, I noticed those beaches Michele and I reminisced about have grown more conservative and, despite being the daughter of unrepentant nudists and having a long track record of militant topless bathing, I myself have felt a bit more shy lately. Perhaps a woman in her 40s with two children is simply less prone to taking her top off, but my memories of youth are populated by visions of bare-chested mothers surveilling the coasts and shouting after their kids in the water. So when did we stop? And why? When did Michele’s era of “un-beauty” end?

In order to get back in touch with my own naked breasts I decided to revisit the nudist beaches of my youth to see what had changed. On a warm day in May, I researched some local topless beaches around Rome and asked a friend to come with me. Two moms, plus our four children, two girls and two boys of the same ages. “Let’s make an experiment of this and see what happens,” I proposed.

The kids all yawned, but my friend was up for it. These days to go topless, especially on urban beaches, you must visit properties that have an unspoken nudist tradition. One of these in Rome is the natural reserve beach at Capocotta, south of Ostia, but I felt a bit unsure revisiting those sands. In my memory, the Roman nudist beaches often equated to encounters with promiscuous strangers behind the dunes. I didn’t want to expose the kids, so, being that I am now a wise adult, I went ahead and picked a compromise. I found a nude-friendly beach on the banks of the Farfa River, in the rolling Sabina hills.

We piled into my friend’s car and drove out. The kids were all whining about the experiment. “We don’t want to see naked mums!” they complained. “Can’t you just lie and say you went to a nudist beach?”

We parked the car and walked across the medieval fairy-tale woods until we reached the path that ran along the river. All around us were huge trees and gigantic leaves. It had rained a lot recently and the vegetation had grown incredibly. We walked past the remains of a Roman road. The colors all around were bright green, the sky almost fluorescent blue. The kids got sidetracked by the presence of frogs. According to the indications, the beach was about a mile up the river. Halfway down the path, we bumped into a couple of young guys in fanny packs. I scanned them for signs of quintessential nudist attitude, but realized I actually had no idea what that was. I asked if we were headed in the right direction to go to “the beach”. They nodded and gave us a sly smile, which I immediately interpreted as a judgment about us as mothers, and more generally about our age, but I was ready to vindicate bare breasts against ageism.

We reached a small pebbled beach, secluded and bordered by a huge trunk that separated it from the path. A group of girls was there, sharing headphones and listening to music. To my dismay they were all wearing the tops and bottoms of their bikinis. One of them was in a full-piece bathing suit and shorts. “See, they are all wearing bathing suits. Please don’t be the weird mums who don’t.”

At this point, it was a matter of principle. My friend and I decided to take our bathing suits off completely, if only for a moment, and jumped into the river. The boys stayed on the beach with full clothes and shoes on, horrified. The girls went in behind us with their bathing suits. “Are you happy now? my son asked. “Did you prove your point?”

I didn’t really know what my point actually was. I think a part of me wanted to feel entitled to those long-gone decades of naturalism. Whether this was an instinct, or as Pasti said, “an act that was simply tied to the individual freedom of each woman”, it was hard to tell. At this point in history, the two things didn’t seem to cancel each other out—in fact, the opposite. Taking off a bathing suit, at least for my generation who never had to fight for it, had unexpectedly turned into a radical move and maybe I wanted to be part of the new discourse. Also, the chances of me going out in a fully sheer top were slim these days, but on the beach it was different. I would always fight for an authentic topless experience.

After our picnic on the river, we left determined to make our way—and without children—to the beaches of Capocotta. In truth, no part of me actually felt very subversive doing something I had been doing my whole life, but it still felt good. Once a free breast, always a free breast.

This article was originally published on British Vogue .

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"Unbelievable Time": Kangana Ranaut's ' Emergency ' Stuck With Censor Board

The actor, who is also a first-time MP, claimed that she and the members of the Central Board of Film Certification or CBFC have been receiving threats.

Kangana Ranaut said on Friday that her film 'Emergency', where she essays the role of former Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, is still stuck with the film certification board contrary to rumours that it has been cleared for release.

"There are rumours that our film 'Emergency' has got a censor certificate. It is not true. In fact, our film was cleared earlier but its certification has been stopped because of several threats," Ms Ranaut said in a video message posted on X.

"People of the censor board are also getting a lot of threats. There is pressure on us to not show the assassination of Mrs Gandhi, Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale and the Punjab riots. I don't know what we will show then, that there is a blackout in the film? This is unbelievable time for me and I am very sorry for this state of things in this country," the actor lamented.

#Emergency pic.twitter.com/Klko20kkqY — Kangana Ranaut (@KanganaTeam) August 30, 2024

The movie was scheduled to release on September 6. 

Earlier today, the Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD) sent a legal notice to the CBFC seeking to prevent the release of Ms Ranaut's film, claiming it may "incite communal tensions" and "spread misinformation".

"Such depictions are not only misleading but also deeply offensive and damaging to the social fabric of Punjab and the entire nation. It is apparent that Ranaut has chosen the subject of the Emergency not to make a genuine political or historical statement against Congress, but rather to target the Sikh community," the notice sent on August 27 claimed.

It claimed the movie portrays the Sikh community in an "unjust and negative light".

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On Tuesday, the actor reached out to the police for help after a video of a group of men threatening her over the release of her next film 'Emergency' surfaced on social media.

Several organisations, including the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee have demanded a ban on the release of the film, claiming it spreads an "anti-Sikh" narrative, and misrepresents Sikhs as "separatists".

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