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Valley Forge

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 21, 2023 | Original: December 12, 2018

The six-month encampment of General George Washington ’s Continental Army at Valley Forge in the winter of 1777-1778 was a major turning point in the American Revolutionary War . While conditions were notoriously cold and harsh and provisions were in short supply, it was at the winter camp where George Washington proved his mettle and, with the help of former Prussian military officer Friedrich Wilhelm Baron von Steuben , transformed a battered Continental Army into a unified, world-class fighting force capable of beating the British.

Battle of Valley Forge 

On September 18, 1777, General Wilhelm von Knyphausen led British soldiers on a raid of Valley Forge, where American troops had built a handful of storage facilities. Defending the site were Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Hamilton and Captain Henry “Light Horse Harry” Lee.

The British succeeded in stealing supplies and burning a few buildings. This minor skirmish later became known as the Battle of Valley Forge. A few months later, Washington and thousands of his troops would arrive at the site.

Where Is Valley Forge?

Washington and his weary troops occupied Valley Forge, located in eastern Pennsylvania along the banks of the Schuylkill River some 20 miles northwest of Philadelphia , six days before Christmas in 1777.

The men were hungry and tired after a string of losing battles that had resulted in the British capture of the patriot capital, Philadelphia, earlier in the fall at the Battle of Brandywine . The string of humiliating defeats had led some members of the Continental Congress to want to replace Washington, believing he was incompetent.

The Valley Forge winter campsite was about a day’s march from British-occupied Philadelphia. Most of the land had previously been cleared for agriculture, leaving a level plateau in an open, rolling landscape.

Washington picked the spot because it was close enough to keep an eye on British troops sheltering in Philadelphia, yet far enough away to prevent a surprise attack on his own Continental Army. Washington and his men would remain at the camp for approximately six months, from December 1777 until June 1778.

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Baron Friedrich von Steuben was known for his bravery and the discipline and grit he brought to the American troops.

Winter at Valley Forge: George Washington’s Most Dismal Christmas Ever

With a quarter of his troops freezing, starving and barely clothed, Washington, running out of options, schemed a bold—and highly risky—Christmas Eve attack.

Winter at Valley Forge

Within days of arriving at Valley Forge, troops constructed 1,500 to 2,000 log huts in parallel lines that would house 12,000 soldiers and 400 women and children throughout the winter. Washington directed that each hut measure approximately 14 feet by 16 feet.

Sometimes the soldiers’ families joined them in the space as well. Soldiers were instructed to search the countryside for straw to use as bedding since there were not enough blankets for everyone.

In addition to the huts, the men built miles of trenches, military roads and paths. One officer said the camp “had the appearance of a little city” when viewed from a distance. General Washington and his closest aides lived in a two-story stone house near Valley Forge Creek.

Life at Valley Forge

Popular images of life at Valley Forge depict tremendous suffering from cold and starvation. While it was cold, the National Park Service says there wasn’t anything out of the ordinary about the conditions at Valley Forge, characterizing the hardship as “suffering as usual" since the typical Continental soldier experienced a perpetual state of hardship.

A lack of organization, food and money shortages plagued the Continental Army throughout the first half of the seven-year-long revolution. These problems exacerbated the harsh living conditions at Valley Forge in the third year of the war.

While the winter of 1777-1778 wasn’t exceptionally cold, many soldiers lacked proper clothing, which left them unfit to serve. Some were even shoeless. As Washington described in a December 23, 1777, letter to Henry Laurens, “...we have, by a field return this day made no less than 2,898 Men now in Camp unfit for duty because they are barefoot and otherwise naked…”

Army records suggest that each soldier received a daily ration of one-half pound of beef during January 1778, but food shortages during February left the men without meat for several days at a time.

Disease at Valley Forge

Cold and starvation at Valley Forge were not even the most dangerous threats: diseases proved to be the biggest killer. By the end of the six-month encampment, some 2,000 men—roughly one in six—died of disease.

Camp records indicate that two-thirds of the deaths happened during the warmer months of March, April and May when soldiers were less confined to their cabins and food and other supplies were more abundant.

The most common illnesses included influenza , typhus, typhoid fever and dysentery—conditions most likely exacerbated by poor hygiene and sanitation at the camp.

Baron Von Steuben at Valley Forge

Despite the harsh conditions, Valley Forge is sometimes called the birthplace of the American army because, by June of 1778, the weary troops emerged with a rejuvenated spirit and confidence as a well-trained fighting force.

Much of the credit goes to former Prussian military officer Friedrich Wilhelm Baron von Steuben. At the time, the Prussian Army was widely regarded as one of the best in Europe, and von Steuben had a sharp military mind.

Von Steuben arrived in Valley Forge on February 23, 1778. General George Washington, impressed by his acumen, soon appointed von Steuben temporary inspector general. In his role, von Steuben set standards for camp layout, sanitation and conduct. Importantly, he demanded that latrines be placed, facing downhill, on the opposite side of camp as the kitchens.

Soon he became the Continental Army’s chief drillmaster. Von Steuben, who spoke little English, ran the troops through a gamut of intense Prussian-style drills. He taught them to efficiently load, fire and reload weapons, charge with bayonets and march in compact columns of four instead of miles-long single-file marches.

Von Steuben helped to prepare a manual called “Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States,” also called the “Blue Book,” which remained the official training manual of the Army for decades.

Battle of Monmouth

The British soon tested the Continental Army’s newfound discipline at the Battle of Monmouth , which took place in central New Jersey on June 28, 1778. While many historians consider the Battle of Monmouth a tactical draw, the Continental Army fought for the first time as a cohesive unit, showing a new level of confidence.

The Americans used artillery to hold off British troops and even launched bayonet counterattacks—skills they had sharpened while drilling under von Steuben at Valley Forge.

“In the old days,” writes archivist and author John Buchanan, “the Continentals probably would have fled.” But, as Wayne Bodle writes in The Valley Forge Winter: Civilians and Soldiers in War, after their six months of training in the mud and snow of Valley Forge, Washington’s troops became imbued with “a deeper identification with and pride in their craft.”

The Continental Army left Valley Forge for good in June 1778. Today, the site is the home of the Valley Forge National Historical Park .

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What Happened at Valley Forge. National Park Service . "The Prussian Nobleman Who Helped Save the American Revolution," by Erick Trickey, April 26, 2017. Smithsonian Magazine. Letter From George Washington to Henry Laurens, December 23, 1777. National Archives . 10 Facts: Valley Forge. American Battlefield Trust . Monmouth. American Battlefield Trust .

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Valley Forge

George Washington chose to encamp the army at Valley Forge because it was located between Philadelphia, which the British had occupied, and York, where the Continental Congress was temporarily based. The winter was very harsh. Many of the 11,000 troops lacked shoes and suitable clothes. They suffered from poor nutrition, and many died of exposure. More than 2,000 soldiers deserted the army. However, the strong leadership of Washington held the army together. The soldiers maintained their courage and morale throughout the difficult winter.

One of the most significant events at Valley Forge was the arrival of Frederick William Steuben . Steuben traveled to America from Europe to help train the army to fight. He helped the soldiers become organized and disciplined. When the Continental Army broke camp in June 1778, it was a well-disciplined and efficient fighting force.

Major portions of the original camp are now part of the Valley Forge National Historical Park. It includes Washington’s headquarters, re-creations of log huts, various monuments, and Washington’s Memorial Chapel.

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Foraging for Valley Forge

• December, 1777
• April, 1778

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Introduction

George Washington’s failure to prevent the British army from seizing Philadelphia guided his decision to make Valley Forge the site of the Continental Army’s 1777–1778 winter encampment. Less than twenty miles from the captured capital, it was close enough to curtail British movement in the Pennsylvania countryside but distant enough to diminish the chances his army would fall victim to a surprise attack. Its ridgelines and streams made it easily defensible, and its relative remoteness from settled areas saved any one group of civilians from the burden of living beside an army that, on arrival, had about 12,000 men. The neat rows of log huts ordered built by Washington contained nearly as many people as Charleston—the fourth largest city in the United States.

Although fifth in size, Valley Forge ranked first in terms of hunger. While an excellent harvest satisfied the appetites of most Americans, the Continental Army’s poor logistics meant that soldiers learned to content themselves, as Private Joseph Plumb Martin (1760–1850) wryly remembered, with meals consisting of “a leg of nothing and no turnips.”

Not long after his arrival at Valley Forge, this seventeen-year-old soldier found himself assigned to the quartermaster, who made him a member of a foraging party based twenty miles to the west of the encampment. Here it was his duty to engage in what he described as the “plundering” of civilians’ corn, livestock, and other provisions so that soldiers back at Valley Forge could spend fewer nights eating flour and water baked into “firecake.” For Martin, who first enlisted in 1776 as a 15-year-old from Milford, Connecticut, interacting with Pennsylvanians and serving at the start of the supply chain made this a plum assignment. “We fared much better than I had ever done in the army before,” he later recollected, for “we had very good provisions all winter and generally enough of them.”

During the course of the war Martin rose to the rank of sergeant. He fought at numerous battles, including Monmouth and Yorktown, before his discharge from the army in 1783. He later helped establish the town of Prospect, Maine, where he married, had five children, wrote his Revolutionary War memoir, and lived until the age of 89.

Source: [Joseph Plumb Martin,] A Narrative of Some of the Adventures, Dangers, and Sufferings of a Revolutionary Soldier…. (Hallowell, Maine, 1830), 75–83.

The army… marched for the Valley Forge in order to take up our winter quarters. We were now in a truly forlorn condition—no clothing, no provisions, and as disheartened as need be. We arrived, however, at our destination a few days before Christmas. Our prospect was indeed dreary. In our miserable condition, to go into the wild woods and build us habitations to stay (not to live ) in, in such a weak, starved, and naked condition, was appalling in the highest degree, especially to New Englanders, unaccustomed to such kind of hardships at home. However, there was no remedy—no alternative but this or dispersion. But dispersion, I believe, was not thought of—at least, I did not think of it. We had engaged in the defense of our injured country and were willing, nay, we were determined to persevere as long as such hardships were not altogether intolerable…. But we were now absolutely in danger of perishing, and that too, in the midst of a plentiful country. We then had but little, and often nothing to eat for days together; but now we had nothing and saw no likelihood of any betterment of our condition. Had there fallen deep snows (and it was the time of year to expect them) or even heavy and long rainstorms, the whole army must inevitably have perished. Or had the enemy, strong and well provided as he then was, thought fit to pursue us, our poor emaciated carcasses must have “strewed the plain.” But a kind and holy Providence took more notice and better care of us than did the country in whose service we were wearing away our lives by piecemeal.

We arrived at the Valley Forge in the evening. It was dark; there was no water to be found, and I was perishing with thirst, I searched for water till I was weary, and came to my tent without finding any. Fatigue and thirst, joined with hunger, almost made me desperate. I felt at that instant as if I would have taken victuals or drink from the best friend I had on earth by force. I am not writing fiction, all are sober realities. Just after I arrived at my tent, two soldiers, whom I did not know, passed by. They had some water in their canteens which they told me they had found a good distance off, but could not direct me to the place as it was very dark. I tried to beg a draught of water from them but they were as rigid as Arabs. At length I persuaded them to sell me a drink for three pence, Pennsylvania currency, which was every cent of property I could then call my own; so great was the necessity I was then reduced to.

I lay here two nights and one day, and had not a morsel of anything to eat all the time, save half of a small pumpkin, which I cooked by placing it upon a rock, the skin side uppermost, and making a fire upon it. By the time it was heat through I devoured it with as keen an appetite as I should a pie made of it at some other time.

The second evening after our arrival here I was warned to be ready for a two days command. I never heard a summons to duty with so much disgust before or since, as I did that. How I could endure two days more fatigue without nourishment of some sort I could not tell, for I heard nothing said about “provisions.” However, in the morning at roll call I was obliged to comply. I went to the parade where I found a considerable number, ordered upon the same business, whatever it was. We were ordered to go to the quartermaster general and receive from him our final orders. We accordingly repaired to his quarters, which was about three miles from camp; here we understood that our destiny was to go into the country on a foraging expedition, which was nothing more nor less than to procure provisions from the inhabitants for the men in the army and forage for the poor perishing cattle belonging to it, at the point of the bayonet. We stayed at the quartermaster general’s quarters till some time in the afternoon, during which time a beef creature was butchered for us. I well remember the fine stuff it was; it was quite transparent. I thought at the time what an excellent lantern it would make. I was, notwithstanding, very glad to get some of it, bad as it looked…. We were then divided into several parties and sent off upon our expedition.

Our party consisted of a lieutenant, a sergeant, a corporal and eighteen privates. We marched till night when we halted and took up our quarters at a large farmhouse. The lieutenant, attended by his waiter, took up his quarters for the night in the hall with the people of the house, we were put into the kitchen; we had a snug room and a comfortable fire, and we began to think about cooking some of our fat beef. One of the men proposed to the landlady to sell her a shirt for some sauce. She very readily took the shirt, which was worth a dollar at least. She might have given us a mess of sauce, for I think she would not have suffered poverty by so doing, as she seemed to have a plenty of all things. After we had received the sauce, we went to work to cook our suppers. By the time it was eatable the family had gone to rest. We saw where the woman went into the cellar, and, she having left us a candle, we took it into our heads that little good cider would not make our supper relish any the worse; so some of the men took the water pail and drew it full of excellent cider, which did not fail to raise our spirits considerably. Before we lay down the man who sold the shirt, having observed that the landlady had flung it into a closet, took a notion to repossess it again. We marched off early in the morning before the people of the house were stirring, consequently did not know or see the woman’s chagrin at having been overreached by the soldiers.

This day we arrived at Milltown, or Downingtown, a small village halfway between Philadelphia and Lancaster, which was to be our quarters for the winter. It was dark when we had finished our day’s march. There was a commissary and a wagon master general to regulate the conduct of the wagoners and direct their motions. The next day after our arrival at this place we were put into a small house in which was only one room, in the center of the village. We were immediately furnished with rations of good and wholesome beef and flour, built us up some births to sleep in, and filled them with straw, and felt as happy as any other pigs that were no better off than ourselves….

The first expedition I undertook in my new vocation, was a foraging cruise. I was ordered off into the country in a party consisting of a corporal and six men. What our success was I do not now remember; but I well remember the transactions of the party in the latter part of the journey. We were returning to our quarters on Christmas afternoon, when we met three ladies, one a young married woman with an infant in her arms, the other two were maidens… [or at least] they passed for such. They were all comely, particularly one of them; she was handsome. They immediately fell into familiar discourse with us—were very inquisitive like the rest of the sex—asked us a thousand questions respecting our business, where we had been and where going, etc. After we had satisfied their curiosity, or at least had endeavored to do so, they told us that they (that is, the two youngest) lived a little way on our road in a house which they described, desired us to call in and rest ourselves a few minutes, and said they would return as soon as they had seen their sister and babe safe[ ly ] home.

As for myself, I was very unwell, occasioned by a violent cold I had recently taken, and I was very glad to stop a short time to rest my bones. Accordingly, we stopped at the house described by the young ladies, and in a few minutes they returned as full of chat as they were when we met them in the road. After a little more information respecting our business, they proposed to us to visit one of their neighbors, against whom it seemed they had a grudge, and upon whom they wished to wreak their vengeance through our agency. To oblige the ladies we undertook to obey their injunctions. They very readily agreed to be our guides as the way lay across fields and pastures full of bushes. The distance was about half a mile…. The girls went with us until we came in sight of the house. We concluded we could do no less than fulfill our engagements with them, so we went into the house, the people of which, appeared to be genuine Pennsylvania farmers, and very fine folks.

We all now began to relent, and after telling them our business, we concluded that if they would give us a canteen (which held about a quart) full of whiskey and some bread and cheese, we would depart without any further exactions. To get rid of us, doubtless, the man of the house gave us our canteen of whiskey, and the good woman gave us a fine loaf of wheaten flour bread and the whole of a small cheese, and we raised the siege and departed. I was several times afterwards at this house, and was always well treated. I believe the people did not recollect me, and I was glad they did not, for when I saw them I had always a twinge or two of conscience for thus dissembling with them at the instigation of persons who certainly were no better than they should be, or they would not have employed strangers to glut their vengeance upon innocent people; innocent at least as it respected us. But after all, it turned much in their favor. It was in our power to take cattle or horses, hay, or any other produce from them; but we felt that we had done wrong in listening to the tattle of malicious neighbors, and for that cause we refrained from meddling with any property of theirs ever after. So that good came to them out of intended evil.

After we had received our bread, cheese, and whiskey, we struck across the fields into the highway again. It was now nearly sunset, and as soon as we had got into the road, the youngest of the girls, and handsomest and chattiest, overtook us again, riding on horseback with a gallant. [1] As soon as she came up with us, “O here is my little captain again,” said she. (It appeared it was our corporal that attracted her attention.) “I am glad to see you again.” The young man, her sweetheart, did not seem to wish her to be quite so familiar with her “little captain,” and urged on his horse as fast as possible. But female policy is generally too subtle for the male’s, and she exhibited a proof of it, for they had scarcely passed us when she slid from the horse upon her feet, into the road, with a shriek as though some frightful accident had happened to her. There was nothing handy to serve as a horseblock, so the “little captain” must take her in his arms and set her upon her horse again, much, I suppose, to their mutual satisfaction—but not so to her gallant, who, as I thought, looked rather grum…. [2]

I shall not relate all the minute transactions which passed while I was on this foraging party, as it would swell my narrative to too large a size. I will, however, give the reader a brief account of some of my movements that I may not leave him entirely ignorant how I spent my time. We fared much better than I had ever done in the army before, or ever did afterwards. We had very good provisions all winter and generally enough of them. Some of us were constantly in the country with the wagons; we went out by turns and had no one to control us. Our lieutenant scarcely ever saw us or we him; our sergeant never went out with us once, all the time we were there, nor our corporal but once, and that was when he was the “little captain.” When we were in the country we were pretty sure to fare well, for the inhabitants were remarkably kind to us. We had no guards to keep; our only duty was to help load the wagons with hay, corn, meal, or whatever they were to take off, and when they were thus loaded, to keep them company till they arrived at the commissary’s, at Milltown. From thence the articles, whatever they were, were carried to camp in other vehicles, under other guards.

I do not remember that during the time I was employed in this business, which was from Christmas to the latter part of April, ever to have met with the least resistance from the inhabitants, take what we would from their barns, mills, corncribs, or stalls; but when we came to their stables, then look out for the women. Take what horse you would, it was one or the other’s “pony” and they had no other to ride to church; and when we had got possession of a horse we were sure to have half a dozen or more women pressing upon us, until by some means or other, if possible, they would slip the bridle from the horse’s head, and then we might catch him again if we could. They would take no more notice of a charged bayonet than a blind horse would of a cocked pistol. It would answer no purpose to threaten to kill them with the bayonet or musket; they knew as well as we did that we would not put our threats in execution, and when they had thus liberated a horse (which happened but seldom) they would laugh at us and ask us why we did not do as we threatened, kill them, and then they would generally ask us into their houses and treat us with as much kindness as though nothing had happened.

The women of Pennsylvania, taken in general, are certainly very worthy characters; it is but justice, as far as I am concerned, for me to say, that I was always well treated both by them and the men, especially the Friends or Quakers, in every part of the state through which I passed, and that was the greater part of what was then inhabited. But the southern ladies had a queer idea of the Yankees (as they always called the New Englanders). They seemed to think that they were a people quite different from themselves, as indeed they were in many respects. I could mention many things and ways in which they differed, but it is of no consequence; they were clever and that is sufficient. I will, however, mention one little incident, just to show what their conceptions were of us.

I happened once to be with some wagons, one of which was detached from the party. I went with this team as its guard; we stopped at a house, the mistress of which and the wagoner were acquainted. (These foraging teams all belonged in the neighborhood of our quarters.) She had a pretty little female child about four years old. The teamster was praising the child, extolling its gentleness and quietness, when the mother observed that it had been quite cross and crying all day. “I have been threatening,” said she, “to give her to the Yankees.” “Take care,” said the wagoner, “how you speak of the Yankees, I have one of them here with me.” “La!” said the woman, “is he a Yankee? I thought he was a Pennsylvanian. I don’t see any difference between him and other people.”

I have before said that I should not narrate all the little affairs which transpired while I was on this foraging party. But if I pass them all over in silence the reader may perhaps think that I had nothing to do all winter, or at least, that I did nothing, when in truth it was quite the reverse. Our duty was hard, but generally not altogether unpleasant. I had to travel far and near, in cold and in storms, by day and by night, and at all times to run the risk of abuse, if not of injury, from the inhabitants, when plundering them of their property (for I could not, while in the very act of taking their cattle, hay, corn, and grain from them against their wills, consider it a whit better than plundering—sheer privateering). But I will give them the credit of never receiving the least abuse or injury from an individual during the whole time I was employed in this business. I doubt whether the people of New England would have borne it as patiently, their “steady habits” [3] to the contrary notwithstanding.

• 1. A suitor or boyfriend.
• 2. Grim, glum, stern, surly, sour.
• 3. Connecticut was known as “the land of steady habits.”

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Valley Forge was the winter encampment of the Continental Army from 19 December 1777 until 18 June 1778, during one of the most difficult winters of the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783). Despite being undersupplied, underfed, and plagued with disease, the Continental Army underwent significant training and reorganization at Valley Forge, emerging as a much more disciplined and effective fighting force.

The Philadelphia Campaign

On 19 December 1777, the exhausted and starving soldiers of the Continental Army staggered into Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, a location about 18 miles (29 km) northwest of Philadelphia at the confluence of the Valley Creek and the Schuylkill River. It had been a long and difficult campaign. Four months earlier, they had raced down from New Jersey to defend the US capital of Philadelphia from the British army, only to be outflanked and defeated at the Battle of Brandywine (11 September). Following their victory, the British captured Philadelphia, which the Second Continental Congress had only just evacuated. The Continental Army regrouped and, on 4 October, retaliated with a surprise attack on a British garrison at the Battle of Germantown . Although the assault initially got off to a good start, a thick fog caused cohesion between American military units to break down, and the attack quickly lost momentum. When the British counterattacked, the undertrained Continental soldiers broke and fled. For the next two months, the two armies nervously maneuvered around one another. Although several bloody skirmishes were fought, neither side was eager to provoke another major battle .

Gradually, the temperatures dropped, and the bitter December winds signaled that it was time to suspend the campaign and enter winter quarters. The British army moved into Philadelphia, where the officers settled into the abandoned homes of the city 's Patriot leaders and spent the winter attending lavish dinners, dancing at elegant balls, and courting Loyalist women. The Continental Army, meanwhile, marched to Valley Forge. The spot had been carefully chosen by the American commander-in-chief, General George Washington , for several reasons. First, its proximity to Philadelphia would allow the Americans to keep a close eye on the British army; attempts by the British to raid the surrounding Pennsylvanian countryside or to march for the town of York, the temporary seat of the Continental Congress, could quickly be challenged. Second, an encampment at Valley Forge would be easy to defend. The camp itself was to be situated on a large plateau surrounded by a series of hills and dense forests, creating a sort of natural fortress. Lastly, the location was beneficial because it was close to a supply of fresh water from the Valley Creek and Schuylkill River, and the abundance of nearby trees could easily be cut down for fuel or to build shelters.

Over 11,000 Continental soldiers filed into Valley Forge on that December day, accompanied by 500 women and children. They were certainly a disheveled lot. The many marches and countermarches they had needed to perform in the last several months had worn down their footwear; now, an estimated one out of every three Continental soldiers went entirely without shoes. Additionally, many soldiers lacked adequate coats to protect against the elements, particularly the incessant rain that had been falling all autumn. Many men owned only one shirt, while others did not even have a single shirt at all. It is unsurprising then that many of these exposed soldiers were already ill when they arrived at Valley Forge; out of the 11,000 men that arrived, only 8,200 were fit for duty.

The situation was made worse by a dangerous lack of food. At the beginning of the Valley Forge encampment, the army's commissary only had 25 barrels of flour, a small supply of salt pork, and no other stores of meat or fish. A lack of sufficient food and clothing was fairly typical of the army's supply department, which had often performed below expectations since its founding in 1775, but the chaos of the recent campaign had only made things worse. In its hurried evacuation from Philadelphia, Congress had failed to ensure the army's supply chain would remain unbroken, thereby contributing to the bareness of the army's food and clothing stores. Thus, it was clear from the start that the coming winter would be a challenging one.

Making Camp

The army's first priority upon arrival at Valley Forge would have to be the building of shelters. A small, industrial community that centered around the smelting of iron, Valley Forge did not have nearly enough buildings to accommodate the entire army. Luckily, the surrounding forests offered more than enough wood for the construction of huts. Officers picked out the precise spots upon which each hut would be built, carefully arranging the plots to form a neat grid with parallel streets and avenues. Each hut measured 16 feet by 14 feet (c. 4.8 x 4.2 m) and was constructed out of logs, the sides sealed with clay. Roofs were made of a variety of materials, usually thatched straw or brush, and most huts had dirt floors. Most of these structures housed twelve soldiers, although officers only had to share their huts with three or four other men. Scholars estimate that somewhere between 1,300 and 1,600 log huts were built at Valley Forge between 19 December 1777 and 13 January 1778. As Marquis de Lafayette observed, Valley Forge was transformed into "a small city of wooden huts" (Unger, 58).

General Washington himself stayed in a small tent until all the huts had been finished, at which point he moved into the two-story stone house that had been marked out for his headquarters. His aides moved in with him, as did his wife, Martha Washington, who had left the comfortability of Mount Vernon to play host to the myriad of politicians and military officers visiting the army camp. Martha's presence kept spirits high within the headquarters, giving visitors the impression that everything was under control. In reality, the situation remained quite dire. The army's already limited food store had continued to dwindle, leaving soldiers with nothing to eat but firecakes, a tasteless mixture of flour and water baked over a campfire. Washington had sent commissaries out as far as New Jersey and Delaware to purchase provisions, but most farmers would not accept the nearly worthless 'Continental currency' that the American officers tried to use. They much preferred selling their goods to the British, who paid with hard currency. Whatever foodstuffs the commissaries managed to procure often spoiled by the time they got back to Valley Forge due to transportation issues or the unreliability of the army's supply department.

Consequently, the situation only worsened. Before long, even the supply of firecakes was running out, leading Washington to despair on 16 February that the army was experiencing a 'famine' (Middlekauff, 420). Hundreds of troops were weakened from malnutrition, which, in turn, left them more susceptible to disease. Typhoid and dysentery ravaged the encampment, spreading through contaminated food or water, while other illnesses like pneumonia, typhus, and influenza were also common. Smallpox, too, was an ever-present threat, the outbreak of which could ravage the army. During the six months that the army spent at Valley Forge, over 2,000 men and 2,500 horses would ultimately die, from malnutrition, disease, exposure, or some combination of the three. The scent of death hung heavy over the camp, while for the living, the suffering continued. "The soldiers lived in misery," the Marquis de Lafayette would later recall. "They lacked for clothes, hats, shirts, shoes; their legs and feet black from frostbite – we often had to amputate" (Unger, 58).

Although numerous American officers resigned during these trying months, the desertion rate amongst regular soldiers remained roughly the same as it had been prior to Valley Forge. But while many soldiers were able to endure disease and starvation, they found it more difficult to deal with the suffocating boredom of the encampment. After the soldiers had finished constructing the huts, there was little for them to do except forage for food and wait for the winter to end. As a result, the men grew restless, and some of them got off to mischief. Some men alleviated their boredom by having shooting competitions, thereby wasting precious ammunition. Others adopted more nefarious hobbies, such as robbing the homes of nearby farmers.

General Washington was horrified by reports of these robberies, which he referred to as "base, cruel, and injurious to the cause in which we are engaged" (Middlekauff, 420). He responded by tightening discipline. Men were no longer allowed to carry muskets unless they were on duty. Nor were soldiers allowed to leave camp without a pass; men caught outside camp without a pass were liable to be imprisoned in their huts. Musters were held more frequently, and officers were authorized to conduct surprise inspections of huts to search for stolen goods. These disciplinary measures helped save the army from devolving into anarchy. But if the army were to be rescued from starvation, something more would have to be done.

Provisions & Conspiracies

On 23 December 1777, Washington wrote a letter to Henry Laurens , president of the Continental Congress, expressing his fear that "this Army might dissolve" if no steps were taken to fix the supply department. Washington knew that he had to tread lightly when appealing to Congress for help. His cautious command style, as well as his recent failure to defend Philadelphia, had led many congressmen to lose faith in his leadership capabilities; indeed, a loose conspiracy of politicians and military officers, retroactively referred to as the Conway Cabal , was plotting to remove Washington from command of the Continental Army. Washington was aware of the cabal and knew that he had to reinspire confidence in his abilities, but before anything else, he had to ensure the survival of his men.

Congress responded to Washington's concerns by recommending that he simply requisition the supplies he needed from the local population of farmers. The general was hesitant to comply with this suggestion, believing it would turn the local population against the Patriot cause. But, as the winter wore on and supply issues failed to improve, Washington realized he had no other choice. He sent officers to requisition hay, livestock, and other supplies from farmers but ordered the officers to leave enough behind so that the farmer could make it through the winter. The farmers were even allowed to have a say in which of the livestock the officers took and were presented with a receipt so that they could be financially reimbursed by Congress.

While this was enough to keep the army from dying of starvation, it was not a permanent solution. Washington knew he needed to reform the ineffective supply department, which would require congressional support. On 24 January, he invited a five-man congressional delegation to visit Valley Forge and assess the army's condition for themselves. Headed by Francis Dana of Massachusetts, the delegation was hosted by Martha Washington and shown around the camp by the general himself; the delegation therefore got a firsthand view of both the soldiers' suffering and their resilience. Dana was convinced as to the direness of the situation and, upon returning to York, became one of Washington's strongest supporters. He oversaw the reformation of the supply department, ensuring that each of the general's recommendations were carried out. Washington was back in Congress' favor, and all support for the Conway Cabal broke down.

As part of the supply reforms, Washington was allowed to select the new Quartermaster General. In March, he appointed Nathanael Greene , one of his most trusted subordinates, to this position. Initially, Greene was reluctant, believing he was better suited to a field command than an administrative position. But Washington was insistent, and Greene settled into his new role, only to find that he was well-suited for it, indeed. He organized foraging parties that were sent far and wide in search of food. One such party, led by General Anthony Wayne , was sent into New Jersey, while another, led by Colonel Henry 'Lighthorse Harry' Lee, scoured eastern Maryland and Delaware; each group turned up lots of hay, livestock, and horses, which were sent back to the army. The onset of spring improved the conditions of the roads, and any perishable items that turned up made it back to the encampment without spoiling. Greene continued to improve the efficiency of the supply department and even procured enough clothing for the soldiers. By the end of March, the food crisis was over, and Greene would continue to serve as Washington's capable Quartermaster General for the next two years.

Training the Troops

By March 1778, the supply issues were taken care of, discipline had been enforced, and the threat to Washington's position was over. Washington had even managed to reduce the threat of smallpox to the encampment by ordering about 4,000 of his men to get inoculated against the disease (inoculations being the precursor to vaccines). Now that the army was relatively healthy and in high spirits, it could shift its focus to training. This had long been a weak spot of the Continental Army, which had no standardized drill practices. Regimental commanders would instruct and drill their troops in any way they saw fit; considering that most regimental commanders had little to no formal military training, these drills were often ineffective. Luckily for the Continentals, the ideal drillmaster had just arrived at Valley Forge.

Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben was a lifelong soldier; having enlisted in the Prussian army at the age of 17, he fought in several battles during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) and even served as an aide to King Frederick the Great of Prussia. He had been searching for employment with foreign armies when he encountered Benjamin Franklin in Paris , who had recommended him to the Continental Congress; Congress, in turn, sent him on to Valley Forge, where he arrived on 23 February 1778. Steuben spoke no English and could only communicate with the Continental officers in broken French but still managed to impress Washington with his military exploits. Washington decided to take a chance on the Prussian officer and granted him a temporary commission as Inspector General of the Continental Army, tasking him to train the Continental soldiers.

Steuben was given a model company of 100 men. The idea was that Steuben would instruct these 100 men who would, in turn, each go on to instruct another group of soldiers. The baron taught the Americans how to march in formation, handle their weapons, and effectively use the bayonet. He showed them better techniques for firing in volleys and how to shift formation while under fire. The training was greatly effective; the Continentals were eager to learn and were, moreover, happy to finally have something to do. Training sessions with the baron could also be rather entertaining; although Steuben had memorized the necessary English commands, his rough accent often caused confusion among the troops, leading the short-tempered baron to burst into a tirade of frustrated swearing. This amused the Americans, who found themselves endeared by the immaculately dressed Prussian officer with the bad temper; at one point, Steuben's translator, Captain Benjamin Walker, began translating the baron's swears into English, to the delight of the soldiers.

Leaving the Camp

By May 1778, the Continental Army was in high spirits. News of the recently formalized French alliance caused jubilant celebrations. Many soldiers were itching to put their new training to the test and begged their officers to let them attack the British. They would have their chance on 18 May, when Washington sent Lafayette and 2,200 troops to occupy Barren Hill, a location halfway between Valley Forge and Philadelphia where they could better watch British movements. The British noticed the Americans and, on 20 May, sent 5,000 men toward Barren Hill to wipe them out. However, Lafayette was able to move his men off the hill before a significant engagement could be fought. The speed and maneuverability with which the men marched away from the hill was a testament to their training.

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A month later, the British army began its evacuation of Philadelphia; the Franco-American alliance had made their position there untenable, and the British ministry had decided to concentrate their forces at New York City. Washington decided to pursue, packing up camp and leaving Valley Forge on 18 June 1778, almost exactly six months after first arriving. On 28 June, the Continental Army engaged the British at the Battle of Monmouth ; though the battle was tactically inconclusive, the Continentals stood their ground for over five hours of nonstop fighting in scorching heat, another example that their Valley Forge training had paid off.

Contrary to popular belief, the winter that the Continental Army spent at Valley Forge was relatively mild in terms of temperature; the coldest winter would not come until 1779-80 at Morristown, New Jersey, when the army would experience near constant snow and freezing temperatures. However, Valley Forge was arguably the most important winter. The army survived existential threats such as hunger and disease; the supply department was reformed and placed under the capable supervision of Nathanael Greene; Washington fended off the Conway Cabal and retained command of the army; and the army underwent much-needed reorganizing and retraining, under the guidance of Baron von Steuben. Without the experiences of Valley Forge, it is questionable whether the army would have survived to secure the final victory at the Siege of Yorktown , making it one of the most critical moments of the American Revolution .

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Bibliography

• Boatner, Mark M. . Cassell's Biographical Dictionary of the American War of Independence. London: Cassell, 1973., 1973.
• Chernow, Ron. Alexander Hamilton. Penguin Books, 2005.
• Fleming, Thomas. The Strategy of Victory. Da Capo Press, 2017.
• Middlekauff, Robert. The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789. Oxford University Press, 2007.
• Unger, Harlow Giles. Lafayette. Trade Paper Press, 2003.
• Valley Forge · George Washington's Mount Vernon , accessed 17 May 2024.

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Valley Forge: "Why are we sent here to starve and Freeze?"

Albigence Waldo served as a surgeon in the Continental Army. Born in 1750, he left his medical practice and family in Pomfret, Connecticut, and volunteered for the patriot cause. Waldo's diary is a valuable resource for studying the Continental Army's winter at Valley Forge (1777-1778), and he took care of sick soldiers in the camps. Waldo survived the Revolutionary War and returned to his home in Connecticut, continuing his medical career. 

December 14 — Prisoners & Deserters are continually coming in. The Army which has been surprisingly healthy hitherto, now begins to grow sickly from the continued fatigues they have suffered this Campaign. Yet they still show a spirit of Alacrity & Contentment not to be expected from so young Troops. I am Sick — discontented — and out of humour. Poor food — hard lodging — Cold Weather — fatigue — Nasty Cloaths — nasty Cookery — Vomit half my time — smoak'd out of my senses — the Devil's in't — I can't Endure it — Why are we sent here to starve and Freeze — What sweet Felicities have I left at home; A charming Wife — pretty Children — Good Beds — good food — good Cookery — all agreeable — all harmonious. Here all Confusion — smoke & Cold — hunger & filthyness — A pox on my bad luck. There comes a bowl of beef soup — full of burnt leaves and dirt, sickish enough to make a Hector spue — away with it Boys — I'll live like the Chameleon upon Air. Poh! Poh! crys Patience within me — you talk like a fool. Your being sick Covers your mind with a Melanchollic Gloom, which makes every thing about you appear gloomy. See the poor Soldier, when in health — with what cheerfulness he meets his foes and encounters every hardship — if barefoot, he labours thro' the Mud & Cold with a Song in his mouth extolling War & Washington — if his food be bad, he eats it notwithstanding with seeming content — blesses God for a good Stomach and Whistles it into digestion. But harkee Patience, a moment — There comes a Soldier, his bare feet are seen thro' his worn out Shoes, his legs nearly naked from the tatter'd remains of an only pair of stockings, his Breeches not sufficient to cover his nakedness, his Shirt hanging in Strings, his hair dishevell'd, his face meagre; his whole appearance pictures a person forsaken & discouraged. He comes, and crys with an air of wretchedness & despair, I am Sick, my feet lame, my legs are sore, my body cover'd with this tormenting Itch — my Cloaths are worn out, my Constitution is broken, my former Activity is exhausted by fatigue, hunger & Cold, I fail fast I shall soon be no more ! and all the reward I shall get will be — "Poor Will is dead." People who live at home in Luxury and Ease, quietly possessing their habitations, Enjoying their Wives & families in peace, have but a very faint Idea of the unpleasing sensations, and continual Anxiety the Man endures who is in a Camp, and is the husband and parent of an agreeable family. These same People are willing we should suffer every thing for their Benefit & advantage, and yet are the first to Condemn us for not doing more!!

December 15. — Quiet. Eat Pessimmens, found myself better for their Lenient Opperation. Went to a house, poor & small, but good food within — eat too much from being so long Abstemious, thro' want of palatables. Mankind are never truly thankfull for the Benefits of life, until they have experienc'd the want of them. The Man who has seen misery knows best how to enjoy good. He who is always at ease & has enough of the Blessings of common life is an Impotent Judge of the feelings of the unfortunate. . . .

December 18. — Universal Thanksgiving — a Roasted pig at Night. God be thanked for my health which I have pretty well recovered. How much better should I feel, were I assured my family were in health. But the same good Being who graciously preserves me, is able to preserve them & bring me to the ardently wish'd for enjoyment of them again.

Rank & Precedence make a good deal of disturbance & confusion in the American Army. The Army are poorly supplied with Provision, occasioned it is said by the Neglect of the Commissary of Purchases. Much talk among Officers about discharges. Money has become of too little consequence. The Congress have not made their Commissions valuable Enough. Heaven avert the bad consequences of these things!! . . . . 

December 21.—[Valley Forge.] Preparations made for hutts. Provisions Scarce. Mr. Ellis went homeward — sent a Letter to my Wife. Heartily wish myself at home, my Skin & eyes are almost spoil' d with continual smoke. A general cry thro' the Camp this Evening among the Soldiers, "No Meat! No Meat!" — the Distant vales Echo'd back the melancholly sound — "No Meat! No Meat!" Immitating the noise of Crows & Owls, also, made a part of the confused Musick.

What have you for your Dinners Boys? "Nothing but Fire Cake & Water, Sir." At night, "Gentlemen the Supper is ready." What is your Supper Lads? "Fire Cake & Water, Sir." Very poor beef has been drawn in our Camp the greater part of this season. . . . 

December 22. — Lay excessive Cold & uncomfortable last Night — my eyes are started out from their Orbits like a Babbit's eyes, occasion'd by a great Cold & Smoke. What have you got for Breakfast, Lads ? " Fire Cake & Water, Sir." The Lord send that our Commissary of Purchases may live [on] Fire Cake & Water, 'till their glutted Gutts are turned to Pasteboard.

Our Division are under Marching Orders this morning. I am ashamed to say it, but I am tempted to steal Fowls if I could find them, or even a whole Hog, for I feel as if I could eat one. But the Impoverish'd Country about us, affords but little matter to employ a Thief, or keep a Clever Fellow in good humour. But why do I talk of hunger & hard usage, when so many in the World have not even fire Cake & Water to eat. . . . 

December 26.— . . . . Many Country Gentlemen in the interior parts of the States who get wrong information of the Affairs & state of our Camp, are very much Surprized at Genl Washington's delay to drive off the Enemy, being falsely inform'd that his Army consists of double the Number of the Enemy's — such wrong information serves not to keep up the spirit of the People, as they must be by and by undeceiv'd to their no small disappointment ; — it brings blame on his Excellency, who is deserving of the greatest encomiums; it brings disgrace on the Continental Troops, who have never evidenced the least backwardness in doing their duty, but on the contrary, have cheerfully endur'd a long and very fatigueing Campaign. 'Tis true they have fought but little this Campaign; which is not owing to any Unwillingness in Officers or Soldiers, but for want of convenient Opportunities, which have not offer'd themselves this Season; tho' this may be contradicted by many; but Impartial Truth in future History will clear up these points, and reflect lasting honour on the Wisdom & prudence of Genl Washington. The greatest Number of Continental Troops that have been with his Excell. this Campaign, never consisted of more than Eleven thousand; and the greatest, Number of Militia in the field at Once were not more than 2000. Yet these accounts are exaggerated to 50 or 60,000. Howe, by the best, and most authentic Accounts has never had less than 10,000. If then, Genl Washington, by Opposing little more than an equal Number of young Troops, to Old Veterans has kept his Ground in general, Cooped them up in the City, prevented their making any considerable inroads upon him, Killed and wounded a very considerable number of them in different Skirmishes, and made many proselytes to the Shrine of Liberty by these little successes, and by the prudence, calmness, sedateness & wisdom with which he facilitates all his Opperations. This being the case, and his not having wantonly thrown away the lives of his Soldiers, but reserved them for another Campaign (if another should Open in the Spring) which is of the utmost consequence This then cannot be called an Inglorious Campaign. If he had risk'd a General Battle, and should have proved unsuccessfull, what in the name of Heaven would have been our case this Day. Troops are raised with great difficulty in the Southern States, many Regiments from these States do not consist of one hundred men. What then was the grand Southern Army before the N. England Troops joined them and if this Army is Cut off where should we get another as good. General Washington has doubtless considered these matters & his conduct this Campaign has certainly demonstrated his prudence & Wisdom. . . . 

Source: Valley Forge, 1777-1778. Diary of Surgeon Albigence Waldo, of the Connecticut Line by Albigence Waldo. Published in 1897.

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The Muster Roll Project

The Valley Forge Muster Roll, a project of the Valley Forge Park Alliance , is dedicated to those who were at winter quarters from December 19, 1777 to June 19, 1778. The Continental Army used monthly muster rolls to track the army’s strength. Each roll contains names, ranks, dates of enlistment, and other notes on soldiers’ assignments, activities, or conditions.

New entries are welcomed based on providing the following kinds of primary documentation. You may also contact us to provide additional information about individuals that are currently listed on the Valley Forge Muster Roll.

• Lieutenant Colonel Aaron Burr
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• Private Salem Poor
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• Private Mathew McCauley
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• Thomas Paine

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Valley Forge Park Alliance Attention Muster Roll PO Box 117 Valley Forge, PA 19481

Volunteers Needed: The Alliance is seeking volunteers in the Philadelphia/Valley Forge area to help add more information about individual soldiers to the Muster Roll. If you enjoy history and genealogy, we invite you to join us in researching and updating the Muster Roll.

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“History of the NCO 1700: Valley Forge”: Case Study Analysis

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The American Revolution is one of the most pivotal moments in the history of the United States of America. However, when praising the military successes of our compatriots, we should remember at what cost they are achieved. Soldiers who fought in the war, died in combat, gave their lives for good causes. Despite this, death overtook many soldiers not only on the battlefield, but also in the camps. The first key problem of this case study is the poor camp layout and sanitation plan, which put the lives of all participants in the war at risk. This question leads to the second problem, which is the spread of various diseases and diseases.

The survival rate of soldiers, non-commissioned officers, commanders, and other military personnel in the camps must be ensured in order to achieve success. Thus, by setting up a camp at the most advantageous point, creating an effective sanitary plan that will avoid disease, the US army commanders would be able to avoid such a large number of victims.

In 1775, the tension between the Americans and the British reached a peak, after which a full-scale war began. George Washington recruited the Continental Army, which occupied Boston in 1776. However, the same army lost New York and its strategically important harbor. By setting up camp at Valley Forge, Washington secured the protection of the Continental Congress, which was the governing body of the entire revolution. A convenient strategic position of the camp was completely uninhabitable for soldiers. Accordingly, the key character is George Washington, who at any cost achieved the proposed goals.

The army was numerous but many soldiers died from developing diseases. These sicknesses were the result of unsanitary conditions in the camp: prisoners lived in crowded places, ate from dirty dishes, while the animals were left to decompose in the ground.

An alternative to this situation could be to improve the living conditions of the military. If the premises were not so densely populated, Washington would be able to avoid unsanitary conditions. However, in the conditions of war, especially the War of independence of the United States, the budget of the army was small. Thus, most of the expenses were spent on arming the American troops, which were supposed to resist the professional soldiers of the British crown. Accordingly, Washington and the rest of the military elite lacked the means to ensure favorable living conditions.

One of the solutions to the problem of unsanitary conditions and the spread of diseases among soldiers is the development of professional training of the army. Troops who have passed professional training are more resistant to such conditions, which allows them to achieve successful results. Such training should include training in the proper use of weapons, strategic skills, and survival skills. Specifically, survival skills would allow the army of Washington to understand what needs to be done in order to ensure the maximum survival of soldiers in the camps. Thus, with the help of professional training, the head of the army could avoid the spread of unsanitary conditions in the camps and various infections and diseases, ensuring the survival of the soldiers.

Thus, specific strategies to achieve this goal, namely camp survival, should include the training of the army. George Washington, as the undisputed leader and mastermind of the entire American revolution, had to train his soldiers in essential skills (Hayes, 2017). Leading thousands of soldiers, the general must be responsible not only for the success of the army on the battlefield, but also outside it. It is becoming clear that the morale of the military plays a key role in achieving victory in the war. Accordingly, the high mortality rate in the camp from various diseases and sanitary conditions lowered this spirit. In this sense, it was Washington that could ensure the flourishing of the army and its well-being.

Hayes, K. J. (2017). George Washington: A Life in Books . Oxford University Press.

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IvyPanda. (2022, July 17). “History of the NCO 1700: Valley Forge”: Case Study Analysis. https://ivypanda.com/essays/history-of-the-nco-1700-valley-forge-case-study-analysis/

"“History of the NCO 1700: Valley Forge”: Case Study Analysis." IvyPanda , 17 July 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/history-of-the-nco-1700-valley-forge-case-study-analysis/.

IvyPanda . (2022) '“History of the NCO 1700: Valley Forge”: Case Study Analysis'. 17 July.

IvyPanda . 2022. "“History of the NCO 1700: Valley Forge”: Case Study Analysis." July 17, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/history-of-the-nco-1700-valley-forge-case-study-analysis/.

1. IvyPanda . "“History of the NCO 1700: Valley Forge”: Case Study Analysis." July 17, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/history-of-the-nco-1700-valley-forge-case-study-analysis/.

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IvyPanda . "“History of the NCO 1700: Valley Forge”: Case Study Analysis." July 17, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/history-of-the-nco-1700-valley-forge-case-study-analysis/.

Valley Forge National Historical Park

Valley Forge is the encampment site of the Continental Army during the winter of 1777-1778. The park features 3,500 acres of monuments, meadows, and woodlands commemorating the sacrifices and perseverance of the Revolutionary War generation and honoring the power of people to pull together and overcome adversity during extraordinary times.

The park is conveniently located off of U.S. Route 422. The main entrance to the park is at the intersection of State Route 23 and North Gulph Road. From the Pennsylvania Turnpike, take Exit 326. From Interstate I-76, take Route 422 West to Route 23 West/Valley Forge. From State Route 252, take State Route 23 East.

• Auto and ATV
• Scenic Driving
• Guided Tours
• Self-Guided Tours - Walking
• Self-Guided Tours - Auto
• Horse Trekking
• Living History
• Historic Weapons Demonstration
• First Person Interpretation
• Junior Ranger Program
• Wildlife Watching
• Birdwatching
• Museum Exhibits
• Bookstore and Park Store
• Architecture and Building
• African American Heritage
• American Revolution
• Infantry and Militia
• Indigenous and Native Warrior
• Monuments and Memorials
• Schools and Education
• Wars and Conflicts
• American Revolutionary War
• Women's History
• Climate Change
• Fossils and Paleontology

Muhlenberg's Brigade at Sunset

The sun sets at Muhlenberg's Brigade.

Visitor Center at Valley Forge

The front entrance to the Visitor Center at Valley Forge.

Wayne Statue

The Anthony Wayne Statue at Valley Forge.

Washington's Headquarters

Washington's Headquarters in spring.

National Memorial Arch

The National Memorial Arch at Valley Forge.

Glossary/Word Search

Boyle, Joseph Lee.  “Virginia makes the Poorest Figure of any State”

The Virginia Infantry at the Valley Forge Encampment 1777-1778. Maryland: Clearfield Company. 2019

Word Search

Valley Forge Muster Roll

Find all the words hidden across, down, diagonally, and backwards.

AIDE DE CAMP                                        

ANCESTOR                                               

BRIGADE                                                  

CAMP FOLLOWER                                 

CAPTAIN                                                 

COLONEL                                               

CONTINENTAL ARMY                        

DISCHARGED                                       

DIVISION                                              

DRUMMER                                           

ENLISTED                                             

FIFE                                                        

FURLOUGH                                          

GEORGE WASHINGTON

HUTS                                                      

MATROSS                                             

MUSTER ROLL

SICK ABSENT

SICK IN CAMP

VALLEY FORGE

Visit the Valley Forge Muster Roll , a project of the Valley Forge Park Alliance , at

www.valleyforgemusterroll.org.

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A Stash of 30 Hidden Bayonets Was Discovered in Valley Forge

“no one has ever found this many together.”.

Pennsylvania

On the last day of an archaeological project near Valley Forge National Park in southeastern Pennsylvania, Dan Sivilich told his team not to expect to find a whole lot. Sivilich’s group, the Battlefield Restoration & Archaeological Volunteer Organization (BRAVO), had spent years helping archaeologists scour the site for artifacts. He figured there would be little left to find.

Quickly, one of the volunteers, who use metal detectors to locate artifacts and guide excavations, located a nine-pound cannonball hidden underneath a walking path. “He was so excited,” says Sivilich. “But he was the man of the day for about five minutes.” Bill Hermstedt, a long-time volunteer and charter member of BRAVO, also found something new—a bayonet. And then another. The signal from the detector told him that there was a lot more metal down there.

When archaeologists methodically opened the ground, they found a cache of 30 bayonets, stacked together—a remarkable find for a Revolutionary War encampment.

“I haven’t seen anything else like it in a single excavation. It looked like someone had dug a hole in the ground and threw them in there,” says Jesse West-Rosenthal, a Ph.D. candidate in archaeology at Temple University, who worked on the site and is writing his dissertation on the discoveries there. “It’s rare that you find large collections of intact material, especially something like weaponry. … To find this grouping of artifacts in one feature—someone putting a hole in the ground and putting the bayonets in the hole—it seems to be pretty unique.”

As Sivilich puts it, “No one has ever found this many together.”

The site where the bayonets were found is on private property outside the park, but it was once part of the encampment where the Continental Army famously spent a hard winter from December 1777 to June 1778. In such camps, no valuable material could be wasted, so archaeologists usually find just bits and pieces of objects or evidence of materials being reused. Viable weapons didn’t just get buried and left behind.

The bayonets were of various makes and manufactures, reflecting the army’s hodgepodge state. More than two years into the war, George Washington’s army was still cobbled together, a mishmash of militias who supplied their own materials and weapons. The bayonets also show evidence of modification—someone had tried to fit them to muskets they weren’t intended for. (At the time, bayonets and muskets were designed to go together, so a British bayonet would not fit a French musket.)

But the winter that the Continental Army spent in Valley Forge marked a turning point in its organization. The American states signed a treaty with France, who started to supply the revolutionaries with weapons, and the Prussian drillmaster Baron von Steuben began training the soldiers in a more uniform way. “It’s very possible that this was a discarded collection of materials that may have been replaced by new, more formalized weaponry coming, especially as France starts to supply the army,” says West-Rosenthal.

Though the bayonets stand out among the artifacts discovered at this site, the archaeologists and BRAVO volunteers made other intriguing finds there as well. There was a musket ball that had been turned into a die with Roman numerals on its faces, and a particularly rare U.S.A. uniform button featuring stylized lettering and the year 1777. Only a handful of other such buttons have been found in the archaeological record.

“There was something going on at this point in the time, this formation of the army, that they felt the need to memorialize it in the visual representation of their uniform,” says West-Rosenthal. “It speaks volumes to this turning point in the war that was Valley Forge.” As an archaeologist, he’s particularly interested in the experience of soldiers—a “bottom-up” view, rather than the “top-down” approach focusing on Washington and other leaders. And while battlefields only represent a few (very intense) hours, encampment sites from the Revolutionary War represent months of difficult army life. Valley Forge, West-Rosenthal says, “is a very tightly dated snapshot in time of six months in American history.”

How the bayonets change the understanding of that six months isn’t fully clear. It seems that someone hid them in the ground or disposed of them deliberately. When the army moved on, the men had little time to pack up, so perhaps the man who left the bayonets behind intended to come back for them. For some reason, he never did.

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Ukraine’s Valley Forge Moment

There is good reason for optimism about Ukraine’s fight for freedom.

In Philadelphia, on July 4, 1776, Americans declared their independence from Britain. Only 18 months later, General George Washington, leading a somewhat rag-tag Continental Army, was enduring a tough winter at Valley Forge, while British forces occupied Philadelphia and New York. Things looked bleak. 

We know now that Washington was a brilliant general, that the American people had an iron-clad resolve to fight for freedom, and that with help from an outside power — France — the 13 colonies prevailed and truly established the United States of America. But in the winter of 1777-1778, no one could know this. It took an enormous effort of will, persistence, and moral clarity in the face of uncertainty. And a bit of outside help. 

No doubt there were plenty of naysayers and armchair generals at the time who simply assumed the Americans would be defeated by overwhelming force and the superior resources of the British Empire. But Americans refused to give up. In the end, Britain’s resounding defeat resulted from long supply lines, American willpower, and foreign help. 

Ukraine’s Independence Day falls on August 24, and for the second year in a row, it has been celebrated under the pressure of a full-scale Russian invasion. After 18 months of brutal fighting, much of Eastern and Southern Ukraine is still occupied, and another tough winter looms. Yet Russia has long supply lines, and Ukrainians have iron-clad will and outside help. Sound familiar? 

This year, Ukraine’s muted independence celebrations took place amid a growing chorus of commentary in the West arguing that Ukraine’s counteroffensive is failing, that Ukraine has made poor tactical and strategic decisions, that the West itself cannot continue to support Ukraine militarily and financially at the same level it has done to date, and that Ukraine cannot possibly recover all of its lost territory and must begin to negotiate with Russia.  

Ukrainians are told to face reality and, in essence, to give up.   

Would these same commentators have given the same advice to George Washington in 1777? Perhaps. And they would have been just as wrong. Such defeatism fundamentally underestimates the moral case, the utter resolve of people defending their lives and freedom, and the stakes that all free people have in their success. 

Ukrainians are no more inclined to give up than Americans were in 1777-1778. So where is the call for Ukraine to negotiate coming from? It comes from those focused on a desire to stabilize relations with Russia, no matter what. That denigrates both the Ukrainian people and the cause of freedom they are fighting for. Some Westerners may feel they have the luxury of signing away Ukrainian lands along with its people and freedom. Ukrainians do not. 

Obscured in all this is the fact that — contrary to the naysayers’ narrative — Ukraine’s counteroffensive is indeed making progress . The Ukrainians have methodically weakened and exhausted Russian forces, inflicting as many as 300,000 casualties including 120,000 dead. They have made substantial hits on Russian logistical supply chains. They have brought the war home to Russians in Moscow, and have launched complex drone attacks on military airfields, naval forces, and shipping.   

The Russians have made no territorial gains since their destruction and temporary occupation of Bakhmut, while Ukrainian forces have kept up pressure along the entire front line – forcing Russia to defend in multiple areas – and have penetrated the first line of heavily mined areas in the south near Robotyne . This is opening a pathway to cutting off Russia’s supply lines to Crimea and Kherson and Zaporizhzhia provinces.   

Back in Russia, we have seen a serious mutiny , the regime-orchestrated assassination of the uprising’s leader when his plane was blown out of the sky near Moscow, the flight of a million young Russians to avoid conscription, the growing impatience of non-ethnic Russian regions, and more. While Ukraine is advancing step-by-step, Russia is tearing itself apart. 

Anyone who expected Ukraine’s counter-offensive to make rapid and substantial territorial gains had their expectations in the wrong place. Unlike the Russians, the Ukrainians care about protecting the lives of their soldiers and are proceeding in a careful, methodical, and patient manner. Of course, it might go faster if they already had M1A1 Abrams tanks, F-16 aircraft, and ATACMs long-range artillery in their inventory, but those articles have not yet arrived on the battlefield due to the West’s own slow decision-making. And yet, Ukraine is advancing. 

No one today can know with certainty the outcome of Russia’s war against Ukraine. Perhaps Ukraine will fall. Perhaps Russia will pull itself together after tearing itself apart. But Ukraine has the reason and will to fight, while Russians do not. Ukraine has substantial outside help, while Russians only have Iran. Ukraine has a moral cause, while Russians do not.   

Anyone who bet against George Washington in 1777-1778 would have lost. Anyone who bets against Ukraine in 2023-2024 should be prepared for the same outcome. 

Ambassador  Kurt Volker  is a Distinguished Fellow at the Center for European Policy Analysis. A leading expert in US foreign and national security policy, he served as US Special Representative for Ukraine Negotiations from 2017-2019, and as US Ambassador to NATO from 2008-2009.   

Europe’s Edge  is CEPA’s online journal covering critical topics on the foreign policy docket across Europe and North America. All opinions are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the position or views of the institutions they represent or the Center for European Policy Analysis.

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915 Horseshoe Trl,   Valley Forge, PA 19481

What's special.

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Facts & features, bedrooms & bathrooms.

• Bedrooms : 4
• Bathrooms : 4
• Full bathrooms : 3
• 1/2 bathrooms : 1
• Room types : Living Room, Dining Room, Kitchen, Family Room, Mud Room
• Forced Air, Natural Gas
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• Number of fireplaces : 2
• Fireplace features : Brick, Mantel(s), Wood Burning

Interior area

• Total interior livable area : 2,593 sqft
• Finished area above ground : 2,593

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• Total spaces : 5
• Parking features : Garage Faces Side, Inside Entrance, Garage Door Opener, Paved Driveway, Attached Garage, Driveway
• Attached garage spaces : 2
• Uncovered spaces : 3

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• Levels : Split Level,Four
• Stories : 4
• Patio & porch : Patio
• Exterior features : Extensive Hardscape, Stone Retaining Walls
• Pool features : Community
• Has spa : Yes
• Spa features : Heated, Hot Tub
• Has view : Yes
• View description : Trees/Woods
• Size : 1.23 Acres
• Features : Near National Park
• Residential vegetation : Trees/Wooded
• Additional structures : Above Grade, Below Grade
• Parcel number : 2708D0007
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Construction

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• Home type : SingleFamily
• Property subtype : Single Family Residence
• Brick, Vinyl Siding
• Foundation : Brick/Mortar
• Roof : Asphalt
• New construction : No
• Year built : 1960

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• Electric : 200+ Amp Service
• Sewer : On Site Septic
• Water : Public
• Utilities for property : Cable Connected, Phone, Cable, Fiber Optic

Community & HOA

• Features : Community Pool Description: In Ground
• Subdivision : Valley Forge Mtn
• Has HOA : No
• Region : Valley Forge
• Municipality : SCHUYLKILL TWP

Financial & listing details

• Price per square foot : $316/sqft
• Tax assessed value : $217,790
• Annual tax amount : $8,837
• Date on market : 9/7/2024
• Listing agreement : Exclusive Right To Sell
• Listing terms : Cash,Conventional
• Inclusions : See Attached Inclusion List Under Documents.
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