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Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

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Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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What Is a Research Paper?

• An Introduction to Punctuation

Olivia Valdes was the Associate Editorial Director for ThoughtCo. She worked with Dotdash Meredith from 2017 to 2021.

• B.A., American Studies, Yale University

A research paper is a common form of academic writing . Research papers require students and academics to locate information about a topic (that is, to conduct research ), take a stand on that topic, and provide support (or evidence) for that position in an organized report.

The term research paper may also refer to a scholarly article that contains the results of original research or an evaluation of research conducted by others. Most scholarly articles must undergo a process of peer review before they can be accepted for publication in an academic journal.

Define Your Research Question

The first step in writing a research paper is defining your research question . Has your instructor assigned a specific topic? If so, great—you've got this step covered. If not, review the guidelines of the assignment. Your instructor has likely provided several general subjects for your consideration. Your research paper should focus on a specific angle on one of these subjects. Spend some time mulling over your options before deciding which one you'd like to explore more deeply.

Try to choose a research question that interests you. The research process is time-consuming, and you'll be significantly more motivated if you have a genuine desire to learn more about the topic. You should also consider whether you have access to all of the resources necessary to conduct thorough research on your topic, such as primary and secondary sources .

Create a Research Strategy 

Approach the research process systematically by creating a research strategy. First, review your library's website. What resources are available? Where will you find them? Do any resources require a special process to gain access? Start gathering those resources—especially those that may be difficult to access—as soon as possible.

Second, make an appointment with a reference librarian . A reference librarian is nothing short of a research superhero. He or she will listen to your research question, offer suggestions for how to focus your research, and direct you toward valuable sources that directly relate to your topic.

Evaluate Sources

Now that you've gathered a wide array of sources, it's time to evaluate them. First, consider the reliability of the information. Where is the information coming from? What is the origin of the source? Second, assess the  relevance  of the information. How does this information relate to your research question? Does it support, refute, or add context to your position? How does it relate to the other sources you'll be using in your paper? Once you have determined that your sources are both reliable and relevant, you can proceed confidently to the writing phase. 

Why Write Research Papers? 

The research process is one of the most taxing academic tasks you'll be asked to complete. Luckily, the value of writing a research paper goes beyond that A+ you hope to receive. Here are just some of the benefits of research papers. 

• Learning Scholarly Conventions:  Writing a research paper is a crash course in the stylistic conventions of scholarly writing. During the research and writing process, you'll learn how to document your research, cite sources appropriately, format an academic paper, maintain an academic tone, and more.
• Organizing Information: In a way, research is nothing more than a massive organizational project. The information available to you is near-infinite, and it's your job to review that information, narrow it down, categorize it, and present it in a clear, relevant format. This process requires attention to detail and major brainpower.
• Managing Time: Research papers put your time management  skills to the test. Every step of the research and writing process takes time, and it's up to you to set aside the time you'll need to complete each step of the task. Maximize your efficiency by creating a research schedule and inserting blocks of "research time" into your calendar as soon as you receive the assignment. 
• Exploring Your Chosen Subject:  We couldn't forget the best part of research papers—learning about something that truly excites you. No matter what topic you choose, you're bound to come away from the research process with new ideas and countless nuggets of fascinating information. 

The best research papers are the result of genuine interest and a thorough research process. With these ideas in mind, go forth and research. Welcome to the scholarly conversation!

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What is a Research Paper?

• Steps in Writing a Research Paper
• Critical Reading and Writing
• Punctuation
• Writing Exercises
• ELL/ESL Resources

"Research paper." What image comes into mind as you hear those words: working with stacks of articles and books, hunting the "treasure" of others' thoughts? Whatever image you create, it's a sure bet that you're envisioning sources of information--articles, books, people, artworks. Yet a research paper is more than the sum of your sources, more than a collection of different pieces of information about a topic, and more than a review of the literature in a field. A research paper analyzes a perspective argues a point . Regardless of the type of research paper you are writing, your finished research paper should present your own thinking backed up by others' ideas and information.

To draw a parallel, a lawyer researches and reads about many cases and uses them to support his or her own case. A scientist reads many case studies to support an idea about a scientific principle. In the same way, a history student writing about the Vietnam War might read newspaper articles and books and interview veterans to develop and/or confirm a viewpoint and support it with evidence.

A research paper is an expanded essay that presents your own interpretation or evaluation or argument. When you write an essay, you use everything that you personally know and have thought about a subject. When you write a research paper you build upon what you know about the subject and make a deliberate attempt to find out what experts know. A research paper involves surveying a field of knowledge in order to find the best possible information in that field. And that survey can be orderly and focused, if you know how to approach it. Don't worry--you won't get lost in a sea of sources.

In fact, this guide is designed to help you navigate the research voyage, through developing a research question and thesis, doing the research, writing the paper, and correctly documenting your sources.

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What Is a Research Paper? A Definition Explained.

A research paper is an important element of academia that synthesizes existing literature, introduces new insights or data, and contributes to the development of a particular field. This article provides a definition of research papers as well as an overview of its core components in order to facilitate understanding among scholars and students alike. To gain further insight into this topic, readers will explore examples which demonstrate how different types of studies employ various strategies for conducting quality academic research. Additionally, key considerations such as formatting guidelines, ethical protocols and overall purpose are discussed in detail so that readers can develop their own process for successfully writing scholarly works.

I. Introduction

A. definition of research paper, b. purpose of a research paper, ii. what is included in a research paper, a. overview and background information, b. literature review section, c. methodology or methods used iii. conclusions reached by the writer iv . presentation of results found v . analysis and interpretations of findings vi . implications for further study vii . final thoughts.

As the world evolves, so does our understanding of it. Research papers are a way to document and analyze this knowledge in an academic setting. The ability to gather information from different sources, form conclusions about that data, and effectively articulate those findings is an essential skill for any researcher.

A research paper is an organized collection of facts and ideas with evidence to support its argument or hypothesis. Through careful examination of relevant materials such as journal articles, books, interviews or surveys authors can draw their own conclusions about a topic based on what has already been studied by others. Additionally they may include their own interpretations of existing research as well as propose new experiments to expand upon current studies.

• Data collection
• Analysis & Interpretation Conclusion

A Research Paper is a Comprehensive Study Research papers are in-depth studies of various topics, and can be used to showcase knowledge acquired from extensive study. They typically explore both sides of the debate on any given issue or topic, with the purpose of providing an evidence based conclusion at its end. A research paper must contain detailed information about relevant theories and current trends related to the chosen subject matter. The aim is for readers to understand these ideas more fully by examining them within their wider social context.

What Is a Research Paper Definition? In its most basic form, a research paper definition refers to an extended piece of writing that provides arguments regarding some particular claim or concept using existing literature as support. It should also include original data collected through experimentation or observation as well as logical interpretations thereof in order to prove this argument further. In addition, other elements like citations may be required depending on your professor’s guidelines:

• Introduction – contains introductory information such as background facts.
• Methods/Analysis – describe techniques and methods employed when conducting experiments.

Research papers are among the most essential documents in a student’s academic journey. They demonstrate one’s understanding of a certain subject, and how they can apply their knowledge to explore new avenues or further develop existing ideas. Research papers provide readers with evidence that supports your conclusions as well as explaining any findings. Additionally, research papers offer an opportunity for students to hone their writing skills and refine their ability to think critically.

In essence, a research paper is defined as “a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional qualification presenting the author’s research and findings”. It is essentially used by academics and researchers alike to present scholarly work on subjects relevant to their field of study, which may be presented at conferences or published in scientific journals.

• It demonstrates one’s understanding
• It provides readers with evidence
• An opportunity for students hone writing skills & thinking critically

Defined: A document submit ted i n suppor t o f candi datur e fo r academi c degre e o r profession al qualificati on presen tin g author’ s researc h & finding s &nbs p ;

The Necessary Components

A research paper can be defined as an academic writing that relies on facts and data to explore a particular topic. It typically follows a structure which includes: introduction, body of evidence/findings, discussion/conclusion. These components are vital for producing scholarly work which is organized in its presentation and backed by reliable sources such as journals or books. The following outlines what constitutes each element of the research paper:

• Introduction – Establishes the context of the study by introducing readers to relevant information regarding the topic.

Understanding Research Papers

Research papers are a form of academic writing that requires students to conduct independent research on a chosen topic. Generally, the objective is for them to develop an original argument or interpretation based upon evidence gathered from reputable sources. The paper should present an organized discussion, and it should include both primary (original texts) as well as secondary (critiques of existing scholarship) source material.

The process of creating a research paper can be daunting because it involves extensive planning and preparation. As such, researchers must adhere closely to accepted conventions when designing their projects; these conventions dictate how they will structure their arguments and organize information within their documents.

• Before starting any project, students must first identify its purpose.
• Next, they need to select relevant data about the subject matter in order to construct an effective thesis statement.

Researchers must then go through the painstaking task of synthesizing multiple viewpoints into one cohesive perspective by synthesizing readings from various sources while keeping track of all references cited throughout the document—a critical step if authors hope for other scholars or professionals in similar fields to take them seriously. Finally, researchers should proofread drafts carefully before submitting final copies for publication or presentation opportunities at conferences.

To produce a compelling research paper, it is essential to conduct an extensive literature review of the existing body of knowledge pertaining to the topic. As stated by Research Paper Definition , “A research paper presents an original thought or position supported and demonstrated through previous work done in the same field”. This section aims to synthesize past studies relevant for this project, categorizing them into categories and exploring possible connections between findings.

The literature review process involves reading scholarly works related to one’s research question in order to uncover new ideas as well as insights that can be included in their own project. To begin with, we will consider various theoretical frameworks from which the current study could benefit most significantly:

• Social constructionism
• Feminist theory

Research papers are one of the best ways to showcase a student’s understanding and knowledge about a particular subject. A research paper is defined as an in-depth written study on any given topic, which involves researching reliable sources and conducting experiments or surveys. This section presents the methodology used by the writer for their research paper.

Based on the information collected using these various methods outlined above, it was concluded that there are several major issues concerning accessibility of public spaces within certain communities – both physical barriers due to lack of infrastructure but also social ones stemming from lack of education regarding disability rights legislation among many residents living in those areas.

The end result revealed crucial insight into how more attention needs to be paid towards ensuring disabled individuals can access all aspects of public life without facing undue discrimination or neglect based solely on their condition(s).

English: In conclusion, a research paper can be defined as an academic piece of writing that utilizes information gathered from primary and/or secondary sources to address a specific topic. A research paper is used to present the author’s analysis and findings on the subject matter, while simultaneously adhering to established conventions for composing such documents. It should also demonstrate evidence-based arguments that are logically sound and offer clear insights into the pertinent issues under examination. Through this definition explanation it is hoped readers have gained an improved understanding of what constitutes a research paper.

How To Write A Research Paper

Step-By-Step Tutorial With Examples + FREE Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | March 2024

For many students, crafting a strong research paper from scratch can feel like a daunting task – and rightly so! In this post, we’ll unpack what a research paper is, what it needs to do , and how to write one – in three easy steps. 🙂 

Overview: Writing A Research Paper

What (exactly) is a research paper.

• How to write a research paper
• Stage 1 : Topic & literature search
• Stage 2 : Structure & outline
• Stage 3 : Iterative writing
• Key takeaways

Let’s start by asking the most important question, “ What is a research paper? ”.

Simply put, a research paper is a scholarly written work where the writer (that’s you!) answers a specific question (this is called a research question ) through evidence-based arguments . Evidence-based is the keyword here. In other words, a research paper is different from an essay or other writing assignments that draw from the writer’s personal opinions or experiences. With a research paper, it’s all about building your arguments based on evidence (we’ll talk more about that evidence a little later).

Now, it’s worth noting that there are many different types of research papers , including analytical papers (the type I just described), argumentative papers, and interpretative papers. Here, we’ll focus on analytical papers , as these are some of the most common – but if you’re keen to learn about other types of research papers, be sure to check out the rest of the blog .

With that basic foundation laid, let’s get down to business and look at how to write a research paper .

Overview: The 3-Stage Process

While there are, of course, many potential approaches you can take to write a research paper, there are typically three stages to the writing process. So, in this tutorial, we’ll present a straightforward three-step process that we use when working with students at Grad Coach.

These three steps are:

• Finding a research topic and reviewing the existing literature
• Developing a provisional structure and outline for your paper, and
• Writing up your initial draft and then refining it iteratively

Let’s dig into each of these.

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Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature

As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question . More specifically, that’s called a research question , and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What’s important to understand though is that you’ll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources – for example, journal articles, government reports, case studies, and so on. We’ll circle back to this in a minute.

The first stage of the research process is deciding on what your research question will be and then reviewing the existing literature (in other words, past studies and papers) to see what they say about that specific research question. In some cases, your professor may provide you with a predetermined research question (or set of questions). However, in many cases, you’ll need to find your own research question within a certain topic area.

Finding a strong research question hinges on identifying a meaningful research gap – in other words, an area that’s lacking in existing research. There’s a lot to unpack here, so if you wanna learn more, check out the plain-language explainer video below.

Once you’ve figured out which question (or questions) you’ll attempt to answer in your research paper, you’ll need to do a deep dive into the existing literature – this is called a “ literature search ”. Again, there are many ways to go about this, but your most likely starting point will be Google Scholar .

If you’re new to Google Scholar, think of it as Google for the academic world. You can start by simply entering a few different keywords that are relevant to your research question and it will then present a host of articles for you to review. What you want to pay close attention to here is the number of citations for each paper – the more citations a paper has, the more credible it is (generally speaking – there are some exceptions, of course).

Ideally, what you’re looking for are well-cited papers that are highly relevant to your topic. That said, keep in mind that citations are a cumulative metric , so older papers will often have more citations than newer papers – just because they’ve been around for longer. So, don’t fixate on this metric in isolation – relevance and recency are also very important.

Beyond Google Scholar, you’ll also definitely want to check out academic databases and aggregators such as Science Direct, PubMed, JStor and so on. These will often overlap with the results that you find in Google Scholar, but they can also reveal some hidden gems – so, be sure to check them out.

Once you’ve worked your way through all the literature, you’ll want to catalogue all this information in some sort of spreadsheet so that you can easily recall who said what, when and within what context. If you’d like, we’ve got a free literature spreadsheet that helps you do exactly that.

Step 2: Develop a structure and outline

With your research question pinned down and your literature digested and catalogued, it’s time to move on to planning your actual research paper .

It might sound obvious, but it’s really important to have some sort of rough outline in place before you start writing your paper. So often, we see students eagerly rushing into the writing phase, only to land up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on in multiple

Now, the secret here is to not get caught up in the fine details . Realistically, all you need at this stage is a bullet-point list that describes (in broad strokes) what you’ll discuss and in what order. It’s also useful to remember that you’re not glued to this outline – in all likelihood, you’ll chop and change some sections once you start writing, and that’s perfectly okay. What’s important is that you have some sort of roadmap in place from the start.

At this stage you might be wondering, “ But how should I structure my research paper? ”. Well, there’s no one-size-fits-all solution here, but in general, a research paper will consist of a few relatively standardised components:

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology

Let’s take a look at each of these.

First up is the introduction section . As the name suggests, the purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your research paper. There are usually (at least) four ingredients that go into this section – these are the background to the topic, the research problem and resultant research question , and the justification or rationale. If you’re interested, the video below unpacks the introduction section in more detail. 

The next section of your research paper will typically be your literature review . Remember all that literature you worked through earlier? Well, this is where you’ll present your interpretation of all that content . You’ll do this by writing about recent trends, developments, and arguments within the literature – but more specifically, those that are relevant to your research question . The literature review can oftentimes seem a little daunting, even to seasoned researchers, so be sure to check out our extensive collection of literature review content here .

With the introduction and lit review out of the way, the next section of your paper is the research methodology . In a nutshell, the methodology section should describe to your reader what you did (beyond just reviewing the existing literature) to answer your research question. For example, what data did you collect, how did you collect that data, how did you analyse that data and so on? For each choice, you’ll also need to justify why you chose to do it that way, and what the strengths and weaknesses of your approach were.

Now, it’s worth mentioning that for some research papers, this aspect of the project may be a lot simpler . For example, you may only need to draw on secondary sources (in other words, existing data sets). In some cases, you may just be asked to draw your conclusions from the literature search itself (in other words, there may be no data analysis at all). But, if you are required to collect and analyse data, you’ll need to pay a lot of attention to the methodology section. The video below provides an example of what the methodology section might look like.

By this stage of your paper, you will have explained what your research question is, what the existing literature has to say about that question, and how you analysed additional data to try to answer your question. So, the natural next step is to present your analysis of that data . This section is usually called the “results” or “analysis” section and this is where you’ll showcase your findings.

Depending on your school’s requirements, you may need to present and interpret the data in one section – or you might split the presentation and the interpretation into two sections. In the latter case, your “results” section will just describe the data, and the “discussion” is where you’ll interpret that data and explicitly link your analysis back to your research question. If you’re not sure which approach to take, check in with your professor or take a look at past papers to see what the norms are for your programme.

Alright – once you’ve presented and discussed your results, it’s time to wrap it up . This usually takes the form of the “ conclusion ” section. In the conclusion, you’ll need to highlight the key takeaways from your study and close the loop by explicitly answering your research question. Again, the exact requirements here will vary depending on your programme (and you may not even need a conclusion section at all) – so be sure to check with your professor if you’re unsure.

Step 3: Write and refine

Finally, it’s time to get writing. All too often though, students hit a brick wall right about here… So, how do you avoid this happening to you?

Well, there’s a lot to be said when it comes to writing a research paper (or any sort of academic piece), but we’ll share three practical tips to help you get started.

First and foremost , it’s essential to approach your writing as an iterative process. In other words, you need to start with a really messy first draft and then polish it over multiple rounds of editing. Don’t waste your time trying to write a perfect research paper in one go. Instead, take the pressure off yourself by adopting an iterative approach.

Secondly , it’s important to always lean towards critical writing , rather than descriptive writing. What does this mean? Well, at the simplest level, descriptive writing focuses on the “ what ”, while critical writing digs into the “ so what ” – in other words, the implications . If you’re not familiar with these two types of writing, don’t worry! You can find a plain-language explanation here.

Last but not least, you’ll need to get your referencing right. Specifically, you’ll need to provide credible, correctly formatted citations for the statements you make. We see students making referencing mistakes all the time and it costs them dearly. The good news is that you can easily avoid this by using a simple reference manager . If you don’t have one, check out our video about Mendeley, an easy (and free) reference management tool that you can start using today.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. To recap, the three steps to writing a high-quality research paper are:

• To choose a research question and review the literature
• To plan your paper structure and draft an outline
• To take an iterative approach to writing, focusing on critical writing and strong referencing

Remember, this is just a b ig-picture overview of the research paper development process and there’s a lot more nuance to unpack. So, be sure to grab a copy of our free research paper template to learn more about how to write a research paper.

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What Is a Research Paper?

Definition of a research paper

A research paper is a scientific piece that covers a certain topic. It requires in-depth research, analysis, evaluation of literature or qualitative research performed via interviews or observations. 

A standard research paper includes these sections: 

• Review of literature 
• Methodology

The topic usually pertains to your area of study and is often connected to the papers you’ve written before. You will either choose the topic on your own or select it from the options proposed by your professor.

If you need to write a research paper but don’t know where to start, read on! This article will guide you through the entire process. 

What Is a Research Paper Purpose?

The main purpose of this type of academic paper is to either research a new topic or add to existing research. You may be covering a topic that has been explored long ago to update the information and possibly debunk some assumptions. Or you may be conducting brand new research that hasn’t been done before. Sometimes, you will also write a paper like that to add to the existing research if it is insufficient.

8 Steps to Writing a Research Paper

Writing a research paper is a lengthy process that many may find complicated. However, it becomes more manageable if you break it down into these steps:

• Pick a topic; approve it with your academic advisor.
• Conduct research, review the available sources, and pick the ones you find the most useful.
• Develop a thesis statement.
• Write an outline; put your ideas, potential sources and notes in it.
• Write the introduction chapter; this may also be done last.
• Move on to the body paragraphs & conclusion.
• Give it a rest, then edit without mercy.
• Format the paper and the references.

This may feel like a lot. It’s true. If you’re still confused as to how to write a research paper , refer to our expert writers for help. Studyfy can help you handle all eight steps of the writing process. 

Ensure you consult your academic advisor every step of the way. They may have valuable remarks, questions and advice.

How to Conduct Research?

When it comes to writing, research papers emphasize a solid base. The literature review is the whale that carries your paper. You must take enough time to discover all the relevant, timely information on the topic.

Otherwise, you risk redundancy. Search for keywords in Google Scholar and focus on publications made in the last 5-10 years, depending on the topic.

Conducting research for a research paper involves several steps to ensure thoroughness and accuracy. Here's a simplified guide:

• Define Your Topic : Clearly define the scope and focus of your research. This helps narrow down your search and ensures relevance.
• Identify Keywords : Brainstorm and identify keywords related to your topic. These will be crucial when searching for relevant sources.
• Use Reliable Sources : Utilize academic databases, scholarly journals, books, and reputable websites for your research. Evaluate the credibility and reliability of each source.
• Gather Information : Collect relevant data, statistics, quotes, and examples to support your thesis or argument. Take notes and keep track of your sources for citations.
• Analyze and Synthesize : Evaluate the information you've gathered critically. Identify patterns, themes, and relationships between different sources. Synthesize the information to develop your own perspective or argument.
• Organize Your Notes : Organize your notes and findings in a logical manner. Create an outline to structure your research paper effectively.
• Cite Your Sources : Make sure to properly cite all sources used in your research paper. Follow the citation style guidelines specified by your instructor or academic institution (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
• Review and Revise : Review your research paper draft carefully. Make revisions as needed to strengthen your arguments, improve clarity, and ensure coherence.
• Seek Feedback : Consider seeking feedback from peers, instructors, or mentors to gain additional insights and improve the quality of your research paper.
• Finalize Your Paper : Once you're satisfied with your research paper, finalize it by proofreading for errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Make sure your paper adheres to formatting guidelines before submission.

Thesis Statement

Writing a research paper is impossible without a good thesis statement. A thesis statement is a brief description of your stance on the topic. You may decide to reason for or against the existing opinion on the topic. Your thesis statement will reflect that.

You may also be required to write a research question instead. That question will guide your research and will either be answered positively or negatively at the end of the paper.

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Compose an Outline

This is a map for your future paper. One obviously can write research papers without it, but it’s easier to use the outline method. 

An outline will act like the skeleton of your paper. You jot down all the points that will appear in the final draft and then add meat and muscle to them. Those may be details, notes from your research, potential references, expected results and, of course, your methods.

When you have an outline, you can approve it with your professor, and they will guide you on what steps to take next.

Do I Need to Write the Intro First?

According to research paper writing service experts, no, you don’t. Some students find it best to craft this part last when the rest of your paper is ready. This way, you can see the direction your research has taken and prepare the reader appropriately. 

Most of the time, the intro chapter mentions the thesis statement, methods that will be used, either qualitative or quantitative, and the expected outcomes.

How Do I Write Body Chapters?

After the introduction, where you disclosed the research paper meaning and purpose, you move on to the body. Your literature review must show adequate research and familiarity with the topic. 

The methods for your research paper may differ depending on the topic, as well as what you think is best. You can either stick with the review of the literature (aka meta-analysis) or go on the slightly more complicated path of qualitative or quantitative research. Your choice depends on what fits your topic best.

Conclusion of research paper

Your conclusion must answer the question: what is the point of a research paper? Finish your paper stating if you’ve proved or disproved your thesis statement and what can be done in the future in further research. Don’t repeat the information already given in the paper word for word. Instead, summarize it briefly and don’t add any new information.

Improving Objectivity in Editing

When it comes to bigger academic works, like research papers, it’s hard to assess them adequately immediately after you’ve written them. Your memory will be too fresh, and you’ll recall the sentences rather than read them. To edit a paper properly, you should put it away for some time. This will allow you to be more objective and critical.

How to Edit a Research Paper?

The research paper definition states that you are to present your findings on the topic backed by facts and research.

To do that, you must ensure that every statement is supported by evidence. 

When you read the paper once again, look for logic, flow and evidence-based statements. Every paragraph must support the thesis statement for the whole paper to be on topic. Look at grammar, word choice and punctuation. Make sure to bring the paper to your professor for final edits.

Which Formatting Style Should I Use?

Any research paper requires referencing and citations. Yet, there are different formatting styles to use. In most cases, your professor will specify the required style, and you’ll be able to find the guide with its instructions. Most often, Harvard or APA are used for research papers; however, your academic advisor might require you to use another style, so you must consult with them if you’re not sure.

Final Words

A research paper is a very influential phase in your educational journey. You may be wondering, “ How long should a research paper be ?” The answers vary. Usually, the length is somewhere between 15 and 50 pages. But it depends on your year of study, topic and your professors’ requirements.

Make sure that you continuously consult with your advisor. This will make your job of writing and their job of grading your paper a lot easier. Besides, if they see your involvement and willingness to learn, they might be more lenient towards you.

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How to choose topics for research papers?

Choosing a topic for a research paper involves a few key steps:

• Interest and Passion : Pick a topic that excites you, as this will keep you motivated and engaged.
• Scope : Ensure the topic is neither too broad nor too narrow. A broad topic can be overwhelming, while a narrow topic might not have enough material.
• Resources : Check the availability of resources. Make sure there are sufficient sources to support your research.
• Originality : Consider originality. Aim for a topic that offers a new perspective or fills a research gap.
• Relevance : Choose a topic that is relevant to your field and current research trends, which can increase the impact of your work.

Usually, a student chooses a topic for their paper on their own. When you are asked, “What is a research paper about?” you must justify your choice and present enough evidence to cover the scope of the paper.They will likely offer you adjustments, propose sources, or suggest that you take another approach depending on the relevancy of the topic. But in general, the topic is up to you.

What are the major stages of composing a research paper?

First, you choose the topic and approve it with your advisor. Then, you do preliminary research and form your opinion along with the thesis statement. Next, you get to writing. Start with the outline and build on it. Write your body chapters, then the intro and conclusion. Then, move on to editing and formatting. Essentially, what’s a research paper? It’s your findings on the topic backed up by evidence. 

How many references should I include? 

Just as the length of your research paper depends on many factors, so does your reference count. A good starting point is seeing how many sources you can find on your topic. Discuss them with your professor. Then, once you write, you’ll see how many you need for an adequate review of the literature.

How do I finish the writing process?

What is a research paper? It’s a presentation of your findings backed by evidence. At the end of it, you assess if you’ve proved your thesis statement or not and provide a summary. Restate your points and key findings. 

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11.1 The Purpose of Research Writing

Learning objectives.

• Identify reasons to research writing projects.
• Outline the steps of the research writing process.

Why was the Great Wall of China built? What have scientists learned about the possibility of life on Mars? What roles did women play in the American Revolution? How does the human brain create, store, and retrieve memories? Who invented the game of football, and how has it changed over the years?

You may know the answers to these questions off the top of your head. If you are like most people, however, you find answers to tough questions like these by searching the Internet, visiting the library, or asking others for information. To put it simply, you perform research.

Whether you are a scientist, an artist, a paralegal, or a parent, you probably perform research in your everyday life. When your boss, your instructor, or a family member asks you a question that you do not know the answer to, you locate relevant information, analyze your findings, and share your results. Locating, analyzing, and sharing information are key steps in the research process, and in this chapter, you will learn more about each step. By developing your research writing skills, you will prepare yourself to answer any question no matter how challenging.

Reasons for Research

When you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research.

But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper . A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources.

If you are curious about the possibility of life on Mars, for example, you might choose to research the topic. What will you do, though, when your research is complete? You will need a way to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal way to organize thoughts, craft narratives or make arguments based on research, and share your newfound knowledge with the world.

Write a paragraph about a time when you used research in your everyday life. Did you look for the cheapest way to travel from Houston to Denver? Did you search for a way to remove gum from the bottom of your shoe? In your paragraph, explain what you wanted to research, how you performed the research, and what you learned as a result.

Research Writing and the Academic Paper

No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. For example, a student in an art history course might write a research paper about an artist’s work. Similarly, a student in a psychology course might write a research paper about current findings in childhood development.

Having to write a research paper may feel intimidating at first. After all, researching and writing a long paper requires a lot of time, effort, and organization. However, writing a research paper can also be a great opportunity to explore a topic that is particularly interesting to you. The research process allows you to gain expertise on a topic of your choice, and the writing process helps you remember what you have learned and understand it on a deeper level.

Research Writing at Work

Knowing how to write a good research paper is a valuable skill that will serve you well throughout your career. Whether you are developing a new product, studying the best way to perform a procedure, or learning about challenges and opportunities in your field of employment, you will use research techniques to guide your exploration. You may even need to create a written report of your findings. And because effective communication is essential to any company, employers seek to hire people who can write clearly and professionally.

Writing at Work

Take a few minutes to think about each of the following careers. How might each of these professionals use researching and research writing skills on the job?

• Medical laboratory technician
• Small business owner
• Information technology professional
• Freelance magazine writer

A medical laboratory technician or information technology professional might do research to learn about the latest technological developments in either of these fields. A small business owner might conduct research to learn about the latest trends in his or her industry. A freelance magazine writer may need to research a given topic to write an informed, up-to-date article.

Think about the job of your dreams. How might you use research writing skills to perform that job? Create a list of ways in which strong researching, organizing, writing, and critical thinking skills could help you succeed at your dream job. How might these skills help you obtain that job?

Steps of the Research Writing Process

How does a research paper grow from a folder of brainstormed notes to a polished final draft? No two projects are identical, but most projects follow a series of six basic steps.

These are the steps in the research writing process:

• Choose a topic.
• Plan and schedule time to research and write.
• Conduct research.
• Organize research and ideas.
• Draft your paper.
• Revise and edit your paper.

Each of these steps will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. For now, though, we will take a brief look at what each step involves.

Step 1: Choosing a Topic

As you may recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , to narrow the focus of your topic, you may try freewriting exercises, such as brainstorming. You may also need to ask a specific research question —a broad, open-ended question that will guide your research—as well as propose a possible answer, or a working thesis . You may use your research question and your working thesis to create a research proposal . In a research proposal, you present your main research question, any related subquestions you plan to explore, and your working thesis.

Step 2: Planning and Scheduling

Before you start researching your topic, take time to plan your researching and writing schedule. Research projects can take days, weeks, or even months to complete. Creating a schedule is a good way to ensure that you do not end up being overwhelmed by all the work you have to do as the deadline approaches.

During this step of the process, it is also a good idea to plan the resources and organizational tools you will use to keep yourself on track throughout the project. Flowcharts, calendars, and checklists can all help you stick to your schedule. See Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , Section 11.2 “Steps in Developing a Research Proposal” for an example of a research schedule.

Step 3: Conducting Research

When going about your research, you will likely use a variety of sources—anything from books and periodicals to video presentations and in-person interviews.

Your sources will include both primary sources and secondary sources . Primary sources provide firsthand information or raw data. For example, surveys, in-person interviews, and historical documents are primary sources. Secondary sources, such as biographies, literary reviews, or magazine articles, include some analysis or interpretation of the information presented. As you conduct research, you will take detailed, careful notes about your discoveries. You will also evaluate the reliability of each source you find.

Step 4: Organizing Research and the Writer’s Ideas

When your research is complete, you will organize your findings and decide which sources to cite in your paper. You will also have an opportunity to evaluate the evidence you have collected and determine whether it supports your thesis, or the focus of your paper. You may decide to adjust your thesis or conduct additional research to ensure that your thesis is well supported.

Remember, your working thesis is not set in stone. You can and should change your working thesis throughout the research writing process if the evidence you find does not support your original thesis. Never try to force evidence to fit your argument. For example, your working thesis is “Mars cannot support life-forms.” Yet, a week into researching your topic, you find an article in the New York Times detailing new findings of bacteria under the Martian surface. Instead of trying to argue that bacteria are not life forms, you might instead alter your thesis to “Mars cannot support complex life-forms.”

Step 5: Drafting Your Paper

Now you are ready to combine your research findings with your critical analysis of the results in a rough draft. You will incorporate source materials into your paper and discuss each source thoughtfully in relation to your thesis or purpose statement.

When you cite your reference sources, it is important to pay close attention to standard conventions for citing sources in order to avoid plagiarism , or the practice of using someone else’s words without acknowledging the source. Later in this chapter, you will learn how to incorporate sources in your paper and avoid some of the most common pitfalls of attributing information.

Step 6: Revising and Editing Your Paper

In the final step of the research writing process, you will revise and polish your paper. You might reorganize your paper’s structure or revise for unity and cohesion, ensuring that each element in your paper flows into the next logically and naturally. You will also make sure that your paper uses an appropriate and consistent tone.

Once you feel confident in the strength of your writing, you will edit your paper for proper spelling, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and formatting. When you complete this final step, you will have transformed a simple idea or question into a thoroughly researched and well-written paper you can be proud of!

Review the steps of the research writing process. Then answer the questions on your own sheet of paper.

• In which steps of the research writing process are you allowed to change your thesis?
• In step 2, which types of information should you include in your project schedule?
• What might happen if you eliminated step 4 from the research writing process?

Key Takeaways

• People undertake research projects throughout their academic and professional careers in order to answer specific questions, share their findings with others, increase their understanding of challenging topics, and strengthen their researching, writing, and analytical skills.
• The research writing process generally comprises six steps: choosing a topic, scheduling and planning time for research and writing, conducting research, organizing research and ideas, drafting a paper, and revising and editing the paper.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Research Paper

• Icon Calendar 19 May 2024
• Icon Page 1617 words
• Icon Clock 8 min read

A research paper is a product of seeking information, analysis, human thinking, and time. Basically, when scholars want to get answers to questions, they start to search for information to expand, use, approve, or deny findings. In simple words, research papers are results of processes by considering writing works and following specific requirements. Besides, scientists research and expand many theories, developing social or technological aspects of human science. However, in order to write relevant papers, they need to know a definition of the research, structure, characteristics, and types.

Definition of What Is a Research Paper and Its Meaning

A research paper is a common assignment. It comes to a situation when students, scholars, and scientists need to answer specific questions by using sources. Basically, a research paper is one of the types of papers where scholars analyze questions or topics, look for secondary sources, and write papers on defined themes. For example, if an assignment is to write a research paper on some causes of global warming or any other topic, a person must write a research proposal on it, analyzing important points and credible sources. Although essays focus on personal knowledge, writing a research paper means analyzing sources by following academic standards. Moreover, scientists must meet the structure of research papers. Therefore, writers need to analyze their research paper topics, start to research, cover key aspects, process credible articles, and organize final studies properly.

The Structure of a Research Work

The structure of research papers depends on assignment requirements. In fact, when students get their assignments and instructions, they need to analyze specific research questions or topics, find reliable sources, and write final works. Basically, the structure of research papers consists of the abstract, outline, introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, recommendations, limitations, conclusion, acknowledgments, and references. However, students may not include some of these sections because of assigned instructions that they have and specific types of research papers. For instance, if instructions of papers are not supposed to conduct real experiments, the methodology section can be skipped because of the data’s absence. In turn, the structure of the final work consists of:

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🔸 The First Part of a Research Study

Abstract or an executive summary means the first section of a research paper that provides the study’s purpose, research questions or suggestions, main findings with conclusions. Moreover, this paragraph of about 150 words should be written when the whole work is finished already. Hence, abstract sections should describe key aspects of studies, including discussions about the relevance of findings.

Outline serves as a clear map of the structure of a research study.

Introduction provides the main information on problem statements, the indication of methodology, important findings, and principal conclusion. Basically, this section of a research paper covers rationales behind the work or background research, explanation of the importance, defending its relevance, a brief description of experimental designs, defined research questions, hypotheses, or key aspects.

🔸 Literature Review and Research or Experiment

Literature Review is needed for the analysis of past studies or scholarly articles to be familiar with research questions or topics. Hence, this section summarizes and synthesizes arguments and ideas from scholarly sources without adding new contributions. In turn, this part is organized around arguments or ideas, not sources.

Methodology or Materials and Methods covers explanations of research designs. Basically, techniques for gathering information and other aspects related to experiments must be described in a research paper. For instance, students and scholars document all specialized materials and general procedures. In this case, individuals may use some or all of the methods in further studies or judge the scientific merit of the work. Moreover, scientists should explain how they are going to conduct their experiments.

Results mean the gained information or data after the research or experiment. Basically, scholars should present and illustrate their findings. Moreover, this section may include tables or figures.

🔸 Analysis of Findings

Discussion is a section of a research paper where scientists review the information in the introduction part, evaluate gained results, or compare it with past studies. In particular, students and scholars interpret gained data or findings in appropriate depth. For example, if results differ from expectations at the beginning, scientists should explain why that may have happened. However, if results agree with rationales, scientists should describe theories that the evidence is supported.

Recommendations take its roots from a discussion section where scholars propose potential solutions or new ideas based on obtained results in a research paper. In this case, if scientists have any recommendations on how to improve this research so that other scholars can use evidence in further studies, they must write what they think in this section.

Limitations mean a consideration of research weaknesses and results to get new directions. For instance, if researchers found any limitations of studies that could affect experiments, scholars must not use such knowledge because of the same mistakes. Moreover, scientists should avoid contradicting results, and, even more, they must write it in this section.

🔸 The Final Part of a Conducted Research

Conclusion includes final claims of a research paper based on findings. Basically, this section covers final thoughts and the summary of the whole work. Moreover, this section may be used instead of limitations and recommendations that would be too small by themselves. In this case, scientists do not need to use headings for recommendations and limitations.

Acknowledgments or Appendix may take different forms, from paragraphs to charts. In this section, scholars include additional information on a research paper.

References mean a section where students, scholars, or scientists provide all used sources by following the format and academic rules.

Research Characteristics

Any type of work must meet some standards. By considering a research paper, this work must be written accordingly. In this case, the main characteristics of research papers are the length, style, format, and sources. Firstly, the length of research work defines the number of needed sources to analyze. Then, the style must be formal and cover impersonal and inclusive language. In turn, the format means academic standards of how to organize final works, including its structure and norms. Finally, sources and their number define works as research papers because of the volume of analyzed information. Hence, these characteristics must be considered while writing research papers.

Types of Research Papers

In general, the length of assignments can be different because of instructions. For example, there are two main types of research papers, such as typical and serious works. Firstly, a typical research paper may include definitive, argumentative, interpretive, and other works. In this case, typical papers are from 2 to 10 pages, where students analyze research questions or specific topics. Then, a serious research study is the expanded version of typical works. In turn, the length of such a paper is more than 10 pages. Basically, such works cover a serious analysis with many sources. Therefore, typical and serious works are two types of research papers.

Typical Research Papers

Basically, typical research works depend on assignments, the number of sources, and the paper’s length. So, a typical research paper is usually a long essay with the analyzed evidence. For example, students in high school and colleges get such assignments to learn how to research and analyze topics. In this case, they do not need to conduct serious experiments with the analysis and calculation of data. Moreover, students must use the Internet or libraries in searching for credible secondary sources to find potential answers to specific questions. As a result, students gather information on topics and learn how to take defined sides, present unique positions, or explain new directions. Hence, typical research papers require an analysis of primary and secondary sources without serious experiments or data.

Serious Research Studies

Although long papers require a lot of time for finding and analyzing credible sources, real experiments are an integral part of research work. Firstly, scholars at universities need to analyze the information from past studies to expand or disapprove of researched topics. Then, if scholars want to prove specific positions or ideas, they must get real evidence. In this case, experiments can be surveys, calculations, or other types of data that scholars do personally. Moreover, a dissertation is a typical serious research paper that young scientists write based on the research analysis of topics, data from conducted experiments, and conclusions at the end of work. Thus, serious research papers are studies that take a lot of time, analysis of sources with gained data, and interpretation of results.

Reference management. Clean and simple.

Types of research papers

Analytical research paper

Argumentative or persuasive paper, definition paper, compare and contrast paper, cause and effect paper, interpretative paper, experimental research paper, survey research paper, frequently asked questions about the different types of research papers, related articles.

There are multiple different types of research papers. It is important to know which type of research paper is required for your assignment, as each type of research paper requires different preparation. Below is a list of the most common types of research papers.

➡️ Read more:  What is a research paper?

In an analytical research paper you:

• pose a question
• collect relevant data from other researchers
• analyze their different viewpoints

You focus on the findings and conclusions of other researchers and then make a personal conclusion about the topic. It is important to stay neutral and not show your own negative or positive position on the matter.

The argumentative paper presents two sides of a controversial issue in one paper. It is aimed at getting the reader on the side of your point of view.

You should include and cite findings and arguments of different researchers on both sides of the issue, but then favor one side over the other and try to persuade the reader of your side. Your arguments should not be too emotional though, they still need to be supported with logical facts and statistical data.

Tip: Avoid expressing too much emotion in a persuasive paper.

The definition paper solely describes facts or objective arguments without using any personal emotion or opinion of the author. Its only purpose is to provide information. You should include facts from a variety of sources, but leave those facts unanalyzed.

Compare and contrast papers are used to analyze the difference between two:

Make sure to sufficiently describe both sides in the paper, and then move on to comparing and contrasting both thesis and supporting one.

Cause and effect papers are usually the first types of research papers that high school and college students write. They trace probable or expected results from a specific action and answer the main questions "Why?" and "What?", which reflect effects and causes.

In business and education fields, cause and effect papers will help trace a range of results that could arise from a particular action or situation.

An interpretative paper requires you to use knowledge that you have gained from a particular case study, for example a legal situation in law studies. You need to write the paper based on an established theoretical framework and use valid supporting data to back up your statement and conclusion.

This type of research paper basically describes a particular experiment in detail. It is common in fields like:

Experiments are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions. You need to describe your experiment with supporting data and then analyze it sufficiently.

This research paper demands the conduction of a survey that includes asking questions to respondents. The conductor of the survey then collects all the information from the survey and analyzes it to present it in the research paper.

➡️ Ready to start your research paper? Take a look at our guide on how to start a research paper .

In an analytical research paper, you pose a question and then collect relevant data from other researchers to analyze their different viewpoints. You focus on the findings and conclusions of other researchers and then make a personal conclusion about the topic.

The definition paper solely describes facts or objective arguments without using any personal emotion or opinion of the author. Its only purpose is to provide information.

Cause and effect papers are usually the first types of research papers that high school and college students are confronted with. The answer questions like "Why?" and "What?", which reflect effects and causes. In business and education fields, cause and effect papers will help trace a range of results that could arise from a particular action or situation.

This type of research paper describes a particular experiment in detail. It is common in fields like biology, chemistry or physics. Experiments are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions.

How to Write a Research Paper: Parts of the Paper

• Choosing Your Topic
• Citation & Style Guides This link opens in a new window
• Critical Thinking
• Evaluating Information
• Parts of the Paper
• Writing Tips from UNC-Chapel Hill
• Librarian Contact

Parts of the Research Paper Papers should have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Your introductory paragraph should grab the reader's attention, state your main idea, and indicate how you will support it. The body of the paper should expand on what you have stated in the introduction. Finally, the conclusion restates the paper's thesis and should explain what you have learned, giving a wrap up of your main ideas.

1. The Title The title should be specific and indicate the theme of the research and what ideas it addresses. Use keywords that help explain your paper's topic to the reader. Try to avoid abbreviations and jargon. Think about keywords that people would use to search for your paper and include them in your title.

2. The Abstract The abstract is used by readers to get a quick overview of your paper. Typically, they are about 200 words in length (120 words minimum to  250 words maximum). The abstract should introduce the topic and thesis, and should provide a general statement about what you have found in your research. The abstract allows you to mention each major aspect of your topic and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Because it is a summary of the entire research paper, it is often written last. 

3. The Introduction The introduction should be designed to attract the reader's attention and explain the focus of the research. You will introduce your overview of the topic,  your main points of information, and why this subject is important. You can introduce the current understanding and background information about the topic. Toward the end of the introduction, you add your thesis statement, and explain how you will provide information to support your research questions. This provides the purpose and focus for the rest of the paper.

4. Thesis Statement Most papers will have a thesis statement or main idea and supporting facts/ideas/arguments. State your main idea (something of interest or something to be proven or argued for or against) as your thesis statement, and then provide your supporting facts and arguments. A thesis statement is a declarative sentence that asserts the position a paper will be taking. It also points toward the paper's development. This statement should be both specific and arguable. Generally, the thesis statement will be placed at the end of the first paragraph of your paper. The remainder of your paper will support this thesis.

Students often learn to write a thesis as a first step in the writing process, but often, after research, a writer's viewpoint may change. Therefore a thesis statement may be one of the final steps in writing. 

Examples of Thesis Statements from Purdue OWL

5. The Literature Review The purpose of the literature review is to describe past important research and how it specifically relates to the research thesis. It should be a synthesis of the previous literature and the new idea being researched. The review should examine the major theories related to the topic to date and their contributors. It should include all relevant findings from credible sources, such as academic books and peer-reviewed journal articles. You will want  to:

• Explain how the literature helps the researcher understand the topic.
• Try to show connections and any disparities between the literature.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.

More about writing a literature review. . .

6. The Discussion ​The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe what you have learned from your research. Make the reader understand why your topic is important. The discussion should always demonstrate what you have learned from your readings (and viewings) and how that learning has made the topic evolve, especially from the short description of main points in the introduction.Explain any new understanding or insights you have had after reading your articles and/or books. Paragraphs should use transitioning sentences to develop how one paragraph idea leads to the next. The discussion will always connect to the introduction, your thesis statement, and the literature you reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction. You want to: 

• Demonstrate critical thinking, not just reporting back facts that you gathered.
• If possible, tell how the topic has evolved over the past and give it's implications for the future.
• Fully explain your main ideas with supporting information.
• Explain why your thesis is correct giving arguments to counter points.

7. The Conclusion A concluding paragraph is a brief summary of your main ideas and restates the paper's main thesis, giving the reader the sense that the stated goal of the paper has been accomplished. What have you learned by doing this research that you didn't know before? What conclusions have you drawn? You may also want to suggest further areas of study, improvement of research possibilities, etc. to demonstrate your critical thinking regarding your research.

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Ten simple rules for reading a scientific paper

Maureen a. carey.

Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America

Kevin L. Steiner

William a. petri, jr, introduction.

“There is no problem that a library card can't solve” according to author Eleanor Brown [ 1 ]. This advice is sound, probably for both life and science, but even the best tool (like the library) is most effective when accompanied by instructions and a basic understanding of how and when to use it.

For many budding scientists, the first day in a new lab setting often involves a stack of papers, an email full of links to pertinent articles, or some promise of a richer understanding so long as one reads enough of the scientific literature. However, the purpose and approach to reading a scientific article is unlike that of reading a news story, novel, or even a textbook and can initially seem unapproachable. Having good habits for reading scientific literature is key to setting oneself up for success, identifying new research questions, and filling in the gaps in one’s current understanding; developing these good habits is the first crucial step.

Advice typically centers around two main tips: read actively and read often. However, active reading, or reading with an intent to understand, is both a learned skill and a level of effort. Although there is no one best way to do this, we present 10 simple rules, relevant to novices and seasoned scientists alike, to teach our strategy for active reading based on our experience as readers and as mentors of undergraduate and graduate researchers, medical students, fellows, and early career faculty. Rules 1–5 are big picture recommendations. Rules 6–8 relate to philosophy of reading. Rules 9–10 guide the “now what?” questions one should ask after reading and how to integrate what was learned into one’s own science.

Rule 1: Pick your reading goal

What you want to get out of an article should influence your approach to reading it. Table 1 includes a handful of example intentions and how you might prioritize different parts of the same article differently based on your goals as a reader.

1 Yay! Welcome!

2 A journal club is when a group of scientists get together to discuss a paper. Usually one person leads the discussion and presents all of the data. The group discusses their own interpretations and the authors’ interpretation.

Rule 2: Understand the author’s goal

In written communication, the reader and the writer are equally important. Both influence the final outcome: in this case, your scientific understanding! After identifying your goal, think about the author’s goal for sharing this project. This will help you interpret the data and understand the author’s interpretation of the data. However, this requires some understanding of who the author(s) are (e.g., what are their scientific interests?), the scientific field in which they work (e.g., what techniques are available in this field?), and how this paper fits into the author’s research (e.g., is this work building on an author’s longstanding project or controversial idea?). This information may be hard to glean without experience and a history of reading. But don’t let this be a discouragement to starting the process; it is by the act of reading that this experience is gained!

A good step toward understanding the goal of the author(s) is to ask yourself: What kind of article is this? Journals publish different types of articles, including methods, review, commentary, resources, and research articles as well as other types that are specific to a particular journal or groups of journals. These article types have different formatting requirements and expectations for content. Knowing the article type will help guide your evaluation of the information presented. Is the article a methods paper, presenting a new technique? Is the article a review article, intended to summarize a field or problem? Is it a commentary, intended to take a stand on a controversy or give a big picture perspective on a problem? Is it a resource article, presenting a new tool or data set for others to use? Is it a research article, written to present new data and the authors’ interpretation of those data? The type of paper, and its intended purpose, will get you on your way to understanding the author’s goal.

Rule 3: Ask six questions

When reading, ask yourself: (1) What do the author(s) want to know (motivation)? (2) What did they do (approach/methods)? (3) Why was it done that way (context within the field)? (4) What do the results show (figures and data tables)? (5) How did the author(s) interpret the results (interpretation/discussion)? (6) What should be done next? (Regarding this last question, the author(s) may provide some suggestions in the discussion, but the key is to ask yourself what you think should come next.)

Each of these questions can and should be asked about the complete work as well as each table, figure, or experiment within the paper. Early on, it can take a long time to read one article front to back, and this can be intimidating. Break down your understanding of each section of the work with these questions to make the effort more manageable.

Rule 4: Unpack each figure and table

Scientists write original research papers primarily to present new data that may change or reinforce the collective knowledge of a field. Therefore, the most important parts of this type of scientific paper are the data. Some people like to scrutinize the figures and tables (including legends) before reading any of the “main text”: because all of the important information should be obtained through the data. Others prefer to read through the results section while sequentially examining the figures and tables as they are addressed in the text. There is no correct or incorrect approach: Try both to see what works best for you. The key is making sure that one understands the presented data and how it was obtained.

For each figure, work to understand each x- and y-axes, color scheme, statistical approach (if one was used), and why the particular plotting approach was used. For each table, identify what experimental groups and variables are presented. Identify what is shown and how the data were collected. This is typically summarized in the legend or caption but often requires digging deeper into the methods: Do not be afraid to refer back to the methods section frequently to ensure a full understanding of how the presented data were obtained. Again, ask the questions in Rule 3 for each figure or panel and conclude with articulating the “take home” message.

Rule 5: Understand the formatting intentions

Just like the overall intent of the article (discussed in Rule 2), the intent of each section within a research article can guide your interpretation. Some sections are intended to be written as objective descriptions of the data (i.e., the Results section), whereas other sections are intended to present the author’s interpretation of the data. Remember though that even “objective” sections are written by and, therefore, influenced by the authors interpretations. Check out Table 2 to understand the intent of each section of a research article. When reading a specific paper, you can also refer to the journal’s website to understand the formatting intentions. The “For Authors” section of a website will have some nitty gritty information that is less relevant for the reader (like word counts) but will also summarize what the journal editors expect in each section. This will help to familiarize you with the goal of each article section.

Research articles typically contain each of these sections, although sometimes the “results” and “discussion” sections (or “discussion” and “conclusion” sections) are merged into one section. Additional sections may be included, based on request of the journal or the author(s). Keep in mind: If it was included, someone thought it was important for you to read.

Rule 6: Be critical

Published papers are not truths etched in stone. Published papers in high impact journals are not truths etched in stone. Published papers by bigwigs in the field are not truths etched in stone. Published papers that seem to agree with your own hypothesis or data are not etched in stone. Published papers that seem to refute your hypothesis or data are not etched in stone.

Science is a never-ending work in progress, and it is essential that the reader pushes back against the author’s interpretation to test the strength of their conclusions. Everyone has their own perspective and may interpret the same data in different ways. Mistakes are sometimes published, but more often these apparent errors are due to other factors such as limitations of a methodology and other limits to generalizability (selection bias, unaddressed, or unappreciated confounders). When reading a paper, it is important to consider if these factors are pertinent.

Critical thinking is a tough skill to learn but ultimately boils down to evaluating data while minimizing biases. Ask yourself: Are there other, equally likely, explanations for what is observed? In addition to paying close attention to potential biases of the study or author(s), a reader should also be alert to one’s own preceding perspective (and biases). Take time to ask oneself: Do I find this paper compelling because it affirms something I already think (or wish) is true? Or am I discounting their findings because it differs from what I expect or from my own work?

The phenomenon of a self-fulfilling prophecy, or expectancy, is well studied in the psychology literature [ 2 ] and is why many studies are conducted in a “blinded” manner [ 3 ]. It refers to the idea that a person may assume something to be true and their resultant behavior aligns to make it true. In other words, as humans and scientists, we often find exactly what we are looking for. A scientist may only test their hypotheses and fail to evaluate alternative hypotheses; perhaps, a scientist may not be aware of alternative, less biased ways to test her or his hypothesis that are typically used in different fields. Individuals with different life, academic, and work experiences may think of several alternative hypotheses, all equally supported by the data.

Rule 7: Be kind

The author(s) are human too. So, whenever possible, give them the benefit of the doubt. An author may write a phrase differently than you would, forcing you to reread the sentence to understand it. Someone in your field may neglect to cite your paper because of a reference count limit. A figure panel may be misreferenced as Supplemental Fig 3E when it is obviously Supplemental Fig 4E. While these things may be frustrating, none are an indication that the quality of work is poor. Try to avoid letting these minor things influence your evaluation and interpretation of the work.

Similarly, if you intend to share your critique with others, be extra kind. An author (especially the lead author) may invest years of their time into a single paper. Hearing a kindly phrased critique can be difficult but constructive. Hearing a rude, brusque, or mean-spirited critique can be heartbreaking, especially for young scientists or those seeking to establish their place within a field and who may worry that they do not belong.

Rule 8: Be ready to go the extra mile

To truly understand a scientific work, you often will need to look up a term, dig into the supplemental materials, or read one or more of the cited references. This process takes time. Some advisors recommend reading an article three times: The first time, simply read without the pressure of understanding or critiquing the work. For the second time, aim to understand the paper. For the third read through, take notes.

Some people engage with a paper by printing it out and writing all over it. The reader might write question marks in the margins to mark parts (s)he wants to return to, circle unfamiliar terms (and then actually look them up!), highlight or underline important statements, and draw arrows linking figures and the corresponding interpretation in the discussion. Not everyone needs a paper copy to engage in the reading process but, whatever your version of “printing it out” is, do it.

Rule 9: Talk about it

Talking about an article in a journal club or more informal environment forces active reading and participation with the material. Studies show that teaching is one of the best ways to learn and that teachers learn the material even better as the teaching task becomes more complex [ 4 – 5 ]; anecdotally, such observations inspired the phrase “to teach is to learn twice.”

Beyond formal settings such as journal clubs, lab meetings, and academic classes, discuss papers with your peers, mentors, and colleagues in person or electronically. Twitter and other social media platforms have become excellent resources for discussing papers with other scientists, the public or your nonscientist friends, or even the paper’s author(s). Describing a paper can be done at multiple levels and your description can contain all of the scientific details, only the big picture summary, or perhaps the implications for the average person in your community. All of these descriptions will solidify your understanding, while highlighting gaps in your knowledge and informing those around you.

Rule 10: Build on it

One approach we like to use for communicating how we build on the scientific literature is by starting research presentations with an image depicting a wall of Lego bricks. Each brick is labeled with the reference for a paper, and the wall highlights the body of literature on which the work is built. We describe the work and conclusions of each paper represented by a labeled brick and discuss each brick and the wall as a whole. The top brick on the wall is left blank: We aspire to build on this work and label this brick with our own work. We then delve into our own research, discoveries, and the conclusions it inspires. We finish our presentations with the image of the Legos and summarize our presentation on that empty brick.

Whether you are reading an article to understand a new topic area or to move a research project forward, effective learning requires that you integrate knowledge from multiple sources (“click” those Lego bricks together) and build upwards. Leveraging published work will enable you to build a stronger and taller structure. The first row of bricks is more stable once a second row is assembled on top of it and so on and so forth. Moreover, the Lego construction will become taller and larger if you build upon the work of others, rather than using only your own bricks.

Build on the article you read by thinking about how it connects to ideas described in other papers and within own work, implementing a technique in your own research, or attempting to challenge or support the hypothesis of the author(s) with a more extensive literature review. Integrate the techniques and scientific conclusions learned from an article into your own research or perspective in the classroom or research lab. You may find that this process strengthens your understanding, leads you toward new and unexpected interests or research questions, or returns you back to the original article with new questions and critiques of the work. All of these experiences are part of the “active reading”: process and are signs of a successful reading experience.

In summary, practice these rules to learn how to read a scientific article, keeping in mind that this process will get easier (and faster) with experience. We are firm believers that an hour in the library will save a week at the bench; this diligent practice will ultimately make you both a more knowledgeable and productive scientist. As you develop the skills to read an article, try to also foster good reading and learning habits for yourself (recommendations here: [ 6 ] and [ 7 ], respectively) and in others. Good luck and happy reading!

Acknowledgments

Thank you to the mentors, teachers, and students who have shaped our thoughts on reading, learning, and what science is all about.

Funding Statement

MAC was supported by the PhRMA Foundation's Postdoctoral Fellowship in Translational Medicine and Therapeutics and the University of Virginia's Engineering-in-Medicine seed grant, and KLS was supported by the NIH T32 Global Biothreats Training Program at the University of Virginia (AI055432). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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What is Research Methodology? Definition, Types, and Examples

Research methodology 1,2 is a structured and scientific approach used to collect, analyze, and interpret quantitative or qualitative data to answer research questions or test hypotheses. A research methodology is like a plan for carrying out research and helps keep researchers on track by limiting the scope of the research. Several aspects must be considered before selecting an appropriate research methodology, such as research limitations and ethical concerns that may affect your research.

The research methodology section in a scientific paper describes the different methodological choices made, such as the data collection and analysis methods, and why these choices were selected. The reasons should explain why the methods chosen are the most appropriate to answer the research question. A good research methodology also helps ensure the reliability and validity of the research findings. There are three types of research methodology—quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method, which can be chosen based on the research objectives.

What is research methodology ?

A research methodology describes the techniques and procedures used to identify and analyze information regarding a specific research topic. It is a process by which researchers design their study so that they can achieve their objectives using the selected research instruments. It includes all the important aspects of research, including research design, data collection methods, data analysis methods, and the overall framework within which the research is conducted. While these points can help you understand what is research methodology, you also need to know why it is important to pick the right methodology.

Why is research methodology important?

Having a good research methodology in place has the following advantages: 3

• Helps other researchers who may want to replicate your research; the explanations will be of benefit to them.
• You can easily answer any questions about your research if they arise at a later stage.
• A research methodology provides a framework and guidelines for researchers to clearly define research questions, hypotheses, and objectives.
• It helps researchers identify the most appropriate research design, sampling technique, and data collection and analysis methods.
• A sound research methodology helps researchers ensure that their findings are valid and reliable and free from biases and errors.
• It also helps ensure that ethical guidelines are followed while conducting research.
• A good research methodology helps researchers in planning their research efficiently, by ensuring optimum usage of their time and resources.

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Types of research methodology.

There are three types of research methodology based on the type of research and the data required. 1

• Quantitative research methodology focuses on measuring and testing numerical data. This approach is good for reaching a large number of people in a short amount of time. This type of research helps in testing the causal relationships between variables, making predictions, and generalizing results to wider populations.
• Qualitative research methodology examines the opinions, behaviors, and experiences of people. It collects and analyzes words and textual data. This research methodology requires fewer participants but is still more time consuming because the time spent per participant is quite large. This method is used in exploratory research where the research problem being investigated is not clearly defined.
• Mixed-method research methodology uses the characteristics of both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies in the same study. This method allows researchers to validate their findings, verify if the results observed using both methods are complementary, and explain any unexpected results obtained from one method by using the other method.

What are the types of sampling designs in research methodology?

Sampling 4 is an important part of a research methodology and involves selecting a representative sample of the population to conduct the study, making statistical inferences about them, and estimating the characteristics of the whole population based on these inferences. There are two types of sampling designs in research methodology—probability and nonprobability.

• Probability sampling

In this type of sampling design, a sample is chosen from a larger population using some form of random selection, that is, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. The different types of probability sampling are:

• Systematic —sample members are chosen at regular intervals. It requires selecting a starting point for the sample and sample size determination that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range; hence, it is the least time consuming.
• Stratified —researchers divide the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized, and then a sample can be drawn from each group separately.
• Cluster —the population is divided into clusters based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc.
• Convenience —selects participants who are most easily accessible to researchers due to geographical proximity, availability at a particular time, etc.
• Purposive —participants are selected at the researcher’s discretion. Researchers consider the purpose of the study and the understanding of the target audience.
• Snowball —already selected participants use their social networks to refer the researcher to other potential participants.
• Quota —while designing the study, the researchers decide how many people with which characteristics to include as participants. The characteristics help in choosing people most likely to provide insights into the subject.

What are data collection methods?

During research, data are collected using various methods depending on the research methodology being followed and the research methods being undertaken. Both qualitative and quantitative research have different data collection methods, as listed below.

Qualitative research 5

• One-on-one interviews: Helps the interviewers understand a respondent’s subjective opinion and experience pertaining to a specific topic or event
• Document study/literature review/record keeping: Researchers’ review of already existing written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles, guidelines, policy documents, etc.
• Focus groups: Constructive discussions that usually include a small sample of about 6-10 people and a moderator, to understand the participants’ opinion on a given topic.
• Qualitative observation : Researchers collect data using their five senses (sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing).

Quantitative research 6

• Sampling: The most common type is probability sampling.
• Interviews: Commonly telephonic or done in-person.
• Observations: Structured observations are most commonly used in quantitative research. In this method, researchers make observations about specific behaviors of individuals in a structured setting.
• Document review: Reviewing existing research or documents to collect evidence for supporting the research.
• Surveys and questionnaires. Surveys can be administered both online and offline depending on the requirement and sample size.

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What are data analysis methods.

The data collected using the various methods for qualitative and quantitative research need to be analyzed to generate meaningful conclusions. These data analysis methods 7 also differ between quantitative and qualitative research.

Quantitative research involves a deductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed at the beginning of the research and precise measurement is required. The methods include statistical analysis applications to analyze numerical data and are grouped into two categories—descriptive and inferential.

Descriptive analysis is used to describe the basic features of different types of data to present it in a way that ensures the patterns become meaningful. The different types of descriptive analysis methods are:

• Measures of frequency (count, percent, frequency)
• Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
• Measures of dispersion or variation (range, variance, standard deviation)
• Measure of position (percentile ranks, quartile ranks)

Inferential analysis is used to make predictions about a larger population based on the analysis of the data collected from a smaller population. This analysis is used to study the relationships between different variables. Some commonly used inferential data analysis methods are:

• Correlation: To understand the relationship between two or more variables.
• Cross-tabulation: Analyze the relationship between multiple variables.
• Regression analysis: Study the impact of independent variables on the dependent variable.
• Frequency tables: To understand the frequency of data.
• Analysis of variance: To test the degree to which two or more variables differ in an experiment.

Qualitative research involves an inductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed after data collection. The methods include:

• Content analysis: For analyzing documented information from text and images by determining the presence of certain words or concepts in texts.
• Narrative analysis: For analyzing content obtained from sources such as interviews, field observations, and surveys. The stories and opinions shared by people are used to answer research questions.
• Discourse analysis: For analyzing interactions with people considering the social context, that is, the lifestyle and environment, under which the interaction occurs.
• Grounded theory: Involves hypothesis creation by data collection and analysis to explain why a phenomenon occurred.
• Thematic analysis: To identify important themes or patterns in data and use these to address an issue.

How to choose a research methodology?

Here are some important factors to consider when choosing a research methodology: 8

• Research objectives, aims, and questions —these would help structure the research design.
• Review existing literature to identify any gaps in knowledge.
• Check the statistical requirements —if data-driven or statistical results are needed then quantitative research is the best. If the research questions can be answered based on people’s opinions and perceptions, then qualitative research is most suitable.
• Sample size —sample size can often determine the feasibility of a research methodology. For a large sample, less effort- and time-intensive methods are appropriate.
• Constraints —constraints of time, geography, and resources can help define the appropriate methodology.

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How to write a research methodology .

A research methodology should include the following components: 3,9

• Research design —should be selected based on the research question and the data required. Common research designs include experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, descriptive, and exploratory.
• Research method —this can be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method.
• Reason for selecting a specific methodology —explain why this methodology is the most suitable to answer your research problem.
• Research instruments —explain the research instruments you plan to use, mainly referring to the data collection methods such as interviews, surveys, etc. Here as well, a reason should be mentioned for selecting the particular instrument.
• Sampling —this involves selecting a representative subset of the population being studied.
• Data collection —involves gathering data using several data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, etc.
• Data analysis —describe the data analysis methods you will use once you’ve collected the data.
• Research limitations —mention any limitations you foresee while conducting your research.
• Validity and reliability —validity helps identify the accuracy and truthfulness of the findings; reliability refers to the consistency and stability of the results over time and across different conditions.
• Ethical considerations —research should be conducted ethically. The considerations include obtaining consent from participants, maintaining confidentiality, and addressing conflicts of interest.

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Frequently Asked Questions

Q1. What are the key components of research methodology?

A1. A good research methodology has the following key components:

• Research design
• Data collection procedures
• Data analysis methods
• Ethical considerations

Q2. Why is ethical consideration important in research methodology?

A2. Ethical consideration is important in research methodology to ensure the readers of the reliability and validity of the study. Researchers must clearly mention the ethical norms and standards followed during the conduct of the research and also mention if the research has been cleared by any institutional board. The following 10 points are the important principles related to ethical considerations: 10

• Participants should not be subjected to harm.
• Respect for the dignity of participants should be prioritized.
• Full consent should be obtained from participants before the study.
• Participants’ privacy should be ensured.
• Confidentiality of the research data should be ensured.
• Anonymity of individuals and organizations participating in the research should be maintained.
• The aims and objectives of the research should not be exaggerated.
• Affiliations, sources of funding, and any possible conflicts of interest should be declared.
• Communication in relation to the research should be honest and transparent.
• Misleading information and biased representation of primary data findings should be avoided.

Q3. What is the difference between methodology and method?

A3. Research methodology is different from a research method, although both terms are often confused. Research methods are the tools used to gather data, while the research methodology provides a framework for how research is planned, conducted, and analyzed. The latter guides researchers in making decisions about the most appropriate methods for their research. Research methods refer to the specific techniques, procedures, and tools used by researchers to collect, analyze, and interpret data, for instance surveys, questionnaires, interviews, etc.

Research methodology is, thus, an integral part of a research study. It helps ensure that you stay on track to meet your research objectives and answer your research questions using the most appropriate data collection and analysis tools based on your research design.

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• Research methodologies. Pfeiffer Library website. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://library.tiffin.edu/researchmethodologies/whatareresearchmethodologies
• Types of research methodology. Eduvoice website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://eduvoice.in/types-research-methodology/
• The basics of research methodology: A key to quality research. Voxco. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.voxco.com/blog/what-is-research-methodology/
• Sampling methods: Types with examples. QuestionPro website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/types-of-sampling-for-social-research/
• What is qualitative research? Methods, types, approaches, examples. Researcher.Life blog. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-qualitative-research-methods-types-examples/
• What is quantitative research? Definition, methods, types, and examples. Researcher.Life blog. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-quantitative-research-types-and-examples/
• Data analysis in research: Types & methods. QuestionPro website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/data-analysis-in-research/#Data_analysis_in_qualitative_research
• Factors to consider while choosing the right research methodology. PhD Monster website. Accessed August 17, 2023. https://www.phdmonster.com/factors-to-consider-while-choosing-the-right-research-methodology/
• What is research methodology? Research and writing guides. Accessed August 14, 2023. https://paperpile.com/g/what-is-research-methodology/
• Ethical considerations. Business research methodology website. Accessed August 17, 2023. https://research-methodology.net/research-methodology/ethical-considerations/

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 8. The Discussion
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The purpose of the discussion section is to interpret and describe the significance of your findings in relation to what was already known about the research problem being investigated and to explain any new understanding or insights that emerged as a result of your research. The discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the research questions or hypotheses you posed and the literature you reviewed, but the discussion does not simply repeat or rearrange the first parts of your paper; the discussion clearly explains how your study advanced the reader's understanding of the research problem from where you left them at the end of your review of prior research.

Annesley, Thomas M. “The Discussion Section: Your Closing Argument.” Clinical Chemistry 56 (November 2010): 1671-1674; Peacock, Matthew. “Communicative Moves in the Discussion Section of Research Articles.” System 30 (December 2002): 479-497.

Importance of a Good Discussion

The discussion section is often considered the most important part of your research paper because it:

• Most effectively demonstrates your ability as a researcher to think critically about an issue, to develop creative solutions to problems based upon a logical synthesis of the findings, and to formulate a deeper, more profound understanding of the research problem under investigation;
• Presents the underlying meaning of your research, notes possible implications in other areas of study, and explores possible improvements that can be made in order to further develop the concerns of your research;
• Highlights the importance of your study and how it can contribute to understanding the research problem within the field of study;
• Presents how the findings from your study revealed and helped fill gaps in the literature that had not been previously exposed or adequately described; and,
• Engages the reader in thinking critically about issues based on an evidence-based interpretation of findings; it is not governed strictly by objective reporting of information.

Annesley Thomas M. “The Discussion Section: Your Closing Argument.” Clinical Chemistry 56 (November 2010): 1671-1674; Bitchener, John and Helen Basturkmen. “Perceptions of the Difficulties of Postgraduate L2 Thesis Students Writing the Discussion Section.” Journal of English for Academic Purposes 5 (January 2006): 4-18; Kretchmer, Paul. Fourteen Steps to Writing an Effective Discussion Section. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  General Rules

These are the general rules you should adopt when composing your discussion of the results :

• Do not be verbose or repetitive; be concise and make your points clearly
• Avoid the use of jargon or undefined technical language
• Follow a logical stream of thought; in general, interpret and discuss the significance of your findings in the same sequence you described them in your results section [a notable exception is to begin by highlighting an unexpected result or a finding that can grab the reader's attention]
• Use the present verb tense, especially for established facts; however, refer to specific works or prior studies in the past tense
• If needed, use subheadings to help organize your discussion or to categorize your interpretations into themes

II.  The Content

The content of the discussion section of your paper most often includes :

• Explanation of results : Comment on whether or not the results were expected for each set of findings; go into greater depth to explain findings that were unexpected or especially profound. If appropriate, note any unusual or unanticipated patterns or trends that emerged from your results and explain their meaning in relation to the research problem.
• References to previous research : Either compare your results with the findings from other studies or use the studies to support a claim. This can include re-visiting key sources already cited in your literature review section, or, save them to cite later in the discussion section if they are more important to compare with your results instead of being a part of the general literature review of prior research used to provide context and background information. Note that you can make this decision to highlight specific studies after you have begun writing the discussion section.
• Deduction : A claim for how the results can be applied more generally. For example, describing lessons learned, proposing recommendations that can help improve a situation, or highlighting best practices.
• Hypothesis : A more general claim or possible conclusion arising from the results [which may be proved or disproved in subsequent research]. This can be framed as new research questions that emerged as a consequence of your analysis.

III.  Organization and Structure

Keep the following sequential points in mind as you organize and write the discussion section of your paper:

• Think of your discussion as an inverted pyramid. Organize the discussion from the general to the specific, linking your findings to the literature, then to theory, then to practice [if appropriate].
• Use the same key terms, narrative style, and verb tense [present] that you used when describing the research problem in your introduction.
• Begin by briefly re-stating the research problem you were investigating and answer all of the research questions underpinning the problem that you posed in the introduction.
• Describe the patterns, principles, and relationships shown by each major findings and place them in proper perspective. The sequence of this information is important; first state the answer, then the relevant results, then cite the work of others. If appropriate, refer the reader to a figure or table to help enhance the interpretation of the data [either within the text or as an appendix].
• Regardless of where it's mentioned, a good discussion section includes analysis of any unexpected findings. This part of the discussion should begin with a description of the unanticipated finding, followed by a brief interpretation as to why you believe it appeared and, if necessary, its possible significance in relation to the overall study. If more than one unexpected finding emerged during the study, describe each of them in the order they appeared as you gathered or analyzed the data. As noted, the exception to discussing findings in the same order you described them in the results section would be to begin by highlighting the implications of a particularly unexpected or significant finding that emerged from the study, followed by a discussion of the remaining findings.
• Before concluding the discussion, identify potential limitations and weaknesses if you do not plan to do so in the conclusion of the paper. Comment on their relative importance in relation to your overall interpretation of the results and, if necessary, note how they may affect the validity of your findings. Avoid using an apologetic tone; however, be honest and self-critical [e.g., in retrospect, had you included a particular question in a survey instrument, additional data could have been revealed].
• The discussion section should end with a concise summary of the principal implications of the findings regardless of their significance. Give a brief explanation about why you believe the findings and conclusions of your study are important and how they support broader knowledge or understanding of the research problem. This can be followed by any recommendations for further research. However, do not offer recommendations which could have been easily addressed within the study. This would demonstrate to the reader that you have inadequately examined and interpreted the data.

IV.  Overall Objectives

The objectives of your discussion section should include the following: I.  Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings

Briefly reiterate the research problem or problems you are investigating and the methods you used to investigate them, then move quickly to describe the major findings of the study. You should write a direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results, usually in one paragraph.

II.  Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important

No one has thought as long and hard about your study as you have. Systematically explain the underlying meaning of your findings and state why you believe they are significant. After reading the discussion section, you want the reader to think critically about the results and why they are important. You don’t want to force the reader to go through the paper multiple times to figure out what it all means. If applicable, begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most significant or unanticipated finding first, then systematically review each finding. Otherwise, follow the general order you reported the findings presented in the results section.

III.  Relate the Findings to Similar Studies

No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for your research. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps to support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your study differs from other research about the topic. Note that any significant or unanticipated finding is often because there was no prior research to indicate the finding could occur. If there is prior research to indicate this, you need to explain why it was significant or unanticipated. IV.  Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings

It is important to remember that the purpose of research in the social sciences is to discover and not to prove . When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations for the study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. This is especially important when describing the discovery of significant or unanticipated findings.

V.  Acknowledge the Study’s Limitations

It is far better for you to identify and acknowledge your study’s limitations than to have them pointed out by your professor! Note any unanswered questions or issues your study could not address and describe the generalizability of your results to other situations. If a limitation is applicable to the method chosen to gather information, then describe in detail the problems you encountered and why. VI.  Make Suggestions for Further Research

You may choose to conclude the discussion section by making suggestions for further research [as opposed to offering suggestions in the conclusion of your paper]. Although your study can offer important insights about the research problem, this is where you can address other questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or highlight hidden issues that were revealed as a result of conducting your research. You should frame your suggestions by linking the need for further research to the limitations of your study [e.g., in future studies, the survey instrument should include more questions that ask..."] or linking to critical issues revealed from the data that were not considered initially in your research.

NOTE: Besides the literature review section, the preponderance of references to sources is usually found in the discussion section . A few historical references may be helpful for perspective, but most of the references should be relatively recent and included to aid in the interpretation of your results, to support the significance of a finding, and/or to place a finding within a particular context. If a study that you cited does not support your findings, don't ignore it--clearly explain why your research findings differ from theirs.

V.  Problems to Avoid

• Do not waste time restating your results . Should you need to remind the reader of a finding to be discussed, use "bridge sentences" that relate the result to the interpretation. An example would be: “In the case of determining available housing to single women with children in rural areas of Texas, the findings suggest that access to good schools is important...," then move on to further explaining this finding and its implications.
• As noted, recommendations for further research can be included in either the discussion or conclusion of your paper, but do not repeat your recommendations in the both sections. Think about the overall narrative flow of your paper to determine where best to locate this information. However, if your findings raise a lot of new questions or issues, consider including suggestions for further research in the discussion section.
• Do not introduce new results in the discussion section. Be wary of mistaking the reiteration of a specific finding for an interpretation because it may confuse the reader. The description of findings [results section] and the interpretation of their significance [discussion section] should be distinct parts of your paper. If you choose to combine the results section and the discussion section into a single narrative, you must be clear in how you report the information discovered and your own interpretation of each finding. This approach is not recommended if you lack experience writing college-level research papers.
• Use of the first person pronoun is generally acceptable. Using first person singular pronouns can help emphasize a point or illustrate a contrasting finding. However, keep in mind that too much use of the first person can actually distract the reader from the main points [i.e., I know you're telling me this--just tell me!].

Analyzing vs. Summarizing. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University; Discussion. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Hess, Dean R. "How to Write an Effective Discussion." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004); Kretchmer, Paul. Fourteen Steps to Writing to Writing an Effective Discussion Section. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Sauaia, A. et al. "The Anatomy of an Article: The Discussion Section: "How Does the Article I Read Today Change What I Will Recommend to my Patients Tomorrow?” The Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery 74 (June 2013): 1599-1602; Research Limitations & Future Research . Lund Research Ltd., 2012; Summary: Using it Wisely. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Schafer, Mickey S. Writing the Discussion. Writing in Psychology course syllabus. University of Florida; Yellin, Linda L. A Sociology Writer's Guide . Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2009.

Writing Tip

Don’t Over-Interpret the Results!

Interpretation is a subjective exercise. As such, you should always approach the selection and interpretation of your findings introspectively and to think critically about the possibility of judgmental biases unintentionally entering into discussions about the significance of your work. With this in mind, be careful that you do not read more into the findings than can be supported by the evidence you have gathered. Remember that the data are the data: nothing more, nothing less.

MacCoun, Robert J. "Biases in the Interpretation and Use of Research Results." Annual Review of Psychology 49 (February 1998): 259-287; Ward, Paulet al, editors. The Oxford Handbook of Expertise . Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2018.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Write Two Results Sections!

One of the most common mistakes that you can make when discussing the results of your study is to present a superficial interpretation of the findings that more or less re-states the results section of your paper. Obviously, you must refer to your results when discussing them, but focus on the interpretation of those results and their significance in relation to the research problem, not the data itself.

Azar, Beth. "Discussing Your Findings."  American Psychological Association gradPSYCH Magazine (January 2006).

Yet Another Writing Tip

Avoid Unwarranted Speculation!

The discussion section should remain focused on the findings of your study. For example, if the purpose of your research was to measure the impact of foreign aid on increasing access to education among disadvantaged children in Bangladesh, it would not be appropriate to speculate about how your findings might apply to populations in other countries without drawing from existing studies to support your claim or if analysis of other countries was not a part of your original research design. If you feel compelled to speculate, do so in the form of describing possible implications or explaining possible impacts. Be certain that you clearly identify your comments as speculation or as a suggestion for where further research is needed. Sometimes your professor will encourage you to expand your discussion of the results in this way, while others don’t care what your opinion is beyond your effort to interpret the data in relation to the research problem.

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 30.5.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

An Infrastructure Framework for Remote Patient Monitoring Interventions and Research

Authors of this article:

• Jennifer Claggett 1, 2 , PhD   ; 
• Stacie Petter 1 , PhD   ; 
• Amol Joshi 1, 2 , PhD   ; 
• Todd Ponzio 3 , PhD   ; 
• Eric Kirkendall 2 , MD  

1 School of Business, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, United States

2 Center for Healthcare Innovation, School of Medicine, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, United States

3 Health Science Center, University of Tennessee, Memphis, TN, United States

Corresponding Author:

Jennifer Claggett, PhD

School of Business

Wake Forest University

1834 Wake Forest Rd

Winston-Salem, NC, 27109-6000

United States

Phone: 1 3363027991

Email: [email protected]

Remote patient monitoring (RPM) enables clinicians to maintain and adjust their patients’ plan of care by using remotely gathered data, such as vital signs, to proactively make medical decisions about a patient’s care. RPM interventions have been touted as a means to improve patient care and well-being while reducing costs and resource needs within the health care ecosystem. However, multiple interworking components must be successfully implemented for an RPM intervention to yield the desired outcomes, and the design and key driver of each component can vary depending on the medical context. This viewpoint and perspective paper presents a 4-component RPM infrastructure framework based on a synthesis of existing literature and practice related to RPM. Specifically, these components are identified and considered: (1) data collection, (2) data transmission and storage, (3) data analysis, and (4) information presentation. Interaction points to consider between components include transmission, interoperability, accessibility, workflow integration, and transparency. Within each of the 4 components, questions affecting research and practice emerge that can affect the outcomes of RPM interventions. This framework provides a holistic perspective of the technologies involved in RPM interventions and how these core elements interact to provide an appropriate infrastructure for deploying RPM in health systems. Further, it provides a common vocabulary to compare and contrast RPM solutions across health contexts and may stimulate new research and intervention opportunities.

Introduction

Remote patient monitoring (RPM; sometimes referred to as eHealth, telehealth, telemonitoring, or telemedicine) involves the capture of patient data through sensors or devices outside of a clinical setting, such as at the patient’s home or work while the patient is engaging in everyday activities. Ideally, the data captured through RPM devices are analyzed and used to inform clinicians’ decisions on patient care. For example, typical decisions include adjusting the recommended dosage or timing of a patient’s medication based on observed changes in the patient’s vital signs or patterns of activity.

RPM interventions have increased exponentially in the United States of America since 2020 [ 1 ]. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated the need for remote patient care solutions when there were severe resource shortages of clinicians, equipment, and capacity within health care systems [ 2 - 4 ] and patients were required to socially distance themselves to mitigate the spread of COVID-19. As the United States of America eased regulations and made changes to encourage reimbursements for RPM interventions, health care providers sought to reap RPM’s potential benefits along three main dimensions: (1) enhancing quality by offering more personalized care; (2) achieving scale by growing their customer (patient) base; and (3) securing new reimbursement opportunities by evolving in response to shifts in payment policies [ 1 , 3 ].

The excitement and promise of the benefits of RPM to improve patient care while also expanding a health system’s market are well-documented in meta-analyses that find evidence of RPM reducing hospital admissions and length of stay for certain conditions, such as cardiovascular disease or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [ 5 , 6 ]. Decreased travel time, cost savings, and increased access to services are commonly ascribed as benefits for patients, and most eHealth interventions are described as successes [ 7 ]. However, other scholars counter that RPM interventions may not live up to the hype. One study finds that RPM interventions do not impact patient health factors, such as weight, body fat percentage, and blood pressure [ 8 ], and other related studies raise concerns about the limited evidence that RPM interventions can indeed adequately scale to meaningfully improve patient outcomes and demonstrably reduce health care costs [ 3 ].

These mixed results regarding the impact of RPM interventions showcase the current challenge of understanding how to design and effectively implement the infrastructure to support successful RPM programs. Successful RPM programs should meet at least one, but ideally both, of the following standards: (1) improved management of symptoms (evaluated using population-normalized values or patient feedback) and (2) reduced financial costs (evaluated in terms of the health system, payers, and patient out-of-pocket expenses). Previous work reporting on RPM interventions tends to report details on isolated projects and is focused, understandably, on a specific medical condition without offering generalizable advice to a broader audience or a catalog of best practices. Although RPM has been implemented in many different types of contexts, we contend that the key infrastructure points are consistent across interventions. Therefore, we present a framework consisting of 4 core infrastructure components necessary for any RPM intervention and identify common questions across contexts that should influence the RPM intervention design and results. This RPM infrastructure framework is useful to scholars and clinicians implementing RPM projects in that it (1) presents a shared vocabulary and reference point, (2) serves as a resource to guide some of the major decisions associated with an RPM implementation, and (3) provides a logical scaffolding to categorize and disseminate lessons learned within RPM projects to leverage them in other contexts. While the set of considerations nested within the four infrastructure components is not exhaustive, these considerations serve as a useful starting point as RPM research and interventions are planned and developed in the future.

RPM Infrastructure Framework

As an information technology (IT), RPM relies on a combined and layered infrastructure of hardware, software, and networks to support the collection, storage, processing, and management of data. By considering emergent patterns and themes from the literature, cases, and reports, discussing this topic in various panels and workshops, and reflecting on our experiences designing and assessing RPM projects, we propose a four-component infrastructure framework that is necessary in any RPM infrastructure project: (1) data collection, (2) data transmission and storage, (3) algorithmic data analysis, and (4) information presentation. The first RPM infrastructure component, data collection, collects a patient’s vital signs and other biometric data remotely through a measurement device such as a wearable sensor. Data transmission and storage, the second infrastructure component, leverages software interface services, networking, and hardware to transfer the data from the patient’s device to a centralized data architecture [ 9 , 10 ]. Third, software-based algorithms analyze the stored remote patient data to identify patterns and outliers for a single patient or for a patient population. The final RPM infrastructure component is to present information obtained from the analysis to support clinicians’ decision-making processes [ 11 , 12 ]. Figure 1 depicts the RPM infrastructure framework, and each of the following sections describes key considerations for each component.

Component 1: Remote Patient Data Collection

Patients interact with an RPM device to enable the collection of data outside of clinical settings. Some devices are worn continuously throughout a person’s day, while other devices are used at specific times to capture health indicators periodically based on the patient’s medical condition and the provider’s care protocol. Patients may use a specialized RPM device that registers a single form of biometric data (eg, a continuous glucose monitor capturing blood glucose levels) or a device that captures multiple data types (eg, a blood pressure cuff that measures blood pressure, pulse rate, and oxygen saturation). Given the growing number of technologies capable of collecting patient health data along with the need for patients to interact with a device for data collection, several questions must be carefully addressed when considering how to best collect data for an RPM intervention.

How Should Patients be Selected for RPM?

While RPM has the potential to improve patients’ quality of care and reduce clinic costs, successful implementation relies on the effective use of the device and the fidelity of the collected data. The existing literature highlights several key considerations and components for identifying patients who are a good match for remote monitoring. Of paramount importance is suitability—is the patient’s medical condition one that is likely to actually benefit from the collection and analysis of more data? Patients with chronic diseases such as diabetes, heart failure, hypertension, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are often more likely to benefit from RPM, as it can help them better manage their health status and condition over the long-term [ 13 ]. Comorbidities also play a significant role in patient selection, as those with multiple chronic conditions or complex health situations might require more comprehensive monitoring [ 14 ]. RPM can provide a more holistic view of their health, making it a potentially valuable tool for these patients; however, the complexity of their medical conditions may limit their ability to adhere to the monitoring program and necessitate more immediate and direct medical interventions.

Patients who are noncompliant or have a history of difficulty adhering to their treatment plans might benefit from RPM, as it can help improve compliance and provide additional support [ 15 ]. RPM solutions may make a patient feel more engaged, empowered, and informed through messaging systems that interact with patients on a routinely structured basis [ 16 , 17 ]. Patient motivation and engagement are key factors, as patients who are motivated and engaged in managing their health are more likely to actively participate in and adhere to the RPM program [ 18 ].

Other patient-specific factors—commonly referred to as the social determinants of health—such as socioeconomic status, age, and social support should be considered when designing RPM interventions [ 19 ]. For instance, patients with lower socioeconomic status might benefit from RPM the most, as it can help reduce health care disparities and provide better access to care [ 20 - 22 ]. A disproportionally large number of people affected by chronic conditions are from socioeconomically disadvantaged groups [ 23 ]. Communities of color, immigrants, and women are particularly likely to be in distress from undiagnosed chronic diseases, and even when diagnosed, these populations are more likely than their counterparts to face structural and logistical obstacles to obtaining the appropriate level of intermittent care. So long as they have reliable connectivity to the internet, patients who live in remote or rural areas or have limited access to transportation might benefit from RPM, as it can help overcome geographical barriers to care [ 18 , 24 ]. Age can also play a role in identifying suitable patients for RPM, in that elderly patients or those with age-related conditions may benefit from RPM. The patient’s living situation is another important factor. A strong support system, such as family or caregivers, can facilitate device use, data collection, and overall engagement, making these patients more suitable for RPM [ 25 ].

Finally, technological competence plays a crucial role in a patient’s ability to engage with an RPM device. Patients with some level of technology literacy (eg, “digital natives”) are more likely to engage with and effectively use RPM devices and systems [ 26 ]. However, patients with lower socioeconomic status or those who are elderly may have lower levels of technological competence or may have other barriers that could limit the effectiveness of an RPM program [ 27 - 29 ]. There is a natural continuum of sophistication and familiarity with devices and the inevitable troubleshooting they often require, and a more “set and forget” approach may be advisable for certain populations.

Which Device and Which Types of Data?

A fundamental characteristic of RPM is the acquisition of data outside of conventional clinical environments. Consequently, patient data must be collected remotely using sensors and equipment such as wearable devices, mobile phones, or portable devices installed at a patient’s residence or other environments [ 30 ]. One strategy involves using data from off-the-shelf, general-purpose smart health consumer electronics purchased by the patient, while another option is to rely on data from specialized devices or software prescribed or supplied by the health care provider. Technological advancements enable the collection, through devices within the RPM infrastructure, of various types of data, such as electrocardiograms, electroencephalograms, heartbeats and respiration rates, oxygen saturation in the blood or pulse oximetry, nervous system signals, blood pressure, body or skin temperature, blood glucose levels, patient weight, and sleep patterns, among others [ 31 ].

A crucial consideration is the optimal combination of metrics to be collected for a specific patient. The US Centers for Disease Control report that 51.8% of US adults have at least one chronic condition, and 27.2% have multiple chronic conditions such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease [ 32 ]. Emerging evidence indicates that RPM initiatives are more likely to succeed when multiple metrics are evaluated concurrently [ 33 ]. For instance, compiling data from various physiological sensors measuring heart rate, blood oxygen saturation, and blood glucose levels simultaneously can offer a more comprehensive overview of a patient’s health, which is particularly significant for patients with comorbidities and additional complications. This suggests that the diagnostic value of data can be enhanced by carefully considering what health indicators are needed to manage a patient’s care.

How Frequently are Data Collected?

Determining the optimal frequency of data collection in RPM scenarios is a critical consideration, as it can significantly impact the effectiveness of patient care and the efficient use of health care resources. The appropriate frequency for data collection depends on various factors, including the severity and type of the patient’s condition, the objectives of monitoring, and the required patient involvement in data collection [ 34 ]. For instance, some conditions may necessitate multiple data readings per day, while others may only require weekly monitoring [ 35 ]. Passive data collection methods, such as continuous monitoring of vital signs using wearable sensors, can be advantageous for patients requiring frequent monitoring, whereas active data collection methods, which involve patient involvement and interaction, may be suitable for other conditions [ 16 , 36 ]. Passive methods are usually less likely to cause patient burnout and abandonment [ 37 ].

Health care providers should consider adopting several best practices to ensure that patients remain engaged and compliant with RPM protocols. These typically include providing personalized and clear instructions, offering training and support to ensure device functionality, improving patients’ understanding and comfort with the technology, and fostering regular remote communication between patients and health care providers [ 38 ]. Furthermore, involving patients in the decision-making process regarding their monitoring plans and adjusting the frequency and type of data collection based on their individual needs and preferences can lead to increased patient engagement and satisfaction [ 13 , 39 ].

Component 2: Remote Patient Data Transmission and Storage

Once remote patient data are collected by one or more devices, the data must be transmitted and shared with clinicians, and stored in a data architecture. The manner in which the data are transmitted from an RPM device is dependent on the device and the network access of the patient. RPM data transmission may occur through a network using a wired link, or high-speed wireless link with or without human intervention. In some cases, patients or caregivers may be asked to record readings or values from devices into an app available on their smartphone or computer that will transmit data to the medical provider. Another option could be that a patient must physically visit a clinician’s office with the device to upload the data to the patient’s electronic medical record. The storage of remote patient data may be in a system that is managed by the device manufacturer and accessed through a web portal, and the data may or may not be integrated within the patient’s electronic medical record.

Is There Sufficient Connectivity?

Connectivity plays a vital role in the successful implementation of RPM, as it enables the transmission of patient data from monitoring devices to health care providers and fosters timely interventions and informed decision-making. Addressing the digital divide is crucial to ensuring equitable access to RPM services, as patients with limited internet access or low digital literacy may face barriers to fully benefiting from RPM [ 40 ]. This disparity is particularly concerning for patients from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds, who may experience greater difficulties in accessing health care services and could benefit the most from RPM [ 40 , 41 ]. Some patients may have access to home internet solutions through local internet service providers that include Wi-Fi networks at home, while others may be limited to cellular network access through mobile devices. Often, the latter is subject to slower connections and data caps that place constraints on the patient’s connectivity.

Strategies for addressing connectivity for RPM interventions should consider alternatives, such as the constant connectivity approach or using batch or episodic data uploads when data connections are available [ 42 ]. Constant connectivity can facilitate real-time monitoring and immediate interventions, which may be especially beneficial for patients with critical or rapidly changing health conditions [ 43 ]. However, this approach may not be feasible for patients living in areas with limited or unreliable internet access or for those who cannot afford consistent connectivity. In these cases, episodic data uploads when a connection is possible may provide a more accessible and cost-effective solution, allowing health care providers to track patient progress and identify potential issues while accommodating the patients’ connectivity limitations [ 44 ]. Additionally, some RPM hardware solutions may include direct cellular network connectivity, where the device sends the data through a connection provided by the wearable device to the provider, bypassing the need for a patient home network. These solutions will incur additional costs related to data transmission and may not naturally provide a patient dashboard or a way for patients to easily view data that may traditionally be housed in a patient application.

Is the Transmission Secure?

The sensitive nature of medical data necessitates robust protection measures to maintain patient privacy and prevent unauthorized access. Data breaches and cyberattacks can have severe consequences for patients and their health care providers, including identity theft, financial loss, and reputational damage [ 45 ]. The increasing connectivity of medical devices and the use of cloud-based data storage have created new opportunities for cybercriminals, leading to the emergence of threats such as medjacking [ 46 ]. Medjacking, a term coined from “medical device hijacking,” refers to the unauthorized access and manipulation of medical devices, such as pacemakers or insulin pumps, to cause harm to patients or extract sensitive data [ 47 ]. As RPM technologies rely on a variety of connected devices for data collection across multiple networks, they can be vulnerable to medjacking and other cybersecurity risks. Furthermore, the rapid expansion of the internet of things in health care has amplified these risks, as a larger number of interconnected devices create more potential entry points for attackers [ 48 , 49 ].

Health care providers and technology developers should prioritize the implementation of robust security measures to mitigate the risks associated with medjacking and other security threats in RPM. These may include strong encryption protocols for data transmission (“in flight”) and storage (“at rest”), regular security updates, and the development of secure communication channels between devices and health care providers [ 45 , 48 ]. Additionally, health care organizations should adopt a proactive approach to security by conducting regular risk assessments, promoting cybersecurity awareness and training among staff, and fostering a culture of security-mindedness [ 50 ].

Can Data Move Across Health Systems Software?

Interoperability is a crucial aspect of RPM projects, as it enables seamless communication and data sharing among different health information systems, devices, and providers. This encompasses not only the technical aspects of data exchange but also the semantic understanding and interpretation of shared data, ensuring that the information can be effectively used by health care providers, patients, and other stakeholders. Effective interoperability contributes to improved patient care by ensuring that clinicians have access to comprehensive and up-to-date medical information, allowing for better decision-making and coordination of care [ 51 ]. However, achieving interoperability in RPM poses several challenges, including the need to balance data accessibility with patient privacy and maintain control over personal health information.

One of the primary challenges in achieving interoperability in RPM is the heterogeneity of health information systems and devices used by health care providers. These systems often rely on different (often proprietary) data formats, communication protocols, and standards, which can create barriers to effective information exchange. To address this issue, several major standards have been developed to facilitate interoperability in health IT (eg, [ 52 , 53 ]). For example, the US Department of Health and Human Services Office of the National Coordinator for Health IT released the third version (V3) of the US Core Data for Interoperability in 2022 [ 54 ].

Another challenge in achieving interoperability is protecting patient privacy while sharing data freely among authorized health care providers [ 44 ]. Using privacy-preserving techniques, such as pseudonymization, which replaces personally identifiable information with unique identifiers to maintain patient anonymity, may reinforce privacy during the transmission of data between systems. However, these approaches must be rigorously tested to systematically mitigate privacy risks [ 55 ]. One-way hashing of sensitive identifiers is another technique that can reduce the risk of leakage of personal health identifiers. Additionally, the implementation of access control mechanisms can help ensure that only authorized users can access and share patient data, further safeguarding privacy [ 56 ].

A related issue to moving data across health systems is determining the appropriate granularity to share between stakeholders and systems. For example, in a remote blood pressure monitoring project, should each reading be recorded, transmitted, and made available, including any relevant metadata about time, place, and cuff placement, or should only summary data about daily or weekly averages be shared between systems? Like any sensor-based technology, the amount of raw data generated by RPM initiatives may be overwhelming [ 57 ]; however, providing only summarized data limits the transparency and future uses of the data.

Component 3: Algorithmic Analysis of Remote Patient Data

Remote patient data that are stored within an information system and are not analyzed provide no value to the patient or the clinician. After transmitting and storing RPM data, they should be processed and analyzed to identify and summarize patterns and trends in individual patients and patient populations [ 58 ]. The process of analyzing raw data to deliver actionable insights could also form the basis for financial reimbursement, which is fundamental to any sustainable RPM program.

What Analysis Techniques are Appropriate?

Data analysis involves the use of algorithms, or a series of steps, to process the data in a meaningful way. Algorithms may use static rule logic, which can be used to draw attention to results over a certain threshold, or they may leverage machine learning techniques to dynamically adapt and learn from large sets of patient data, such as adjusting the threshold based on similar patients with similar conditions recorded in the data [ 59 ]. The distinction between static and dynamic rules has implications that need to be explored.

Static rules can be based on established medical guidelines, such as thresholds for vital signs or other clinical parameters, which can help health care providers identify potential health issues and take appropriate actions [ 60 ]. While this method can be effective in some cases, it may not account for the unique characteristics and complexities of individual patients, which may limit its ability to provide personalized care [ 61 ].

Alternatively, machine learning techniques offer more advanced and adaptable solutions for analyzing RPM data [ 62 ]. These techniques use algorithms that can learn from data patterns and make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed [ 63 , 64 ]. Machine learning can be used to identify trends, anomalies, and correlations in patient data, enabling health care providers to make more informed decisions and deliver personalized care [ 65 , 66 ]. Adaptive interpretation techniques take RPM data analysis a step further by dynamically adjusting their approach based on real-time patient data. These methods, which often rely on artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms, can continuously refine their analysis and predictions to better understand the evolving health status of individual patients [ 63 ]. This adaptive approach can help health care providers identify subtle changes in patients’ conditions that may not be evident through traditional analysis techniques, leading to more proactive and personalized care [ 67 ].

Which Comorbidities Should be Included in the Analysis?

This question centers around the appropriate complexity level of analyses of RPM solutions. Incorporating comorbidities into the analysis of RPM data can help health care providers better understand the complex interactions between various conditions and their impact on patients’ health. This, in turn, can lead to more accurate and personalized treatment recommendations. Static rules that solely focus on a single condition, such as high blood pressure, may not adequately account for the impact of comorbidities on patients’ overall health status. For instance, a patient with both diabetes and hypertension may require a different treatment approach than a patient with hypertension alone, which is why any given individual should be managed holistically with a consolidated approach, rather than divided by symptoms and specialty [ 68 ].

This comprehensive monitoring can provide a more accurate representation of the patient’s health status, allowing health care providers to make more informed decisions regarding treatment and care management [ 69 , 70 ]. However, these solutions may be so patient-specific that cognitive efficiencies and the ability to scale the solution are compromised in the absence of built-in coordination systems with well-defined decision-making heuristics and robust care protocols.

What Biases Exist Within the Analysis and How Should They be Mitigated?

Biases in the analysis of remote patient data can have a significant impact on the accuracy and effectiveness of health care services. Particularly in machine learning-based analysis techniques, biases can arise from various sources, such as data sampling, measurement errors, or algorithmic design, leading to potentially biased predictions or recommendations [ 71 , 72 ]. It is essential to detect and account for biases to ensure that the solutions provided are equitable and reliable for all patients.

One primary source of bias in data analysis is the data itself. If the training data used to develop machine learning models do not accurately represent the diverse patient population, the resulting models may be skewed toward specific subgroups, leading to suboptimal or even harmful recommendations for other groups [ 73 , 74 ]. For instance, if a model is trained predominantly on data from patients of a particular age, gender, or ethnicity, it may not perform well on patients from other demographics. To mitigate such biases, it is crucial to ensure that the training data are representative of the target patient population, considering factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status [ 75 ].

Another source of bias can arise from the choice of features or variables used in the analysis. If certain relevant variables are not included, or if irrelevant variables are considered, the resulting predictions or recommendations may be biased or even spurious [ 76 ]. Careful feature selection, based on domain knowledge and a thorough understanding of the underlying data, can help address this issue.

Algorithmic biases can also emerge from the choice of machine learning methods or algorithms, as well as their specific implementations. To address this, it is essential to evaluate and compare multiple algorithms and implementations to identify potential biases and select the most appropriate method for the specific application [ 77 ]. Patients themselves can serve as their own baselines too, particularly for measurements that do not lend themselves as easily to a population approach (eg, mood and gastric motility).

Lastly, ongoing monitoring and evaluation of the performance of data analysis solutions, including machine learning models, is critical to detecting and addressing biases. Regular assessments of model performance, particularly with respect to various subgroups within the patient population, can help identify potential biases and ensure that the solutions remain equitable and effective for all patients [ 78 ].

Component 4: Presentation of RPM Data to a Clinician

Once the data have been analyzed, the results need to be presented as information to support clinicians’ decision-making. Unless the RPM data are used to inform patient care, the RPM intervention will not yield the intended results. Therefore, it is critical that the information is presented in a manner that is likely to inform clinicians as they make decisions that affect specific patients and patient populations.

Is RPM Information Accessible in the Right Electronic Health Record Software?

Physicians and other clinical decision makers often face significant time constraints and high cognitive workloads in their daily practice, making it challenging for them to manage and monitor patient data effectively. A study by Sinsky et al [ 79 ] found that primary care physicians spent nearly half of their workday interacting with EHR systems, leaving them with limited time for direct patient care. The high volume of clinical tasks and responsibilities can lead to cognitive overload, increasing the risk of burnout and negatively impacting the quality of care provided [ 80 ]. Given these constraints, it is critical to ensure that RPM data are easily accessible within the existing EHR systems without requiring clinicians to log into additional platforms or apps. Integrating RPM data into EHRs can help streamline clinical workflows and reduce the cognitive burden on health care providers, enabling them to focus on essential tasks such as patient evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment planning [ 81 ]. This underscores the importance of seamless integration and interoperability between RPM solutions and EHR systems, ultimately supporting more efficient and effective patient care by easing the pathway of the information being used in decision-making.

One of the key benefits of integrating RPM data into EHR systems is the ability to provide a comprehensive and up-to-date view of a patient’s health status. By combining RPM data with other health information such as medical history, laboratory results, and imaging studies, clinicians can gain a more holistic understanding of a patient’s condition, enabling them to make more informed decisions about treatment plans and care management strategies [ 82 ].

Integration of RPM data into EHR systems can also support the development and implementation of clinical decision support (CDS) tools, which can help health care providers make more informed, evidence-based decisions about patient care [ 83 ]. By leveraging RPM data, CDS tools can provide real-time alerts or recommendations to clinicians, assisting them in diagnosing, treating, or managing a patient’s condition more effectively.

How Should the Decision Maker Receive Information?

In the context of RPM solutions, there is a delicate balance between providing exception reporting and summary data reporting. Exception reporting involves the generation of alerts or notifications only when specific events or abnormal values are detected, which require immediate attention from health care providers. This yields the advantage of focusing health care providers’ attention on situations that need prompt intervention, potentially improving the efficiency and timeliness of care and reducing the number of alerts [ 84 ]. However, exception reporting may not always provide sufficient context or information about a patient’s overall health status, making it difficult for clinicians to assess the impact of treatment strategies or identify more subtle changes in condition over time. On the other hand, summary data reporting provides a broader overview of a patient’s progress over time, allowing clinicians to evaluate trends and assess the overall effectiveness of treatment plans. Both approaches have their merits and challenges, making the choice between them a critical consideration in RPM projects.

Alert fatigue is a critical concern in the context of RPM solutions, as it can have significant implications for the effectiveness of the system and the quality of patient care. Alert fatigue occurs when health care providers are exposed to a high volume of alerts, leading to desensitization and potentially reduced responsiveness to these notifications [ 85 - 87 ]. This phenomenon has been observed in various clinical settings, including electronic health record systems and CDS tools, where excessive alerts can contribute to cognitive overload, increased stress, and the risk of overlooking critical information [ 88 ].

In RPM systems, balancing the type and frequency of messaging is essential to minimize alert fatigue. The choice between push and pull messaging strategies can play a significant role in this regard. Push messaging involves automatically sending alerts or notifications to health care providers, whereas pull messaging requires providers to actively request or retrieve the information. Although push messaging can ensure timely delivery of critical information, it may also contribute to alert fatigue if used indiscriminately or too frequently. Solutions to alleviate this tension may involve tailoring alert thresholds based on individual patient needs, incorporating CDS algorithms to filter and prioritize alerts, and using a combination of push and pull messaging to strike the right balance between proactively notifying providers and allowing them to access information on demand.

What is the Right Amount of Information to Provide to Decision Makers?

Balancing transparency and detail in the presentation of RPM data with cognitive ease is crucial for ensuring that health care providers effectively use the information in their decision-making processes. While transparency is essential for building trust and understanding of the underlying data analysis, providing excessive detail can overwhelm clinicians and hinder their ability to quickly assimilate the information [ 89 ]. Consequently, it is vital to strike an optimal balance between presenting comprehensive information and ensuring cognitive ease for end users.

One approach to achieving this balance is to use a tiered or “drill-down” presentation of data, which allows health care providers to access additional layers of detail only if they require it [ 90 ]. This design can present a high-level summary of the patient’s condition and only flag critical alerts, while enabling providers to delve deeper into the data if they desire further context or clarification. This, in turn, helps mitigate information overload and supports more efficient decision-making by prioritizing the most relevant and actionable insights [ 91 ]. Moreover, incorporating the principles of cognitive ergonomics and human-centered design can further enhance the usability of RPM solutions. This may involve the use of visual aids, such as graphs, charts, and color-coding, to facilitate rapid comprehension of complex data and even presenting proposed treatment plans based on the algorithmic analysis of the patient’s full record [ 92 ] and providing reference statistics from the health system’s relevant patient population.

The mixed results with RPM interventions have raised concerns about the scalability and value of this technology. This viewpoint paper highlights some of the key questions and core considerations that affect the various infrastructure components of an RPM intervention. Differences between health conditions, metrics, devices, storage, analysis, and information presentation across RPM implementations result in countless permutations. If scholars fail to document and clearly explain the RPM infrastructure and choices made for an RPM implementation, it will be difficult to create an evidence-based research tradition. Having a shared vocabulary and more consistent documentation of the RPM infrastructure can support future literature reviews and meta-analyses seeking to evaluate the outcomes of RPM interventions. The RPM infrastructure framework presented in this article offers scholars a means to describe the different choices and constraints associated with their RPM interventions.

We also identify how each of the infrastructure components can stimulate new research and intervention opportunities in Table 1 . While not exhaustive, the list offers a sampling of the many research questions that could be studied to further increase the understanding associated with RPM interventions. The RPM framework offers scholars and clinicians a more comprehensive guide to exploring various aspects of RPM implementation. As a result, they can further optimize the design and functionality of RPM solutions for improved patient care and health care provider experiences.

Acknowledgments

This research is supported in part by funding from Wake Forest University through the School of Business and the School of Medicine Center for Healthcare Innovation. These sponsors had no involvement in the research.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

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Abbreviations

Edited by T de Azevedo Cardoso; submitted 26.07.23; peer-reviewed by M Baucum, H Ewald, E Vashishtha, R Williams, A Georgiou, R Bidkar; comments to author 24.08.23; revised version received 12.10.23; accepted 09.04.24; published 30.05.24.

©Jennifer Claggett, Stacie Petter, Amol Joshi, Todd Ponzio, Eric Kirkendall. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 30.05.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

Facility for Rare Isotope Beams

At michigan state university, new frib precision measurement program advances understanding of proton halos, theoretical physicists and experimentalists work together to measure the mass of a rare isotope expected to form a rare proton halo, publishing the first results from frib’s precision measurement program. .

In May 2022, the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB) at Michigan State University (MSU), launched its precision measurement program. Staff from FRIB’s  Low Energy Beam and Ion Trap (LEBIT) facility take high-energy, rare-isotope beams generated at FRIB and cool them to a lower energy state. Afterward, the researchers measure specific particles’ masses at high precision. 

The LEBIT team, led by  Ryan Ringle , adjunct professor of physics at FRIB and in the MSU Department of Physics and Astronomy and senior scientist at FRIB, and  Georg Bollen , University Distinguished Professor of Physics and FRIB Experimental Systems Division director, recently published a research paper that used the facility to take a step in verifying the mass of aluminum-22. Researchers think this exotic isotope demonstrates a rare but interesting property—specifically, that the nucleus is surrounded by a “halo” of protons that loosely orbit the nucleus. This halo structure reveals distinctive physical properties during its fleeting existence.

“This program requires a lot of extra beam preparation to perform experiments, and this is the first measurement in FRIB’s science program,” Ringle said. “This measurement could not have been done in a reasonable time at FRIB’s predecessor, the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory, and it highlights our facility’s potential moving forward. Considering this was done with one-eightieth of FRIB’s power specification, this was like a warm-up before exercising.” 

The team published its results in  Physical Review Letters (“ Precision Mass Measurement of the Proton Dripline Halo Candidate 22 Al”).

Capturing elusive proton halos

While most atoms have electrons tightly orbiting the nucleus, protons and neutrons are part of the nucleus itself. However, when atoms encounter many of the same charged particles under certain conditions, they can create halos that orbit the nucleus beyond the pull of the strong nuclear force—the force that would normally keep these particles within the nucleus. While all halo structures are rare fleeting phenomena, neutrons are usually observed as halo particles. A nucleus’s positive charge usually repels protons’ positive charges, meaning that halos made of protons are even rarer. Measurements on nearby isotopes suggested that aluminum-22 might be an isotope that could form a proton halo, but researchers needed to verify this directly in other experiments. 

To achieve this, the team creates a high-energy isotope beam of aluminum-22 using a process called “projectile fragmentation” at FRIB. The researchers create a beam from a heavy, stable atomic nucleus of a given element—in this case, an isotope of argon—then accelerate the beam to half the speed of light. The beam then hits a target with these ultra-fast-moving particle projectiles. This violent collision creates rare, short-lived isotopes that the researchers can shepherd into an instrument to filter out the particle of interest. They then lower the temperature to slow them down into a uniform beam and measure particle mass accurately. 

While the team was able to accurately measure the mass of aluminum-22, it is only part of verifying the isotope’s proton halo structure. The LEBIT researchers’ colleagues in the  Beam Cooler and Laser Spectroscopy (BECOLA) facility at FRIB now plan to take the next step in verifying the proton halo by measuring the charge radius—the distribution of protons around the nucleus—as well as how much the nucleus may be deformed from its traditional, spherical shape. Taken together, these measurements can unequivocally confirm the existence of a proton halo structure around aluminum-22. 

Ringle pointed out that the collaboration between theoretical physicists and experimentalists at FRIB plays an essential role for research like determining the existence of a proton halo around a rare isotope such as aluminum-22. 

FRIB provides research opportunities to graduate students 

Ringle credited students on the team for playing a key role in advancing this research. One of LEBIT’s graduate students, Scott Campbell, took this project on as part of his dissertation. 

“He really took charge of running this experiment from start to finish,” Ringle said. “The students who work with us really benefit from the wealth of expertise we have at this facility. Nowhere else is a facility like this located in the middle of a university campus. It allows students to come in for an hour or two between their classes or before they go home for the day. They can work at the lab part-time and easily pair that with taking classes. But our facility gets benefit as well; we have increased access to talented, motivated students.” 

Campbell studied physics and computer science at Gonzaga University as an undergraduate. He was excited by the prospect of coming to MSU for graduate school in large part to FRIB being on campus and being a major resource for physics students. “I was very excited by the prospect of doing for nuclear physics research at MSU, especially with FRIB ramping up during my studies,” he said. “We have access to these great facilities and a great community, and we get to participate in groundbreaking advances in nuclear science.” 

Campbell also noted that FRIB not only offers world-class facilities, but also networking opportunities and mentors like Ringle. “We are surrounded by colleagues who are interested in your research and want to help you push science forward,” he said.

Eric Gedenk is a freelance science writer.

Michigan State University operates the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB) as a user facility for the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science (DOE-SC), supporting the mission of the DOE-SC Office of Nuclear Physics. Hosting what is designed to be the most powerful heavy-ion accelerator, FRIB enables scientists to make discoveries about the properties of rare isotopes in order to better understand the physics of nuclei, nuclear astrophysics, fundamental interactions, and applications for society, including in medicine, homeland security, and industry.

The U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States and is working to address some of today’s most pressing challenges. For more information, visit energy.gov/science.