why is homework stressful for teachers

share this!

August 16, 2021

Is it time to get rid of homework? Mental health experts weigh in

by Sara M Moniuszko

It's no secret that kids hate homework. And as students grapple with an ongoing pandemic that has had a wide-range of mental health impacts, is it time schools start listening to their pleas over workloads?

Some teachers are turning to social media to take a stand against homework .

Tiktok user @misguided.teacher says he doesn't assign it because the "whole premise of homework is flawed."

For starters, he says he can't grade work on "even playing fields" when students' home environments can be vastly different.

"Even students who go home to a peaceful house, do they really want to spend their time on busy work? Because typically that's what a lot of homework is, it's busy work," he says in the video that has garnered 1.6 million likes. "You only get one year to be 7, you only got one year to be 10, you only get one year to be 16, 18."

Mental health experts agree heavy work loads have the potential do more harm than good for students, especially when taking into account the impacts of the pandemic. But they also say the answer may not be to eliminate homework altogether.

Emmy Kang, mental health counselor at Humantold, says studies have shown heavy workloads can be "detrimental" for students and cause a "big impact on their mental, physical and emotional health."

"More than half of students say that homework is their primary source of stress, and we know what stress can do on our bodies," she says, adding that staying up late to finish assignments also leads to disrupted sleep and exhaustion.

Cynthia Catchings, a licensed clinical social worker and therapist at Talkspace, says heavy workloads can also cause serious mental health problems in the long run, like anxiety and depression.

And for all the distress homework causes, it's not as useful as many may think, says Dr. Nicholas Kardaras, a psychologist and CEO of Omega Recovery treatment center.

"The research shows that there's really limited benefit of homework for elementary age students, that really the school work should be contained in the classroom," he says.

For older students, Kang says homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night.

"Most students, especially at these high-achieving schools, they're doing a minimum of three hours, and it's taking away time from their friends from their families, their extracurricular activities. And these are all very important things for a person's mental and emotional health."

Catchings, who also taught third to 12th graders for 12 years, says she's seen the positive effects of a no homework policy while working with students abroad.

"Not having homework was something that I always admired from the French students (and) the French schools, because that was helping the students to really have the time off and really disconnect from school ," she says.

The answer may not be to eliminate homework completely, but to be more mindful of the type of work students go home with, suggests Kang, who was a high-school teacher for 10 years.

"I don't think (we) should scrap homework, I think we should scrap meaningless, purposeless busy work-type homework. That's something that needs to be scrapped entirely," she says, encouraging teachers to be thoughtful and consider the amount of time it would take for students to complete assignments.

The pandemic made the conversation around homework more crucial

Mindfulness surrounding homework is especially important in the context of the last two years. Many students will be struggling with mental health issues that were brought on or worsened by the pandemic, making heavy workloads even harder to balance.

"COVID was just a disaster in terms of the lack of structure. Everything just deteriorated," Kardaras says, pointing to an increase in cognitive issues and decrease in attention spans among students. "School acts as an anchor for a lot of children, as a stabilizing force, and that disappeared."

But even if students transition back to the structure of in-person classes, Kardaras suspects students may still struggle after two school years of shifted schedules and disrupted sleeping habits.

"We've seen adults struggling to go back to in-person work environments from remote work environments. That effect is amplified with children because children have less resources to be able to cope with those transitions than adults do," he explains.

'Get organized' ahead of back-to-school

In order to make the transition back to in-person school easier, Kang encourages students to "get good sleep, exercise regularly (and) eat a healthy diet."

To help manage workloads, she suggests students "get organized."

"There's so much mental clutter up there when you're disorganized... sitting down and planning out their study schedules can really help manage their time," she says.

Breaking assignments up can also make things easier to tackle.

"I know that heavy workloads can be stressful, but if you sit down and you break down that studying into smaller chunks, they're much more manageable."

If workloads are still too much, Kang encourages students to advocate for themselves.

"They should tell their teachers when a homework assignment just took too much time or if it was too difficult for them to do on their own," she says. "It's good to speak up and ask those questions. Respectfully, of course, because these are your teachers. But still, I think sometimes teachers themselves need this feedback from their students."

©2021 USA Today Distributed by Tribune Content Agency, LLC.

Explore further

Feedback to editors

Massive merger: Study reveals evidence for origin of supermassive black hole at galaxy's center

12 hours ago

Neolithic bones reveal isolated Yersinia pestis infections, not pandemics

New quantum error correction method uses 'many-hypercube codes' while exhibiting beautiful geometry

Solving the side effect problem of siRNA drugs for genetic disease treatment

Researchers advance new class of quantum critical metal that could advance electronic devices

Protecting just 0.7% of world's land could help save a third of unique and endangered species

13 hours ago

Crystallized alternative DNA structure sheds light on insulin and diabetes

Researchers propose mechanistic framework to explain complex microbe-host symbioses

Low-cost nanomaterial technology can detect cancer genes with ultra-high sensitivity

14 hours ago

Scientists uncover mechanism preserving centromere during cell division

Relevant physicsforums posts, are excuses for academic parties getting thinner or is it just me.

Sep 2, 2024

AAPT 2024 Summer Meeting Boston, MA (July 2024) - are you going?

Rip edward "joe" redish (1942 - 2024), physics education, incandescent bulbs in teaching.

Aug 21, 2024

How to explain Bell's theorem to non-scientists

Aug 18, 2024

Free Abstract Algebra curriculum in Urdu and Hindi

Aug 17, 2024

More from STEM Educators and Teaching

Related Stories

Smartphones are lowering student's grades, study finds

Aug 18, 2020

Doing homework is associated with change in students' personality

Oct 6, 2017

Scholar suggests ways to craft more effective homework assignments

Oct 1, 2015

Should parents help their kids with homework?

Aug 29, 2019

How much math, science homework is too much?

Mar 23, 2015

Anxiety, depression, burnout rising as college students prepare to return to campus

Jul 26, 2021

Recommended for you

Virtual learning linked to rise in chronic absenteeism, study finds

Sep 5, 2024

AI tools like ChatGPT popular among students who struggle with concentration and attention

Aug 28, 2024

Researchers find academic equivalent of a Great Gatsby Curve in science mentorships

Aug 27, 2024

More academic freedom leads to more innovation, reports study

Statistical analysis can detect when ChatGPT is used to cheat on multiple-choice chemistry exams

Aug 14, 2024

Larger teams in academic research worsen career prospects, study finds

Let us know if there is a problem with our content.

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys.org in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

E-mail newsletter

• Future Students
• Current Students
• Faculty/Staff

News and Media

• News & Media Home
• Research Stories
• School’s In
• In the Media

You are here

More than two hours of homework may be counterproductive, research suggests.

A Stanford education researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter.   "Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good," wrote Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of a study published in the Journal of Experimental Education .   The researchers used survey data to examine perceptions about homework, student well-being and behavioral engagement in a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in upper-middle-class California communities. Along with the survey data, Pope and her colleagues used open-ended answers to explore the students' views on homework.   Median household income exceeded $90,000 in these communities, and 93 percent of the students went on to college, either two-year or four-year.   Students in these schools average about 3.1 hours of homework each night.   "The findings address how current homework practices in privileged, high-performing schools sustain students' advantage in competitive climates yet hinder learning, full engagement and well-being," Pope wrote.   Pope and her colleagues found that too much homework can diminish its effectiveness and even be counterproductive. They cite prior research indicating that homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night, and that 90 minutes to two and a half hours is optimal for high school.   Their study found that too much homework is associated with:   • Greater stress : 56 percent of the students considered homework a primary source of stress, according to the survey data. Forty-three percent viewed tests as a primary stressor, while 33 percent put the pressure to get good grades in that category. Less than 1 percent of the students said homework was not a stressor.   • Reductions in health : In their open-ended answers, many students said their homework load led to sleep deprivation and other health problems. The researchers asked students whether they experienced health issues such as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems.   • Less time for friends, family and extracurricular pursuits : Both the survey data and student responses indicate that spending too much time on homework meant that students were "not meeting their developmental needs or cultivating other critical life skills," according to the researchers. Students were more likely to drop activities, not see friends or family, and not pursue hobbies they enjoy.   A balancing act   The results offer empirical evidence that many students struggle to find balance between homework, extracurricular activities and social time, the researchers said. Many students felt forced or obligated to choose homework over developing other talents or skills.   Also, there was no relationship between the time spent on homework and how much the student enjoyed it. The research quoted students as saying they often do homework they see as "pointless" or "mindless" in order to keep their grades up.   "This kind of busy work, by its very nature, discourages learning and instead promotes doing homework simply to get points," said Pope, who is also a co-founder of Challenge Success , a nonprofit organization affiliated with the GSE that conducts research and works with schools and parents to improve students' educational experiences..   Pope said the research calls into question the value of assigning large amounts of homework in high-performing schools. Homework should not be simply assigned as a routine practice, she said.   "Rather, any homework assigned should have a purpose and benefit, and it should be designed to cultivate learning and development," wrote Pope.   High-performing paradox   In places where students attend high-performing schools, too much homework can reduce their time to foster skills in the area of personal responsibility, the researchers concluded. "Young people are spending more time alone," they wrote, "which means less time for family and fewer opportunities to engage in their communities."   Student perspectives   The researchers say that while their open-ended or "self-reporting" methodology to gauge student concerns about homework may have limitations – some might regard it as an opportunity for "typical adolescent complaining" – it was important to learn firsthand what the students believe.   The paper was co-authored by Mollie Galloway from Lewis and Clark College and Jerusha Conner from Villanova University.

Clifton B. Parker is a writer at the Stanford News Service .

More Stories

⟵ Go to all Research Stories

Get the Educator

Subscribe to our monthly newsletter.

Stanford Graduate School of Education

482 Galvez Mall Stanford, CA 94305-3096 Tel: (650) 723-2109

• Contact Admissions
• GSE Leadership
• Site Feedback
• Web Accessibility
• Career Resources
• Faculty Open Positions
• Explore Courses
• Academic Calendar
• Office of the Registrar
• Cubberley Library
• StanfordWho
• StanfordYou

Improving lives through learning

• Stanford Home
• Maps & Directions
• Search Stanford
• Emergency Info
• Terms of Use
• Non-Discrimination
• Accessibility

© Stanford University , Stanford , California 94305 .

Is homework a necessary evil?

After decades of debate, researchers are still sorting out the truth about homework’s pros and cons. One point they can agree on: Quality assignments matter.

By Kirsten Weir

March 2016, Vol 47, No. 3

Print version: page 36

• Schools and Classrooms

Homework battles have raged for decades. For as long as kids have been whining about doing their homework, parents and education reformers have complained that homework's benefits are dubious. Meanwhile many teachers argue that take-home lessons are key to helping students learn. Now, as schools are shifting to the new (and hotly debated) Common Core curriculum standards, educators, administrators and researchers are turning a fresh eye toward the question of homework's value.

But when it comes to deciphering the research literature on the subject, homework is anything but an open book.

The 10-minute rule

In many ways, homework seems like common sense. Spend more time practicing multiplication or studying Spanish vocabulary and you should get better at math or Spanish. But it may not be that simple.

Homework can indeed produce academic benefits, such as increased understanding and retention of the material, says Duke University social psychologist Harris Cooper, PhD, one of the nation's leading homework researchers. But not all students benefit. In a review of studies published from 1987 to 2003, Cooper and his colleagues found that homework was linked to better test scores in high school and, to a lesser degree, in middle school. Yet they found only faint evidence that homework provided academic benefit in elementary school ( Review of Educational Research , 2006).

Then again, test scores aren't everything. Homework proponents also cite the nonacademic advantages it might confer, such as the development of personal responsibility, good study habits and time-management skills. But as to hard evidence of those benefits, "the jury is still out," says Mollie Galloway, PhD, associate professor of educational leadership at Lewis & Clark College in Portland, Oregon. "I think there's a focus on assigning homework because [teachers] think it has these positive outcomes for study skills and habits. But we don't know for sure that's the case."

Even when homework is helpful, there can be too much of a good thing. "There is a limit to how much kids can benefit from home study," Cooper says. He agrees with an oft-cited rule of thumb that students should do no more than 10 minutes a night per grade level — from about 10 minutes in first grade up to a maximum of about two hours in high school. Both the National Education Association and National Parent Teacher Association support that limit.

Beyond that point, kids don't absorb much useful information, Cooper says. In fact, too much homework can do more harm than good. Researchers have cited drawbacks, including boredom and burnout toward academic material, less time for family and extracurricular activities, lack of sleep and increased stress.

In a recent study of Spanish students, Rubén Fernández-Alonso, PhD, and colleagues found that students who were regularly assigned math and science homework scored higher on standardized tests. But when kids reported having more than 90 to 100 minutes of homework per day, scores declined ( Journal of Educational Psychology , 2015).

"At all grade levels, doing other things after school can have positive effects," Cooper says. "To the extent that homework denies access to other leisure and community activities, it's not serving the child's best interest."

Children of all ages need down time in order to thrive, says Denise Pope, PhD, a professor of education at Stanford University and a co-founder of Challenge Success, a program that partners with secondary schools to implement policies that improve students' academic engagement and well-being.

"Little kids and big kids need unstructured time for play each day," she says. Certainly, time for physical activity is important for kids' health and well-being. But even time spent on social media can help give busy kids' brains a break, she says.

All over the map

But are teachers sticking to the 10-minute rule? Studies attempting to quantify time spent on homework are all over the map, in part because of wide variations in methodology, Pope says.

A 2014 report by the Brookings Institution examined the question of homework, comparing data from a variety of sources. That report cited findings from a 2012 survey of first-year college students in which 38.4 percent reported spending six hours or more per week on homework during their last year of high school. That was down from 49.5 percent in 1986 ( The Brown Center Report on American Education , 2014).

The Brookings report also explored survey data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress, which asked 9-, 13- and 17-year-old students how much homework they'd done the previous night. They found that between 1984 and 2012, there was a slight increase in homework for 9-year-olds, but homework amounts for 13- and 17-year-olds stayed roughly the same, or even decreased slightly.

Yet other evidence suggests that some kids might be taking home much more work than they can handle. Robert Pressman, PhD, and colleagues recently investigated the 10-minute rule among more than 1,100 students, and found that elementary-school kids were receiving up to three times as much homework as recommended. As homework load increased, so did family stress, the researchers found ( American Journal of Family Therapy , 2015).

Many high school students also seem to be exceeding the recommended amounts of homework. Pope and Galloway recently surveyed more than 4,300 students from 10 high-achieving high schools. Students reported bringing home an average of just over three hours of homework nightly ( Journal of Experiential Education , 2013).

On the positive side, students who spent more time on homework in that study did report being more behaviorally engaged in school — for instance, giving more effort and paying more attention in class, Galloway says. But they were not more invested in the homework itself. They also reported greater academic stress and less time to balance family, friends and extracurricular activities. They experienced more physical health problems as well, such as headaches, stomach troubles and sleep deprivation. "Three hours per night is too much," Galloway says.

In the high-achieving schools Pope and Galloway studied, more than 90 percent of the students go on to college. There's often intense pressure to succeed academically, from both parents and peers. On top of that, kids in these communities are often overloaded with extracurricular activities, including sports and clubs. "They're very busy," Pope says. "Some kids have up to 40 hours a week — a full-time job's worth — of extracurricular activities." And homework is yet one more commitment on top of all the others.

"Homework has perennially acted as a source of stress for students, so that piece of it is not new," Galloway says. "But especially in upper-middle-class communities, where the focus is on getting ahead, I think the pressure on students has been ratcheted up."

Yet homework can be a problem at the other end of the socioeconomic spectrum as well. Kids from wealthier homes are more likely to have resources such as computers, Internet connections, dedicated areas to do schoolwork and parents who tend to be more educated and more available to help them with tricky assignments. Kids from disadvantaged homes are more likely to work at afterschool jobs, or to be home without supervision in the evenings while their parents work multiple jobs, says Lea Theodore, PhD, a professor of school psychology at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia. They are less likely to have computers or a quiet place to do homework in peace.

"Homework can highlight those inequities," she says.

Quantity vs. quality

One point researchers agree on is that for all students, homework quality matters. But too many kids are feeling a lack of engagement with their take-home assignments, many experts say. In Pope and Galloway's research, only 20 percent to 30 percent of students said they felt their homework was useful or meaningful.

"Students are assigned a lot of busywork. They're naming it as a primary stressor, but they don't feel it's supporting their learning," Galloway says.

"Homework that's busywork is not good for anyone," Cooper agrees. Still, he says, different subjects call for different kinds of assignments. "Things like vocabulary and spelling are learned through practice. Other kinds of courses require more integration of material and drawing on different skills."

But critics say those skills can be developed with many fewer hours of homework each week. Why assign 50 math problems, Pope asks, when 10 would be just as constructive? One Advanced Placement biology teacher she worked with through Challenge Success experimented with cutting his homework assignments by a third, and then by half. "Test scores didn't go down," she says. "You can have a rigorous course and not have a crazy homework load."

Still, changing the culture of homework won't be easy. Teachers-to-be get little instruction in homework during their training, Pope says. And despite some vocal parents arguing that kids bring home too much homework, many others get nervous if they think their child doesn't have enough. "Teachers feel pressured to give homework because parents expect it to come home," says Galloway. "When it doesn't, there's this idea that the school might not be doing its job."

Galloway argues teachers and school administrators need to set clear goals when it comes to homework — and parents and students should be in on the discussion, too. "It should be a broader conversation within the community, asking what's the purpose of homework? Why are we giving it? Who is it serving? Who is it not serving?"

Until schools and communities agree to take a hard look at those questions, those backpacks full of take-home assignments will probably keep stirring up more feelings than facts.

Further reading

• Cooper, H., Robinson, J. C., & Patall, E. A. (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement? A synthesis of research, 1987-2003. Review of Educational Research, 76 (1), 1–62. doi: 10.3102/00346543076001001
• Galloway, M., Connor, J., & Pope, D. (2013). Nonacademic effects of homework in privileged, high-performing high schools. The Journal of Experimental Education, 81 (4), 490–510. doi: 10.1080/00220973.2012.745469
• Pope, D., Brown, M., & Miles, S. (2015). Overloaded and underprepared: Strategies for stronger schools and healthy, successful kids . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Letters to the Editor

• Send us a letter

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Int J Environ Res Public Health

Stress, Burnout, Anxiety and Depression among Teachers: A Scoping Review

Associated data.

Not applicable.

Background: Worldwide, stress and burnout continue to be a problem among teachers, leading to anxiety and depression. Burnout may adversely affect teachers’ health and is a risk factor for poor physical and mental well-being. Determining the prevalence and correlates of stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression among teachers is essential for addressing this public health concern. Objective: To determine the extent of the current literature on the prevalence and correlates of stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression among teachers. Method: This scoping review was performed using the PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews). Relevant search terms were used to determine the prevalence and correlates of teachers’ stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression. Articles were identified using MEDLINE (Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online), EMBASE (Excerpta Medica Data Base), APA PsycINFO, CINAHL Plus (Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature), Scopus Elsevier and ERIC (Education Resources Information Center). The articles were extracted, reviewed, collated, and thematically analyzed, and the results were summarized and reported. Results: When only clinically meaningful (moderate to severe) psychological conditions among teachers were considered, the prevalence of burnout ranged from 25.12% to 74%, stress ranged from 8.3% to 87.1%, anxiety ranged from 38% to 41.2% and depression ranged from 4% to 77%. The correlates of stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression identified in this review include socio-demographic factors such as sex, age, marital status, and school (organizational) and work-related factors including the years of teaching, class size, job satisfaction, and the subject taught. Conclusion: Teaching is challenging and yet one of the most rewarding professions, but several factors correlate with stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression among teachers. Highlighting these factors is the first step in recognizing the magnitude of the issues encountered by those in the teaching profession. Implementation of a school-based awareness and intervention program is crucial to resolve the early signs of teacher stress and burnout to avoid future deterioration.

1. Introduction

The teaching profession can be highly stressful, and this stress may lead to reduced job satisfaction, burnout, and poor work performance. Stress is a normal response to upsetting or threatening events and becomes pathological when chronic [ 1 ]. Chronic stress can impede day-to-day functioning and emotional balance, and it is a risk factor for developing other psychiatric illnesses, such as anxiety and depression [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Prolonged teacher stress negatively correlates with job satisfaction and positively correlates with intending to leave the teaching profession. It may also result in withdrawal behaviour, including physically or psychologically leaving the work setting [ 4 , 5 ]. Chronic stress may also lead to inappropriate anger and increased alcohol and drug consumption [ 6 , 7 ], and it can cause an individual to experience excessive anxiety, mental fatigue, and burnout, while also predicting increased depression [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. According to Maslach, stress occurs when a person perceives an external demand as exceeding their capability to deal with it [ 11 ]. Teacher stress can be associated with demoralization, and a disrupted sense of self-consistency [ 8 , 9 ]. Canadian teachers, like their global counterparts, also experience high-stress levels. A study by Biron et al. showed that the proportion of Quebec teachers who reported a high level of psychological distress was twice as high (40%) as that reported for a Quebec-wide general population sample (20%) [ 12 ]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, survey results indicated that nearly 70% of respondents worried about their mental health and well-being [ 13 ]. Meanwhile, a cross-sectional study showed that two-thirds of teachers perceived stress at work at least 50% of the time [ 14 ]. Teacher workload is one of the most common sources of stress [ 15 ]; however, there is a lack of systematic understanding about how stress is measured, its prevalence globally, what factors lead to stress and what causes the associated negative outcomes among teachers.

Burnout is considered a stress-related problem for individuals who work in interpersonally oriented occupations such as healthcare and education [ 16 , 17 ]. According to Shukla et al., burnout among professionals such as teachers can result from excessive demands on their energy, strength and resources [ 7 ]. There is increasing evidence that burnout as a negative stress response represents a risk factor not only for depression but also for cardiovascular and other somatic diseases [ 17 ]. Researchers conceptualize burnout as having three interrelated components: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment [ 6 , 7 , 11 , 16 ]. Emotional exhaustion represents emotional depletion and a loss of energy. Depersonalization is the interpersonal dimension of burnout. It refers to a negative, callous, or excessively detached response to other people. There is evidence that job satisfaction is negatively associated with emotional exhaustion and positively associated with self-perceived accomplishment, but not significantly related to cynicism [ 18 ]. Additionally, reduced accomplishment describes the self-evaluation dimension of burnout, including feelings of incompetence and a lack of achievement and productivity at work [ 6 , 16 , 18 , 19 ]. Mild burnout involves short-lived irritability, fatigue, worry, or frustration. Moderate burnout has the same symptoms but lasts for at least two weeks, whereas severe burnout may also entail physical ailments such as ulcers, chronic back pain, and migraine headaches [ 20 ]. Research suggests that workplace improvements to reduce burnout could prevent adverse sequelae, improve health outcomes, and reduce healthcare expenditures [ 21 ]. More systematic research is needed to further understand the factors in the workplace to address burnout and improve teacher health outcomes.

Anxiety and perceived stress are predicted by workload, student behaviour, and employment conditions [ 22 ]. According to Kamal et al., a considerable lack of administrative support is the single biggest factor increasing anxiety [ 23 ]. Those with low job satisfaction are more susceptible to experiencing burnout, high anxiety levels and depression [ 24 , 25 ]. Teacher stress contributes to teacher anxiety and may trigger anger, further intensifying anxiety [ 5 , 26 ]. The published literature shows that participants who reported high anxiety levels also reported high burnout levels [ 27 ]. Moreover, some studies report a very high prevalence of stress (100%), anxiety (67.5%), and depression (23.2%) among teachers [ 28 ], prompting calls for research and interventions to address this critical issue [ 23 ]. Despite this, more research is needed to understand what factors play key roles in triggering anxiety symptoms among educators and how stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression relate to each other.

Depression can lead to numerous deficiencies and is considered the worldwide primary cause of work disability [ 29 , 30 ]. Depression among teachers can also significantly impact their health, productivity, and function [ 31 ], with particularly pervasive effects on personal and professional life [ 32 ]. Individuals with depression often experience difficulties meeting interpersonal, time-management, and productivity demands. They may also encounter psychological problems, decreased work quality, absences due to illness, and increased work disability, all of which can profoundly impact worker productivity [ 30 , 31 , 33 ]. One study found that teachers’ most robust major depressive disorder (MDD) predictors included a low job satisfaction, high perceived stress, somatization disorder, and anxiety disorder [ 31 ]. Like with anxiety symptoms, more research is needed to understand what factors play key roles in triggering depression symptoms among educators and how depression relates to other psychological conditions including stress, burnout, and anxiety.

Currently, the authors are planning a study to assess the prevalence and correlates of stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression among elementary, junior high and high school teachers in Alberta and Nova Scotia, Canada [ 34 ]. This planned study will also evaluate the effectiveness of a daily supportive text message intervention, the Wellness4Teachers program, to address stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression among elementary and high school teachers in Canada [ 34 ]. Within this context, this scoping review aims to identify and summarize the literature on the prevalence and correlates of teachers’ stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression and to determine the problem’s extent in different jurisdictional contexts. The review also aims to identify the gaps in knowledge for future research. Identifying the correlates of these emotional and mental conditions may also facilitate the research and development of early interventions which can be implemented to address this phenomenon.

2.1. Study Design

This scoping review was planned and conducted in adherence to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) statement [ 35 ]. We adopted a comprehensive search strategy that allows replicability, reliability, and transparency. This scoping review also followed Arksey and O’Malley’s five-stage approach to scoping reviews: identifying the research question, searching for relevant studies, the study selection, charting the data, and collating, summarizing and reporting the results [ 36 ].

2.2. Developing the Research Question

Our research question was: “What are the prevalence and correlates of primary and secondary teachers’ stress, burnout anxiety and depression in different jurisdictions?”

2.3. Information Sources and Search Strategy

The search was performed by using relevant terms to identify and select articles in the following databases: MEDLINE (Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online; Ovid MEDLINE ALL), EMBASE (Excerpta Medica Database; Ovid interface), APA PsycINFO (Ovid interface), CINAHL (Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature) Plus with Full Text (EBSCOhost interface), Scopus Elsevier and ERIC (Education Resources Information Center (EBSCOhost interface). The search consisted of keywords representing the concepts of stress, burnout, depression and anxiety among teachers and their correlates and prevalence. The specific MeSH terms, keyword and descriptors included: (depress* OR depression OR “depressive disorder” OR “depressive symptoms” OR “major depressive disorder” OR anxiety OR “anxiety disorder” OR “generalized anxiety disorder”) AND (burnout OR “burn out” OR stress OR “occupational stress” OR “mental exhaustion” OR “emotional exhaustion”) AND (teacher* OR educator* OR tutor* OR schoolteacher* OR “school teacher*”). The database search was completed on the 20th of February 2022.

2.4. Selection of Studies

The search strategy was developed based on specific inclusion criteria. Articles were considered eligible for inclusion in this scoping review if they addressed either the prevalence or correlates of burnout, stress, depression, or anxiety among teachers or educators. The articles were limited to original, peer-reviewed quantitative articles written in English. Articles were excluded from the review if the study participants were tertiary or university teachers or students. Studies on interventions’ outcomes, case reports, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, opinion pieces, commentaries, editorials, or grey literature such as non-peer-reviewed graduate student theses, non-research articles or conference reports were excluded. The search was not limited by publication year. Two researchers independently reviewed the citations during the title, abstract screening, and full-text review phase. All discrepancies were resolved through discussion and consensus. We identified 190 articles for full-text review, of which 120 articles were excluded. The PRISMA flow diagram summarizes this information in detail ( Figure 1 ).

PRISMA flow chart.

2.5. Data Charting and Extraction Process

The research team extracted data for each selected article according to the following domains: author(s) name, year of publication, country of study, study design, assessment tools used, sample size (N), age, main findings, and conclusion.

2.6. Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting the Results

This study presents an overview of existing evidence relating to the prevalence and the correlates of stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression among teachers. All the relevant data were organized into tables and validated by at least two team members. The characteristics and results reported in each included article were summarized. In addition, the prevalence range for the psychological conditions in high-quality studies were determined after identifying the high-quality studies for each psychological condition in this scoping review using the Joanna Briggs Institute’s (JBI) critical appraisal checklist for prevalence studies [ 37 ]. The JBI checklist includes: studies with an adequate sample size, studies which provided an appropriate sample frame to address the target population, studies with an adequate response rate, studies which had a high response rate, studies in which a systematic approach was used for the data capture to ensure the study sample was representative of the study population, and studies with an adequate statistical analysis.

3.1. Study Characteristics

The search strategy identified 10,493 citations. Covidence software [ 38 ] was used to automatically remove 5711 duplicates. One hundred and ninety articles remained for a full-text screening, and seventy of these were eligible for inclusion. Overall, 67 articles were quantitative cross-sectional studies. One study was a mixed quantitative and qualitative study, and two studies were randomized controlled trials. The seventy articles included a total of 143,288 participants, who were all teachers. The sample size for an individual article ranged from 50 to 51,782 participants, with an age range from 18 years to 75 years. The minimum response rate was 13% and the maximum was 97.4% with the median response rate of 77%. The articles included studies from 1974 to 2022. Most studies (79%) were published between 2007 and 2022, and 21% were from 1974 to 2006. Most of the studies were conducted in Europe (40%), followed by Asia (30%) and North America (19%). In contrast, African, South America and Oceanian studies represented 6%, 1% and 4%, respectively, as shown in Figure 2 . One study [ 39 ] was conducted across multiple continents.

Summary of studies by continents.

From Figure 3 : Most studies reported on multiple outcomes, indicating the interrelatedness of stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression. Some articles reported on a single outcome, such as stress (N = 9), burnout (N = 8), or depression (N = 6). Burnout and depression (N = 15), stress and depression (N = 5), burnout and anxiety (N = 2), anxiety and depression (N = 4), and stress and anxiety (N = 4), were commonly paired outcomes. One study (N = 1) specifically examined the paired outcomes of burnout and stress. In addition, the outcome of the interaction between three or four of these psychological problems were explored by some studies: anxiety, depression, and stress (N = 10); anxiety, burnout and depression (N = 1); stress, burnout and anxiety (N = 1); stress, burnout, and depression (N = 2). Finally, two articles reported the interaction between stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression.

Distribution of stress, burnout, anxiety and depression among the included studies.

Figure 4 shows that depression was the most reported psychological problem among the included studies and the least reported was anxiety.

Number of studies reporting each psychological problem.

Most of the articles (27 of 32; 84%) used Maslach’s Burnout Inventory to explore the three interrelated components of burnout. Five of thirty-two (16%) studies used the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory, the Shirom–Melamed Burnout Inventory, or the Teacher Burnout Scale. The most frequently utilized scales for measuring depressive or anxiety symptoms (55 studies) were the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) (N = 14; 25%), Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS), (N = 10 18%), the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), (N = 9; 16%), and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), (N = 6; 11%). The less popular scales included the Goldberg Anxiety and Depression Questionnaire, COVID-19 Anxiety Scale, Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS), and the Manifest Anxiety Scale. For the 29 studies measuring stress, the most common scales utilized were the (DASS) (N = 9; 31%), the Teacher Stress Inventory (N = 5; 17%), and the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) (N = 3; 10%). Other scales included: the Occupational Stress Inventory, Job Stress Inventory, Ongoing Stressor Scale (OSS), Episodic Stressor Scale, and Bruno’s Teacher Stress.

3.2. Prevalence and Correlates of Burnout, Stress, Anxiety and Depression

The prevalence and correlates of stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression as identified in the literature search are summarized in Table A1 and Table A2 in Appendix A .

3.3. Prevalence of Stress

The reported stress prevalence rates were heterogenous, which may reflect, in part, the use of different stress measures. The prevalence of stress in all forms ranged from 6.0% to 100% [ 28 , 40 ], with a median of about 32.5%. In addition, the lowest, highest and median stress prevalence ranges from 2020 to 2022 (after the pandemic and lockdown) were, respectively, 6.0% [ 40 ], 66.0% [ 41 ] and 10.7%. Similarly, the lowest, highest and median stress prevalence up until 2019 (prior to the pandemic and lockdown) were, respectively, 7.0% [ 42 ], 100% [ 28 ] and 33.9%.

Early studies of teacher stress found a relatively high degree of stress. For example, 76% [ 43 ] and 87.1% [ 44 ] of teachers described their stress levels at their school as moderate or significant, respectively. In some studies, 45.6% reported “much stress” [ 44 ] or “almost unbearable” stress (20%) [ 43 ]. Another study echoed these findings, reporting 32% ‘slightly’ stressed and 67% ‘extremely’ stressed teachers, with only 1% indicating no stress [ 45 ].

Earlier studies on teacher stress are consistent with more recent findings, indicating teacher stress is a long-standing issue and is challenging to tackle. A 2021 study completed during the COVID-19 pandemic reported a 6.0% prevalence of severe to highly severe stress among teachers [ 40 ]. This is similar to another recent but pre-pandemic study which reported a 7.0% prevalence of “severe to extremely severe” stress, a 32.3% prevalence of stress, and 25.3% prevalence of mild to moderate stress [ 42 ].

3.4. Prevalence of Burnout

Published studies have identified three different burnout profiles among teachers with the prevalence ranging from 25.12% to 48.37% [ 11 , 46 ]. These are, (1) groups of teachers with predominantly low levels of emotional exhaustion and high levels of personal accomplishment, (2) teachers with high levels of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, and (3) teachers with low levels of depersonalization and personal accomplishment [ 46 ]. These groups show the combination of the three interrelated components of burnout reported by Maslach et al. [ 6 , 7 , 11 , 16 ].

Variable prevalence of burnout and psychological distress have been reported among teachers [ 47 ], with the burnout prevalence at all levels ranging from a low of 2.81% [ 7 ] to a high of 70.9% [ 48 ], with a median of 28.8% ( Table A1 ). The lowest, highest and median burnout prevalences from 2020 to 2022 (after the pandemic and lockdown) were, respectively, 3.1% [ 48 ], 70.9% [ 48 ] and 27.6%. Similarly, the lowest, highest and median burnout prevalences up until 2019 (prior to the pandemic and lockdown) were, respectively, 2.81%, 63.43% [ 7 ] and 25.09%.

In an early study, only 11% of the teachers were classified as burnt out, and more than half (68.5%) of the teachers reported they did not experience any burnout [ 49 ]. Some studies reported burnout prevalence in the three subdimensions [ 50 ]. For instance, four studies reported a burnout prevalence of 11% to 40% for emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and for reduced personal accomplishment [ 3 , 46 , 49 , 50 ]. Studies have also reported that 18.3% to 34.9% of teachers may be at risk of or are threatened by burnout syndrome [ 3 , 25 , 51 ]. Higher burnout scores and subdimensions such as emotional exhaustion and depersonalization burnout were significantly higher among female teachers than male teachers [ 51 , 52 , 53 ]. Likewise, a higher percentage of males (59.38%) showed low burnout than did females (53%) [ 54 ]; however, other studies have reported contradictory results where males had a slightly higher burnout prevalence of 56.0% than females of 53.0% [ 55 ] and 31.88% of males and fewer females (25%) reported a lack of personal accomplishment [ 54 ].

There are also studies reporting various levels of burnout ranging from low/no burnout (58.12%) to moderate (2.81% to 70.9%) and severe levels of burnout (3.1% to 33.3%) [ 7 , 25 , 47 ]. Regarding the subjects taught by teachers, science stream and science teachers reported experiencing slightly more burnout (14.38% to 26.26%) than arts stream and art teachers, who reported an average burnout prevalence of 12.5% to 25% [ 7 ].

3.5. Prevalence of Anxiety

The anxiety symptoms prevalence ranged from 4.9% to 68.0% [ 42 , 56 ], with a median prevalence of 26.0%. Furthermore, the lowest, highest, and median anxiety prevalences from 2020 to 2022 (after the pandemic and lockdown) were, respectively, 10.5% [ 57 ] 66.0% [ 41 ] and 38.9%. Similarly, the lowest, highest, and median anxiety prevalences up until 2019 (prior to the pandemic and lockdown) were, respectively, 7.0% [ 28 ], 68.0% [ 42 ] and 26.0%.

Early studies indicated that teachers’ anxiety prevalence ranged from 26% for borderline anxiety, 36% for minimal or no anxiety, and 38% for clinically significant anxiety [ 45 ]. Recent studies have reported a similar prevalence for low anxiety at 17.6%, mild at 23.2% [ 28 ] and 7.0% to 23.3% for severe to extremely severe anxiety [ 28 , 39 , 41 ]. Another study reported an anxiety prevalence of 43% among teachers. The prevalence of anxiety did not change significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic, with most teachers (56.2%) reporting no change in their anxiety during the pandemic compared with before the pandemic, and only 4.9% of teachers reported an increase in anxiety levels from the baseline during the first week of the 2020–2021 school year [ 58 ].

3.6. Prevalence of Depression

The prevalence of depression among teachers ranged from 0.6% to 85.7% [ 48 , 59 ], with a median of 30.7%. The lowest, highest, and median depression prevalences from 2020 to 2022 (after the pandemic and lockdown) were, respectively, 0.6% [ 48 ], 85.7% [ 59 ] and 23.5%. Similarly, the lowest, highest and median depression prevalences up until 2019 (prior to the pandemic and lockdown) were, respectively, 0.7% [ 28 ], 85% [ 60 ] and 24.1%.

Early studies showed a highly varied prevalence of depression, with 79% of teachers scoring at the low or no depression levels in one study. This study also reported that 17% of teachers had borderline depression scores, and 4% had scores that indicated clinical depression [ 45 ]. Studies from 2008 onwards identified that the prevalence of depression ranged from 17.86% to 49.1% [ 3 , 41 , 55 , 60 , 61 ] and the prevalence of severe to extremely severe depression ranged from 0.7 to 9.9% [ 42 ], whilst the prevalence of mild depression ranged from 20 to 43.9% [ 41 , 42 , 60 , 62 ]. Soria-Saucedo et al. reported a particularly high prevalence (16%) of severe depression symptoms among teachers [ 61 ]. Depression was also found to range from 45% to 84.6%, depending on the educational level and teaching experience, and was highest among those with a lower education level, followed by teachers with more teaching experience [ 42 ].

Studies during the pandemic demonstrated higher rates of mild depression but similar rates of severe depression symptoms among teachers. In one study, 58.9% of teachers had mild depression, 3.5% had moderate, and 0.6% had severe depression. [ 48 ]. Another study reported that 3.2% of teachers had severe to extremely severe depression [ 40 ]. According to Keyes, ‘flourishing’ denotes being filled with positive emotion and functioning well psychologically and socially while ‘languishing’ in life signifies the individual has poor mental health with low well-being [ 59 , 62 ]. Capone and Petrillo reported that 38.7% of ‘flourishing’ teachers reported a lower prevalence of depression but higher levels of job satisfaction. A severe rating of depression was also reported by 85.7% of ‘languishing’ teachers [ 59 ].

3.7. Prevalence Range and Median for Stress, Burnout, Anxiety and Depression Reported in High Quality Studies

After applying the JBI checklist [ 37 ] to identify high-quality studies, the clinically meaningful (moderate to severe) burnout among teachers recorded by three studies ranged from 25.12% to 74% [ 25 , 46 , 47 ]. Similarly, three studies reported stress at clinically meaningful levels which included severe, extremely severe, moderate to high or very stressful, and a great deal of stress, with a prevalence ranging from 8.3% to 87.1% [ 43 , 44 , 57 ]. Likewise, two studies reported the prevalence of clinically meaningful anxiety among teachers ranging from 38% to 41.2% [ 45 , 57 ]. Furthermore, five studies [ 44 , 47 , 57 , 63 , 64 ] reported the prevalence of depression in clinically significant levels, which included terminologies such as major, moderate, moderate to severe, and extremely severe depression symptoms. The lowest prevalence in this category was 4% [ 45 ] and the highest category was 77% [ 65 ]. Finally, the median prevalence of stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression among these studies were, respectively, 67.0%, 60.9%, 39.6%, and 14.%.

3.8. Correlates of Stress, Burnout, Anxiety and Depression

The correlates of stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression, as extracted from Table A1 and Table A2 , are summarized in Table 1 . A wide range of variables are significantly associated with teachers’ stress, burnout, anxiety and depression and can be divided into socio-demographics, school, organizational and professional factors, and social and other factors, including intrapersonal factors. The most reported correlates were sex, age, gender, marital status, job satisfaction, subject taught and years of teaching [ 28 , 40 , 57 , 63 , 66 , 67 ]. Socio-demographic factors, such as age and sex, and work-related factors correlate with depression, anxiety and stress [ 42 ]. Emotional exhaustion is correlated with age, gender and marital status. [ 39 , 52 , 53 , 68 ]. Other studies, however, refute these, indicating that no significant demographic variable correlations were found between burnout and depression, and that depressive symptoms in men and women were similar [ 64 , 69 ]. Capone et al. also noted that all the school climate factors, such as social support, were negatively related to depression [ 70 ]. Higher levels of co-worker support were related to lower levels of anxiety and depression [ 71 ].

Demographic, school and professional correlates of burnout, stress, anxiety and depression.

Organizational factors associated with anxiety included: work overload, time pressures causing teachers to work during their free time, and role conflict. There were significant correlations between the reported anxiety and those stressors relating to pupils and parents [ 45 ]. In addition, interpersonal conflict, organizational constraints and workload were reported to result in depression through increasing job burnout [ 73 ]. Furthermore, depressive symptoms correlated with teaching special needs students and had a significant and robust relationship with the general burnout factor [ 50 ]. Self-perceived accomplishment was also positively associated with autonomy and negatively associated with low student motivation [ 18 ]. Personal accomplishment had a significant positive relationship with the number of teaching hours per week [ 40 ]. On the contrary, a cross-sectional study by Baka reported that increased work hours are usually accompanied by job demands, job burnout, and depression [ 73 ]. Job strain, job demand and job insecurity all showed positive associations with depressive symptoms [ 80 , 94 ]. Work-related factors, such as workload, were also correlated with stress, burnout, depression, and anxiety [ 42 , 73 ].

Furthermore, the educational level and teaching experience also predict depression. Depression was highest among teachers with a lower education followed by teachers with the most teaching experience [ 42 ]. Teacher stress was reported to be significantly associated with psychological distress, and social support could moderate the influence of stress; hence, the high-stress and the low-support group were most vulnerable to anxiety [ 74 ]. Studies have also reported that 55% of teachers without spousal support had depression [ 42 ]. In addition, stress was reported to be associated with missed work days, high anxiety and high role conflict [ 43 , 89 ] and 53.2% of teachers identified work as a source of long-term stress, leading to burnout [ 55 ]. According to Fei Liu et al. resilience significantly correlated with job burnout and turnover intention, and low resilience could result in a high job burnout [ 86 ]. The research also showed that personality trait neuroticism was the best predictor of burnout (28–34%) [ 67 ].

3.9. Association between Stress, Burnout, Anxiety and Depression

A significant overlap was reported between stress, burnout, anxiety and depression. Eighteen articles reported a correlation between burnout and depression, with differences in depressive symptomatology depending on the prevalence of burnout [ 3 , 18 , 25 , 41 , 42 , 48 , 50 , 52 , 54 , 60 , 64 , 69 , 84 , 86 , 92 , 95 ]. Three articles reported a correlation between burnout and anxiety symptoms [ 52 , 64 ]. Seven articles reported a correlation between stress and anxiety [ 28 , 58 , 65 , 71 ]. Six articles reported a correlation between stress and depression [ 28 , 31 , 43 , 61 , 68 , 71 ]. A correlation exists between moderate depressive disorder and anxiety disorder as well as stress [ 31 , 96 ]. Negative affectivity (a tendency to feel depression, anxiety, or stress) plays a role in the development of burnout among teachers. Teachers who developed a more markedly negative affectivity also felt more burnt out, and the opposite was true [ 41 ]. This may be related to rumination. According to Nolen-Hoeksema, rumination is a pain response which entails a recurrent and passive focus on the symptoms of pain and their likely causes and outcomes [ 97 ]. Ruminative responses may prolong depression by overly focusing on negative thinking and may affect one’s behaviour and problem-solving [ 97 ]. Liu et al. reported that rumination moderated the association between job burnout and depression and that burnout was a stronger predictor of depression in teachers who experienced low rumination rather than high rumination [ 98 ]. This was explained by the importance of rumination for depression; with an improvement in the rumination level, job burnout had less ability to predict depression for those with high rumination levels.

There is a strong association between burnout and depression, as reported in several studies. High frequencies of burnout symptoms were identified among clinically depressed teachers [ 92 ], with 86% to 90% of the teachers identified as burnt out meeting the diagnostic criteria for a depressive disorder [ 60 , 64 ], mainly for major depression (85%) [ 60 ]. In 25% to 85% of teachers with no burnout, depression ranged from 1% to 15% of the study sample. Specifically, only 1% to 3% of the participants in the no-burnout group were identified as having minor depression or depression not otherwise specified (2%) [ 60 , 64 ]. A history of depression was reported by about 63% of the teachers with burnout and 15% of the burnout-free teachers [ 60 ]. The high overlap between depression and burnout was emphasized in one study, which categorized depression as “low burnout-depression” (30%), “medium burnout-depression” (45%), and “high burnout-depression” (25%) [ 92 ]. Notably, the report suggests that although teacher burnout leads to subsequent depressive symptoms, it is not true vice versa [ 95 ]. Furthermore, burnout symptoms at ‘time one’ did not necessarily predict depressive symptoms at ‘time two’ [ 99 ]. Another study reported a positive relationship between burnout and depression [ 84 ]. This was confirmed by a study which suggested that depressive symptoms had a significant and robust association with the general burnout factor [ 50 ].

Anxiety disorder is also associated with higher perceived stress and major depression [ 65 ]. In one study, higher ongoing stressors were positively associated with higher anxiety levels. Continuous and episodic stressors were significantly and positively associated with anxiety and depression. They accounted for 28% (adjusted 25%) of the variability in anxiety and 27% (adjusted 24%) of the variability in depression. [ 71 ]. In contrast, higher levels of co-worker support were related to lower levels of anxiety and depression [ 71 ]. Teachers reported a high prevalence of depressive symptomatology relating to subjective and school-related stress [ 43 ].

4. Discussion

This scoping review included 70 articles. The prevalences of stress, burnout, anxiety and depression reported in this scoping review are similar to those reported in two systematic reviews and meta-analysis conducted among teachers during the pandemic. For example, the prevalence of stress reported by Ma et al., from a meta-analysis of 54 studies was 62.6%, whereas the prevalence of anxiety was 36.3% and depression was 59.9% among teachers during the pandemic [ 100 ]. In another meta-analysis, the prevalence range of anxiety was 10% to 49.4%; depression was 15.9% to 28.9%; and stress was 12.6% to 50.6% [ 101 ], which all fall within the range reported in this scoping review for stress [ 28 , 40 ], anxiety [ 42 , 56 ], and depression [ 48 , 59 ]. However, the minimum in all cases was higher during the pandemic, suggesting an increase in psychological problems during the pandemic.

The varying prevalence for stress, burnout, anxiety and depression reported by different studies in this review may be attributable to heterogeneous study designs, including the sample size, location, period of data collection, diversity in the standardized scales used for the assessment, and other factors such as the class size and grade taught [ 102 , 103 ]. In this scoping review, the studies used combinations of terminologies such as “none,” “slightly,” “significant,” “much,” “extremely,” “considerably”, “almost unbearable”, “quite a bit” or “a great deal” to describe the level of stress experienced by teachers according to the measures utilized,, such as the Teachers Stress Inventory [ 44 , 77 ] or the Bruno Teachers Inventory [ 43 ]. The prevalence rates also varied with population, for example, in the case of Fimian, the teachers were teaching special needs students, and this may explain the relatively high prevalence (87.1%) recorded [ 44 ]. More recent studies which used other scales, such as the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS), used terminologies such as “symptoms of stress”, ranging from “mild,” “moderate,” “mild to moderate” or “extremely severe”, to describe the stress levels. For burnout, although most studies used a combination of the three interrelated components of burnout reported by Maslach et al. [ 6 , 7 , 11 , 16 ], some studies focused on reporting the sub-dimensions of burnout, whilst others reported general burnout. Varying expressions such as “low burnout”, “high burnout, “severe burnout”, and moderate were used to describe burnout, making it difficult to make an effective comparison. It was also not clear whether the stress and burnout experienced by the participants were everyday existential life experiences that everyone faces or chronic ones that needed intervention, as these were not specifically stated in the studies. It is essential that future research clarifies this to estimate their prevalence rates more accurately. Secondly, as indicated in the review, the studies applied various scales to measure the prevalence of psychological disorders; however, there was a lack of consensus. This scoping review provides a comprehensive picture of the prevalence of the target outcomes and sets up a foundation for future systematic reviews and meta-analysis to accurately estimate the prevalence of these outcomes among teachers.

The essential correlates of stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression identified in this review include socio-demographic factors such as sex, age, gender, marital status, school (organizational) factors and work-related factors (years of teaching, class size, job satisfaction, subject taught and absenteeism). Most studies were published in the last fifteen years (2007–2022), indicating a recent increase in interest in this area of research.

4.1. Socio-Demographic, School and Work-Related Factors as Determinants of Stress

Socio-demographic factors such as sex, age and marital status significantly influence teacher stress [ 54 ]. Sex correlates with stress although there are some conflicting reports [ 42 , 53 , 76 ], especially between the levels of stress experienced by males and females. Some studies suggest that female teachers experience more stress than their male counterparts [ 28 , 75 , 77 ]. Working women often have additional demands at home, and trying to accomplish both roles may increase their stress levels [ 104 ] compared to males who may have less demand from home. However, this may be context-dependent, as no sex difference in occupational stress was reported among police officers [ 105 ], for example. The demand from female teachers’ personal lives, including marital issues and home, may be a source of increased stress levels [ 104 ]. Among the general workforce, work–family conflict has been reported to be significantly associated with work stress [ 106 ], and this is not confined only to females. This argument is confirmed in three separate studies, which reported that gender, per se, was not a significant predictor of perceived stress [ 39 , 85 , 89 ]; thus, it is possible that these differences may, rather, be due to differences in the scales used or the effect of organizational factors. For example, the organisational effect experienced by female teachers in a female only elementary or high school may differ from that experienced in a male only or mixed sex teaching environment; however, further research is needed in this area of gender influencing stress factors. Findings from the Canadian Community Health Survey data nonetheless endorsed a difference between males and females regarding work stress, in particular supervisor support. Higher levels of supervisor support seemed to lower work stress amongst women but not men [ 107 ]. Among the general population, social support at work could be more strongly related to a stress reduction in women than in their male counterparts [ 108 ] Sex difference was also observed in relation to student behaviour, with women experiencing increased stress [ 42 , 77 ]. In particular, female teachers’ collective efficacy and beliefs about their school staff group capabilities may lower their stress from student behaviour. Findings from the study by Klassen support the hypothesis that teachers’ collective efficacy serves as a job resource that mediates the effect of stress from student behaviour [ 77 ]. Interventions addressing gender/sex differences may also be considered in supporting female educators’ mental health and work productivity.

A study among refugee teachers also endorsed sex differences in stress [ 42 , 57 ]; however this was in relation to self-care and the association was moderated by age [ 57 ]. Higher occupational stress scores were observed among teachers over 40 years [ 28 ]; nonetheless, among the general population, the published literature reports that the ageing process can worsen or counter the effects of stress [ 109 ], indicating that age does not necessarily increase stress. The cause of increased stress, hence, shifts to other factors such as the poor academic performance of students, or a lack of assistance [ 78 ], which may be influencing an increase in stress.

The class size, grade level taught, workload, poor student performance or lack of progress and other work and school-related factors contribute to teachers’ stress. According to Fimian et al., when stressful events or the perception of them are not ultimately resolved or improved, this may result in several physiological manifestations [ 44 ]. There is clear data indicating that teacher stress was intensified among primary school teachers, special needs teachers, and teachers in private schools who provided more support and input to students than other teachers [ 28 , 78 , 85 , 110 ]. The additional time and energy teachers may invest in primary school kids, who are usually much younger and may require more support, may explain the increased stress among primary school teachers. Again, teaching special needs students may require significant teacher input and assistance, depending on the nature and degree of the disabilities. There is also an increased expectation from teachers in private schools regarding the students’ performances, leading to increased stress [ 28 ]. A study conducted among primary and secondary school teachers in Pakistan concluded that government school teachers were more satisfied with their working conditions than private school teachers [ 110 ], and thus, may experience less stress. In addition, the school location (rural vs. urban), teacher role ambiguity and coherence further exacerbated teacher stress [ 3 , 75 , 89 , 111 ]. An excessive use of technological devices, such as mobile phones, has also been associated with social disruption [ 112 ] and may result in a lack of concentration or poor student performance at school [ 112 , 113 ], leading to teacher stress. Teachers experiencing more significant stress were also burnt out [ 68 ]. For example, during the pandemic, teachers had to adopt and adjust to teaching online, and virtual instruction teachers had the most increased anxiety [ 58 ]. Nonetheless, a rapid systematic review with a meta-analysis reported that teacher stress during the pandemic was still comparatively lower in school teachers with a prevalence of 13% ([95% CI: 7–22%]) in comparison to studies with university teachers as the participants of 35% ([95% CI: 12–66%]) [ 114 ].

While there are complex interactions among several factors which contribute to teacher stress, there have been limited evidence-based interventions to help teachers alleviate these stress sources despite some self-reported coping strategies. This research gap started to receive attention during the COVID-19 pandemic through the application of mindfulness-based interventions [ 115 ], warranting more advanced research on how to best address these challenges in education.

4.2. Socio-Demographic, Years of Teaching, School and Work-Related Factors as Determinants of Burnout

Burnout continues to pose problems within the teaching profession, and factors such as gender, sex, age, marital status and the number of years teaching correlated with the degree of burnout [ 40 , 47 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 63 , 67 , 68 , 72 , 73 ], although conflicting results were reported with potentially different explanations. Differences in the study design, particularly the scales used to assess burnout as well as geographical and organizational factors, may account for some of the conflicting results. In addition, there could be an interplay between some personal and professional factors. For example, younger teachers are more likely to be enthusiastic about their new teaching careers, whilst older teachers may experience boredom leading to increased exhaustion. Consistent with this hypothesis, one study reported that teachers who had taught for the fewest (0–5) years experienced the lowest burnout prevalence [ 54 ]. On the contrary, more experienced teachers were likely to have gained exposure, learnt students’ characteristics and classroom management skills and the necessary tools to help them prevent and address burnout. Additionally, teachers who lacked self-fulfilment may have been mostly younger and lacked personal accomplishments [ 47 ], leading to more burnout.

Significantly higher burnout scores, including for emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and intellectual burnout were found among female teachers than among male teachers in some studies [ 51 , 52 , 53 ], whilst other studies reported that burnout was higher among male teachers. These results are contrary to findings reported among police officers, which indicated no significant difference in the levels of occupational burnout reported by male and female police officers [ 105 ]. Further studies are needed to investigate the contradictory gender differences in teachers’ burnout by different studies. In addition, research is needed on innovative gender-neutral ways of addressing burnout in teachers. Other structural factors, such as the number of children teachers have and class sizes which are associated with increased teacher burnout, require an increased investment in teachers and schools to address them. Governments providing teachers with affordable childcare and other supports for their own children, and building more schools to reduce the class sizes, may lead to a reduced burnout among teachers.

There is also a relationship between burnout and school or work-related factors. The subjects and grades taught and the medium of instruction all contribute to teachers’ burnout [ 7 , 51 ]. Teachers’ perceptions of the difficulty of a subject taught appears to determine their degree of burnout experienced; however, no particular subject seems to be the leading cause of burnout. High school teachers may perceive an increased workload in terms of the amount of time attributed to class preparation due to the difficulty of a subject taught. A cross-sectional study among nurses also found that role overload contributed to higher levels of emotional exhaustion [ 116 ] and this was also endorsed among healthcare managers where prolonged job strain resulted in burnout and an increased turnover intention [ 117 ]. This suggests there is a complex interaction between self-perception and burnout, which makes burnout in teachers a complex problem to address. Differences were also noted in the prevalence of burnout among teachers working in different countries [ 84 ]. For example, 58% of the variance in burnout in Cyprus could be explained by job satisfaction and anxiety, whereas 57.5% of the variance in burnout in Germany was explained by job satisfaction alone [ 84 ]. Different countries have different working conditions which may explain the differences in job satisfaction and associated burnout prevalence among teachers in different countries.

4.3. Effect of Resilience on Burnout

Resilience involves adapting well in the face of stress, difficulty, trauma, disaster, and threats. Resilient people use positive emotions to rebound and find positive meaning even in stressful circumstances [ 118 ]. Resilience had a significantinverse correlation with job burnout and turnover intention, and resilience could negatively predict job burnout [ 86 ]. Resilience was also reported to have an inverse association with burnout symptoms [ 119 ]; thus, increased resilience is linked to decreased burnout and, hence, the tendency for a teacher to remain in their job and thrive no matter what they encounter. Job burnout had a significant positive predictive effect and correlation with turnover intention, which suggests that the more severe the job burnout is, the higher the turnover intention [ 86 ]. Teachers require positive emotions and an increased resilience to remain in the profession and succeed without quitting. Conversely, among physicians, a survey indicated that the burnout prevalence was still significant even among the most resilient physicians; however, West et al. suggested that physicians exhibited higher levels of resilience than the general working population [ 119 ], including teachers. Additionally, resilience was also a significant predictor of depression and anxiety [ 88 ]; thus, the higher the resilience, the less likely teachers will experience depression or anxiety.

4.4. Socio-Demographic, School and Work-Related Factors as Determinants of Depression and Anxiety

Socio-demographic, school and work-related factors are all associated with both anxiety and depression [ 42 , 50 , 51 , 80 ]. This association is consistent with what was reported in a systematic review and meta-analysis by Ma et al., which suggested that teachers’ experiences of psychological issues were associated with various socio-demographic factors such as gender, institutional factors, teaching experience, and workload volume [ 100 ]. In this scoping review, conflicting results were found in relation to the association between teacher gender and depression. Whilst some studies reported that female teachers have higher depression levels than male teachers [ 42 , 51 , 70 , 79 , 81 , 82 ], other studies have reported no gender differences in teacher depression levels [ 53 ]. Contradictory results were also reported for the association between the age of teachers and depression, with some studies reporting higher depression levels in younger teachers [ 42 ] and others reporting higher depression in older teachers [ 51 ]. As discussed previously, it is likely that the use of different scales, coupled with organizational factors, contributed to these contradictory findings among the different studies. The findings also indicated that most female teachers who suffered from depression had been working for about 11 to 15 years [ 120 ].

A poor workplace environment has also been associated with increased anxiety and depressive symptoms [ 121 ] and school-related stress may transition to depressive symptoms among teachers [ 80 , 94 ]. As teachers’ workloads increase, their working hours will invariably increase, resulting in a rise in job demand and ultimately a surge in stress, leading to anxiety and depression. A systematic review reported similar findings where the main risk factors associated with anxiety and depression included job overload and job demands. [ 122 ]. The research also shows that teachers are not the only exception regarding experiencing a poor workplace environment which may lead to increased anxiety and depression [ 122 , 123 ]. Improving teachers’ workplace environments may, therefore, reduce the prevalence of anxiety and depression among teachers. Anxiety has also been linked to stressors relating to pupils and parents. For example, the possibility of a parental complaint increased anxiety scores [ 45 ]. Generally, parents want their children to succeed academically, which sometimes creates friction between teachers and parents. The underperformance of students or failure may be blamed on teachers or construed as the responsibility of schools and teachers [ 124 ], which may result in increased stress and subsequently anxiety and depression for teachers.

Social support was also reported to predict anxiety and depression symptoms, with high support levels indicating fewer symptoms related to anxiety and severe depression [ 121 , 125 ]; thus, teachers who perceived social support at school (e.g., the personnel relation dimension) expressed a lower stress level than those who did not [ 75 ]. According to Peele and Wolf 2020, anxiety and depressive symptoms increase for all teachers over the school year, and poor social support plays a significant role in the development of anxiety and depression symptoms [ 121 ]. Organizational policies that include the provision of adequate social support for teachers may, therefore, be a useful strategy to prevent and mitigate anxiety and depressive symptoms among teachers.

5. Limitations

The scoping review is not without limitations. This scoping review searched for articles in the English language only. Though every effort was made to identify all relevant studies for this review considering our eligibility criteria, we may have left out some relevant studies, particularly those published in other languages. Our search included six databases, yet the overall search strategy may have been biased toward health and sciences. Searching other bibliographic databases may have yielded additional published articles. Furthermore, different studies included in this scoping review used various screening tools and worldwide diagnostic classifications to determine stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression, leading to variations in the prevalence estimates. The scoping review included studies from 1974 till date; therefore, it is possible that the theoretical approaches to the concept of burnout may have changed. Notwithstanding these potential changes in the theoretical approaches to the concept of burnout, the burnout prevalence among teachers has appeared to have remained stable over the years. There was also no evaluation of the risk of bias for the included studies. Despite these limitations, this scoping review provides an excellent perspective on the prevalence and correlates of stress, burnout, anxiety and depression among teachers.

6. Conclusions

Teachers’ psychological and mental health is of utmost importance as it indirectly affects the students they teach. The stress associated with the teaching profession can be linked to three major overlapping issues: burnout, anxiety, and depression, which have a myriad of effects, including an impact on teachers’ health, well-being, and productivity. A wide range of prevalences and correlates were reported for stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression. Differences in the severity were observed in different articles resulting in the diverse prevalence reported among the various studies. The differences in the measurement instruments creates critical knowledge gaps, making it difficult for researchers to make effective comparisons between the different studies. Future research should focus on addressing these research gaps arising from methodological issues, especially the use of different scales to allow for a meaningful comparison. Researchers, educators, and policy makers could benefit from an international consensus meeting and agree on common scales to be used when assessing stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression in teachers. Such an international consensus meeting can also help to streamline the definition of stress and can be used as a forum for addressing other methodological issues related to research and innovations involving elementary and high school teachers. Future research can also focus on exploring the gender differences in these psychological issues further, especially, defining the various subsets of gender being referred to and the specific prevalence in each case. In addition, the high prevalence of stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression reported particularly by several high-quality studies suggests that these psychological problems are widespread among teachers and deserves special attention both at the level of policy and practice.

This scoping review also highlights the risk factors associated with stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression. Identifying these risk factors is a significant step toward addressing these issues among teachers. Schools need to prioritize and promote interventions aimed at teachers’ personal wellbeing. Testing and implementing the interventions aiming to improve teachers’ well-being and ability to cope are important to address stress and burnout, with the expectation that this will prevent or reduce anxiety and depression. This may include school-based awareness and intervention programs to detect the early signs of teacher stress and burnout, or programs that incorporate meditation techniques or text-based support. Meditation techniques have been proposed to be effective in improving psychological distress, fatigue and burnout [ 126 ]. For example, mindfulness practice has been suggested as beneficial in coping with job-related stress, improving the sense of efficacy and reducing burnout in the teaching profession [ 127 ]. Interventions such as mobile text technology are an evidence-based, unique, and innovative way that offers a convenient, low cost and easily accessible form of delivering psychological interventions to the public with mental health problems [ 128 , 129 , 130 ]. Mobile text-based programs can be easily implemented at the school level to support teachers’ psychological needs. Future studies need to explore the development, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of intervention programs for improving mental health outcomes among teachers. For instance, the Wellness4Teachers program which is planned for implementation in Alberta and Nova Scotia, Canada [ 34 ], is expected to provide evidence of effectiveness for the use of daily supportive text messaging to combat stress, burnout, anxiety, and depression among teachers. Finally, governments, school boards and policymakers need to collaborate with researchers on the design and implementation of measures to enhance teachers’ mental health, productivity (teaching) and quality of life.

Summary of studies with prevalence and correlates of Burnout/Stress.

* Katsantonis 2020 (15 countries)—Japan and Korea form the East-Asian model. France and Spain form the Latin model. Denmark and Sweden form the Northern model. Australia and the United Kingdom represent the Anglo-Saxon model and finally, Belgium and the Netherlands form the Germanic model. Sample Size: SS; Emotional Exhaustion: EE; Personal Accomplishment: PA; Depersonalization: DP; Occupational Stress: OS; Sense of Coherence: SOC; Science Stream: SCIS; Art Stream: AS.

Summary of studies with prevalence and correlates of Depression/Anxiety.

Sample Size: SS; Major Depressive Disorder: MDD.

Funding Statement

This study was supported by the Mental Health Foundation and the Douglas Harden Trust Fund.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, B.A; software, and validation, B.A., G.O.-D. and L.B.; methodology and formal analysis, B.A.; data curation, B.A. and G.O.-D.; investigation and resources, B.A. and Y.W.; writing—original draft preparation, B.A.; writing—review and editing, B.A, G.O.-D., L.B. and Y.W.; supervision, L.B. and Y.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funder had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, the interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; or the decision to submit the results for publication.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

• Our Mission

Freeing Students—and Teachers—From Homework

A second-grade teacher explains how she got rid of mandatory homework—and the surprising results she found when she did.

I stopped assigning homework to my second-grade students last year, and something surprising happened: They started doing more work at home. This inspiring group of 8-year-olds used their newfound free time to explore subjects and topics of interest to them. Even better, they excitedly reported their findings to their peers—who then became inspired enough to explore their own areas of interest. I wish I could say that this was part of my master plan and that I’m just that good, but my students get all the credit for this one.

These are just a handful of examples of the in-depth learning that occurred at home once my students were given the gift of time:

Student 1: After learning about weather patterns during our science unit, she decided to learn more about the effects of Hurricane Sandy on our local community. She created a cardboard model of the aftermath in Belmar, New Jersey.

Student 2: After learning about Harriet Tubman during social studies, she made a 3D model of the Underground Railroad, complete with a map showing a route from slave state to free state.

Student 3: After learning about the Civil War, he made a 3D model of the Battle of Gettysburg and a trifold display with key figures, a timeline, and interesting facts.

Student 4: After learning about Martin Luther King Jr., she took the initiative to learn more about his famous “I Have a Dream” speech and created a cardboard model of the March on Washington, complete with a book report.

Why did I get rid of homework? It’s become abundantly clear that it’s time to break this habit. The minor academic benefits to assigning mandatory nightly homework simply do not outweigh the substantial drawbacks, which include potentially turning young children against school at the beginning of their academic journey.

A Five-Part Plan to Break the Homework Habit

1. Explain it to parents. Back-to-school night is a perfect opportunity to explain your philosophy on homework to the families in your class. Don’t send your homework policy home in a letter—parents get a ton of paperwork in the first few weeks of school, and it’s nearly impossible to read through it all. Instead, create a presentation backed with research and walk parents through it in person. Most of them will be on board immediately—homework causes a lot of stress and fighting in most families. And you’ll be able to answer the skeptics’ questions on the spot and avoid a drawn-out email exchange.

2. Encourage at-home reading. The key word here is encourage . During your presentation, explain the benefits of reading at home. You can even send home reading logs, but don’t assign a due date. Your students should not have mandatory reading time every night. Reading should be a choice, not a chore. We’re trying to create lifelong readers, and when we make reading a mandatory assignment, we take away from the joy and pleasure of the experience.

3. Send home weekly spelling words and math facts. At the beginning of each week, send home a list of spelling words and math facts that need to be mastered. It will be up to each child to figure out the best way to learn to spell the words correctly or to master the math facts. If you want to send home a choice board for the students to use to help guide their studying, do it. Just don’t make it mandatory.

These spelling words and math facts are covered in class, and if you provide your class with differentiated spelling lists and math facts, it levels the playing field and all students can do their learning in class. And since parents often want to track what their children are learning, at back-to-school night I go over different ways parents can support spelling and math fact mastery—that’s the reason to continue to send the list home, even with no mandatory work.

4. Create voluntary monthly family projects. I send home family projects at the beginning of each month. These projects are designed to inspire a dialogue between the student and his or her family, and they’re meant to be fun. Some examples: Cover a pumpkin with family photos, complete five random acts of kindness, make a bird’s nest out of household materials. The students and their families have the entire month to complete the project. The students bring in their projects on the last day of the month and present them to the class.

I’ve had a few students choose not to complete a monthly project, only to change their mind after they saw their classmates’ presentations and bring one in the following week or even the following month. They’re never penalized for an incomplete or “late” submission.

5. Create voluntary lesson extensions. Some children love homework. I had two students last year who would bring in a binder and ask me to fill it with assignments for them to complete at home. Resist the urge to give such kids busy work. Instead, create lesson extensions and post them on Google Classroom or send them home each week. Point students to outside resources to expand their knowledge on a topic covered in class. Give them the opportunity to report their findings back to their classmates.

Thoreau eloquently said, “It’s not enough to be busy; so are the ants. The question is: What are we busy about?” As educators, we need to strive to provide authentic learning opportunities for our students. Busy work is a waste of time for all of us—students and teachers alike.

Not only that, but our youngest learners are losing precious free time that could be used to engage in play and group activities like organized sports, music lessons, and clubs. Eight-year-olds should not feel stressed about getting their math homework done so they can get to soccer practice or piano lessons on time.

• About the Hub
• Announcements
• Faculty Experts Guide
• Subscribe to the newsletter

Explore by Topic

• Arts+Culture
• Politics+Society
• Science+Technology
• Student Life
• University News
• Voices+Opinion
• About Hub at Work
• Gazette Archive
• Benefits+Perks
• Health+Well-Being
• Current Issue
• About the Magazine
• Past Issues
• Support Johns Hopkins Magazine
• Subscribe to the Magazine

You are using an outdated browser. Please upgrade your browser to improve your experience.

Credit: August de Richelieu

Does homework still have value? A Johns Hopkins education expert weighs in

Joyce epstein, co-director of the center on school, family, and community partnerships, discusses why homework is essential, how to maximize its benefit to learners, and what the 'no-homework' approach gets wrong.

By Vicky Hallett

The necessity of homework has been a subject of debate since at least as far back as the 1890s, according to Joyce L. Epstein , co-director of the Center on School, Family, and Community Partnerships at Johns Hopkins University. "It's always been the case that parents, kids—and sometimes teachers, too—wonder if this is just busy work," Epstein says.

But after decades of researching how to improve schools, the professor in the Johns Hopkins School of Education remains certain that homework is essential—as long as the teachers have done their homework, too. The National Network of Partnership Schools , which she founded in 1995 to advise schools and districts on ways to improve comprehensive programs of family engagement, has developed hundreds of improved homework ideas through its Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork program. For an English class, a student might interview a parent on popular hairstyles from their youth and write about the differences between then and now. Or for science class, a family could identify forms of matter over the dinner table, labeling foods as liquids or solids. These innovative and interactive assignments not only reinforce concepts from the classroom but also foster creativity, spark discussions, and boost student motivation.

"We're not trying to eliminate homework procedures, but expand and enrich them," says Epstein, who is packing this research into a forthcoming book on the purposes and designs of homework. In the meantime, the Hub couldn't wait to ask her some questions:

What kind of homework training do teachers typically get?

Future teachers and administrators really have little formal training on how to design homework before they assign it. This means that most just repeat what their teachers did, or they follow textbook suggestions at the end of units. For example, future teachers are well prepared to teach reading and literacy skills at each grade level, and they continue to learn to improve their teaching of reading in ongoing in-service education. By contrast, most receive little or no training on the purposes and designs of homework in reading or other subjects. It is really important for future teachers to receive systematic training to understand that they have the power, opportunity, and obligation to design homework with a purpose.

Why do students need more interactive homework?

If homework assignments are always the same—10 math problems, six sentences with spelling words—homework can get boring and some kids just stop doing their assignments, especially in the middle and high school years. When we've asked teachers what's the best homework you've ever had or designed, invariably we hear examples of talking with a parent or grandparent or peer to share ideas. To be clear, parents should never be asked to "teach" seventh grade science or any other subject. Rather, teachers set up the homework assignments so that the student is in charge. It's always the student's homework. But a good activity can engage parents in a fun, collaborative way. Our data show that with "good" assignments, more kids finish their work, more kids interact with a family partner, and more parents say, "I learned what's happening in the curriculum." It all works around what the youngsters are learning.

Is family engagement really that important?

At Hopkins, I am part of the Center for Social Organization of Schools , a research center that studies how to improve many aspects of education to help all students do their best in school. One thing my colleagues and I realized was that we needed to look deeply into family and community engagement. There were so few references to this topic when we started that we had to build the field of study. When children go to school, their families "attend" with them whether a teacher can "see" the parents or not. So, family engagement is ever-present in the life of a school.

My daughter's elementary school doesn't assign homework until third grade. What's your take on "no homework" policies?

There are some parents, writers, and commentators who have argued against homework, especially for very young children. They suggest that children should have time to play after school. This, of course is true, but many kindergarten kids are excited to have homework like their older siblings. If they give homework, most teachers of young children make assignments very short—often following an informal rule of 10 minutes per grade level. "No homework" does not guarantee that all students will spend their free time in productive and imaginative play.

Some researchers and critics have consistently misinterpreted research findings. They have argued that homework should be assigned only at the high school level where data point to a strong connection of doing assignments with higher student achievement . However, as we discussed, some students stop doing homework. This leads, statistically, to results showing that doing homework or spending more minutes on homework is linked to higher student achievement. If slow or struggling students are not doing their assignments, they contribute to—or cause—this "result."

Teachers need to design homework that even struggling students want to do because it is interesting. Just about all students at any age level react positively to good assignments and will tell you so.

Did COVID change how schools and parents view homework?

Within 24 hours of the day school doors closed in March 2020, just about every school and district in the country figured out that teachers had to talk to and work with students' parents. This was not the same as homeschooling—teachers were still working hard to provide daily lessons. But if a child was learning at home in the living room, parents were more aware of what they were doing in school. One of the silver linings of COVID was that teachers reported that they gained a better understanding of their students' families. We collected wonderfully creative examples of activities from members of the National Network of Partnership Schools. I'm thinking of one art activity where every child talked with a parent about something that made their family unique. Then they drew their finding on a snowflake and returned it to share in class. In math, students talked with a parent about something the family liked so much that they could represent it 100 times. Conversations about schoolwork at home was the point.

How did you create so many homework activities via the Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork program?

We had several projects with educators to help them design interactive assignments, not just "do the next three examples on page 38." Teachers worked in teams to create TIPS activities, and then we turned their work into a standard TIPS format in math, reading/language arts, and science for grades K-8. Any teacher can use or adapt our prototypes to match their curricula.

Overall, we know that if future teachers and practicing educators were prepared to design homework assignments to meet specific purposes—including but not limited to interactive activities—more students would benefit from the important experience of doing their homework. And more parents would, indeed, be partners in education.

Posted in Voices+Opinion

You might also like

News network.

• Johns Hopkins Magazine
• Get Email Updates
• Submit an Announcement
• Submit an Event
• Privacy Statement
• Accessibility

Discover JHU

• About the University
• Schools & Divisions
• Academic Programs
• Plan a Visit
• my.JohnsHopkins.edu
• © 2024 Johns Hopkins University . All rights reserved.
• University Communications
• 3910 Keswick Rd., Suite N2600, Baltimore, MD
• X Facebook LinkedIn YouTube Instagram

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Review Article
• Open access
• Published: 29 June 2016

Learning and memory under stress: implications for the classroom

• Susanne Vogel 1 &
• Lars Schwabe 1  

npj Science of Learning volume  1 , Article number:  16011 ( 2016 ) Cite this article

325k Accesses

217 Citations

463 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Hippocampus
• Human behaviour
• Stress and resilience

Exams, tight deadlines and interpersonal conflicts are just a few examples of the many events that may result in high levels of stress in both students and teachers. Research over the past two decades identified stress and the hormones and neurotransmitters released during and after a stressful event as major modulators of human learning and memory processes, with critical implications for educational contexts. While stress around the time of learning is thought to enhance memory formation, thus leading to robust memories, stress markedly impairs memory retrieval, bearing, for instance, the risk of underachieving at exams. Recent evidence further indicates that stress may hamper the updating of memories in the light of new information and induce a shift from a flexible, ‘cognitive’ form of learning towards rather rigid, ‘habit’-like behaviour. Together, these stress-induced changes may explain some of the difficulties of learning and remembering under stress in the classroom. Taking these insights from psychology and neuroscience into account could bear the potential to facilitate processes of education for both students and teachers.

Similar content being viewed by others

Implications of Tamarkoz on stress, emotion, spirituality and heart rate

Effect of sleep and mood on academic performance—at interface of physiology, psychology, and education

A synergistic mindsets intervention protects adolescents from stress

Stressful events are very common in educational settings, both for students and for teachers. A multitude of exams, evaluations and deadlines creates an enormous pressure to perform. This stress, however, can have a critical impact on learning and memory processes, 1 , 2 which are at the heart of our educational system. Beyond their relevance in educational contexts, stress-induced alterations in learning and memory are also thought to contribute to stress-related mental disorders, such as major depressive disorder or post-traumatic stress disorder. 3 Therefore, a large number of studies has been conducted to better understand how stress affects learning and memory. The effects of stress were found to be complex, though, with stress having both enhancing and impairing effects on memory, depending on the specific memory process or stage that is affected by stress 1 , 4 and the activity profile of major physiological stress response systems.

This review summarises the current state of knowledge on the impact of (acute) stress on memory and derives implications for educational settings from these laboratory findings. Because our focus is on memory processes most relevant in the classroom, we will concentrate mainly on the effects of (moderate) stress (induced in laboratory settings) on episodic and semantic memory, as well as the engagement of multiple memory systems in healthy humans (for reviews on the influence of stress on other forms of memory or other cognitive processes, see e.g. Arnsten 5 and Sandi 6 ). As the influence of stress on learning and memory is intimately linked to the physiological and endocrine changes initiated on a stressful encounter, we will cover these changes first. Next, we will provide a concise overview of how stress, through the action of major stress mediators, induces time-dependent changes in how much information is learned, consolidated and retrieved (i.e., memory quantity). In the third part of this review, we will discuss recent findings on how stress may change the dynamics of memories, their updating in the face of novel information, and the integration of new knowledge into existing memories, all key processes in educational settings. We will then highlight the impact of stress on the engagement of different memory systems, arguing that stress effects are not limited to how much we learn or remember but that stress also changes the nature (or quality) of memories, for instance, the strategies that are used during learning. Based on these empirical findings, we will finally discuss the implications of stress effects on learning and memory processes for the classroom.

The well-coordinated physiological response to stressors

Difficult situations in the classroom such as exams or interpersonal conflicts can challenge or exceed the coping strategies or resources available and thus threaten our homoeostasis, our inner balance, leading us to feel ‘stressed’. 7 The individual appraisal of the situation is critical as it determines the response that follows. 8 , 9 If a situation is appraised as stressful, a well-described cascade of physiological and endocrine changes is set in motion in order to re-establish homoeostasis and to promote long-term well-being. 10 Although this stress response is very complex with numerous mediators involved, two major stress systems appear to be critical for the modulation of learning and memory processes, the rapid autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the slower hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis ( Figure 1 ). Within seconds, the ANS is activated, leading to the release of catecholamines such as noradrenaline (NA), both from the adrenal medulla and the locus coeruleus in the brain. 10 Catecholamines prepare the body for ‘fight-or-flight’ responses and rapidly affect neural functioning in several brain regions critical for learning and memory, such as the hippocampus, amygdala and prefrontal cortex (PFC). 5 , 11 Somewhat slower, a second system is activated in response to stress, the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis, resulting in the release of corticosteroids (in humans mainly cortisol) from the adrenal cortex. Cortisol reaches peak level concentrations ~20–30 min after stressor onset, 10 readily enters the brain and binds to two different receptors to induce its effects on cognition: The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is expressed ubiquitously throughout the brain, whereas the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) is mainly expressed in brain regions related to memory and emotion, for instance, the hippocampus, amygdala and PFC. 12 , 13 On binding to these receptors, cortisol operates via two different modes of action, a non-genomic, often MR-mediated mode develops rapidly 14 and enhances neural excitability in the amygdala and hippocampus, 15 , 16 presumably supporting memory formation. This rapid mode is followed by a slower, often GR-dependent mode that is assumed to develop ~60–90 min after stressor onset and to involve longer-lasting changes to DNA translation and transcription. 17 The slow genomic mode is assumed to revert the acute effects of stress and to re-establish homoeostasis by decreasing neural excitability in the amygdala and hippocampus long after stress. 4

Systems activated in response to stressful events. On a stressful encounter, the autonomic nervous system (left) is activated within seconds to release catecholamines (e.g., noradrenaline) from the adrenal medulla and the locus coeruleus in the brain stem. Catecholamines are implicated in the ‘fight-or-flight’ response, but they also have profound effects on attention, working memory and long-term memory. Somewhat slower, the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis is activated, releasing corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus which stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). ACTH in turn causes the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol and release it into the blood stream. Cortisol reaches peak level concentrations ~20–30 min after stress onset and readily enters the brain to affect cognition and behaviour. Cortisol feedback to the pituitary, hypothalamus and other brain areas (e.g., the hippocampus) prevents the system from overshooting.

This striking temporal profile of the stress response leads to differential effects of stress on learning and memory, depending on the temporal proximity between the stressful event and the memory process investigated. For instance, stress experienced just before memory retrieval, when catecholamine levels are still high and cortisol levels are not elevated yet, may have very different effects than stress experienced 90 min before retrieval, when catecholamine levels returned to baseline and genomic cortisol actions are at work. 18 , 19 Moreover, distinct memory stages, i.e., encoding, consolidation or retrieval may be differently affected by these time-dependent physiological changes after a stressful encounter. In the next section, we will portray the time-dependent effects of stress on learning and memory, taking into account both the specific memory stage affected and the temporal proximity between the stressful event and the memory formation or retrieval process ( Figure 2 ).

The effects of stress on memory depend on the specific memory process investigated and the temporal proximity between the stressful event and this memory process. While stress (indicated as red flash) long before encoding impairs memory formation, stress shortly before or after the presentation of new information generally enhances subsequent memory performance. In sharp contrast, stress before memory retrieval impairs the recall of information learned previously which may directly affect performance at exams. In education, knowledge needs to be frequently updated by new facts or concepts relating to prior knowledge. In addition to its effects on memory encoding and retrieval, stress appears to impair this integration of new information into existing knowledge structures.

Time-dependent effects of stress on memory quantity

Emotionally arousing events are typically very well-remembered. Likewise, individuals who experienced extremely stressful (traumatic) events may suffer from very vivid memories of these events, suggesting that severe stress during or just before encoding may boost memory formation. In line with these observations, studies showed that also lower levels of stress (as they may occur more frequently in schools) during or just before learning may strengthen human memory. 20 – 23 This effect of stress on encoding was often stronger for emotional compared with neutral learning material. 24 Another factor moderating the influence of stress on learning is the correspondence between the stressful context and the learning material. For example, stress during learning specifically enhanced memory for material that was related to the context of the stressful task and thus putatively more relevant. 20 Material that is unrelated to an ongoing stressor, however, is typically not very well-remembered later on. 25 Despite many studies showing a stress-induced learning enhancement if stressor and learning coincide, some studies found the opposite effect. 26 , 27 This divergence might be due to other factors than just the timing of the stressful encounter, such as differences in the interval between study and retrieval or individual differences due to sex, genetics or the developmental background. 28 – 31 In sum, being moderately stressed can enhance memory formation for emotional material and information that is related to the stressful context, whereas stress may impair the encoding of stressor-unrelated material.

At the neural level, catecholamines such as NA appear to play a critical role in the enhancing effects of stress or emotional arousal on learning. Studies in rodents demonstrated that NA exposure strengthened synaptic contacts in the hippocampus 11 and that the concentration of NA in the amygdala after encoding predicted memory strength. 32 Corticosteroids, however, appear to play an important role as well. For instance, MR-activation rapidly enhanced neural excitability in the amygdala and hippocampus which may further aid successful memory encoding. 15 , 16 Additional evidence for a role of corticosteroids came from human pharmacological studies, demonstrating that the administration of 20 mg cortisol prior to learning boosted later memory, especially for emotionally arousing pictures. 33 Notably, this memory advantage for emotional material depends on NA, as it can be blocked by the beta-blocker propranolol. 34 Human neuroimaging studies then set out to elucidate the neural mechanism underlying the stress-induced learning enhancement. The immediate release of NA under stress activated a network of brain regions known as the salience network encompassing the amygdala, anterior cingulate cortex and anterior insula. 35 , 36 This rapid upregulation of the salience network allowed enhanced vigilance and better processing of threat-related information which may improve memory encoding in stressful situations. Some minutes later, the release of cortisol reduced global signal in the electroencephalogram (EEG), which was interpreted as a reduction in background processing in order to allow efficient processing of relevant information by enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio. 37 In line with an enhanced processing of important information, the stress-induced increase in processing and encoding of study items in the brain was related to better memory performance for these items at test. 38 , 39 Several studies also investigated the interplay of NA and cortisol in memory encoding. Supporting evidence for such an interaction came, for instance, from a study showing that emotional learning material activated the amygdala, an effect that depended on NA availability as it was abolished by propranolol. 40 Importantly, this amygdala response to emotional stimuli was particularly prominent in those individuals with higher cortisol levels during encoding. 41 Moreover, the combined administration of cortisol and yohimbine, a drug increasing NA stimulation, switched neural activity towards a strong deactivation of prefrontal areas, 42 potentially releasing the amygdala from inhibitory top-down control and improving memory encoding.

While stress around the time of learning enhances memory, stress (or cortisol administration of 25 mg) long before learning or in a distinctly different context does not promote new learning 43 and can even hinder successful encoding of new information. 21 For example, while stress directly before learning enhanced later recognition memory, memory was impaired if stress was experienced 30 min before learning. 21 This memory impairing effect of stress long before learning has been associated with a decrease in neural excitability in the hippocampus long after cortisol administration, 44 which might suggest that genomic actions of cortisol protect the consolidation of information learned during the stressful encounter. 2 In line with this finding of decreased hippocampal excitability, cortisol administered more than 1 h before MRI measurements reduced hippocampal and amygdala activity in humans, 45 , 46 possibly impairing the formation of new memories. In the same time period, the activity of the salience network decreased again to pre-stress levels while activity in the executive control network increased, 35 allowing the individual to recover from the stressful situation and to re-approach homoeostasis. However, there is evidence that this reversal of heightened salience network activity, which is important for higher cognitive control functions to improve coping in the aftermath of stress, does not occur when the participants remain in the stressful context. For instance, the coupling between the amygdala and the salience network remained enhanced after 1 h if the participants were still in the context of the stress induction procedure, 47 again highlighting the role of context as a moderator of stress effects on learning.

When stress is experienced before or during a learning episode, its effects on memory encoding can hardly be dissociated from those on memory consolidation. Also in educational settings, influences of stress on memory encoding can often not be separated from those on memory storage. However, by administering stress or stress mediators shortly after learning, thus excluding an influence on memory encoding, experimental studies were able to isolate stress effects on memory consolidation. Several studies in humans showed that stress or adrenaline injections shortly after learning improved memory consolidation, an effect which was more pronounced for emotionally arousing material, 26 , 48 , 49 , 50 highlighting the importance of the emotionality of the study material. Studies in rodents also demonstrated that the administration of NA or corticosteroids just after learning improved consolidation, 51 and that this enhancing effect (at least on hippocampal memory) required the interaction between NA and GR-mediated cortisol effects in the amygdala. 52 – 55

The effects of stress on memory are, however, not limited to the formation of memories (i.e., memory encoding and consolidation) but extend also to memory retrieval. Given that exams and tests can easily cause stress in students and students are evaluated based on their performance in these tests, it is particularly relevant to understand how stress affects memory recall. In line with seminal findings in rodents, 56 many studies in humans demonstrated that acute stress impaired memory retrieval after a stressful encounter (refs 18 , 19 , 57 , 58 , 59 but see refs 60 , 61 ). Retrieval in the stressful situation itself seemed not to be affected or even enhanced, 18 , 19 particularly when retrieval performance was directly relevant to the stressful encounter. Retrieval more than 20 min after stress, however, when cortisol levels were already elevated, was impaired by the cortisol response to stress 18 , 19 , 58 ( Figure 3 ) and the impairment appeared to be even stronger at a time point when genomic cortisol actions had developed, 18 suggesting that the impairing effects of stress can last much longer than previously known. This retrieval deficit after stress was not only found in adults but was also observed in 8–10-year-old children, highlighting the relevance of these findings for educational settings. 59 The disrupting effect of stress on retrieval was stronger for emotional material 26 , 62 and also the context appeared to play a moderating role on the effects of stress on retrieval. For instance, if the retrieval test was relevant for the stressful situation or if both learning and test took place in the same context, so that the context served as a retrieval cue, recall was spared from the impairing effects of stress. 19 , 63

Stress impairs memory retrieval. Participants learned a two-dimensional object location task similar to the game ‘concentration’ (note that for illustrative purposes encoding is depicted by a book, similar to studying in class). One day later, participants either underwent a mild stress induction procedure (indicated by the red flash) or a non-stressful control procedure before recalling the card pair locations learned on day 1. Participants in the stress group recalled significantly fewer card pair locations on day 2 than participants in the control group (relative to their performance on day 1), indicating that stress before retention testing reduced memory performance. Adjusted, with permission, from ref. 63 .

The negative effect of stress on retrieval could be mimicked by administering a GR agonist and blocked by the cortisol synthesis inhibitor metyrapone in rodents, which suggests a GR-dependent pathway 43 , 56 , 64 , 65 reducing blood flow in the medial temporal lobe. 66 However, the interaction with NA appears to be crucial as the impairing effects of cortisol depended on noradrenergic activation of the amygdala. 52 For instance, blocking the action of NA pharmacologically with propranolol abolished the impairing effect of cortisol on emotional memory retrieval. 67 Thus, similar to memory consolidation, the interaction between GR-mediated cortisol action and NA appears to be crucial for stress-induced effects on memory retrieval. 67

To summarise, stress affects memory in a time-dependent manner, often enhancing memory formation around the time of the stressful encounter but impairing memory retrieval and the acquisition of information encoded long after the stressful event. These effects depend on interactions between NA and cortisol in the amygdala and are thus often stronger for emotional than for neutral learning material. In the next paragraph, we will move beyond stress-induced changes in memory performance and describe how stress may also affect the integration of new information into existing memories, i.e., knowledge updating.

Stress and the dynamics of memory

Very often, students are not only required to recall study material, but to integrate new information into existing knowledge structures. In fact, integrating new information into existing memories is a key process in education (as well as in life in general where we are constantly required to update our knowledge). Such updating implicates that memories remain malleable even long time after they have been formed initially and research over the past 15 years shows that this is indeed the case (for review, see ref. 68 ). There is compelling evidence that consolidated, seemingly stable memories return to a labile state when they are reactivated, 68 – 71 which requires the re-stabilization of those memories in a process called reconsolidation. During reconsolidation, the reactivated memory can be weakened, strengthened or altered. 69 , 71 In other words, reconsolidation most likely represents the mechanism underlying memory updating processes. 72 As reconsolidation involves the hippocampus 71 and the PFC, 73 areas that are main targets of stress modulators, it seems reasonable to assume that stress would also affect reconsolidation. First evidence for such stress effects on reconsolidation came from rodent studies showing that stress or cortisol injections after memory reactivation impaired subsequent memory expression, suggesting that stress impaired reconsolidation. 74 , 75 For instance, stress after reactivation of a memory trace interfered with performance at a later memory test, an effect which depended on GR-mediated cortisol activity in the amygdala. 75 Several studies in humans support the hypothesis that stress can affect memory reconsolidation and thus memory updating, yet the specific conditions leading to impairing or enhancing effects of stress on reconsolidation are still under investigation. 76 – 78

Further evidence for a critical role of stress in the updating of memories comes from studies on the so-called misinformation effect. This effect describes the incorporation of misleading information presented after encoding the original event into the memory for this event. 79 Although this effect mainly concerns the biasing influence of misinformation on memory, it provides important insights into memory updating in general and studying how stress affects the misinformation effect may allow a deeper understanding of how stress affects the updating of memories. For instance, it was shown that if highly arousing information is learned during stress, this resulted in more robust memories that were less vulnerable to being ‘updated’ by subsequent (mis)information. 80 Similarly, misinformation was less often incorporated into existing memories if the participants were stressed before the presentation of misinformation, thus indicating that stress interferes with the updating of the existing memory trace 81 ( Figure 4 ). As the mechanism underlying the misinformation effect is assumed to be reconsolidation, 72 this finding is in line with reports showing an impairing effect of stress on memory reconsolidation. 74 , 75 , 78 In sum, there is accumulating evidence that stress may interfere with the updating of memories, which may have negative implications for education where new information often has to be incorporated into existing knowledge.

Stress reduces the integration of new information into existing memories. On day 1, participants were instructed to memorise different stories presented in short movie clips (note that encoding is illustrated by a book for illustrative purposes). On day two, participants either underwent a mild stress induction procedure (indicated by the red flash) or a non-stressful control procedure before they were presented with a questionnaire regarding the study material from day 1. Importantly, some items of this questionnaire included wrong information about the study material (misinformation, shown in orange). On day 3, forced choice questions were used to test whether the misinformation had been integrated into the memory trace of the study material. In the memory test, possible answers were the correct original information, the misinformation presented the day before and other incorrect answers (lures) that were not referred to on day 2. Overall, participants endorsed misinformation more often than lures, thus demonstrating a misinformation effect. Critically, stressed participants endorsed fewer misinformation items than participants of the control group, suggesting that stress reduced the modification of the original memory on day 2. Adjusted, with permission, from ref. 81 . * P <0.005

Stress alters the way we learn: effects on memory quality

Most studies investigating the effects of stress on memory encoding, retrieval or updating focused on memories encoded by the hippocampus. However, experiences can be encoded by multiple memory systems operating in parallel, differing in their neural substrate and in the information processed. 82 , 83 Several studies demonstrated that stress has a critical impact on which of these memory systems is used to form and retrieve memories, implicating that stress changes the nature or quality of memories 84 , 85 (see Figure 5 ). Early studies in rodents demonstrated that stress or amygdala activation through anxiogenic drugs at encoding induced a shift from a flexible ‘cognitive’ memory system depending on the hippocampus towards a more rigid, ‘habit’-like memory system based on the dorsal striatum. 82 , 86 , 87 Thus, under stress, more rigid stimulus–response associations are learned rather than complex representations of our environment including the relationship between stimuli or task requirements. This shift in the system that controls memory could be blocked by an MR-antagonist, suggesting that the shift is due to MR-mediated cortisol action. 88 , 89 Importantly, stress itself did not disrupt learning, but blocking the shift towards habit memories markedly impaired performance, 88 suggesting that the shift towards the striatum-based habit system is adaptive and beneficial for performance under stress. So far, only one study investigated whether this stress-induced shift also affects memory retrieval, and indeed anxiogenic drugs injected into the amygdala before retrieval biased rats towards an increased use of their dorsal striatum at the expense of the hippocampal memory system. 90 To summarise, these studies in rodents suggest that stress induces a qualitative shift in the systems guiding learning (and, most likely, retrieval), from a cognitive, hippocampus-dependent memory system towards a habit-like memory system based on the striatum.

Stress shifts the balance between multiple systems underlying learning and memory. At rest, this balance is tilted towards the ‘cognitive’ memory system depending on the hippocampus, allowing for the formation and recall of flexible memories. Stress, however, is thought to alter the system domination learning and memory. Under stress (indicated by a red flash), the balance tips towards more rigid ‘habit’ memories encoded by the dorsal striatum. Thus, stress affects not only how much is learned (memory quantity) but also what is encoded and how memories are built (memory quality).

In line with these rodent findings, stress shifts the systems dominating memory encoding also in humans towards an increased use of striatal habit-like memory, at the expense of hippocampal memory. 91 – 93 For example, stressed participants often used a habit-like striatal learning strategy instead of a hippocampal strategy to solve a learning task. 93 Similar to the findings in rodents, stress did not affect learning performance per se if participants switched to the striatal memory system, 91 yet performance was impaired when participants tried to recruit the hippocampal memory system despite stress. 93 Accordingly, task performance was positively correlated with hippocampal activity in non-stressed control participants, whereas performance correlated positively with striatal activity and even negatively with hippocampal activity in stressed participants. 93 The amygdala appeared to orchestrate this stress-induced shift by rapidly increasing functional connectivity with the dorsal striatum and decreasing its coupling with the hippocampus. 94 , 95 Importantly, an MR-antagonist blocked the stress-induced shift both at the behavioural and neural level, 94 , 95 demonstrating that the stress-induced shift appears to depend on cortisol acting via the MR. 89

In addition to the shift from hippocampal to striatal memory, stress affects the balance between memory systems underlying instrumental behaviour, i.e., behaviour aimed at obtaining rewards or avoiding punishments. Learning and performing these actions can be controlled by a ‘habitual’ system relying on the dorsolateral striatum which acts largely independently of the current value of the action-outcome, or a ‘goal-directed’ system depending on the PFC, dorsomedial striatum, and dorsomedial thalamus which is sensitive to changes in outcome value. 96 Under stress, human and rodent behaviour is rendered more habitual and based on stimulus–response associations rather than action-outcome associations which underlie goal-directed actions. 97 – 101 Moreover, the behaviour of stressed individuals was more resistant against extinction procedures, 92 further highlighting the rigid, rather habitual behaviour of stressed individuals. For example, stressed infants continued to use habit actions even though the behaviour was not reinforced anymore, whereas non-stressed infants stopped showing the behaviour when the reinforcement ended. 100 The stress-induced modulation of instrumental behaviour can be abolished by beta blockers, suggesting that NA plays a crucial role in this shift towards habit behaviour. 98 Again, NA appears to interact with the effects of cortisol as the stress-induced shift towards habits can be mimicked by the combined administration of cortisol and yohimbine, 97 and beta-adrenergic blockade by propranolol prevents the stress-induced bias towards habits. 98 In the brain, this shift has been associated with a reduced sensitivity of the orbitofrontal and medial PFC to changes in outcome value, whereas brain regions implicated in habit learning were not affected. 99

To summarise, stress cannot only affect how much information we learn and remember, but stress also flips the balance between the systems dominating learning and memory, which has considerable consequences for the nature and flexibility of memories and the goal-directedness of behaviour.

Stress and memory in the classroom

School children often encounter stressful events inside and outside of their school environment 102 and nearly 70% of primary school children report symptoms of stress such as worries, anxiety or sadness. 103 In the preceding chapters, we argued that situations appraised as stressful have strong and diverse effects on human memory. While learning during or immediately after stress is often enhanced, stress disrupts memory retrieval and updating, and these effects are most pronounced for emotionally arousing material. Finally, we argued that stress shifts the balance between multiple systems underlying memories and instrumental behaviours towards the formation and recall of rather rigid habit-like memories. Together, these findings highlight that stress may critically shape our memories, which is of utmost importance in all educational contexts.

In the classroom, these stress effects on memory may have far-reaching consequences for students. For instance, emotions or light to moderate forms of stress (i.e., cognitive challenges without excessive demands or moderate emotional arousal that results, e.g., from hearing something that is unexpected) may increase memory formation, which may have positive effects on memories for study material. Yet, these effects likely follow an inverted u-shape and can revert with too high levels of stress. 28 , 104 Moreover, stress may lead to stronger memories for negative events happening in the classroom, such as failed exams, embarrassing experiences or interpersonal conflicts (e.g., bullying) and these strong negative memories may induce long-lasting frustration and a negative attitude towards school and the individual’s abilities. These negative consequences of stress on students may be intensified by the deleterious effects of stress on memory retrieval. Moderate or high levels of stress before exams will most likely hinder memory retrieval and lead to an underestimation of the students’ knowledge, putatively resulting in bad grades. Furthermore, stress may hinder the integration of new information into existing knowledge structures, which may prevent the updating of knowledge by new facts or a deep multidisciplinary understanding of concepts which is often required in education. Finally, by altering the balance between memory systems, stress may lead to strong, rigid memories and the retrieval of habits rather than creative and complex solutions to new problems, which may again lead to an underestimation of the students’ abilities.

Although the effects of stress on memory are highly relevant to students, also teachers frequently encounter stressful events and >40% report high levels of work stress. 105 Also for teachers, appraising events as stressful may lead to strong negative memories of unpleasant situations in the classroom with implications for their work attitude and potentially their mental health. Moreover, stress may impair the quality of teaching if the teacher’s flexibility is decreased, which might hamper adaptive responding to the individual needs and resources of students. Instead, habitual procedures may be supported by stress, leading to a more repetitive teaching style, which may in turn lead to more problems in class.

Considering this wide range of possible stress effects in educational settings, strategies to deal with stress and its consequences are needed. First and foremost, teachers should be aware of the impact stress may have on memory formation, retrieval and updating. Moreover, students should be educated about the influence of stress on memory to raise awareness for the powerful effects stress may exert and the need for efficient coping strategies. It is important to note that potentially stressful events do not necessarily lead to a stress response, but that the individual appraisal of the situation and the available coping strategies determine whether a situation results in the activation of stress systems or not. This dependence on appraisal and coping can explain why some individuals suffer much less from potentially stressful circumstances than others. Thus, next to changing potentially stressful situations, students should be educated about effective coping strategies. 8 , 106

Furthermore, based on findings demonstrating that emotional material is typically better remembered than neutral material, an emotional component (mainly positive) may be added while students learn new information to enhance later memory. 21 , 23 , 24 , 33 , 49 , 107 , 108 For example, this could be achieved by explicit positive verbal reinforcement of students during learning in class. Furthermore, movie clips might be used which do not only focus on the learning material itself, but place it into an emotional context, e.g., by making the links to the student and his or her everyday life explicit.

To counteract the strong negative effects of stress on memory retrieval and updating, strong stressors before exams or before new information is presented to update students’ knowledge should be avoided as far as possible. To reduce stress, practice exams may familiarise the students with the exam situation and trainings in stress reduction techniques or other coping strategies might help students to alleviate stress symptoms. Teachers should also be aware that different forms of retrieval may be differentially affected by stress. Free recall seems to be disrupted more easily by stress than cued recall, 62 suggesting that recall cues may enhance the chance that students can actually retrieve the information they have learned. It is important to note that the impairing effects of stress on retrieval are quite long-lasting, such that stressors long before the exam (e.g., at home) may still affect performance in the test situation. Therefore, children with trouble at home or frequent stressful life events may need special attention before exams to reduce the effects of stress.

Stress does not only induce a deficit in memory retrieval and memory updating, it also changes the way information is stored and retrieved by multiple memory systems. Stress before learning may bias students towards rigid forms of learning, which may hinder the successful transfer of knowledge and reduce cognitive flexibility in problem solving. However, the negative effects of stress on memory retrieval may be counteracted to some extent by thoroughly and repeatedly practicing useful routines which can be recalled rather automatically. This may be especially relevant for the training of correct actions during emergency situations. For instance, given that flexible memory recall and knowledge application is hindered under stress, pilots or physicians should be trained extensively in the correct routines they should apply in stressful emergency situations. If these procedures are automatised, it is much more likely that they can actually be retrieved and translated to behaviour.

Last, students and teachers should be aware of the powerful effects of context. It has been shown repeatedly that memory is enhanced when learning and recall take place in the same context as the context serves as a strong retrieval cue. 109 Moreover, although stress often impairs retrieval, this effect seems to be alleviated if learning and retrieval context match, indicating that the effect of context might counteract stress-induced memory impairments. 63

Conclusion and outlook

Stress has far-reaching consequences on our ability to learn and remember, with major implications for educational settings. Considering that stress is ubiquitous in education and even primary school children often report stress symptoms, understanding the effects of stress on memory is very important. For one, an optimised education is of utmost importance for the individual, laying the foundation of later career success and socioeconomic status. In addition, our educational system is highly relevant for society as a whole by building and instructing the next generation.

Despite the striking advances the field has seen in our understanding of how stress changes learning and memory processes, several questions remain to be answered, e.g., concerning interindividual differences in the effects of stress on memory. While some studies suggested that differences in personality, gender or stress system reactivity may moderate how stress affects learning, 28 the findings are not conclusive yet and the involved mechanisms are not understood sufficiently well to derive recommendations for teachers. Understanding these interindividual differences is a key to personalised approaches or training programmes directed at preventing stress-induced impairments. In addition, more research is necessary to understand the precise development of stress effects on memories over time as it is currently unclear when exactly the enhancing and impairing effects of stress on memory formation arise and how long they last. Likewise, it is currently not well-understood whether different types 110 or intensities 104 of stressors have different effects on memory. Furthermore, most studies did not explicitly distinguish between stress effects on different types of declarative memory, i.e., semantic and declarative memories. Future studies are required to assess whether stress has differential effects on these memory systems, which would provide important insights into how stress changes different forms of learning and memory. Finally, the exposure to prolonged or repeated stress, as well as stress during critical periods of brain development may also have strong effects on learning and memory in children which need to be better understood to counteract the impairments they may cause. 111 Thus, different intensities of stress at different time points during development may induce different effects which remain to be further investigated. Future research on the effects of stress on learning and memory will hopefully answer these and related questions and thus further deepen our understanding of how stress affects memory and why individuals differ in response to stress. Answering these questions may help to personalise learning settings to the specific needs of the individual, to make optimal use of the beneficial effects of emotions on memory, and to alleviate the cognitive impairments stress and strong emotional responses may cause.

Joels, M., Pu, Z. W., Wiegert, O., Oitzl, M. S. & Krugers, H. J. Learning under stress: how does it work? Trends Cogn. Sci. 10 , 152–158 (2006).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Schwabe, L., Joëls, M., Roozendaal, B., Wolf, O. T. & Oitzl, M. S. Stress effects on memory: an update and integration. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 36 , 1740–1749 (2012).

Pitman, R. K. et al. Biological studies of post-traumatic stress disorder. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 13 , 769–787 (2012).

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Joëls, M., Fernandez, G. & Roozendaal, B. Stress and emotional memory: a matter of timing. Trends Cogn. Sci. 15 , 280–288 (2011).

Arnsten, A. F. T. Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 10 , 410–422 (2009).

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Sandi, C. & Haller, J. Stress and the social brain: behavioural effects and neurobiological mechanisms. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 16 , 290–304 (2015).

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

de Kloet, E. R., Joels, M. & Holsboer, F. Stress and the brain: from adaptation to disease. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 6 , 463–475 (2005).

Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Dunkel-Schetter, C., DeLongis, A. & Gruen, R. J. Dynamics of a stressful encounter: cognitive appraisal, coping, and encounter outcomes. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 50 , 992–1003 (1986).

Lazarus, R. S . Emotion and Adaptation xiii 557 (Oxford Univ. Press, 1991).

Google Scholar  

Joëls, M. & Baram, T. Z. The neuro-symphony of stress. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 10 , 459–466 (2009).

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   CAS   Google Scholar  

Katsuki, H., Izumi, Y. & Zorumski, C. F. Noradrenergic regulation of synaptic plasticity in the hippocampal CA1 region. J. Neurophysiol. 77 , 3013–3020 (1997).

DeKloet, E. R., Reul, J. & Sutanto, W. Corticosteroids and the brain. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 37 , 387–394 (1990).

Chao, H. M., Choo, P. H. & McEwen, B. S. Glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptor mRNA expression in rat brain. Neuroendocrinology 50 , 365–371 (1989).

Groeneweg, F. L., Karst, H., de Kloet, E. R. & Joëls, M. Rapid non-genomic effects of corticosteroids and their role in the central stress response. J. Endocrinol. 209 , 153–167 (2011).

Karst, H., Berger, S., Erdmann, G., Schutz, G. & Joels, M. Metaplasticity of amygdalar responses to the stress hormone corticosterone. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107 , 14449–14454 (2010).

Karst, H. et al. Mineralocorticoid receptors are indispensable for nongenomic modulation of hippocampal glutamate transmission by corticosterone. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 102 , 19204–19207 (2005).

Joëls, M., Sarabdjitsingh, R. A. & Karst, H. Unraveling the time domains of corticosteroid hormone influences on brain activity: Rapid, slow, and chronic modes. Pharmacol. Rev. 64 , 901–938 (2012).

Article   PubMed   CAS   Google Scholar  

Schwabe, L. & Wolf, O. Timing matters: temporal dynamics of stress effects on memory retrieval. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 14 , 1041–1048 (2014).

Schönfeld, P., Ackermann, K. & Schwabe, L. Remembering under stress: different roles of autonomic arousal and glucocorticoids in memory retrieval. Psychoneuroendocrinology 39 , 249–256 (2014).

Smeets, T., Giesbrecht, T., Jelicic, M. & Merckelbach, H. Context-dependent enhancement of declarative memory performance following acute psychosocial stress. Biol. Psychol. 76 , 116–123 (2007).

Zoladz, P. R. et al. Pre-learning stress differentially affects long-term memory for emotional words, depending on temporal proximity to the learning experience. Physiol. Behav. 103 , 467–476 (2011).

Domes, G., Heinrichs, M., Reichwald, U. & Hautzinger, M. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis reactivity to psychological stress and memory in middle-aged women: High responders exhibit enhanced declarative memory performance. Psychoneuroendocrinology 27 , 843–853 (2002).

Schwabe, L., Bohringer, A., Chatterjee, M. & Schachinger, H. Effects of pre-learning stress on memory for neutral, positive and negative words: different roles of cortisol and autonomic arousal. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 90 , 44–53 (2008).

Payne, J. et al. The impact of stress on neutral and emotional aspects of episodic memory. Memory 14 , 1–16 (2006).

Schwabe, L. & Wolf, O. T. Learning under stress impairs memory formation. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 93 , 183–188 (2010).

Smeets, T., Otgaar, H., Candel, I. & Wolf, O. T. True or false? Memory is differentially affected by stress-induced cortisol elevations and sympathetic activity at consolidation and retrieval. Psychoneuroendocrinology 33 , 1378–1386 (2008).

Elzinga, B. M., Bakker, A. & Bremner, J. D. Stress-induced cortisol elevations are associated with impaired delayed, but not immediate recall. Psychiatry Res. 134 , 211–223 (2005).

Andreano, J. M. & Cahill, L. Glucocorticoid release and memory consolidation in men and women. Psychol. Sci. 17 , 466–470 (2006).

Rasch, B. et al. A genetic variation of the noradrenergic system is related to differential amygdala activation during encoding of emotional memories. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106 , 19191–19196 (2009).

Vukojevic, V. et al. Epigenetic modification of the glucocorticoid receptor gene is linked to traumatic memory and post-traumatic stress disorder risk in genocide survivors. J. Neurosci. 34 , 10274–10284 (2014).

Schwabe, L., Bohbot, V. D. & Wolf, O. T. Prenatal stress changes learning strategies in adulthood. Hippocampus 22 , 2136–2143 (2012).

McIntyre, C. K., Hatfield, T. & McGaugh, J. L. Amygdala norepinephrine levels after training predict inhibitory avoidance retention performance in rats. Eur. J. Neurosci. 16 , 1223–1226 (2002).

Buchanan, T. W. & Lovallo, W. R. Enhanced memory for emotional material following stress-level cortisol treatment in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology 26 , 307–317 (2001).

Cahill, L., Prins, B., Weber, M. & McGaugh, J. L. [beta]-adrenergic activation and memory for emotional events. Nature 371 , 702–704 (1994).

Hermans, E. J., Henckens, MJAG, Joëls, M. & Fernández, G. Dynamic adaptation of large-scale brain networks in response to acute stressors. Trends Neurosci. 37 , 304–314 (2014).

Hermans, E. J. et al. Stress-related noradrenergic activity prompts large-scale neural network reconfiguration. Science 334 , 1151–1153 (2011).

Strelzyk, F. et al. Tune it down to live it up? Rapid, nongenomic effects of cortisol on the human brain. J. Neurosci. 32 , 616–625 (2012).

Henckens, M. J., Hermans, E. J., Pu, Z., Joëls, M. & Fernández, G. Stressed memories: how acute stress affects memory formation in humans. J. Neurosci. 29 , 10111–10119 (2009).

Weymar, M., Schwabe, L., Löw, A. & Hamm, A. O. Stress sensitizes the brain: increased processing of unpleasant pictures after exposure to acute stress. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 24 , 1511–1518 (2011).

Strange, B. A. & Dolan, R. J. Β-adrenergic modulation of emotional memory-evoked human amygdala and hippocampal responses. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101 , 11454–11458 (2004).

van Stegeren, A. H., Wolf, O. T., Everaerd, W., Rombouts, S. A. R. B. in Progress in Brain Research (eds Ronald E., De Kloet M. S. O. & Eric V. ) Vol. 167 , 263–268 (Elsevier, 2007).

van Stegeren, A. H., Roozendaal, B., Kindt, M., Wolf, O. T. & Joels, M. Interacting noradrenergic and corticosteroid systems shift human brain activation patterns during encoding. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 93 , 56–65 (2010).

de Quervain, D. J. F., Roozendaal, B., Nitsch, R. M., McGaugh, J. L. & Hock, C. Acute cortisone administration impairs retrieval of long-term declarative memory in humans. Nat. Neurosci. 3 , 313–314 (2000).

Wiegert, O., Joëls, M. & Krugers, H. Timing is essential for rapid effects of corticosterone on synaptic potentiation in the mouse hippocampus. Learn. Mem. 13 , 110–113 (2006).

Henckens, M. J. et al. Dynamically changing effects of corticosteroids on human hippocampal and prefrontal processing. Hum. Brain Mapp. 33 , 2885–2897 (2012).

Henckens, M., van Wingen, G. A., Joels, M. & Fernandez, G. Time-dependent effects of corticosteroids on human amygdala processing. J. Neurosci. 30 , 12725–12732 (2010).

van Marle, H. J. F., Hermans, E. J., Qin, S. Z. & Fernandez, G. Enhanced resting-state connectivity of amygdala in the immediate aftermath of acute psychological stress. Neuroimage 53 , 348–354 (2010).

Cahill, L. & Alkire, M. T. Epinephrine enhancement of human memory consolidation: Interaction with arousal at encoding. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 79 , 194–198 (2003).

Cahill, L., Gorski, L. & Le, K. Enhanced human memory consolidation with post-learning stress: Interaction with the degree of arousal at encoding. Learn. Mem. 10 , 270–274 (2003).

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Beckner, V. E., Tucker, D. M., Delville, Y. & Mohr, D. C. Stress facilitates consolidation of verbal memory for a film but does not affect retrieval. Behav. Neurosci. 120 , 518–527 (2006).

Roozendaal, B. & McGaugh, J. L. Amygdaloid nuclei lesions differentially affect glucocorticoid-induced memory enhancement in an inhibitory avoidance task. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 65 , 1–8 (1996).

Roozendaal, B., Okuda, S., De Quervain, D. J. F. & McGaligh, J. L. Glucocorticoids interact with emotion-induced noradrenergic activation in influencing different memory functions. Neuroscience 138 , 901–910 (2006).

Roozendaal, B., Okuda, S., Van der Zee, E. A. & McGaugh, J. L. Glucocorticoid enhancement of memory requires arousal-induced noradrenergic activation in the basolateral amygdala. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 103 , 6741–6746 (2006).

Barsegyan, A., Mackenzie, S. M., Kurose, B. D., McGaugh, J. L. & Roozendaal, B. Glucocorticoids in the prefrontal cortex enhance memory consolidation and impair working memory by a common neural mechanism. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107 , 16655–16660 (2010).

McGaugh, J. L., Cahill, L. & Roozendaal, B. Involvement of the amygdala in memory storage: Interaction with other brain systems. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 93 , 13508–13514 (1996).

de Quervain, D. J. F., Roozendaal, B. & McGaugh, J. L. Stress and glucocorticoids impair retrieval of long-term spatial memory. Nature 394 , 787–790 (1998).

Quaedflieg, C. W., Schwabe, L., Meyer, T. & Smeets, T. Time dependent effects of stress prior to encoding on event-related potentials and 24 h delayed retrieval. Psychoneuroendocrinology 38 , 3057–3069 (2013).

Buchanan, T. W., Tranel, D. & Adolphs, R. Impaired memory retrieval correlates with individual differences in cortisol response but not autonomic response. Learn. Mem. 13 , 382–387 (2006).

Quesada, A. A., Wiemers, U. S., Schoofs, D. & Wolf, O. T. Psychosocial stress exposure impairs memory retrieval in children. Psychoneuroendocrinology 37 , 125–136 (2012).

Hupbach, A. & Fieman, R. Moderate stress enhances immediate and delayed retrieval of educationally relevant material in healthy young men. Behav. Neurosci. 126 , 819–825 (2012).

Schwabe, L. et al. Stress effects on declarative memory retrieval are blocked by a β-adrenoceptor antagonist in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology 34 , 446–454 (2009).

Kuhlmann, S., Piel, M. & Wolf, O. T. Impaired memory retrieval after psychosocial stress in healthy young men. J. Neurosci. 25 , 2977–2982 (2005).

Schwabe, L. & Wolf, O. T. The context counts: congruent learning and testing environments prevent memory retrieval impairment following stress. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 9 , 229–236 (2009).

Tollenaar, M. S., Elzinga, B. M., Spinhoven, P. & Everaerd, W. Immediate and prolonged effects of cortisol, but not propranolol, on memory retrieval in healthy young men. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 91 , 23–31 (2009).

Roozendaal, B., Griffith, Q. K., Buranday, J., de Quervain, DJ-F & McGaugh, J. L. The hippocampus mediates glucocorticoid-induced impairment of spatial memory retrieval: dependence on the basolateral amygdala. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 100 , 1328–1333 (2003).

De Quervain, D. J. F. et al. Glucocorticoid-induced impairment of declarative memory retrieval is associated with reduced blood flow in the medial temporal lobe. Eur. J. Neurosci. 17 , 1296–1302 (2003).

de Quervain, D. J., Aerni, A. & Roozendaal, B. Preventive effect of beta-adrenoceptor blockade on glucocorticoid-induced memory retrieval deficits. Am. J. Psychiatry 164 , 967–969 (2007).

Dudai, Y. The restless engram: consolidations never end. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 35 , 227–247 (2012).

Nader, K., Schafe, G. E. & Le Doux, J. E. Fear memories require protein synthesis in the amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature 406 , 722–726 (2000).

Nader, K. & Hardt, O. A single standard for memory: the case for reconsolidation. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 10 , 224–234 (2009).

Schwabe, L., Nader, K. & Pruessner, J. C. Reconsolidation of human memory: brain mechanisms and clinical relevance. Biol. Psychiatry 76 , 274–280 (2014).

Schacter, D. L. & Loftus, E. F. Memory and law: what can cognitive neuroscience contribute? Nat. Neurosci. 16 , 119–123 (2013).

Sandrini, M., Censor, N., Mishoe, J. & Cohen, L. Causal role of prefrontal cortex in strengthening of episodic memories through reconsolidation. Curr. Biol. 23 , 2181–2184 (2013).

Cai, W.-H., Blundell, J., Han, J., Greene, R. W. & Powell, C. M. Postreactivation glucocorticoids impair recall of established fear memory. J. Neurosci. 26 , 9560–9566 (2006).

Wang, X.-Y., Zhao, M., Ghitza, U. E., Li, Y.-Q. & Lu, L. Stress impairs reconsolidation of drug memory via glucocorticoid receptors in the basolateral amygdala. J. Neurosci. 28 , 5602–5610 (2008).

Bos, M. G., Schuijer, J., Lodestijn, F., Beckers, T. & Kindt, M. Stress enhances reconsolidation of declarative memory. Psychoneuroendocrinology 46 , 102–113 (2014).

Coccoz, V., Maldonado, H. & Delorenzi, A. The enhancement of reconsolidation with a naturalistic mild stressor improves the expression of a declarative memory in humans. Neuroscience 185 , 61–72 (2011).

Schwabe, L. & Wolf, O. T. Stress impairs the reconsolidation of autobiographical memories. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 94 , 153–157 (2010).

Loftus, E. F. & Palmer, J. C. Reconstruction of automobile destruction: an example of the interaction between language and memory. J. Verbal Learning Verbal Behav. 13 , 585–589 (1974).

Article   Google Scholar  

Hoscheidt, S. M., LaBar, K. S., Ryan, L., Jacobs, W. J. & Nadel, L. Encoding negative events under stress: High subjective arousal is related to accurate emotional memory despite misinformation exposure. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 112 , 237–247 (2014).

Schmidt, P.-I., Rosga, K., Schatto, C., Breidenstein, A. & Schwabe, L. Stress reduces the incorporation of misinformation into an established memory. Learn. Mem. 21 , 744–747 (2014).

Wingard, J. C. & Packard, M. G. The amygdala and emotional modulation of competition between cognitive and habit memory. Behav. Brain Res. 193 , 126–131 (2008).

Poldrack, R. A. & Packard, M. G. Competition among multiple memory systems: Converging evidence from animal and human brain studies. Neuropsychologia 41 , 245–251 (2003).

Schwabe, L. & Wolf, O. T. Stress and multiple memory systems: from ‘thinking’ to ‘doing’. Trends Cogn. Sci. 17 , 60–68 (2013).

Schwabe, L., Wolf, O. T. & Oitzl, M. S. Memory formation under stress: quantity and quality. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 34 , 584–591 (2010).

Packard, M. G. & Teather, L. A. Amygdala modulation of multiple memory systems: hippocampus and caudate-putamen. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 69 , 163–203 (1998).

Packard, M. G. & Wingard, J. C. Amygdala and ‘emotional’ modulation of the relative use of multiple memory systems. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 82 , 243–252 (2004).

Schwabe, L., Schachinger, H., de Kloet, E. R. & Oitzl, M. S. Corticosteroids operate as a switch between memory systems. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 22 , 1362–1372 (2010).

Vogel, S., Fernández, G., Joëls, M. & Schwabe, L. Cognitive adaptation under stress: a case for the mineralocorticoid receptor. Trends Cogn. Sci. 20 , 192–203 (2016).

Elliott, A. E. & Packard, M. G. Intra-amygdala anxiogenic drug infusion prior to retrieval biases rats towards the use of habit memory. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 90 , 616–623 (2008).

Schwabe, L. et al. Stress modulates the use of spatial versus stimulus-response learning strategies in humans. Learn. Mem. 14 , 109–116 (2007).

Schwabe, L. & Wolf, O. T. Stress increases behavioural resistance to extinction. Psychoneuroendocrinology 36 , 1287–1293 (2011).

Schwabe, L. & Wolf, O. T. Stress modulates the engagement of multiple memory systems in classification learning. J. Neurosci. 32 , 11042–11049 (2012).

Vogel, S. et al. Blocking the mineralocorticoid receptor in humans prevents the stress-induced enhancement of centromedial amygdala connectivity with the dorsal striatum. Neuropsychopharmacology 40 , 947–956 (2015).

Schwabe, L., Tegenthoff, M., Höffken, O. & Wolf, O. T. Mineralocorticoid receptor blockade prevents stress-induced modulation of multiple memory systems in the human brain. Biol. Psychiatry 74 , 801–808 (2013).

Balleine, B. W. & Dickinson, A. The role of incentive learning in instrumental outcome revaluation by sensory-specific satiety. Anim. Learn. Behav. 26 , 46–59 (1998).

Schwabe, L., Tegenthoff, M., Höffken, O. & Wolf, O. T. Concurrent glucocorticoid and noradrenergic activity shifts instrumental behaviour from goal-directed to habitual control. J. Neurosci. 30 , 8190–8196 (2010).

Schwabe, L., Höffken, O., Tegenthoff, M. & Wolf, O. T. Preventing the stress-induced shift from goal-directed to habit action with a β-adrenergic antagonist. J. Neurosci. 31 , 17317–17325 (2011).

Schwabe, L., Tegenthoff, M., Höffken, O. & Wolf, O. T. Simultaneous glucocorticoid and noradrenergic activity disrupts the neural basis of goal-directed action in the human brain. J. Neurosci. 32 , 10146–10155 (2012).

Seehagen, S., Schneider, S., Rudolph, J., Ernst, S. & Zmyj, N. Stress impairs cognitive flexibility in infants. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 112 , 12882–12886 (2015).

Braun, S. & Hauber, W. Acute stressor effects on goal-directed action in rats. Learn. Mem. 20 , 700–709 (2013).

Vanaelst, B. et al. Prevalence of negative life events and chronic adversities in european pre- and primary-school children: Results from the idefics study. Arch. Public Health 70 , 26 (2012).

Valizadeh, L., Farnam, A. & Rahkar Farshi, M. Investigation of stress symptoms among primary school children. J. Caring Sci. 1 , 25–30 (2012).

PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Joëls, M. Corticosteroid effects in the brain: U-shape it. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 27 , 244–250 (2006).

Smith, A., Brice, C., Collins, A., McNamara, R. & Matthews, V. . Scale of Occupational Stress: A Further Analysis of the Impact of Demographic Factors and Type of Job . HSE, (2000).

Thorne, K. J., Andrews, J. J. W. & Nordstokke, D. Relations among children's coping strategies and anxiety: the mediating role of coping efficacy. J. Gen. Psychol. 140 , 204–223 (2013).

McGaugh, J. L. Making lasting memories: remembering the significant. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 110 Suppl 2, 10402–10407 (2013).

Ochsner, K. N. Are affective events richly recollected or simply familiar? The experience and process of recognizing feelings past. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 129 , 242–261 (2000).

Godden, D. R. & Baddeley, A. D. Context-dependent memory in two natural environments: On land and underwater. Br. J. Psychol. 66 , 325–331 (1975).

Pacak, K. et al. Heterogeneous neurochemical responses to different stressors: a test of Selye’s doctrine of nonspecificity. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 275 , R1247–R1255 (1998).

Schwabe, L., Dalm, S., Schachinger, H. & Oitzl, M. S. Chronic stress modulates the use of spatial and stimulus-response learning strategies in mice and man. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 90 , 495–503 (2008).

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the University of Hamburg. Both authors are supported by the University of Hamburg.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

Susanne Vogel & Lars Schwabe

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

S.V. drafted the manuscript and L.S. provided critical revisions. Both authors approved the final version of the manuscript for submission.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lars Schwabe .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Vogel, S., Schwabe, L. Learning and memory under stress: implications for the classroom. npj Science Learn 1 , 16011 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/npjscilearn.2016.11

Download citation

Received : 01 February 2016

Revised : 08 April 2016

Accepted : 12 April 2016

Published : 29 June 2016

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/npjscilearn.2016.11

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

This article is cited by

Alternation of social behaviors for zebrafish (danio rerio) in response to acute cold stress.

• Sian-Tai Liu
• Chun-Yung Chang
• Ming-Yi Chou

Fish Physiology and Biochemistry (2024)

Exploration of the external and internal factors that affected learning effectiveness for the students: a questionnaire survey

• Ding-Ping Chen
• Su-Wei Chang
• Pi-Yueh Chang

BMC Medical Education (2023)

Stress-related cellular pathophysiology as a crosstalk risk factor for neurocognitive and psychiatric disorders

• Iryna S. Palamarchuk
• George M. Slavich
• Tarek K. Rajji

BMC Neuroscience (2023)

Understanding underperformance in a high-stakes clinical-based simulation assessment in physiotherapy: a descriptive analysis

• Brooke Flew
• Belinda Judd
• Lucy Chipchase

Anxiety and functional impairment affects undergraduate psychology students’ learning in remote emergency teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic

• Vitor Rabelo de Sá
• Paula Victoria Sozza Silva Gulá
• Fernando E. Padovan-Neto

Scientific Reports (2023)

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

The Truth About Homework Stress: What Parents & Students Need to Know

• Fact Checked

Written by:

published on:

• December 21, 2023

Updated on:

• June 21, 2024

Looking for a therapist?

Homework is generally given out to ensure that students take time to review and remember the days lessons. It can help improve on a student’s general performance and enhance traits like self-discipline and independent problem solving.

Parents are able to see what their children are doing in school, while also helping teachers determine how well the lesson material is being learned. Homework is quite beneficial when used the right way and can improve student  performance.

This well intentioned practice can turn sour if it’s not handled the right way. Studies show that if a student is inundated with too much homework, not only do they get lower scores, but they are more likely to get stressed.

The age at which homework stress is affecting students is getting lower, some even as low as kindergarten. Makes you wonder what could a five year old possibly need to review as homework?

One of the speculated reasons for this stress is that the complexity of what a student is expected to learn is increasing, while the breaks for working out excess energy are reduced. Students are getting significantly more homework than recommended by the education leaders, some even nearly three times more.

To make matters worse, teachers may give homework that is both time consuming and will keep students busy while being totally non-productive.

Remedial work like telling students to copy notes word for word from their text books will  do nothing to improve their grades or help them progress. It just adds unnecessary stress.

Explore emotional well-being with BetterHelp – your partner in affordable online therapy. With 30,000+ licensed therapists and plans starting from only $65 per week, BetterHelp makes self-care accessible to all. Complete the questionnaire to match with the right therapist.

Effects of homework stress at home

Both parents and students tend to get stressed out at the beginning of a new school year due to the impending arrival of homework.

Nightly battles centered on finishing assignments are a household routine in houses with students.

Research has found that too much homework can negatively affect children. In creating a lack of balance between play time and time spent doing homework, a child can get headaches, sleep deprivation or even ulcers.

And homework stress doesn’t just impact grade schoolers. College students are also affected, and the stress is affecting their academic performance.

Even the parent’s confidence in their abilities to help their children with homework suffers due increasing stress levels in the household.

Fights and conflict over homework are more likely in families where parents do not have at least a college degree. When the child needs assistance, they have to turn to their older siblings who might already be bombarded with their own homework.

Parents who have a college degree feel more confident in approaching the school and discussing the appropriate amount of school work.

“It seems that homework being assigned discriminates against parents who don’t have college degree, parents who have English as their second language and against parents who are poor.” Said Stephanie Donaldson Pressman, the contributing editor of the study and clinical director of the New England Center for Pediatric Psychology.

With all the stress associated with homework, it’s not surprising that some parents have opted not to let their children do homework. Parents that have instituted a no-homework policy have stated that it has taken a lot of the stress out of their evenings.

The recommended amount homework

The standard endorsed by the National Education Association is called the “10 minute rule”; 10 minutes per grade level per night. This recommendation was made after a number of studies were done on the effects of too much homework on families.

The 10 minute rule basically means 10 minutes of homework in the first grade, 20 minute for the second grade all the way up to 120 minutes for senior year in high school. Note that no homework is endorsed in classes under the first grade.

Parents reported first graders were spending around half an hour on homework each night, and kindergarteners spent 25 minutes a night on assignments according to a study carried out by Brown University.

Making a five year old sit still for half an hour is very difficult as they are at the age where they just want to move around and play.

A child who is exposed to 4-5 hours of homework after school is less likely to find the time to go out and play with their friends, which leads to accumulation of stress energy in the body.

Their social life also suffers because between the time spent at school and doing homework, a child will hardly have the time to pursue hobbies. They may also develop a negative attitude towards learning.

The research highlighted that 56% of students consider homework a primary source of stress.

And if you’re curious how the U.S stacks up against other countries in regards to how much time children spend on homework, it’s pretty high on the list .

Signs to look out for on a student that has homework stress

Since not every student is affected by homework stress in the same way, it’s important to be aware of some of the signs your child might be mentally drained from too much homework.

Here are some common signs of homework stress:

• Sleep disturbances
• Frequent stomachaches and headaches
• Decreased appetite or changed eating habits
• New or recurring fears
• Not able to relax
• Regressing to behavior they had when younger
• Bursts of anger crying or whining
• Becoming withdrawn while others may become clingy
• Drastic changes in academic performance
• Having trouble concentrating or completing homework
• Constantly complains about their ability to do homework

If you’re a parent and notice any of these signs in your child, step in to find out what’s going on and if homework is the source of their stress.

If you’re a student, pay attention if you start experiencing any of these symptoms as a result of your homework load. Don’t be afraid to ask your teacher or parents for help if the stress of homework becomes too much for you.

Therapists Specializing in Stress

Regina Lazarovich

Tami Hubbard

James Norwood

What parents do wrong when it comes to homework stress

Most parents push their children to do more and be more, without considering the damage being done by this kind of pressure.

Some think that homework brought home is always something the children can deal with on their own. If the child cannot handle their homework then these parents get angry and make the child feel stupid.

This may lead to more arguing and increased dislike of homework in the household. Ultimately the child develops an even worse attitude towards homework.

Another common mistake parents make is never questioning the amount of homework their children get, or how much time they spend on it. It’s easy to just assume whatever the teacher assigned is adequate, but as we mentioned earlier, that’s not always the case.

Be proactive and involved with your child’s homework. If you notice they’re spending hours every night on homework, ask them about it. Just because they don’t complain doesn’t mean there isn’t a problem.

How can parents help?

• While every parent wants their child to become successful and achieve the very best, it’s important to pull back on the mounting pressure and remember that they’re still just kids. They need time out to release their stress and connect with other children.
• Many children may be afraid to admit that they’re overwhelmed by homework because they might be misconstrued as failures. The best thing a parent can do is make home a safe place for children to express themselves freely. You can do this by lending a listening ear and not judging your kids.
• Parents can also take the initiative to let the school know that they’re unhappy with the amount of homework being given. Even if you don’t feel comfortable complaining, you can approach the school through the parent-teacher association available and request your representative to plead your case.
• It may not be all the subjects that are causing your child to get stressed. Parents should find out if there is a specific subject of homework that is causing stress. You could also consult with other parents to see what they can do to fix the situation. It may be the amount or the content that causes stress, so the first step is identifying the problem.
• Work with your child to create a schedule for getting homework done on time. You can set a specific period of time for homework, and schedule time for other activities too. Strike a balance between work and play.
• Understanding that your child is stressed about homework doesn’t mean you have to allow them not to try. Let them sit down and work on it as much as they’re able to, and recruit help from the older siblings or a neighbor if possible.
• Check out these resources to help your child with their homework .

The main idea here is to not abolish homework completely, but to review the amount and quality of homework being given out. Stress, depression and lower grades are the last things parents want for their children.

The schools and parents need to work together to find a solution to this obvious problem.

Additional Resources

Online therapy.

Discover a path to emotional well-being with BetterHelp – your partner in convenient and affordable online therapy. With a vast network of 30,000+ licensed therapists, they’re committed to helping you find the one to support your needs. Take advantage of their Free Online Assessment, and connect with a therapist who truly understands you. Begin your journey today.

Relationship Counceling

Whether you’re facing communication challenges, trust issues, or simply seeking to strengthen your connection, ReGain’ s experienced therapists are here to guide you and your partner toward a healthier, happier connection from the comfort of your own space. Get started.

Therapist Directory

Discover the perfect therapist who aligns with your goals and preferences, allowing you to take charge of your mental health. Whether you’re searching for a specialist based on your unique needs, experience level, insurance coverage, budget, or location, our user-friendly platform has you covered. Search here.

Mental Health Assesments

About the author

You might also be interested in

ADHD Morning Anger: Strategies to Manage Irritability

How to Relax & Unwind Without Alcohol

5 Best Motivational Books To Motivate & Inspire You

Disclaimers

If you need an immediate assistance:

Medical Emergency (US) – 911 Medical Emergency (Global) – 112 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline – 988 Full List of Emergency Resources 

Online Therapy, Your Way

Follow us on social media

We may receive a commission if you click on and become a paying customer of a therapy service that we mention.

The information contained in Find A Therapist is general in nature and is not medical advice. Please seek immediate in-person help if you are in a crisis situation.

Therapy Categories

More information

If you are in a life threatening situation – don’t use this site. Call +1 (800) 273-8255 or check these resources to get immediate help.

Does Homework Really Help Students Learn?

A conversation with a Wheelock researcher, a BU student, and a fourth-grade teacher

“Quality homework is engaging and relevant to kids’ lives,” says Wheelock’s Janine Bempechat. “It gives them autonomy and engages them in the community and with their families. In some subjects, like math, worksheets can be very helpful. It has to do with the value of practicing over and over.” Photo by iStock/Glenn Cook Photography

Do your homework.

If only it were that simple.

Educators have debated the merits of homework since the late 19th century. In recent years, amid concerns of some parents and teachers that children are being stressed out by too much homework, things have only gotten more fraught.

“Homework is complicated,” says developmental psychologist Janine Bempechat, a Wheelock College of Education & Human Development clinical professor. The author of the essay “ The Case for (Quality) Homework—Why It Improves Learning and How Parents Can Help ” in the winter 2019 issue of Education Next , Bempechat has studied how the debate about homework is influencing teacher preparation, parent and student beliefs about learning, and school policies.

She worries especially about socioeconomically disadvantaged students from low-performing schools who, according to research by Bempechat and others, get little or no homework.

BU Today  sat down with Bempechat and Erin Bruce (Wheelock’17,’18), a new fourth-grade teacher at a suburban Boston school, and future teacher freshman Emma Ardizzone (Wheelock) to talk about what quality homework looks like, how it can help children learn, and how schools can equip teachers to design it, evaluate it, and facilitate parents’ role in it.

BU Today: Parents and educators who are against homework in elementary school say there is no research definitively linking it to academic performance for kids in the early grades. You’ve said that they’re missing the point.

Bempechat : I think teachers assign homework in elementary school as a way to help kids develop skills they’ll need when they’re older—to begin to instill a sense of responsibility and to learn planning and organizational skills. That’s what I think is the greatest value of homework—in cultivating beliefs about learning and skills associated with academic success. If we greatly reduce or eliminate homework in elementary school, we deprive kids and parents of opportunities to instill these important learning habits and skills.

We do know that beginning in late middle school, and continuing through high school, there is a strong and positive correlation between homework completion and academic success.

That’s what I think is the greatest value of homework—in cultivating beliefs about learning and skills associated with academic success.

You talk about the importance of quality homework. What is that?

Quality homework is engaging and relevant to kids’ lives. It gives them autonomy and engages them in the community and with their families. In some subjects, like math, worksheets can be very helpful. It has to do with the value of practicing over and over.

What are your concerns about homework and low-income children?

The argument that some people make—that homework “punishes the poor” because lower-income parents may not be as well-equipped as affluent parents to help their children with homework—is very troubling to me. There are no parents who don’t care about their children’s learning. Parents don’t actually have to help with homework completion in order for kids to do well. They can help in other ways—by helping children organize a study space, providing snacks, being there as a support, helping children work in groups with siblings or friends.

Isn’t the discussion about getting rid of homework happening mostly in affluent communities?

Yes, and the stories we hear of kids being stressed out from too much homework—four or five hours of homework a night—are real. That’s problematic for physical and mental health and overall well-being. But the research shows that higher-income students get a lot more homework than lower-income kids.

Teachers may not have as high expectations for lower-income children. Schools should bear responsibility for providing supports for kids to be able to get their homework done—after-school clubs, community support, peer group support. It does kids a disservice when our expectations are lower for them.

The conversation around homework is to some extent a social class and social justice issue. If we eliminate homework for all children because affluent children have too much, we’re really doing a disservice to low-income children. They need the challenge, and every student can rise to the challenge with enough supports in place.

What did you learn by studying how education schools are preparing future teachers to handle homework?

My colleague, Margarita Jimenez-Silva, at the University of California, Davis, School of Education, and I interviewed faculty members at education schools, as well as supervising teachers, to find out how students are being prepared. And it seemed that they weren’t. There didn’t seem to be any readings on the research, or conversations on what high-quality homework is and how to design it.

Erin, what kind of training did you get in handling homework?

Bruce : I had phenomenal professors at Wheelock, but homework just didn’t come up. I did lots of student teaching. I’ve been in classrooms where the teachers didn’t assign any homework, and I’ve been in rooms where they assigned hours of homework a night. But I never even considered homework as something that was my decision. I just thought it was something I’d pull out of a book and it’d be done.

I started giving homework on the first night of school this year. My first assignment was to go home and draw a picture of the room where you do your homework. I want to know if it’s at a table and if there are chairs around it and if mom’s cooking dinner while you’re doing homework.

The second night I asked them to talk to a grown-up about how are you going to be able to get your homework done during the week. The kids really enjoyed it. There’s a running joke that I’m teaching life skills.

Friday nights, I read all my kids’ responses to me on their homework from the week and it’s wonderful. They pour their hearts out. It’s like we’re having a conversation on my couch Friday night.

It matters to know that the teacher cares about you and that what you think matters to the teacher. Homework is a vehicle to connect home and school…for parents to know teachers are welcoming to them and their families.

Bempechat : I can’t imagine that most new teachers would have the intuition Erin had in designing homework the way she did.

Ardizzone : Conversations with kids about homework, feeling you’re being listened to—that’s such a big part of wanting to do homework….I grew up in Westchester County. It was a pretty demanding school district. My junior year English teacher—I loved her—she would give us feedback, have meetings with all of us. She’d say, “If you have any questions, if you have anything you want to talk about, you can talk to me, here are my office hours.” It felt like she actually cared.

Bempechat : It matters to know that the teacher cares about you and that what you think matters to the teacher. Homework is a vehicle to connect home and school…for parents to know teachers are welcoming to them and their families.

Ardizzone : But can’t it lead to parents being overbearing and too involved in their children’s lives as students?

Bempechat : There’s good help and there’s bad help. The bad help is what you’re describing—when parents hover inappropriately, when they micromanage, when they see their children confused and struggling and tell them what to do.

Good help is when parents recognize there’s a struggle going on and instead ask informative questions: “Where do you think you went wrong?” They give hints, or pointers, rather than saying, “You missed this,” or “You didn’t read that.”

Bruce : I hope something comes of this. I hope BU or Wheelock can think of some way to make this a more pressing issue. As a first-year teacher, it was not something I even thought about on the first day of school—until a kid raised his hand and said, “Do we have homework?” It would have been wonderful if I’d had a plan from day one.

Explore Related Topics:

• Share this story

Senior Contributing Editor

Sara Rimer A journalist for more than three decades, Sara Rimer worked at the Miami Herald , Washington Post and, for 26 years, the New York Times , where she was the New England bureau chief, and a national reporter covering education, aging, immigration, and other social justice issues. Her stories on the death penalty’s inequities were nominated for a Pulitzer Prize and cited in the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision outlawing the execution of people with intellectual disabilities. Her journalism honors include Columbia University’s Meyer Berger award for in-depth human interest reporting. She holds a BA degree in American Studies from the University of Michigan. Profile

She can be reached at [email protected] .

Comments & Discussion

Boston University moderates comments to facilitate an informed, substantive, civil conversation. Abusive, profane, self-promotional, misleading, incoherent or off-topic comments will be rejected. Moderators are staffed during regular business hours (EST) and can only accept comments written in English. Statistics or facts must include a citation or a link to the citation.

There are 81 comments on Does Homework Really Help Students Learn?

Insightful! The values about homework in elementary schools are well aligned with my intuition as a parent.

when i finish my work i do my homework and i sometimes forget what to do because i did not get enough sleep

same omg it does not help me it is stressful and if I have it in more than one class I hate it.

Same I think my parent wants to help me but, she doesn’t care if I get bad grades so I just try my best and my grades are great.

I think that last question about Good help from parents is not know to all parents, we do as our parents did or how we best think it can be done, so maybe coaching parents or giving them resources on how to help with homework would be very beneficial for the parent on how to help and for the teacher to have consistency and improve homework results, and of course for the child. I do see how homework helps reaffirm the knowledge obtained in the classroom, I also have the ability to see progress and it is a time I share with my kids

The answer to the headline question is a no-brainer – a more pressing problem is why there is a difference in how students from different cultures succeed. Perfect example is the student population at BU – why is there a majority population of Asian students and only about 3% black students at BU? In fact at some universities there are law suits by Asians to stop discrimination and quotas against admitting Asian students because the real truth is that as a group they are demonstrating better qualifications for admittance, while at the same time there are quotas and reduced requirements for black students to boost their portion of the student population because as a group they do more poorly in meeting admissions standards – and it is not about the Benjamins. The real problem is that in our PC society no one has the gazuntas to explore this issue as it may reveal that all people are not created equal after all. Or is it just environmental cultural differences??????

I get you have a concern about the issue but that is not even what the point of this article is about. If you have an issue please take this to the site we have and only post your opinion about the actual topic

This is not at all what the article is talking about.

This literally has nothing to do with the article brought up. You should really take your opinions somewhere else before you speak about something that doesn’t make sense.

we have the same name

so they have the same name what of it?

lol you tell her

totally agree

What does that have to do with homework, that is not what the article talks about AT ALL.

Yes, I think homework plays an important role in the development of student life. Through homework, students have to face challenges on a daily basis and they try to solve them quickly.I am an intense online tutor at 24x7homeworkhelp and I give homework to my students at that level in which they handle it easily.

More than two-thirds of students said they used alcohol and drugs, primarily marijuana, to cope with stress.

You know what’s funny? I got this assignment to write an argument for homework about homework and this article was really helpful and understandable, and I also agree with this article’s point of view.

I also got the same task as you! I was looking for some good resources and I found this! I really found this article useful and easy to understand, just like you! ^^

i think that homework is the best thing that a child can have on the school because it help them with their thinking and memory.

I am a child myself and i think homework is a terrific pass time because i can’t play video games during the week. It also helps me set goals.

Homework is not harmful ,but it will if there is too much

I feel like, from a minors point of view that we shouldn’t get homework. Not only is the homework stressful, but it takes us away from relaxing and being social. For example, me and my friends was supposed to hang at the mall last week but we had to postpone it since we all had some sort of work to do. Our minds shouldn’t be focused on finishing an assignment that in realty, doesn’t matter. I completely understand that we should have homework. I have to write a paper on the unimportance of homework so thanks.

homework isn’t that bad

Are you a student? if not then i don’t really think you know how much and how severe todays homework really is

i am a student and i do not enjoy homework because i practice my sport 4 out of the five days we have school for 4 hours and that’s not even counting the commute time or the fact i still have to shower and eat dinner when i get home. its draining!

i totally agree with you. these people are such boomers

why just why

they do make a really good point, i think that there should be a limit though. hours and hours of homework can be really stressful, and the extra work isn’t making a difference to our learning, but i do believe homework should be optional and extra credit. that would make it for students to not have the leaning stress of a assignment and if you have a low grade you you can catch up.

Studies show that homework improves student achievement in terms of improved grades, test results, and the likelihood to attend college. Research published in the High School Journal indicates that students who spent between 31 and 90 minutes each day on homework “scored about 40 points higher on the SAT-Mathematics subtest than their peers, who reported spending no time on homework each day, on average.” On both standardized tests and grades, students in classes that were assigned homework outperformed 69% of students who didn’t have homework. A majority of studies on homework’s impact – 64% in one meta-study and 72% in another – showed that take home assignments were effective at improving academic achievement. Research by the Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) concluded that increased homework led to better GPAs and higher probability of college attendance for high school boys. In fact, boys who attended college did more than three hours of additional homework per week in high school.

So how are your measuring student achievement? That’s the real question. The argument that doing homework is simply a tool for teaching responsibility isn’t enough for me. We can teach responsibility in a number of ways. Also the poor argument that parents don’t need to help with homework, and that students can do it on their own, is wishful thinking at best. It completely ignores neurodiverse students. Students in poverty aren’t magically going to find a space to do homework, a friend’s or siblings to help them do it, and snacks to eat. I feel like the author of this piece has never set foot in a classroom of students.

THIS. This article is pathetic coming from a university. So intellectually dishonest, refusing to address the havoc of capitalism and poverty plays on academic success in life. How can they in one sentence use poor kids in an argument and never once address that poor children have access to damn near 0 of the resources affluent kids have? Draw me a picture and let’s talk about feelings lmao what a joke is that gonna put food in their belly so they can have the calories to burn in order to use their brain to study? What about quiet their 7 other siblings that they share a single bedroom with for hours? Is it gonna force the single mom to magically be at home and at work at the same time to cook food while you study and be there to throw an encouraging word?

Also the “parents don’t need to be a parent and be able to guide their kid at all academically they just need to exist in the next room” is wild. Its one thing if a parent straight up is not equipped but to say kids can just figured it out is…. wow coming from an educator What’s next the teacher doesn’t need to teach cause the kid can just follow the packet and figure it out?

Well then get a tutor right? Oh wait you are poor only affluent kids can afford a tutor for their hours of homework a day were they on average have none of the worries a poor child does. Does this address that poor children are more likely to also suffer abuse and mental illness? Like mentioned what about kids that can’t learn or comprehend the forced standardized way? Just let em fail? These children regularly are not in “special education”(some of those are a joke in their own and full of neglect and abuse) programs cause most aren’t even acknowledged as having disabilities or disorders.

But yes all and all those pesky poor kids just aren’t being worked hard enough lol pretty sure poor children’s existence just in childhood is more work, stress, and responsibility alone than an affluent child’s entire life cycle. Love they never once talked about the quality of education in the classroom being so bad between the poor and affluent it can qualify as segregation, just basically blamed poor people for being lazy, good job capitalism for failing us once again!

why the hell?

you should feel bad for saying this, this article can be helpful for people who has to write a essay about it

This is more of a political rant than it is about homework

I know a teacher who has told his students their homework is to find something they are interested in, pursue it and then come share what they learn. The student responses are quite compelling. One girl taught herself German so she could talk to her grandfather. One boy did a research project on Nelson Mandela because the teacher had mentioned him in class. Another boy, a both on the autism spectrum, fixed his family’s computer. The list goes on. This is fourth grade. I think students are highly motivated to learn, when we step aside and encourage them.

The whole point of homework is to give the students a chance to use the material that they have been presented with in class. If they never have the opportunity to use that information, and discover that it is actually useful, it will be in one ear and out the other. As a science teacher, it is critical that the students are challenged to use the material they have been presented with, which gives them the opportunity to actually think about it rather than regurgitate “facts”. Well designed homework forces the student to think conceptually, as opposed to regurgitation, which is never a pretty sight

Wonderful discussion. and yes, homework helps in learning and building skills in students.

not true it just causes kids to stress

Homework can be both beneficial and unuseful, if you will. There are students who are gifted in all subjects in school and ones with disabilities. Why should the students who are gifted get the lucky break, whereas the people who have disabilities suffer? The people who were born with this “gift” go through school with ease whereas people with disabilities struggle with the work given to them. I speak from experience because I am one of those students: the ones with disabilities. Homework doesn’t benefit “us”, it only tears us down and put us in an abyss of confusion and stress and hopelessness because we can’t learn as fast as others. Or we can’t handle the amount of work given whereas the gifted students go through it with ease. It just brings us down and makes us feel lost; because no mater what, it feels like we are destined to fail. It feels like we weren’t “cut out” for success.

homework does help

here is the thing though, if a child is shoved in the face with a whole ton of homework that isn’t really even considered homework it is assignments, it’s not helpful. the teacher should make homework more of a fun learning experience rather than something that is dreaded

This article was wonderful, I am going to ask my teachers about extra, or at all giving homework.

I agree. Especially when you have homework before an exam. Which is distasteful as you’ll need that time to study. It doesn’t make any sense, nor does us doing homework really matters as It’s just facts thrown at us.

Homework is too severe and is just too much for students, schools need to decrease the amount of homework. When teachers assign homework they forget that the students have other classes that give them the same amount of homework each day. Students need to work on social skills and life skills.

I disagree.

Beyond achievement, proponents of homework argue that it can have many other beneficial effects. They claim it can help students develop good study habits so they are ready to grow as their cognitive capacities mature. It can help students recognize that learning can occur at home as well as at school. Homework can foster independent learning and responsible character traits. And it can give parents an opportunity to see what’s going on at school and let them express positive attitudes toward achievement.

Homework is helpful because homework helps us by teaching us how to learn a specific topic.

As a student myself, I can say that I have almost never gotten the full 9 hours of recommended sleep time, because of homework. (Now I’m writing an essay on it in the middle of the night D=)

I am a 10 year old kid doing a report about “Is homework good or bad” for homework before i was going to do homework is bad but the sources from this site changed my mind!

Homeowkr is god for stusenrs

I agree with hunter because homework can be so stressful especially with this whole covid thing no one has time for homework and every one just wants to get back to there normal lives it is especially stressful when you go on a 2 week vaca 3 weeks into the new school year and and then less then a week after you come back from the vaca you are out for over a month because of covid and you have no way to get the assignment done and turned in

As great as homework is said to be in the is article, I feel like the viewpoint of the students was left out. Every where I go on the internet researching about this topic it almost always has interviews from teachers, professors, and the like. However isn’t that a little biased? Of course teachers are going to be for homework, they’re not the ones that have to stay up past midnight completing the homework from not just one class, but all of them. I just feel like this site is one-sided and you should include what the students of today think of spending four hours every night completing 6-8 classes worth of work.

Are we talking about homework or practice? Those are two very different things and can result in different outcomes.

Homework is a graded assignment. I do not know of research showing the benefits of graded assignments going home.

Practice; however, can be extremely beneficial, especially if there is some sort of feedback (not a grade but feedback). That feedback can come from the teacher, another student or even an automated grading program.

As a former band director, I assigned daily practice. I never once thought it would be appropriate for me to require the students to turn in a recording of their practice for me to grade. Instead, I had in-class assignments/assessments that were graded and directly related to the practice assigned.

I would really like to read articles on “homework” that truly distinguish between the two.

oof i feel bad good luck!

thank you guys for the artical because I have to finish an assingment. yes i did cite it but just thanks

thx for the article guys.

Homework is good

I think homework is helpful AND harmful. Sometimes u can’t get sleep bc of homework but it helps u practice for school too so idk.

I agree with this Article. And does anyone know when this was published. I would like to know.

It was published FEb 19, 2019.

Studies have shown that homework improved student achievement in terms of improved grades, test results, and the likelihood to attend college.

i think homework can help kids but at the same time not help kids

This article is so out of touch with majority of homes it would be laughable if it wasn’t so incredibly sad.

There is no value to homework all it does is add stress to already stressed homes. Parents or adults magically having the time or energy to shepherd kids through homework is dome sort of 1950’s fantasy.

What lala land do these teachers live in?

Homework gives noting to the kid

Homework is Bad

homework is bad.

why do kids even have homework?

Comments are closed.

Latest from Bostonia

Bu alum chompon boonnak runs mahaniyom, one of greater boston’s hottest thai restaurants, champion of indie films, china scholar merle goldman dies, cfa alum jonathan knight is head of games for the new york times, one good deed: jason hurdich (cas’97) is uniting the deaf community, one cup at a time, is our democracy at risk americans think so. bu experts talk about why—and the way forward, a commitment to early childhood education, reading list: alum bonnie hammer publishes 15 lies women are told at work —plus fiction, poetry, and short stories, space force general b. chance saltzman is a bu alum, pups wearing custom-designed veterinary collars get star treatment in alum’s new coffee-table book, using glamour for good: alum’s nonprofit organization brings clothes and beauty products to those in need, gallery: shea justice (cfa’93), oscar-nominated actor hong chau (com’01) stars in new action-comedy the instigators, alum’s new book recounts the battle for inclusion in boy scouts, feedback: readers weigh in on a bu superager, the passing of otto lerbinger, and alum’s book fat church, law alum steven m. wise, who fought for animal rights, dies, opening doors: ellice patterson (questrom’17), an alum’s new memoir recounts six decades of beatlemania, bu alum in paris keeping olympians’ minds sharp and healthy, erika jordan departs bu alumni engagement office to return to california.

How much do teachers struggle with stress and burnout?

Subscribe to the brown center on education policy newsletter, seth gershenson and seth gershenson associate professor, school of public affairs - american university, research fellow - institute for the study of labor (iza) stephen holt stephen holt assistant professor of public administration and policy - suny albany.

February 8, 2022

There’s long been a perception—even before COVID-19—that schoolteachers are perpetually stressed and on the verge of burning out. Teaching is, without question, a challenging profession. The nature of the work is uniquely challenging, and many facets of the job are outside of teachers’ control—namely, the experiences that students bring to class. And those facets that teachers can control, like lesson preparation and good classroom management, require long hours of managing emotions during the workday and extra, uncompensated effort at night.

Stories in popular media frequently tell these stories with a narrative arc that portrays teaching as a Sisyphean task. One such story , “Hey, New Teachers, It’s OK To Cry In Your Car,” caught our attention years ago due to the vivid description of a rookie teacher hitting her breaking point just a couple months into the school year. Listening to the story, we wondered if teaching really differed from other professions in terms of mental health issues, or if everyone’s similarly stressed out in an increasingly fast-paced, cynical world.

Exploring perception and reality

Does the perception that teachers are uniquely stressed out match the reality? Has mental health worsened over time? And how are trends in mental health different for teachers than similar nonteachers? With Rui Wang of Shanghai University of Finance and Economics and support from the Spencer Foundation, we answered these questions .

We use nationally representative survey data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth (NLSY) that tracks two cohorts of young adults as they age. The NLSY 79 sample includes roughly 13,000 respondents who were aged 14-22 when first interviewed in 1979; it assessed mental health in follow-up interviews in 1997, and at ages 40 and 50 for participants. The NLSY 97 sample includes roughly 9,000 respondents aged 12-17 when first interviewed in 1997; it assessed mental health in five different follow-up interviews spanning 2004 and 2015.

With these survey responses, we establish some basic facts about teachers’ mental health:

• In the 1979 cohort, women who became teachers had similar mental health to college-educated nonteachers prior to entering the profession. This suggests differences between teachers’ and nonteachers’ mental health are not due to pre-existing differences. We find no evidence that women with better (or worse) mental health than their peers opt for teaching as a profession.
• While teaching, educators appear to enjoy slightly better mental health, on average, than their nonteaching, college-educated peers. This is not to say that teachers experience no stress, but that their stress levels are no worse—and perhaps even better—than college-educated women in other professions.
• Regarding changes over time, in the 1997 cohort, teachers self-report worse mental health, on average, than their counterparts in the 1979 cohort. Yet, there is no significant difference between teachers’ and nonteachers’ mental health measures in the 1997 cohort—so it appears everyone has more stressors over time, and the decline in mental health is not unique to teaching.

These findings suggest that concerns about mental health, stress, burnout, and work-life balance are universal, and not unique (or uniquely pressing) in the teaching profession. A team at University College London has been studying similar questions in Europe and reached similar conclusions. This doesn’t mean that we should ignore teachers’ concerns, of course. Everyone needs to be in good mental and physical health to do their job well. And in the case of teaching, there’s a lot we can do to ease their workload, boost their morale, and provide supports that enable teachers to be their best selves in the classroom.

Teacher stress and mental health in the 2020s

A major limitation is that all of this research predates the pandemic. Alongside their role as educators, COVID-19 put teachers on the frontlines of managing ever-changing public health guidance and forced an abrupt pivot to remote instruction for prolonged periods of time. The dual burden has re-ignited concerns about teachers’ mental health, workloads, and what this means for the future of the teaching force.

As the pandemic and efforts to control it continue, teachers face unprecedented work-related stress, for sure. Recently, a survey released by the Alberta Teachers’ Association made headlines with the striking result that one-third of surveyed teachers said they were not sure they’d return to the classroom next school year. In the U.S. context, a recent survey conducted by the RAND Corporation finds a notable increase (almost 50%) in the share of teachers who say they might leave the profession at the end of the current school year, compared to pre-pandemic survey results. In addition to concerns about mass departures, stress hinders the effectiveness of those who remain in the profession. Protecting and maintaining a robust workforce of effective teachers necessitates helping teachers in developing the tools and skills for managing workplace stress. But first, we need to understand the sources of workplace stress.

As if keeping schools operational during a pandemic wasn’t stressful enough, keep in mind that teachers have had to confront the ripple effects of extreme political polarization in the U.S. in recent years as well. Teachers now find themselves in the center of conflicts over mask and vaccine mandates,  how to teach about racial issues in social studies and history, and a nonstop cycle of current events that continue to raise the salience of both deep partisan divisions and racial inequities.

The need to address these controversial topics with students, with increasing interference from parents, has undoubtedly made an already difficult job that much more challenging. And, since public schools are a safety net institution in the U.S.—often providing children multiple meals per day and their primary access to technology—teachers, especially those in preschool and day-care centers , have also been tasked with helping students navigate pandemic impacts on basic needs while experiencing their own pandemic-related hardships. In short, America’s contentious political climate and ongoing pandemic have simultaneously increased teachers’ workloads—and work-related stress.

New podcast turns spotlight onto teachers’ workloads

To help parents, school leaders, policymakers, and teachers understand and confront these challenges, we created a five-episode podcast called “ Mind the Teacher ,” with support from the Spencer Foundation and American University’s School of Public Affairs. In it, we speak to a range of experts including educators, researchers, and journalists about identifying and addressing problems related to teachers’ mental health.

Our main takeaway is that mental health is an important, and too often overlooked, aspect of our lives. This is true for everyone: teachers and nonteachers, parents and students. The global pandemic has shone a spotlight on the importance of, and inequities in, mental health. It’s also made the broader public, including parents, more aware of the challenges that teachers face, and the hard work they do, on a daily basis. While mental health concerns are not unique to teachers, teachers play a hugely important role in society, and their concerns must be addressed.

There’s a lot that school leaders, policymakers, and community stakeholders can do to support teachers. Some of these lessons come from the general psychology literature on workplace mental health, some come from listening to teachers, and some are just common sense.

There’s no silver bullet here. Rather, our reading of the literature suggests a two-pronged approach , with both individual-facing interventions and organizational-level changes. Teacher-directed interventions may include increased pay or programs that provide free counseling. Other teacher-facing interventions that have been shown to lift teacher morale include mindfulness training , peer mentorship, and coaching programs . School leadership might consider allowing teachers more autonomy, input on policy issues, planning and preparation time, and paid personal/mental health days. Decision-makers can free up valuable teaching capacity by providing grading assistance, reducing class sizes, and employing more counselors, social workers, and supervisory administrators.

At the organizational level, interventions should focus on quality, supportive leadership, access to free or affordable health care (including mental health care), and systematic policies to ease teachers’ workloads. And leadership should recognize racial and socioeconomic disparities and design support systems that alleviate the historical stresses on Black and other marginalized teachers.

Ultimately, many aspects of workplace stress stem from anxiety about being effective at work. Teachers, like many other professionals, want to be effective in their jobs and suffer from increased stress, anxiety, and depression when they know they aren’t at their best or are not receiving needed support. Both the individual- and organization-level approaches outlined here share a recognition that teachers’ mental health is inextricably linked to feeling supported and effective in the classroom—and that means giving teachers the dedicated time, space, and resources they need.

At the end of the day, public schools play a fundamentally important role in society, and teachers play a fundamentally important role within schools. It’s a difficult job made even tougher by the pandemic. We should fully support teachers and their mental health, as they can’t do their best work—and ensure that our students reach their full potential—when they’re suffering from chronic fatigue, pressure, and stress.

Authors’ note: If you’ve read this far, we hope that you’ll give “ Mind the Teacher ” a listen. All stakeholders should find this to be a useful resource. Episodes are available on Apple and Stitcher , and can also be streamed from American University’s website ; the latter also offers transcripts and links to the research referred to in each episode.

Related Content

Daphna Bassok, Justin B. Doromal

January 5, 2022

Diana Quintero

January 25, 2019

K-12 Education

Governance Studies

Brown Center on Education Policy

Julien Lafortune, Barbara Biasi, David Schönholzer

September 6, 2024

Jenny Anderson, Rebecca Winthrop

January 7, 2025

Jonathan Rauch

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Homework’s implications for the well-being of primary school pupils—perceptions of children, parents, and teachers.

1. Introduction

1.1. homework—perspectives of students, teachers, and parents, 1.2. homework practices in primary education in romania, 1.3. present study, 2. methodology, 2.1. design, data collection methods, and procedures, 2.2. participants, 2.3. data analysis, 3. research findings, 3.1. homework not liked by students.

3.2. Students’ Negative Reactions When Doing Homework

3.3. Homework That Makes Children Feel Good

3.4. Homework Students Like

3.5. Checking and Assessing Homework

3.6. Suggestions for Improving Educational Practices Regarding Homework

4. Discussions

5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional reviewer board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

• Rosário, P.; Núñez, J.C.; Vallejo, G.; Cunha, J.; Nunes, T.; Suárez, N.; Fuentes, S.; Moreira, T. The effects of teachers’ homework follow-up practices on students’ EFL performance: A randomized-group design. Front. Psychol. 2015 , 6 , 1528. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Williams, K.; Swift, J.; Williams, H.; Van Daal, V. Raising children’s self-efficacy through parental involvement in homework. Educ. Res. 2017 , 59 , 316–334. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tam, V.C.; Chu, P.; Tsang, V. Engaging in self-directed leisure activities during a homework-free holiday: Impacts on primary school children in Hong Kong. J. Glob. Educ. Res. 2023 , 7 , 64–80. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Moorhouse, B.L. Qualities of good homework activities: Teachers’ perceptions. ELT J. 2021 , 75 , 300–310. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• McGuire, S.Y.; McGuire, S. Teach Students How to Learn: Strategies You Can Incorporate into Any Course to Improve Student Metacognition, Study Skills, and Motivation , 1st ed.; Stylus Publishing: Sterling, VA, USA, 2015. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sayers, J.; Petersson, J.; Marschall, G.; Andrews, P. Teachers’ perspectives on homework: Manifestations of culturally situated common sense. Educ. Rev. 2020 , 74 , 905–926. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Norhayati, E.; Rahya, R. Teacher’s Strategy in Shaping the Responsible Character of the Primary School Students toward Homework. Indones. J. Prim. Educ. Res. 2023 , 1 , 36–44. Available online: https://ejournal.aecindonesia.org/index.php/IJPER/article/view/6 (accessed on 2 June 2023).
• Negru, I.; Sava, S. Reflections, perceptions and practices in formulating and evaluating homework in primary education. J. Pedag. 2022 , 52 , 93–120. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dolean, D.D.; Lervåg, A.; Visu-Petra, L.; Melby-Lervåg, M. Language skills, and not executive functions, predict the development of reading comprehension of early readers: Evidence from an orthographically transparent language. Read. Writ. 2021 , 34 , 1491–1512. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Syla, L.B. Perspectives of Primary Teachers, Students, and Parents on Homework. Educ. Res. Int. 2023 , 7669108. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Moè, A.; Katz, I.; Cohen, R.; Alesi, M. Reducing homework stress by increasing adoption of need-supportive practices: Effects of an intervention with parents. Learn. Individ. Differ. 2020 , 82 , 101921. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rodríguez, S.; González-Suárez, R.; Vieites, T.; Piñeiro, I.; Díaz-Freire, F.M. Self-Regulation and Students Well-Being: A Systematic Review 2010. Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 2346. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dettmers, S.; Yotyodying, S.; Jonkmann, K. Antecedents and Outcomes of Parental Homework Involvement: How Do Family-School Partnerships Affect Parental Homework Involvement and Student Outcomes? Front. Psychol. 2019 , 10 , 1048. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Epstein, J.L.; Van Voorhis, F.L. More Than Minutes: Teachers’ Roles in Designing Homework. Educ. Psychol. 2001 , 36 , 181–193. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Medwell, J.; Wray, D. Primary homework in England: The beliefs and practices of teachers in primary schools. Int. J. Prim. Elem. Early Years Educ. 2018 , 47 , 191–204. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rodríguez, S.; Núñez, J.C.; Valle, A.; Freire, C.; Ferradás, M.d.M.; Rodríguez-Llorente, C. Relationship Between Students’ Prior Academic Achievement and Homework Behavioral Engagement: The Mediating/Moderating Role of Learning Motivation. Front. Psychol. 2019 , 10 , 1047. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• De Róiste, A.; Kelly, C.; Molcho, M.; Gavin, A.; Nic Gabhainn, S. Is school participation good for children? Associations with health and wellbeing. Health Educ. 2012 , 112 , 88–104. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• OECD. Measuring What Matters for Child Well-Being and Policies ; OECD: Paris, France, 2021. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Anderson, D.L.; Graham, A.P. Improving student wellbeing: Having a say at school. Sch. Eff. Sch. Improv. 2015 , 27 , 348–366. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lewis, A. Examining the concept of well-being and early childhood: Adopting multi-disciplinary perspectives. J. Early Child. Res. 2019 , 17 , 294–308. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Aulia, F.; Hastjarjo, T.D.; Setiyawati, D.; Patria, B. Student Well-being: A Systematic Literature Review. Psychol. Bull. 2020 , 28 , 1–14. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wikman, C.; Allodi, M.W.; Ferrer-Wreder, L.A. Self-Concept, Prosocial School Behaviors, Well-Being, and Academic Skills in Elementary School Students: A Whole-Child Perspective. Educ. Sci. 2022 , 12 , 298. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Looney, J. Happiness in children: Measurement, correlates and enhancement of positive subjective well-being. Camb. J. Educ. 2014 , 45 , 393–394. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liu, Y.; Sang, B.; Liu, J.; Gong, S.; Ding, X. Parental support and homework emotions in Chinese children: Mediating roles of homework self-efficacy and emotion regulation strategies. Educ. Psychol. 2019 , 39 , 617–635. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Konu, A.; Rimpelä, M. Well-being in schools: A conceptual model. Heal. Promot. Int. 2002 , 17 , 79–87. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Raghavan, R.; Alexandrova, A. Toward a Theory of Child Well-Being. Soc. Indic. Res. 2014 , 121 , 887–902. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ben-Arieh, A.; Casas, F.; Frønes, I.; Korbin, J.E. Multifaceted Concept of Child Well-Being. In Handbook of Child Well-Being. Theories, Methods, and Policies in Global Perspective ; Ben-Arieh, A., Ed.; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2014; pp. 1–27. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Choi, A. Emotional Well-Being of Children and Adolescents: Recent Trends and Relevant Factors ; OEDC Education Working Papers; OEDC Publishing: Paris, France, 2018; p. 169. [ Google Scholar ]
• Valle, A.; Piñeiro, I.; Rodríguez, S.; Regueiro, B.; Freire, C.; Rosário, P. Time spent and time management in homework in elementary school students: A person-centered approach. Psicothema 2019 , 31 , 422–428. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Institute of Education Sciences. Homework-National Consultation on the Role, Consistency, and Effectiveness of Homework. 2017. Available online: https://www.ise.ro/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Raport_Teme-acasa_final.pdf (accessed on 3 May 2023).
• Holland, M.; Courtney, M.; Vergara, J.; McIntyre, D.; Nix, S.; Marion, A.; Shergill, G. Homework and Children in Grades 3–6: Purpose, Policy and Non-Academic Impact. Child Youth Care Forum 2021 , 50 , 631–651. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhou, Y.; Siu, A.F.Y.; Tse, W.S. Influences of Unhealthy Sleep Behaviors on the Excessive Daytime Sleepiness and Depressive Symptoms in Children. J. Child Fam. Stud. 2014 , 24 , 2120–2126. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Schrat Carr, N. Increasing the Effectiveness of Homework for All Learners in the Inclusive Classroom. Sch. Community J. 2013 , 23 , 169–182. [ Google Scholar ]
• Calarco, J.M.; Horn, I.S.; Chen, G.A. “You Need to Be More Responsible”: The Myth of Meritocracy and Teachers’ Accounts of Homework Inequalities. Educ. Res. 2022 , 51 , 515–523. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rosário, P.; Cunha, J.; Nunes, T.; Nunes, A.R.; Moreira, T.; Núñez, J.C. “Homework Should Be…but We Do Not Live in an Ideal World”: Mathematics Teachers’ Perspectives on Quality Homework and on Homework Assigned in Elementary and Middle Schools. Front. Psychol. 2019 , 10 , 6–7. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rønning, M. Who benefits from homework assignments? Econ. Educ. Rev. 2011 , 30 , 55–64. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cooper, H.; Robinson, J.C.; A Patall, E. Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement? A Synthesis of Research, 1987–2003. Rev. Educ. Res. 2006 , 76 , 1–62. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fernández-Alonso, R.; Álvarez-Díaz, M.; García-Crespo, F.J.; Woitschach, P.; Muñiz, J. Should we Help our Children with Homework? A Meta-Analysis Using PISA Data. Psicothema 2022 , 34 , 56–65. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• O’keeffe, L.; Clarke, C.; McDonald, S.; Comber, B. Mathematics homework and the potential compounding of educational disadvantage. Br. J. Sociol. Educ. 2023 , 44 , 1–17. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Solomon, Y.; Warin, J.; Lewis, C. Helping with Homework? Homework as a Site of Tension for Parents and Teenagers. Br. Educ. Res. J. 2002 , 28 , 603–622. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Watts, R.; Pattnaik, J. Perspectives of Parents and Teachers on the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Children’s Socio-Emotional Well-Being. Early Child. Educ. J. 2022 , 50 , 1–12. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ma, X.; Shen, J.; Krenn, H.Y.; Hu, S.; Yuan, J. A Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between Learning Outcomes and Parental Involvement During Early Childhood Education and Early Elementary Education. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 2015 , 28 , 771–801. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hampden-Thompson, G.; Guzman, L.; Lippman, L. A cross-national analysis of parental involvement and student literacy. Int. J. Comp. Sociol. 2013 , 54 , 246–266. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Xu, J. Why Do Students Have Difficulties Completing Homework? The Need for Homework Management. J. Educ. Train. Stud. 2012 , 1 , 98–105. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Katz, I.; Buzukashvili, T.; Feingold, L. Homework Stress: Construct Validation of a Measure. J. Exp. Educ. 2012 , 80 , 405–421. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kennewell, E.; Curtis, R.G.; Maher, C.; Luddy, S.; Virgara, R. The relationships between school children’s wellbeing, socio-economic disadvantage and after-school activities: A cross-sectional study. BMC Pediatr. 2022 , 22 , 297. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Payne, K.; Walton, E.; Burton, C. Steps to benefit from social prescription: A qualitative interview study. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 2020 , 70 , e36–e44. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bradley, M.; Harrel, M. Data Collection Methods. Semi-Structured Interviews and Focus Groups ; RAND, National Security Research Division: Santa Monica, CA, USA, 2009. [ Google Scholar ]
• Seidman, I. Interviewing as Qualitative Research: A Guide for Researchers in Education and the Social Sciences , 5th ed.; Teachers College Press, Columbia University: New York, NY, USA, 2019. [ Google Scholar ]
• McNulty, K. The Impact of Homework on a Child’s Motivation to Learn in Primary Education. Ph.D. Thesis, Letterkenny Institute of Technology, Donegal, Ireland, 2018. [ Google Scholar ]
• Costa, M.; Cardoso, A.P.; Lacerda, C.; Lopes, A.; Gomes, C. Homework in Primary Education from the Perspective of Teachers and Pupils. Procedia—Soc. Behav. Sci. 2016 , 217 , 139–148. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Grant, K.B.; Ray, J.A. Home, School, and Community Collaboration-Culturally Responsive Family Engagement , 4th ed.; SAGE Publications: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2019. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sheridan, S.M.; Smith, T.E.; Kim, E.M.; Beretvas, S.N.; Park, S. A Meta-Analysis of Family-School Interventions and Children’s Social-Emotional Functioning: Moderators and Components of Efficacy. Rev. Educ. Res. 2019 , 89 , 296–332. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Holte, K.L. Homework in Primary School: Could It Be Made More Child-Friendly? Stud. Paedagog. 2016 , 21 , 13–33. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Clarke, V.; Braun, V. Thematic analysis. J. Posit. Psychol. 2017 , 12 , 297–298. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cunha, J.; Rosario, P.; Macedo, L.; Nunes, A.R.; Fuentes, S.; Pinto, R.; Suarez, N. Parents’ conceptions of their homework involvement in elementary school. Psychothema 2015 , 27 , 159–165. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kaldi, S.; Filippatou, D.; Govaris, C. Project-based learning in primary schools: Effects on pupils’ learning and attitudes. Int. J. Prim. Elem. Early Years Educ. 2011 , 39 , 35–47. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tam, V.C.; Chan, R.M.C. What Is Homework For? Hong Kong Primary School Teachers’ Homework Conceptions. Sch. Community J. 2016 , 26 , 25–44. [ Google Scholar ]
• Locke, J.Y.; Kavanagh, D.J.; Campbell, M.A. Overparenting and Homework: The Student’s Task, But Everyone’s Responsibility. J. Psychol. Couns. Sch. 2016 , 26 , 1–15. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Monsillion, J.; Zebdi, R.; Romo-Desprez, L. School Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Youth, and Considerations for Anxiety, Depression, and a Positive School Climate—A Systematic Literature Review. Children 2023 , 10 , 861. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]

Share and Cite

Negru, I.; Sava, S. Homework’s Implications for the Well-Being of Primary School Pupils—Perceptions of Children, Parents, and Teachers. Educ. Sci. 2023 , 13 , 996. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13100996

Negru I, Sava S. Homework’s Implications for the Well-Being of Primary School Pupils—Perceptions of Children, Parents, and Teachers. Education Sciences . 2023; 13(10):996. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13100996

Negru, Iasmina, and Simona Sava. 2023. "Homework’s Implications for the Well-Being of Primary School Pupils—Perceptions of Children, Parents, and Teachers" Education Sciences 13, no. 10: 996. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13100996

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

• How It Works
• Sleep Meditation
• VA Workers and Veterans

• How It Works 01
• Sleep Meditation 02
• Mental Fitness 03
• Neurofeedback 04
• Healium for Business 05
• VA Workers and Veterans 06
• Sports Meditation 07
• VR Experiences 08
• Social Purpose 11

Does Homework Cause Stress? Exploring the Impact on Students’ Mental Health

How much homework is too much?

Homework has become a matter of concern for educators, parents, and researchers due to its potential effects on students’ stress levels. It’s no secret students often find themselves grappling with high levels of stress and anxiety throughout their academic careers, so understanding the extent to which homework affects those stress levels is important. 

By delving into the latest research and understanding the underlying factors at play, we hope to curate insights for educators, parents, and students who are wondering whether homework causing stress in their lives?

The Link Between Homework and Stress: What the Research Says

Over the years, numerous studies investigated the relationship between homework and stress levels in students. 

One study published in the Journal of Experimental Education found that students who reported spending more than two hours per night on homework experienced higher stress levels and physical health issues . Those same students reported over three hours of homework a night on average.

This study, conducted by Stanford lecturer Denise Pope, has been heavily cited throughout the years, with WebMD producing the below video on the topic– part of their special report series on teens and stress : 

Additional studies published by Sleep Health Journal found that long hours on homework on may be a risk factor for depression , suggesting that reducing workload outside of class may benefit sleep and mental fitness .

Homework’s Potential Impact on Mental Health and Well-being

Homework-induced stress on students can involve both psychological and physiological side effects. 

1. Potential Psychological Effects of Homework-Induced Stress:

• Anxiety: The pressure to perform well academically and meet homework expectations can lead to heightened levels of anxiety in students. Constant worry about completing assignments on time and achieving high grades can be overwhelming.

• Sleep Disturbances : Homework-related stress can disrupt students’ sleep patterns, leading to sleep anxiety or sleep deprivation, both of which can negatively impact cognitive function and emotional regulation.

• Reduced Motivation: Excessive homework demands could drain students’ motivation, causing them to feel fatigued and disengaged from their studies. Reduced motivation may lead to a lack of interest in learning, hindering students’ overall academic performance.

2. Potential Physiological Effects of Homework-Induced Stress:

• Impaired Immune Function: Prolonged stress could weaken the immune system, making students more susceptible to illnesses and infections.

• Disrupted Hormonal Balance : The body’s stress response triggers the release of hormones like cortisol, which, when chronically elevated due to stress, can disrupt the delicate hormonal balance and lead to various health issues.

• Gastrointestinal Disturbances: Stress has been known to affect the gastrointestinal system, leading to symptoms such as stomachaches, nausea, and other digestive problems.

• Cardiovascular Impact: The increased heart rate and elevated blood pressure associated with stress can strain the cardiovascular system, potentially increasing the risk of heart-related issues in the long run.

• Brain impact: Prolonged exposure to stress hormones may impact the brain’s functioning , affecting memory, concentration, and other cognitive abilities.

The Benefits of Homework

It’s important to note that homework also offers many benefits that contribute to students’ academic growth and development, such as: 

• Development of Time Management Skills: Completing homework within specified deadlines encourages students to manage their time efficiently. This valuable skill extends beyond academics and becomes essential in various aspects of life.

• Preparation for Future Challenges : Homework helps prepare students for future academic challenges and responsibilities. It fosters a sense of discipline and responsibility, qualities that are crucial for success in higher education and professional life.

• Enhanced Problem-Solving Abilities: Homework often presents students with challenging problems to solve. Tackling these problems independently nurtures critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

While homework can foster discipline, time management, and self-directed learning, the middle ground may be to  strike a balance that promotes both academic growth and mental well-being .

How Much Homework Should Teachers Assign?

As a general guideline, educators suggest assigning a workload that allows students to grasp concepts effectively without overwhelming them . Quality over quantity is key, ensuring that homework assignments are purposeful, relevant, and targeted towards specific objectives. 

Advice for Students: How to balance Homework and Well-being

Finding a balance between academic responsibilities and well-being is crucial for students. Here are some practical tips and techniques to help manage homework-related stress and foster a healthier approach to learning:

• Effective Time Management : Encourage students to create a structured study schedule that allocates sufficient time for homework, breaks, and other activities. Prioritizing tasks and setting realistic goals can prevent last-minute rushes and reduce the feeling of being overwhelmed.

• Break Tasks into Smaller Chunks : Large assignments can be daunting and may contribute to stress. Students should break such tasks into smaller, manageable parts. This approach not only makes the workload seem less intimidating but also provides a sense of accomplishment as each section is completed.

• Find a Distraction-Free Zone : Establish a designated study area that is free from distractions like smartphones, television, or social media. This setting will improve focus and productivity, reducing time needed to complete homework.

• Be Active : Regular exercise is known to reduce stress and enhance mood. Encourage students to incorporate physical activity into their daily routine, whether it’s going for a walk, playing a sport, or doing yoga.

• Practice Mindfulness and Relaxation Techniques : Encourage students to engage in mindfulness practices, such as deep breathing exercises or meditation, to alleviate stress and improve concentration. Taking short breaks to relax and clear the mind can enhance overall well-being and cognitive performance.

• Seek Support : Teachers, parents, and school counselors play an essential role in supporting students. Create an open and supportive environment where students feel comfortable expressing their concerns and seeking help when needed.

How Healium is Helping in Schools

Stress is caused by so many factors and not just the amount of work students are taking home.  Our company created a virtual reality stress management solution… a mental fitness tool called “Healium” that’s teaching students how to learn to self-regulate their stress and downshift in a drugless way. Schools implementing Healium have seen improvements from supporting dysregulated students and ADHD challenges to empowering students with body awareness and learning to self-regulate stress . Here’s one of their stories. 

By providing students with the tools they need to self-manage stress and anxiety, we represent a forward-looking approach to education that prioritizes the holistic development of every student. 

To learn more about how Healium works, watch the video below.

About the Author

Sarah Hill , a former interactive TV news journalist at NBC, ABC, and CBS affiliates in Missouri, gained recognition for pioneering interactive news broadcasting using Google Hangouts. She is now the CEO of Healium, the world’s first biometrically powered immersive media channel, helping those with stress, anxiety, insomnia, and other struggles through biofeedback storytelling. With patents, clinical validation, and over seven million views, she has reshaped the landscape of immersive media.

20 Reasons Why Homework is Good: Unlocking the Benefits

• Post author By admin
• October 26, 2023

Explore the compelling 20 reasons why homework is good, fostering skills and knowledge that extend beyond the classroom

Ah, homework – a topic that has fueled countless debates in the world of education. Is it a valuable learning tool or a relentless academic burden?

In this article, we’re going to shift the spotlight onto the often-overlooked positive side of homework. We’ll unveil not one or two, but a whopping 20 compelling reasons why homework is genuinely good for students.

From solidifying classroom knowledge to honing critical thinking skills, homework is far more than just an academic chore. It’s an essential building block of learning. 

So, whether you’ve questioned the purpose of homework or are simply curious about its merits, join us on this journey as we explore the myriad ways homework benefits students of all ages.

Get ready to discover why homework is a treasure trove of learning opportunities!

Table of Contents

20 Reasons Why Homework is Good

Check out 20 reasons why homework is good:-

1. Reinforcement of Classroom Learning

Homework isn’t just a mundane task; it’s your secret weapon for becoming a true subject matter aficionado. It’s the place where classroom theories transform into real-world skills. 

Homework, in all its wisdom, lets you roll up your sleeves and practice what you’ve learned in class, turning those lightbulb moments into permanent knowledge fixtures.

Just like a musician perfecting a melody or an artist refining their masterpiece, homework is your training ground for excellence. So, embrace it, for every assignment is a stepping stone on your path to mastery.

2. Development of Responsibility 

Homework isn’t just about books and assignments; it’s a grooming ground for something equally important – responsibility.

It’s like a trusty mentor, teaching students to take charge, manage their time, and complete tasks independently.

It’s that early taste of adulthood, where you learn that success often depends on your own commitment and effort.

So, think of homework as your guide on the journey to becoming a responsible, self-reliant individual, armed with skills that will serve you well in all walks of life.

3. Improved Time Management Skills 

Homework is more than just assignments; it’s a boot camp for one of life’s essential skills – time management. Think of it as a mini dress rehearsal for adulthood.

Homework teaches students to allocate their time wisely, ensuring they meet deadlines and complete tasks efficiently. It’s like learning to juggle multiple balls, a skill that will serve them well in their adult lives. So, embrace homework as your friendly time-management coach, preparing you for the real world’s challenges.

4. Enhanced Critical Thinking

Homework is not just about finding answers; it’s your secret laboratory for unleashing the power of critical thinking.

It’s the arena where you get to be the detective, dissect problems, and engineer ingenious solutions. Think of it as mental gymnastics, where your cognitive muscles get a thorough workout.

The more you dive into those homework challenges, the sharper your critical thinking skills become. So, consider homework your daily brain boot camp, molding you into a savvy problem-solver with talents that extend way beyond the classroom.

5. Preparation for the Future

Homework isn’t just about cracking textbooks; it’s your sneak peek into the future. Think of it as your personal time machine, where you’re not just solving equations but honing skills that will propel you to success in higher education and the professional arena.

It’s like laying the stepping stones to your dream career. From mastering time management to sharpening critical thinking, homework is your trusted mentor, preparing you for the exciting journey ahead.

So, when you’re poring over those assignments, remember – you’re not just studying, you’re shaping a future filled with possibilities.

6. Encouragement of Self-Discipline 

Homework isn’t just about filling out worksheets; it’s the canvas on which students paint their self-discipline and self-motivation masterpieces.

It’s like training for life’s grand adventure. With homework, you’re the captain, setting sail on a sea of assignments.

Completing homework isn’t merely about meeting deadlines; it’s about cultivating skills that become your secret weapons in the real world.

So, think of homework as your personal training ground for self-discipline, sculpting you into a resilient and motivated individual who’s ready to conquer life’s challenges.

7. Review of Material

Homework isn’t just an additional task; it’s your golden opportunity to revisit and cement what you’ve learned in class.

Think of it as your personal review session, where you go through the key points and solidify your understanding. Just as an artist refines their masterpiece or a musician practices their chords, homework is your tool for perfection.

The more you review and consolidate, the stronger your grasp on the subject matter becomes. So, embrace homework as your trusted ally in mastering the art of revision, making you a confident and knowledgeable learner.

8. Practice Makes Perfect

Homework isn’t a chore; it’s your backstage pass to perfection. It’s like the endless rehearsals of a musician or the tireless drills of an athlete.

Homework is your playground for practice, where you can fine-tune your skills, ensuring you become a true master in various subjects. Just as a chef perfects a recipe through repetition, your homework is the recipe for excellence.

So, when you’re diving into those assignments, think of them as your chance to practice, practice, and practice some more, turning you into a subject maestro.

9. Teacher-Student Interaction

Homework isn’t just about cracking the books; it’s your backstage pass to building strong connections with your teachers.

It’s like sending an open invitation to ask questions and seek guidance. Homework transforms the student-teacher relationship from a formal handshake into a hearty conversation.

When you embrace homework, you’re not just solving problems; you’re forging connections that can last a lifetime.

So, think of homework as your golden opportunity for dialogue, where you can foster positive relationships with your teachers and make your educational journey all the more engaging and rewarding.

10. Parental Involvement

Homework isn’t just a student’s duty; it’s a chance for families to bond over learning. It’s like the thread that weaves the classroom and home together, allowing parents to actively participate in their child’s education.

Homework transforms the learning experience into a shared adventure where everyone can join in the fun. When parents dive into homework with their kids, it’s not just about helping with math problems.

It’s about creating moments of connection, offering support, and sharing in the educational journey. So, think of homework as the gateway to family engagement in education, making learning a joyful family affair.

11. Real-Life Application

Homework isn’t just about hitting the books; it’s your backstage pass to making knowledge practical. It’s like a secret bridge that connects the world of theory with the realm of real-life application.

Homework transforms you from a passive learner into an active doer. It’s where you take those classroom ideas and put them into action, just like a scientist testing a hypothesis or an engineer building a bridge.

So, consider homework your personal laboratory for bringing theories to life, where you turn bookish knowledge into real-world magic, making your education a thrilling adventure.

12. Different Learning Styles 

Homework isn’t a one-size-fits-all deal; it’s more like a treasure map that caters to diverse learning styles. Imagine it as a chameleon, changing its colors to suit both visual and kinesthetic learners.

Homework knows that we’re all unique, with our own special ways of learning. For those who thrive on visuals, it serves up graphs and illustrations, while the hands-on learners get to dive into practical tasks.

It’s a bit like having a tailor-made suit for education. So, consider homework your personal guide, offering a learning experience that’s as unique as you are, making education a captivating and natural journey.

13. Time for Creativity 

Homework isn’t a creativity crusher; it’s your chance to let your imagination soar. Think of it as a blank canvas waiting for your ideas to paint it with vibrant colors.

Homework isn’t about rules and conformity; it’s about independent thinking and the freedom to express yourself. Whether you’re crafting an essay, brainstorming a unique solution, or designing a project, homework is your invitation to let your creativity shine.

So, consider homework your personal creative playground, where you can set your ideas free, turning learning into an exciting and imaginative adventure.

14. Enhancement of Research Skills

Homework isn’t just about checking off tasks; it’s your secret lair for honing research skills, those superpowers that will supercharge your success in both academics and the real world.

Think of it as your personal training ground where you become a detective of knowledge, learning to explore, dig deep, and unearth answers.

Whether you’re delving into the depths of the library, surfing the web, or conducting surveys, research-based homework transforms you into a skilled investigator.

So, consider homework your gateway to the world of research, where you unlock skills that will not only power your academic journey but also your lifelong adventures.

15. Test Preparation

Homework isn’t just a mundane task; it’s your secret weapon for conquering exams. Think of it as your personal exam prep coach, crafting a roadmap for success.

Homework lets you revisit, revise, and sharpen your skills, so when test day arrives, you’re ready to shine. It’s not just about finishing assignments; it’s about building your confidence for those crucial exams.

So, consider homework your trusty sidekick on the path to acing tests, making your educational journey an exciting adventure.

16. Increased Engagement

Homework isn’t a homework. It’s more like an after-class adventure that keeps the excitement of learning alive. Think of it as your personal quest, where you get to explore the subjects that genuinely pique your interest.

Homework isn’t about killing time; it’s your ticket to stay engaged with your learning journey, even when the school day ends.

So, when you’re tackling your assignments, remember you’re not just checking off tasks; you’re stoking the flames of curiosity, making education an exhilarating and never-ending journey.

17. Achievement of Learning Objectives 

Homework isn’t just a jumble of tasks; it’s your trusted guide leading you to specific educational victories. Picture it as your personal GPS, keeping you on track to reach those learning milestones.

Homework is where you make the connections, reinforce classroom knowledge, and make your education rock-solid. It’s not just about answering questions; it’s about ensuring you hit those educational bullseyes.

So, when you’re diving into your assignments, remember you’re not just ticking off tasks; you’re on a journey to academic success, turning each homework into a stepping stone toward your goals.

18. Inclusivity 

Homework isn’t a one-size-fits-all deal; it’s your versatile tool to celebrate the uniqueness of every student. Imagine it as a buffet, serving up options for both fast learners and those who want some extra practice.

Homework understands that every student is as unique as a fingerprint, each with their own pace and learning style.

For the quick learners, it offers challenges and exciting extensions, while those who prefer more practice can dive into additional exercises.

It’s like a school that dances to your rhythm, ensuring every student has a path to success. So, think of homework as your personal learning adventure, offering choices that fit your taste, making education an exciting and inclusive journey.

19. Fosters Independence

Homework isn’t about spoon-feeding answers; it’s your nurturing ground for independent thinking and decision-making.

Think of it as a playground where you get to flex your decision muscles and spread your intellectual wings. Homework is your training camp for self-reliance, where you take charge of your learning adventure.

20. Overall Academic Improvement

Homework isn’t just a stack of assignments; it’s the secret ingredient for overall academic improvement. Think of it as the magic wand that, when waved effectively, leads to better grades and educational triumphs.

Homework isn’t a mere task list; it’s your strategic ally in the journey of learning. When used wisely, it’s your key to success, a bridge to better understanding and superior educational outcomes.

So, when you’re tackling your homework, remember you’re not just ticking off tasks; you’re paving the way for academic excellence, turning each assignment into a step towards achieving your educational goals.

What are 5 benefits of homework?

Homework is more than just a list of tasks; it’s a powerhouse of benefits that can transform a student’s learning journey. Here are the top five advantages:

1. Supercharging Learning

Homework isn’t about mindless repetition; it’s your secret weapon to reinforce what you’ve learned in class. It’s like a memory boost that makes sure you remember the important stuff for the long haul.

2. Mastering Time and Study Skills

Homework teaches you real-world skills that go way beyond the textbook. It’s your personal coach for time management and setting priorities.

Plus, it’s your go-to guide for developing top-notch study habits like staying organized, taking killer notes, and acing those tests.

3. Fueling Grit and Responsibility

Homework is your training ground for building self-discipline and a sense of responsibility. It’s where you learn to motivate yourself and tackle challenges head-on, no matter how tough they seem.

4. Sparking Creativity and Critical Thinking

Homework isn’t a one-way street. It’s your canvas for thinking outside the box and analyzing what you’re learning from all angles. It’s your chance to bring your unique ideas to the table.

5. Strengthening Home-School Bonds

Homework isn’t just about you; it’s a connection point for your parents and teachers. It’s where they get a front-row seat to your education and can lend a hand when you need it.

But, remember, like any tool, homework works best when used wisely. Too much of a good thing can lead to stress, so strike that balance, and make homework your learning ally.

Who invented homework 😡?

The roots of homework can be traced back to a frustrated Italian educator, Roberto Nevilis, who lived in the 17th century.

He was perplexed by his students’ struggles to retain their classroom lessons, and so, he devised a novel solution – homework.

By assigning tasks that required students to practice and reinforce what they’d learned in class, Nevilis hoped to bridge the knowledge gap. His ingenious idea didn’t stop at the classroom door; it spread like wildfire, first across Europe and eventually finding its way to the United States.

While Nevilis is often credited with inventing homework, history leaves some room for debate. Some scholars argue that homework may have had earlier incarnations in ancient Greece and Rome, although concrete evidence is scarce.

What’s more likely is that Nevilis was among the first to formalize the concept of homework as we understand it today.

No matter its true origin, homework has become an integral part of education worldwide. It spans across the spectrum, from the youngest elementary students to those pursuing higher education.

The purpose of homework has also evolved over time. While Nevilis initially introduced homework to help students retain information, today, its role is multifaceted. It serves as a training ground for critical thinking, problem-solving, and nurturing creativity.

Whether you view homework as a boon or a bane, one thing is certain – it has a rich and varied history, and it’s likely to continue shaping the educational landscape for the foreseeable future.

Why is homework good for your brain?

Homework isn’t just about completing assignments; it’s a brain-boosting wizard. Let’s delve into the captivating reasons why homework is a mind-enhancing elixir:

Fortifying Neural Pathways

Imagine your brain as a labyrinth of pathways. When you learn something new, it’s like carving a fresh trail. Homework? It’s your trusty path-paver, helping you practice and reinforce what you’ve learned. This makes recalling information a breeze down the road.

Mastering Executive Function Skills

Executive function skills are like your brain’s personal assistants. They help you plan, organize, and manage your time effectively.

Homework transforms you into the CEO of your tasks, requiring you to set goals, juggle priorities, and work independently.

Cultivating Cognitive Flexibility

Ever wished you could tackle problems from various angles? That’s cognitive flexibility, a superpower for your brain. Homework serves as the playground where you can flex your mental muscles, applying your knowledge to novel challenges.

Boosting Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is your belief in your own success. Homework is your arena for personal victories. Achieving your homework goals and witnessing your growth over time? That’s a confidence booster like no other.

Stress Alleviation

While homework might occasionally seem like a stress-inducing monster, it’s also your coach for the stress-relief Olympics. How?

It equips you with the skills to tackle challenges and manage your time wisely, ultimately reducing stress in the long run.

But, here’s the catch: balance is key. Too much homework can tip the scales. To maximize the magical benefits, you need to find harmony between homework and other essential activities like sleep, exercise, and hanging out with friends.

In a nutshell, homework isn’t just about completing assignments; it’s your secret weapon for unlocking your brain’s potential. It boosts learning and memory, nurtures executive function skills, hones cognitive flexibility, elevates self-efficacy, and even helps you conquer stress.

As we draw the curtain on our exploration of the twenty compelling reasons that make homework a valuable asset, it’s evident that homework is more than just a to-do list. It’s a treasure trove of advantages that students can unearth on their academic journey.

From fortifying those neural pathways to nurturing independence, and from honing research skills to prepping for the challenges that await in the future, homework is a versatile tool. It’s the canvas where creativity flourishes, bridging the gap between theory and practice, and inviting parents into their child’s scholastic odyssey.

Homework doesn’t just aid in academic mastery; it’s a comprehensive roadmap for personal growth and development. It nudges you towards self-discipline, sprinkles in a dash of responsibility, and offers a slice of the sweet taste of accomplishment.

However, as in any art, balance is key. The right amount of homework, harmonized with other life activities, is the secret recipe for success.

So, as you tackle your next homework assignment, remember this: you’re not just completing tasks; you’re shaping a brighter future, one thought at a time.

Frequently Asked Questions

Is homework always beneficial for students.

Homework can be beneficial when thoughtfully assigned, but excessive or irrelevant homework may have negative effects.

How can parents support their child’s homework routine?

Parents can provide a quiet, organized workspace, offer assistance when needed, and encourage good study habits.

How much homework is too much?

The right amount of homework varies by grade level and individual needs. It should challenge without overwhelming students.

What can teachers do to make homework more effective?

Teachers should assign purposeful, relevant homework, provide clear instructions, and offer support when necessary.

How does homework help prepare students for the future?

Homework instills responsibility, time management, and critical thinking skills, all of which are valuable in higher education and the workforce.

• australia (2)
• duolingo (13)
• Education (284)
• General (78)
• How To (18)
• IELTS (127)
• Latest Updates (162)
• Malta Visa (6)
• Permanent residency (1)
• Programming (31)
• Scholarship (1)
• Sponsored (4)
• Study Abroad (187)
• Technology (12)
• work permit (8)

Recent Posts

Along with Stanford news and stories, show me:

• Student information
• Faculty/Staff information

We want to provide announcements, events, leadership messages and resources that are relevant to you. Your selection is stored in a browser cookie which you can remove at any time using “Clear all personalization” below.

Education scholar Denise Pope has found that too much homework has negative effects on student well-being and behavioral engagement. (Image credit: L.A. Cicero)

A Stanford researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter.

“Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good,” wrote Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of a study published in the Journal of Experimental Education .

The researchers used survey data to examine perceptions about homework, student well-being and behavioral engagement in a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in upper-middle-class California communities. Along with the survey data, Pope and her colleagues used open-ended answers to explore the students’ views on homework.

Median household income exceeded $90,000 in these communities, and 93 percent of the students went on to college, either two-year or four-year.

Students in these schools average about 3.1 hours of homework each night.

“The findings address how current homework practices in privileged, high-performing schools sustain students’ advantage in competitive climates yet hinder learning, full engagement and well-being,” Pope wrote.

Pope and her colleagues found that too much homework can diminish its effectiveness and even be counterproductive. They cite prior research indicating that homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night, and that 90 minutes to two and a half hours is optimal for high school.

Their study found that too much homework is associated with:

* Greater stress: 56 percent of the students considered homework a primary source of stress, according to the survey data. Forty-three percent viewed tests as a primary stressor, while 33 percent put the pressure to get good grades in that category. Less than 1 percent of the students said homework was not a stressor.

* Reductions in health: In their open-ended answers, many students said their homework load led to sleep deprivation and other health problems. The researchers asked students whether they experienced health issues such as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems.

* Less time for friends, family and extracurricular pursuits: Both the survey data and student responses indicate that spending too much time on homework meant that students were “not meeting their developmental needs or cultivating other critical life skills,” according to the researchers. Students were more likely to drop activities, not see friends or family, and not pursue hobbies they enjoy.

A balancing act

The results offer empirical evidence that many students struggle to find balance between homework, extracurricular activities and social time, the researchers said. Many students felt forced or obligated to choose homework over developing other talents or skills.

Also, there was no relationship between the time spent on homework and how much the student enjoyed it. The research quoted students as saying they often do homework they see as “pointless” or “mindless” in order to keep their grades up.

“This kind of busy work, by its very nature, discourages learning and instead promotes doing homework simply to get points,” Pope said.

She said the research calls into question the value of assigning large amounts of homework in high-performing schools. Homework should not be simply assigned as a routine practice, she said.

“Rather, any homework assigned should have a purpose and benefit, and it should be designed to cultivate learning and development,” wrote Pope.

High-performing paradox

In places where students attend high-performing schools, too much homework can reduce their time to foster skills in the area of personal responsibility, the researchers concluded. “Young people are spending more time alone,” they wrote, “which means less time for family and fewer opportunities to engage in their communities.”

Student perspectives

The researchers say that while their open-ended or “self-reporting” methodology to gauge student concerns about homework may have limitations – some might regard it as an opportunity for “typical adolescent complaining” – it was important to learn firsthand what the students believe.

The paper was co-authored by Mollie Galloway from Lewis and Clark College and Jerusha Conner from Villanova University.

Media Contacts

Denise Pope, Stanford Graduate School of Education: (650) 725-7412, [email protected] Clifton B. Parker, Stanford News Service: (650) 725-0224, [email protected]

Join Our Discord Community!

daily dose of research

Center for State and Local Government Excellence

The vast majority of teacher respondents in a 2021 survey reported feeling stressed, high levels of burnout/fatigue, and substantial anxiety at work due to the pandemic.

featured contributor

This is why we should stop giving homework

At Human Restoration Project, one of the core systemic changes we suggest is the elimination of homework. Throughout this piece, I will outline several research studies and reports that demonstrate how the negative impact of homework is so evident that any mandated homework, outside of some minor catching up or for incredibly niche cases, simply does more harm than good.

I’ll summarize four main reasons why homework just flat out doesn’t make sense.

• Achievement, whether that be measured through standardized tests or general academic knowledge, isn’t correlated to assigning or completing homework.
• Homework is an inequitable practice that harms certain individuals more than others, to the detriment of those with less resources and to minor, if any, improvement for those with resources.
• It contributes to negative impacts at home with one’s family, peer relationships, and just general school-life balance, which causes far more problems than homework is meant to solve.
• And finally, it highlights and exacerbates our obsession with ultra-competitive college admissions and job opportunities, and other detrimental faults of making everything about getting ahead .

Does Homework Make Us Learn More?

Homework is such a ubiquitous part of school that it’s considered radical to even suggest that lessening it could be good teaching. It’s completely normal for families to spend extra hours each night, even on weekends, completing projects, reports, and worksheets. On average, teenagers spend about an hour a day completing homework, which is up 30-45 minutes from decades past. Kindergartners, who are usually saved from completing a lot of after school work, average about 25 minutes of homework a night (which to note, is 25 minutes too much than is recommended by child development experts).

The “10-minute rule”, endorsed by the National Parent Teacher Association and National Education Association, is incorporated into most school policies: there’s 10 minutes of homework per day per grade level – as in 20 minutes a day in second grade or 2 hours a day in 12th grade. 

It’s so normalized that it was odd, when seemingly out of nowhere the President of Ireland recently suggested that homework should be banned . (And many experts were shocked at this suggestion.)

Numerous studies on homework reflect inconsistent results on what it exactly achieves. Homework is rarely shown to have any impact on achievement, whether that be measured through standardized testing or otherwise. As I’ll talk about later, the amount of marginal gains homework may lead to aren’t worth its negative trade-offs.

Let’s look at a quick summary of various studies:

• ‍ First off, the book National Differences, Global Similarities: World Culture and the Future of Schooling by David P. Baker and Gerald K. LeTendre draws on a 4 year investigation of schools in 47 countries. It’s the largest study of its type: looking at how schools operate, their pedagogy, their procedures, and the like. They made a shocking discovery: countries that assigned the least amount of homework: Denmark and the Czech Republic, had much higher test scores than those who assigned the most amount of homework: Iran and Thailand. The same work indicated that there was no correlation between academic achievement and homework with elementary students, and any moderate positive correlation in middle or high school diminished as more and more homework was assigned. ‍
• A study in Contemporary Educational Psychology of 28,051 high school seniors concluded that quality of instruction, motivation, and ability are all correlated to a student’s academic success. However, homework’s effectiveness was marginal or perhaps even counterproductive: leading to more academic problems than it hoped to solve. ‍
• The Teachers College Record published that homework added academic pressure and societal stress to those already experiencing pressures from other forces at home. This caused a further divide in academic performance from those with more privileged backgrounds. We’ll talk about this more later. ‍
• A study in the Journal of Educational Psychology examined 2,342 student attitudes toward homework in foreign language classes. They found that time spent on homework had a significant negative impact on grades and standardized test scores. The researchers concluded that this may be because participants had to spend their time completing worksheets rather than spend time practicing skills on their own time.
• Some studies are more positive. In fact, a meta-analysis of 32 homework studies in the Review of Educational Research found that most studies indicated a positive correlation between achievement and doing homework. However, the researchers noted that generally these studies made it hard to draw causal conclusions due to how they were set up and conducted. There was so much variance that it was difficult to make a claim one way or another, even though the net result seemed positive. This often cited report led by Dr. Harris Cooper at Duke University is the most commonly used by proponents of the practice. But popular education critic Alfie Kohn believes that this study fails to establish, ironically, causation among other factors. ‍
• And that said in a later published study in The High School Journal , researchers concluded that in all homework assigned, there were only modest linkages to improved math and science standardized test scores, with no difference in other subjects between those who were assigned homework and those who were not. None of the homework assigned had any bearing on grades. The only difference was for a few points on those particular subject’s standardized test scores.

All in all, the data is relatively inconclusive. Some educational experts suggest that there should be hours of homework in high school, some homework in middle school, and none in elementary school. Some call for the 10-minute rule. Others say that homework doesn’t work at all. It’s still fairly unstudied how achievement is impacted as a result of homework. But as Alfie Kohn says , “The better the research, the less likely one is to find any benefits from homework.” That said, when we couple this data with the other negative impacts of assigning homework: how it impacts those at the margins, leads to anxiety and stress, and takes away from important family time – it really makes us question why this is such a ubiquitous practice. 

Or as Etta Kralovec and John Buell write in The End of Homework: How Homework Disrupts Families, Overburdens Children, and Limits Learning,

‘Extensive classroom research of ‘time on task’ and international comparisons of year-round time for study suggest that additional homework might promote U.S. students’ achievement.’  This written statement by some of the top professionals in the field of homework research raises some difficult questions. More homework might promote student achievement? Are all our blood, sweat, and tears at the kitchen table over homework based on something that merely might be true? Our belief in the value of homework is akin to faith. We assume that it fosters a love of learning, better study habits, improved attitudes toward school, and greater self-discipline; we believe that better teachers assign more homework and that one sign of a good school is a good, enforced homework policy.

Our obsession with homework is likely rooted in select studies that imply it leads to higher test scores. The authors continue by deciphering this phenomena:

“[this is] a problem that routinely bedevils all the sciences: the relationship between correlation and causality. If A and B happen simultaneously, we do not know whether A causes B or B causes A, or whether both phenomena occur casually together or are individually determined by another set of variables…Thus far, most studies in this area have amounted to little more than crude correlations that cannot justify the sweeping conclusions some have derived from them.”

Alfie Kohn adds that even the correlation between achievement and homework doesn’t really matter. Saying,

“If all you want is to cram kids’ heads with facts for tomorrow’s tests that they’re going to forget by next week, yeah, if you give them more time and make them do the cramming at night, that could raise the scores…But if you’re interested in kids who know how to think or enjoy learning, then homework isn’t merely ineffective, but counterproductive… The practice of homework assumes that only academic growth matters, to the point that having kids work on that most of the school day isn’t enough…”

Ramping Up Inequity

Many justify the practice of assigning homework with the well-intentioned belief that we’ll make a more equitable society through high standards. However, it seems to be that these practices actually add to inequity. “Rigorous” private and preparatory schools – whether they be “no excuses” charters in marginalized communities or “college ready” elite suburban institutions, are notorious for extreme levels of homework assignment. Yet, many progressive schools who focus on holistic learning and self-actualization assign no homework and achieve the same levels of college and career success.

Perhaps this is because the largest predictor of college success has nothing to do with rigorous preparation, and everything to do with family income levels. 77% of students from high income families graduated from a highly competitive college, whereas 9% of students from low income families did the same .

It seems like by loading students up with mountains of homework each night in an attempt to get them into these colleges, we actually make their chances of success worse .

When assigning homework, it is common practice to recommend that families provide a quiet, well-lit place for the child to study. After all, it’s often difficult to complete assignments after a long day. Having this space, time, and energy must always be considered in the context of the family’s education, income, available time, and job security. For many people, jobs have become less secure and less well paid over the course of the last two decades.

In a United States context, we work the longest hours of any nation . Individuals in 2006 worked 11 hours longer than their counterparts in 1979. In 2020, 70% of children lived in households where both parents work. We are the only country in the industrial world without guaranteed family leave. And the results are staggering: 90% of women and 95% of men report work-family conflict . According to the Center for American Progress , “the United States today has the most family-hostile public policy in the developed world due to a long-standing political impasse.”

As a result, parents have much less time to connect with their children. This is not a call to a return to traditional family roles or to have stay-at-home parents – rather, our occupation-oriented society is structured inadequately which causes problems with how homework is meant to function. 

For those who work in entry level positions, such as customer service and cashiers, there is an average 240% turnover per year due to lack of pay, poor conditions, work-life balance, and mismanagement. Family incomes continue to decline for lower- and middle-class Americans, leaving more families to work increased hours or multiple jobs. In other words, families, especially poor families, have less opportunities to spend time with their children, let alone foster academic “gains” via homework.

Even for students with ample resources who attend “elite schools”, the amount of homework is stressful. In a 2013 study in The Journal of Experiential Education, researchers conducted a survey of 4,317 students in 10 high-performing upper middle class high schools. These students had an average of more than 3 hours of homework a night. In comparison to their peers, they had more academic stress, notable physical health problems, and spent a worrying amount of time focused entirely on school and nothing else. Competitive advantage came at the cost of well-being and just being a kid.

A similar study in Frontiers of Psychology found that students pressured in the competitive college admissions process , who attended schools assigning hours of homework each night and promoting college-level courses and resume building extracurriculars, felt extreme stress. Two-thirds of the surveyed students reported turning to alcohol and drugs to cope.

In fact, a paper published by Dr. Suniya Luthar and her colleagues concluded that upper middle-class youth are actually more likely to be troubled than their middle class peers . There is an extreme problem with academic stress, where young people are engaging in a rat race toward the best possible educational future as determined by Ivy League colleges and scholarships. To add fuel to the fire, schools continue to add more and more homework to have students get ahead – which has a massively negative impact on both ends of the economic spectrum.

A 2012 study by Dr. Jonathan Daw indicated that their results,

“...imply that increases in the amount of homework assigned may increase the socioeconomic achievement gap in math, science, and reading in secondary school.”

In an effort to increase engagement with homework, teachers have been encouraged to create interesting, creative assignments. In fact, most researchers seem to agree that the quality of assignments matters a whole lot . After all, maybe assigning all of this homework won’t matter as long as it’s interesting and relevant to students? Although this has good intentions, rigorous homework with increased complexity places more impetus on parents. As researcher and author Gary Natrillo, an initial proponent of creative homework , stated later:

…not only was homework being assigned as suggested by all the ‘experts,’ but the teacher was obviously taking the homework seriously, making it challenging instead of routine and checking it each day and giving feedback. We were enveloped by the nightmare of near total implementation of the reform recommendations pertaining to homework…More creative homework tasks are a mixed blessing on the receiving end. On the one hand, they, of course, lead to higher engagement and interest for children and their parents. On the other hand, they require one to be well rested, a special condition of mind not often available to working parents…

Time is a luxury to most people. With increased working hours, in conjunction with extreme levels of stress, many people don’t have the necessary mindset to adequately supply children with the attention to detail for complex homework. As Kralovec and Buell state,

To put it plainly, I have discovered that after a day at work, the commute home, dinner preparations, and the prospect of baths, goodnight stories, and my own work ahead, there comes a time beyond which I cannot sustain my enthusiasm for the math brain teaser or the creative story task.

Americans are some of the most stressed people in the world. Mass shootings, health care affordability, discrimination, racism, sexual harassment, climate change, the presidential elections, and literally: staying informed on current events have caused roughly 70% of people to report moderate or extreme stress , with increased rates for people of color, LGBTQIA Americans, and other discriminated groups. 90% of high schoolers and college students report moderate or higher stress, with half reporting depression and a lack of energy and motivation .

In 2015, 1,100 parents were surveyed on the impact of homework on family life. Fights over homework were 200% more likely in families where parents didn’t have a college degree. Generally, these families believed that if their children didn’t understand a homework assignment then they must have been not paying attention at school. This led to young people feeling dumb or upset, and parents feeling like their child was lying or goofing off. The lead researcher noted, 

All of our results indicate that homework as it is now being assigned discriminates against children whose parents don’t have a college degree, against parents who have English as a second language, against, essentially, parents who are poor.

Schooling is so integrated into family life that a group of researchers noted that “...homework tended to recreate the problems of school, such as status degradation.” An online survey of over 2,000 students and families found that 90% of students reported additional stress from homework, and 40% of families saw it as nothing more than busy work. Authors Sara Bennett and Nancy Kalish wrote the aptly titled The Case Against Homework which conducted interviews across the mid-2000s with families and children, citing just how many people are burdened with overscheduling homework featuring over-the-top assignments and constant work. One parent remarked,

I sit on Amy's bed until 11 p.m. quizzing her, knowing she's never going to use this later, and it feels like abuse," says Nina of Menlo Park, California, whose eleven-year-old goes to a Blue Ribbon public school and does at least three-and-a-half hours of homework each night. Nina also questions the amount of time spent on "creative" projects. "Amy had to visit the Mission in San Francisco and then make a model of it out of cardboard, penne pasta, and paint. But what was she supposed to be learning from this? All my daughter will remember is how tense we were in the garage making this thing. Then when she handed it in, the teacher dropped it and all the penne pasta flew off." These days, says Nina, "Amy's attitude about school has really soured." Nina's has, too. "Everything is an emergency and you feel like you're always at battle stations."

1/3rd of the families interviewed felt “crushed by the workload.” It didn’t matter if they lived in rural or suburban areas, or if they were rich or poor.

Learning this way is also simply ineffective because well, that’s just not how kids learn! Young people build upon prior knowledge. They use what they know to make what they’re currently doing easier. Adding more and more content to a student’s plate – having to connect the dots and build upon more information – especially with the distractions of home life is unrealistic. Plus, simply put…it’s just not fun! Why would I want to spend all of my free time on homework rather than hanging out with my friends or playing video games?

Even with all that said – if other countries demonstrate educational success on standardized testing with little to no assigned homework and limited school hours (nevermind the fact that this is measured through the questionable method of standardized testing), shouldn’t we take a step back and analyze the system as a whole, rather than figure out better homework policies? If other countries do this with limited to no homework , why can’t everyone else?

Investigating Systemic Problems

Perhaps the solution to academic achievement in America isn’t doubling down on increasing the work students do at home, but solving the underlying systemic inequities: the economic and discriminatory problems that plague our society. Yes, the United States tends to fall behind other countries on math and reading scores. Many countries impose increased workloads on students because they are afraid that they will fall behind economically with the standard of living to the rest of the world. But perhaps the problem with education doesn’t lie in not having enough “rigorous” methods, but with how easy it is for a family to simply live and be content.

Finland, frequently cited as a model education system which grew to prominence during the 2000s through popular scholars like Pasi Sahlberg, enjoys some of the highest standards of living in the world:

• Finland’s life expectancy is 81.8 years, compared to the US’ 78.7 years . Unlike Finland, there’s a notable difference between the richest and poorest Americans . The richest Americans are expected to live, on average, nearly 15 years longer than the poorest. Further, America’s life expectancy is declining, the only industrialized country with this statistic .
• Finland’s health care is rated best in the world and only spends $3,078 per capita, compared to $8,047 in the US.
• Finland has virtually no homelessness , compared to the 500,000 (and growing) homeless population in the United States .
• Finland has the lowest inequality levels in the EU , compared to the United States with one of the highest inequality levels in the world . Research has demonstrated that countries with lower inequality levels are happier and healthier .

These statistics reflect that potentially — instead of investing hundreds of millions of dollars in initiatives to increase national test scores , such as homework strategies, curriculum changes, and nationwide “raising the bar” initiatives — that we should invest in programs that improve our standard of living, such as universal healthcare and housing. The solution to test scores is rooted in solving underlying inequities in our societies — shining a light on our core issues — rather than making teachers solve all of our community’s problems.

This doesn’t mean that there’s no space for improving pedagogy, schooling, or curriculums, but at the end of the day the solution cannot solely be by improving education.

‍ Creating Future Workers

Education often equates learning with work. As a teacher, I had to stop myself from behaving like an economics analyst: telling students to quit “wasting time”, stating that the purpose of the lesson is useful for securing a high salary career, seeing everything as prep for college and career (and college’s purpose as just for more earnings in a career), and making blanket assumptions that those who aren’t motivated will ultimately never contribute to society, taking on “low levels” of work that “aren’t as important” as other positions.

A common argument exists that the pressure of homework mirrors the real world – that we should assign homework because that’s “just the way things are.” If we want kids to succeed in the “real world”, they need to have this pressure.

But this mentality is unhealthy and unjust. The purpose of education should be to develop purpose. People live happier and healthier lives as a result of pursuing and developing a core purpose. Some people’s purpose is related to their line of work, but there is not necessarily a connection. However, the primary goal for education stated by districts, states, and the national government is to make “productive members of society” – those who are “prepared for the future” through “college and career readiness.” When we double down on economic principles, rather than look to developmental psychology and holistic care, to raise young people, it’s no wonder we’re seeing such horrific statistics related to childhood .

Further, the consistent pressure to solely learn for future economic gain raises generations of young people to believe that wealth is a measurement of success, and that specific lines of work create happiness. Teachers and parents are told to make their children “work hard” for future success and develop “grit.” Although grit is an important indicator of overcoming obstacles , it is not developed by enforcing grit through authoritarian classrooms or meaningless, long tasks like homework. In fact, an argument could be made that many Americans accept their dramatically poor work-life balance and lack of access to needs such as affordable health care by being brought up in a society that rewards tasks of “working through it” to “eventually achieve happiness.”

Many families have shifted from having children participate in common household chores and activities to have them exclusively focus on their school work. Americans have more difficulty than ever raising children, with increasing demands of time and rising childcare costs . When teachers provide more and more homework, they take away from the parents’ ability to structure their household according to their needs. In fact, children with chores show completely positive universal growth across the board , from time management skills to responsibility to managing a healthy work-life balance. 

Of course, this is not to say that it is all the teacher’s fault. Educators face immense pressure to carry out governmental/school policies that place test scores at the forefront. Plus, most families had homework themselves – so continuing the practice only makes sense. Many of these policies require homework, and an educator’s employment is centered on enacting these changes. Barbara Stengel , an education professor, noted that the reason why so much homework isn’t necessarily interesting or applicable to a student’s lived experience is because “some of the people who would really have pushed the limits of that are no longer in teaching.” The constant pressure on teachers to raise test scores while simultaneously being overworked and underpaid is making many leave the profession. Etta Kralovec and John Buell add:

As more academic demands are placed on teachers, homework can help lengthen the school day and thus ensure ‘coverage’ — that is, the completion of the full curriculum that each teacher is supposed to cover during the school year…This in itself places pressure on teachers to create meaningful homework and often to assign large amounts of it so that the students’ parents will think the teacher is rigorous and the school has high academic standards. Extensive homework is frequently linked in our minds to high standards.

Therefore, there’s a connection to be made between the school- or work-life balance of children and the people who are tasked with teaching them. 8% of the teacher workforce leaves every year , with one of the primary reasons being poor work-life balance . Perhaps teachers see an increased desire to “work” students in their class and at home due to the pressures they face in their own occupation?

The more we equate work with learning, and the more we accept that a school’s primary purpose is to prepare workers, the less we actually succeed at promoting academics. Instead, we bolster the neoliberal tendencies of the United States (and others like it) to work hard, yet comparably to other countries’ lifestyle gains, achieve little.

This is why so many families demand that their children have ample amounts of homework. In fact, the majority of parents believe their students have just the right amount. They’re afraid that their kids are going to fall behind, doomed to a life within an increasingly hostile and inequitable society. They want the best for their children, and taking the risk of not assigning homework means that someone else may take that top slot. The same could be said for many parts of the “tracks toward college and career readiness” that professor William Deresiewicz refers to as “zombication” – lurching through each stage of the rat race in competitive admissions: a lot of assignments, difficult courses, sports, clubs, forced volunteerism, internships, and other things to pack our schedules.

The United States must examine the underlying inequities of peoples’ lives, rather than focus on increasing schools’ workloads and lessening children’s free time for mythical academic gains that lead to little change. Teacher preparation programs and popular authors need to stop promoting “interesting and fun ways to teach ‘x’!” and propose systemic changes that radically change the way education is done, including systemic changes to society at large. Only then will the United States actually see improved livelihoods and a better education system for all.

And what could be done instead? Much of the research and writing on homework tends to conclude that we should find a “happy middle ground” to continue the practice of homework, just in case it does indeed work. However, based on the decades of studies we have on this issue…I’m not really sure. It seems the best practice, by far, is to eliminate homework altogether outside of incredibly niche and rare scenarios. If a student asks for more things to do at home because they want to explore something that interests them, great! But that doesn’t need to be mandated homework.

Human Restoration Project believes that the four recommendations of the late educator and scholar Ken Robinson allows young people to learn for themselves and make the most of their lives:

• Let children spend time with their families. The single strongest predictor of academic success and fewer behavioral problems for a child, 3-12 years old, is eating as a family. Make planned time during the day to catch up with children, talking to them about what they’re learning, and encouraging them to achieve.
• Give children time to play outside or create something, preferably not always with a screen. Let them dive into their passions and plan a trip to a library, park, or museum. Explore free online resources to discover new skills and interests.
• Give children opportunities to read by themselves or with their family. One of the best ways to learn about the world is developing a lifelong love of reading. Children who prioritize reading are more motivated to learn and see drastically improved academic outcomes.
• Let children sleep! Elementary students should sleep at least 10 hours each night and adolescents, 9 hours. Being awake and ready to tackle each day keeps us energized and healthy.

If you’re interested in learning more, see The Case Against Homework by Nancy Kalish and Sara Bennett, The Homework Myth by Alfie Kohn, The End of Homework by Etta Kralovec and John Muelle, or one of the many citations linked in the show notes.

You can also watch a modified video version of this piece on our YouTube channel:

Anderson, J. (2019, December 3). Finland has the most efficient education system in the world. Quartz . https://qz.com/1759598/finland-has-the-most-efficient-education-system-in-the-world

APA. (2019a). Stress in America . https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2019/stress-america-2019.pdf

APA. (2019b). Stress in America TM 2019: Interactive Graphics . https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2019/interactive-graphics

Baker, D., & LeTendre, G. K. (2005). National differences, global similarities: World culture and the future of schooling . Stanford University Press.

Balingit, M. (2022, September 13). Wanted: Teachers. No training necessary. The Washington Post . https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2022/09/13/teacher-requirements-shortage-jobs/

Bennett, S., & Kalish, N. (2007). The Case Against Homework: How homework is hurting children and what parents can do about it . Harmony.

Byrnes, H. (2019a, April 11). U.S. leads among countries that spend the most on public health care. WLST . https://www.coloradoan.com/story/money/2019/04/11/countries-that-spend-the-most-on-public-health/39307147/

CDC. (2022, June 3). Data and statistics on children’s mental health . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/childrensmentalhealth/data.html

Chang, C. B., Wall, D., Tare, M., Golonka, E., & Vatz, K. (2014). Relationships of attitudes toward homework and time spent on homework to course outcomes: The case of foreign language learning. Journal of Educational Psychology , 106 (4), 1049–1065. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036497

Chetty, R., Stepner, M., Abraham, S., Lin, S., Scuderi, B., Turner, N., Bergeron, A., & Cutler, D. (2016). The Association Between Income and Life Expectancy in the United States, 2001–2014: Association Between Income and Life Expectancy in the United States. JAMA , 315 (16). https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.4226

Chores and children . (2018). https://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/Chores_and_Children-125.aspx

Cool, V. A., & Keith, T. Z. (1991). Testing a model of school learning: Direct and indirect effects on academic achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology , 16 (1), 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/0361-476x(91)90004-5

Cooper, H., Robinson, J. C., & Patall, E. A. (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement? A synthesis of research, 1987–2003. Review of Educational Research , 76 (1), 1–62. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543076001001

Costa, P. N. da. (2019, May 29). America’s humongous wealth gap is widening further. Forbes . https://www.forbes.com/sites/pedrodacosta/2019/05/29/americas-humungous-wealth-gap-is-widening-further/?sh=327f1ac342ee

Costley, K. (2013). Does Homework Really Improve Achievement? Arkansas Tech University .

Covington, N. (2020, January 31). A progressive response to “Ed. Reform’s Lost Decade.” Human Restoration Project . https://medium.com/human-restoration-project/a-progressive-response-to-ed-reforms-lost-decade-fb640c16d893

Daniels, E., & Steres, M. (2011). Examining the effects of a school-wide reading culture on the engagement of middle school students. RMLE Online , 35 (2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404476.2011.11462085

Deresiewicz, W. (2015). Excellent sheep: The miseducation of the American elite and the way to a meaningful life . Simon and Schuster.

Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success . Random House.

Esdal, L. Teacher turnover: An overview of the problem and why it matters . (2019, February 28). Education Evolving. https://www.educationevolving.org/blog/2019/02/teacher-turnover-overview-of-problem-and-why-it-matters

Finland - WID - World inequality database . (2016, June 23). WID - Wealth and Income Database. https://wid.world/country/finland/

Galloway, M., Conner, J., & Pope, D. (2013). Nonacademic effects of homework in privileged, high-performing high schools. The Journal of Experimental Education , 81 (4), 490–510. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2012.745469

Henly, J. R., Shaefer, H. L., & Waxman, E. (2006). Nonstandard work schedules: Employer‐ and employee‐driven flexibility in retail jobs. Social Service Review , 80 (4), 609–634. https://doi.org/10.1086/508478

Hofferth, S. L., & Sandberg, J. F. (2001). How American children spend their time. Journal of Marriage and Family , 63 (2), 295–308. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00295.x

Human Restoration Project. (n.d.). Research . Retrieved January 24, 2023, from https://www.humanrestorationproject.org/research

Indicators of Higher Education: Equity in the US . (2018). http://pellinstitute.org/downloads/publications-Indicators_of_Higher_Education_Equity_in_the_US_2018_Historical_Trend_Report.pdf&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1674598544982744&usg=AOvVaw3EdEhMRi9luOuJm0IKhMSF

Ken Robinson, TED. (2007). Do schools kill creativity? [Video]. In YouTube . https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iG9CE55wbtY

Kohn, A. (2007). The homework myth: Why our kids get too much of a bad thing . Da Capo Lifelong Books.

Kralovec, E., & Buell, J. (2001). The End of Homework: How homework disrupts families, overburdens children, and limits learning . Beacon Press.

Leonard, N. R., Gwadz, M. V., Ritchie, A., Linick, J. L., Cleland, C. M., Elliott, L., & Grethel, M. (2015). A multi-method exploratory study of stress, coping, and substance use among high school youth in private schools. Frontiers in Psychology , 6 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01028

Livingston, G. (2019, February 20). The way U.S. teens spend their time is changing, but differences between boys and girls persist. Pew Research Center . https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/02/20/the-way-u-s-teens-spend-their-time-is-changing-but-differences-between-boys-and-girls-persist/

Luthar, S. S., Barkin, S. H., & Crossman, E. J. (2013). “I can, therefore I must”: Fragility in the upper-middle classes. Development and Psychopathology , 25 (4pt2), 1529–1549. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579413000758

Lynch, R. The economic and fiscal consequences of improving U.S. educational outcomes - Equitable growth . (2015, February 2). Washington Center for Equitable Growth. https://equitablegrowth.org/achievement-gap/

Mcdermott, R. P., Goldman, S. V., & Varenne, H. (1984a). When school goes home: Some problems in the organization of homework. Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education , 85 (3), 391–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146818408500310

McGuire, J. (2023). The President Of Ireland Wants To Get Rid Of Homework & Honestly, He's Onto Something. Romper. https://www.romper.com/life/president-of-ireland-michael-d-higgins-homework

Miller, C. C. (2018, December 25). The relentlessness of modern parenting. The New York Times . https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/25/upshot/the-relentlessness-of-modern-parenting.html

Natriello, G., & McDill, E. L. (1986). Performance standards, student effort on homework, and academic achievement. Sociology of Education , 59 (1), 18. https://doi.org/10.2307/2112483

PBS NewsHour : Biggest Predictor of College Success is Family Income . (2015). America’s Promise. https://web.archive.org/web/20220807230624/americaspromise.org/news/pbs-newshour-biggest-predictor-college-success-family-income

Plante, T. (2018, December 3). Americans are stressed out, and it is getting worse . Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/do-the-right-thing/201812/americans-are-stressed-out-and-it-is-getting-worse

Pinsker, J. (2019, March 28). Does homework work? The Atlantic . https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2019/03/homework-research-how-much/585889/

Pressman, R. M., Sugarman, D. B., Nemon, M. L., Desjarlais, J., Owens, J. A., & Schettini-Evans, A. (2015). Homework and family stress: With consideration of parents’ self confidence, educational level, and cultural background. The American Journal of Family Therapy , 43 (4), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926187.2015.1061407

Sander, G. F. (2018). Finland’s homeless crisis nearly solved. How? By giving homes to all who need. The Christian Science Monitor . https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2018/0321/Finland-s-homeless-crisis-nearly-solved.-How-By-giving-homes-to-all-who-need

Smurthwaite, D. (2018, April 27). Why Overworking is Made in America and Work-Life Balance Lives in Europe . https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/why-overworking-made-america-work-life-balance-lives-dave-smurthwaite/

Taras, H., & Potts-Datema, W. (2005). Sleep and student performance at school. Journal of School Health , 75 (7), 248–254. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2005.00033.x

The State of Homelessness in America . (2019). https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/The-State-of-Homelessness-in-America.pdf

The three faces of work-family conflict . (2010, January 25). Center for American Progress. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/the-three-faces-of-work-family-conflict/

Walker, T. (2015). The great homework debate: What’s getting lost in the hype . NEA. https://www.nea.org/advocating-for-change/new-from-nea/great-homework-debate-whats-getting-lost-hype

Wallace, K. (2015, August 12). Kids have three times too much homework, study finds; what’s the cost? CNN . https://www.cnn.com/2015/08/12/health/homework-elementary-school-study/index.html

Weir, K. (2016). Is homework a necessary evil? https://www.apa.org/monitor/2016/03/homework

Wilkinson, R. G. (2002). Unhealthy societies: The afflictions of inequality . Routledge.

Wilkinson, R., & Pickett, K. (2020). The inner level: How more equal societies reduce stress, restore sanity and improve everyone’s well-being . Penguin.

Woolf, S. H. (2019). Life expectancy and mortality rates in the United States, 1959-2017. JAMA , 322 (20), 1996–2016. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.16932

read this next

take a listen

Join the Movement

Stay informed.

I was just going to say that that is the ideal place to do it, because I think just biologically and whatever, when you're younger, you are more naturally a change agent, and have a better sense of vision, and have a longer time to be invested in the future, so that's actually the perfect place to be doing what you just said, Falami, is in schools, because that's where you've got this nexus of brilliance, and vision, and investment in 100 years from now or whatever. Not that we all can't be part of it, but you've got a nice concentration of people who are especially suited to creating that vision, and that change, and partnership with us elders.

Where's this from?

• Mental Health , Research
• Written by Cara Goodwin, Ph.D.

Homework: The Good and The Bad

Homework.  A single word that for many brings up memories of childhood stress. Now that you’re a parent, you may be reminded of that feeling every time your child spills their backpack across the table. You also may be questioning how much homework is too much and wondering how you can best help your child with their schoolwork.

Here, Dr. Cara Goodwin of Parenting Translator explains what the research actually says about homework. She outlines specific ways parents can support their kids to maximize the academic benefits and develop lifelong skills in time management and persistence.

In recent years, many parents and educators have raised concerns about homework. Specifically, they have questioned how much it enhances learning and if its benefits outweigh potential costs, such as stress to the family.

So, what does the research say?

Academic benefits vs risks of homework

One of the most important questions when it comes to homework is whether it actually helps kids understand the content better. So does it? Research finds that homework is associated with higher scores on academic standardized tests for middle and high school students, but not for elementary school students (1, 2).

In other words, homework seems to have little impact on learning in elementary school students. 

Additionally, a 2012 study found that while homework is related to higher standardized test scores for high schoolers, it is not related to higher grades.

Not surprisingly, homework is more likely to be associated with improved academic performance when students and teachers find the homework to be meaningful or relevant, according to several studies (1, 3, 4). Students tend to find homework to be most engaging when it involves solving real-world problems (5).  

The impact of homework may also depend on socioeconomic status. Students from higher income families show improved academic skills with more homework and gain more knowledge from homework, according to research. On the other hand, the academic performance of more disadvantaged children seems to be unaffected by homework (6, 7). This may be because homework provides additional stress for disadvantaged children. They are less likely to get help from their parents on homework and more likely to be punished by teachers for not completing it (8).

Non-academic benefits vs risks of homework

Academic outcomes are only part of the picture. It is important to look at how homework affects kids in ways other than grades and test scores.

Homework appears to have benefits beyond improving academic skills, particularly for younger students. These benefits include building responsibility, time management skills, and persistence (1, 9, 10). In addition, homework may also increase parents’ involvement in their children’s schooling (11, 12, 13, 14).

Yet, studies show that too much homework has drawbacks. It can reduce children’s opportunities for free play, which is essential for the development of language, cognitive, self-regulation, and social-emotional skills (15). It may also interfere with physical activity, and too much homework is associated with an increased risk for being overweight (16, 17). 

In addition to homework reducing opportunities for play, it also leads to increased conflicts and stress for families. For example, research finds that children with more hours of homework experience more academic stress, physical health problems, and lack of balance in their lives (18). 

Clearly, more is not better when it comes to homework.

What is the “right” amount of homework? 

Recent reports indicate that elementary school students are assigned three times the recommended amount of homework. Even kindergarten students report an average of 25 minutes of homework per day (19).

Additionally, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) found that homework has been increasing in recent years for younger students. Specifically, 35% of 9-year-olds reported that they did not do homework the previous night in 1984 versus 22% of 9-years-old in 2012. However, homework levels have stayed relatively stable for 13- and 17-year-olds during this same time period. 

Research suggests that homework should not exceed 1.5 to 2.5 hours per night for high school students and no more than 1 hour per night for middle school students (1). Homework for elementary school students should be minimal and assigned with the aim of building self-regulation and independent work skills. A common rule , supported by both the National Education Association (NEA) and National Parent Teacher Association (PTA), is 10-minutes of homework per grade in elementary school. Any more than this and homework may no longer have a positive impact. Importantly, the NEA and the National PTA do not endorse homework for kindergarteners.

How can parents best help with homework?

Most parents feel that they are expected to be involved in their children’s homework (20). Yet, it is often unclear exactly how to be involved in a way that helps your child to successfully complete the assignment without taking over entirely. Most studies find that parental help is important but that it matters more HOW the parent is helping rather than how OFTEN the parent is helping (21).

While this can all feel very overwhelming for parents, there are some simple guidelines you can follow to ease the homework burden and best support your child’s learning.

1. Help only when needed.

Parents should focus on providing general monitoring, guidance and encouragement. Allow children to generate answers on their own and complete their homework as independently as possible . This is important because research shows that allowing children more independence in completing homework benefits their academic skills (22, 23). In addition, too much parent involvement and being controlling with homework is associated with worse academic performance (21, 24, 25). 

What does this look like?

• Be present when your child is completing homework to help them to understand the directions.
• Be available to answer simple questions and to provide praise for their effort and hard work.
• Only provide help when your child asks for it and step away whenever possible.

2. Have structure and routines.

Help your child create structure and to develop some routines. This helps children become more independent in completing their homework. Research finds that providing this type of structure and responsiveness is related to improved academic skills (25).

This structure may include:

• A regular time and place for homework that is free from distractions.
• Have all of the materials they need within arm’s reach.
• Teach and encourage kids to create a checklist for their homework tasks each day.

Parents can also help their children to find ways to stay motivated. For example, developing their own reward system or creating a homework schedule with breaks for fun activities.

3. Set specific rules around homework.

Research finds that parents setting rules around homework is related to higher academic performance (26). For example, parents may require that children finish homework before screen time or may require children to stop doing homework and go to sleep at a certain hour. 

4. Emphasize learning over outcome.

Encourage your child to persist in challenging assignments and frame difficult assignments as opportunities to grow. Research finds that this attitude is associated with student success (20). Research also indicates that more challenging homework is associated with enhanced school performance (27).

Additionally, help your child to view homework as an opportunity to learn and improve skills. Parents who view homework as a learning opportunity rather than something that they must get “right” or complete successfully to obtain a higher grade are more likely to have children with the same attitudes (28). 

5. Stay calm and positive.

Yes, we know this is easier said than done, but it does have a big impact on how kids persevere when things get hard! Research shows that mothers showing positive emotions while helping with homework may improve children’s motivation in homework (29)

6. Praise hard work and effort. 

Praise focused on effort is likely to increase motivation (30). In addition, research finds that putting more effort into homework may be associated with enhanced development of conscientiousness in children (31).

7. Communicate with your child’s teacher.

Let your child’s teacher know about any problems your child has with homework and the teachers’ learning goals. Research finds that open communication about homework is associated with improved school performance (32). 

In summary, research finds that homework provides some academic benefit for middle- and high-school students but is less beneficial for elementary school students. As a parent, how you are involved in your child’s homework really matters. By following these evidence-based tips, you can help your child to maximize the benefits of homework and make the process less painful for all involved!

For more resources, take a look at our recent posts on natural and logical consequences and simple ways to decrease challenging behaviors .

• Cooper, H., Robinson, J. C., & Patall, E. A. (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement? A synthesis of research, 1987–2003.  Review of educational research ,  76 (1), 1-62.
• Muhlenbruck, L., Cooper, H., Nye, B., & Lindsay, J. J. (1999). Homework and achievement: Explaining the different strengths of relation at the elementary and secondary school levels.  Social Psychology of Education ,  3 (4), 295-317.
• Marzano, R. J., & Pickering, D. J. (2007). Special topic: The case for and against homework.  Educational leadership ,  64 (6), 74-79.
• Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Schnyder, I., & Niggli, A. (2006). Predicting homework effort: support for a domain-specific, multilevel homework model.  Journal of educational psychology ,  98 (2), 438.
• Shernoff, D. J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Schneider, B., & Shernoff, E. S. (2014). Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. In  Applications of flow in human development and education  (pp. 475-494). Springer, Dordrecht.
• Daw, J. (2012). Parental income and the fruits of labor: Variability in homework efficacy in secondary school.  Research in social stratification and mobility ,  30 (3), 246-264.
• Rønning, M. (2011). Who benefits from homework assignments?.  Economics of Education Review ,  30 (1), 55-64.
• Calarco, J. M. (2020). Avoiding us versus them: How schools’ dependence on privileged “Helicopter” parents influences enforcement of rules.  American Sociological Review ,  85 (2), 223-246.
• Corno, L., & Xu, J. (2004). Homework as the job of childhood.  Theory into practice ,  43 (3), 227-233.
• Göllner, R., Damian, R. I., Rose, N., Spengler, M., Trautwein, U., Nagengast, B., & Roberts, B. W. (2017). Is doing your homework associated with becoming more conscientious?.  Journal of Research in Personality ,  71 , 1-12.
• Balli, S. J., Demo, D. H., & Wedman, J. F. (1998). Family involvement with children’s homework: An intervention in the middle grades.  Family relations , 149-157.
• Balli, S. J., Wedman, J. F., & Demo, D. H. (1997). Family involvement with middle-grades homework: Effects of differential prompting.  The Journal of Experimental Education ,  66 (1), 31-48.
• Epstein, J. L., & Dauber, S. L. (1991). School programs and teacher practices of parent involvement in inner-city elementary and middle schools.  The elementary school journal ,  91 (3), 289-305.
• Van Voorhis, F. L. (2003). Interactive homework in middle school: Effects on family involvement and science achievement.  The Journal of Educational Research ,  96 (6), 323-338.
• Yogman, M., Garner, A., Hutchinson, J., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., & Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health. (2018). The power of play: A pediatric role in enhancing development in young children.  Pediatrics ,  142 (3).
• Godakanda, I., Abeysena, C., & Lokubalasooriya, A. (2018). Sedentary behavior during leisure time, physical activity and dietary habits as risk factors of overweight among school children aged 14–15 years: case control study.  BMC research notes ,  11 (1), 1-6.
• Hadianfard, A. M., Mozaffari-Khosravi, H., Karandish, M., & Azhdari, M. (2021). Physical activity and sedentary behaviors (screen time and homework) among overweight or obese adolescents: a cross-sectional observational study in Yazd, Iran.  BMC pediatrics ,  21 (1), 1-10.
• Galloway, M., Conner, J., & Pope, D. (2013). Nonacademic effects of homework in privileged, high-performing high schools.  The journal of experimental education ,  81 (4), 490-510.
• Pressman, R. M., Sugarman, D. B., Nemon, M. L., Desjarlais, J., Owens, J. A., & Schettini-Evans, A. (2015). Homework and family stress: With consideration of parents’ self confidence, educational level, and cultural background.  The American Journal of Family Therapy ,  43 (4), 297-313.
• Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., Battiato, A. C., Walker, J. M., Reed, R. P., DeJong, J. M., & Jones, K. P. (2001). Parental involvement in homework.  Educational psychologist ,  36 (3), 195-209.
• Moroni, S., Dumont, H., Trautwein, U., Niggli, A., & Baeriswyl, F. (2015). The need to distinguish between quantity and quality in research on parental involvement: The example of parental help with homework.  The Journal of Educational Research ,  108 (5), 417-431.
• Cooper, H., Lindsay, J. J., & Nye, B. (2000). Homework in the home: How student, family, and parenting-style differences relate to the homework process.  Contemporary educational psychology ,  25 (4), 464-487.
• Dumont, H., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O., Neumann, M., Niggli, A., & Schnyder, I. (2012). Does parental homework involvement mediate the relationship between family background and educational outcomes?.  Contemporary Educational Psychology ,  37 (1), 55-69.
• Barger, M. M., Kim, E. M., Kuncel, N. R., & Pomerantz, E. M. (2019). The relation between parents’ involvement in children’s schooling and children’s adjustment: A meta-analysis.  Psychological bulletin ,  145 (9), 855.
• Dumont, H., Trautwein, U., Nagy, G., & Nagengast, B. (2014). Quality of parental homework involvement: predictors and reciprocal relations with academic functioning in the reading domain.  Journal of Educational Psychology ,  106 (1), 144.
• Patall, E. A., Cooper, H., & Robinson, J. C. (2008). The effects of choice on intrinsic motivation and related outcomes: a meta-analysis of research findings.  Psychological bulletin ,  134 (2), 270.Dettmars et al., 2010
• Madjar, Shklar, & Moshe, 2016)
• Pomerantz, E. M., Grolnick, W. S., & Price, C. E. (2005). The Role of Parents in How Children Approach Achievement: A Dynamic Process Perspective.
• Haimovitz, K., Wormington, S. V., & Corpus, J. H. (2011). Dangerous mindsets: How beliefs about intelligence predict motivational change.  Learning and Individual Differences ,  21 (6), 747-752.Gollner et al., 2017
• Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle school: a meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement.  Developmental psychology ,  45 (3), 740.

Share this post

16 Comments

Pingback: nfl|nfl highlights|nfl draft|nfl theme|nfl halftime show|nfl theme song|nfl draft 2023|nfl super bowl 2023|nfl 23|nfl 22|nfl halftime show 2022|nfl news|nfl live|nfl mock draft 2023|NFL player collapse|NFL live coverage|NFL Playoffs 2023|NFL game|NFL pred

Pingback: dutch driver license

Pingback: หวยออนไลน์ LSM99

Pingback: biracial silicone dolls

Pingback: เช่ารถตู้พร้อมคนขับ

Pingback: iTunes gift card

Pingback: fuckgirl

Pingback: go88 tài xỉu

Pingback: เสริมหน้าอก

Pingback: ชอบหีสวย.com

Pingback: gunpowder

Pingback: กระเบื้องยาง SPC ราคา

Pingback: steenslagfolie

Pingback: สั่งสินค้าจากจีน

Pingback: iTune gift card

Comments are closed.

As psychologists, we were passionate about evidence-based parenting even before having kids ourselves. Once we became parents, we were overwhelmed by the amount of parenting information available, some of which isn’t backed by research. This inspired the Helping Families Thrive mission: to bring parenting science to the real world.  

search the site

Learn With Us

Psychologist created, parent tested workshops and mini-courses to help families thrive.

Our comprehensive Essentials course puts the power of the most studied parenting tools in the palm of your hand.

post categories

Improve Your Child’s Emotion Regulation Skills

A free, 15-page guide filled with practical strategies.

find us elsewhere

find your way around

discover courses

important links

Our 3-Step Strategy

Download our free guide to improve your child’s cooperation.

For educational purposes only. Not intended to diagnose or treat any condition, illness or disease.

Teacher Stress: Top Causes for Teacher Burnout and Its Impact on Students

Anyone who has ever faced a classroom of students can probably relate to stories of teacher stress. However, new studies suggest that teacher stress is not only becoming an epidemic—it’s affecting students as well.

According to a recent study sponsored by the University of Missouri, 93 percent of teachers surveyed said that they experience high levels of stress. Even more significantly, the students of teachers with the highest stress levels had the lowest grades as well as the most disruptive behaviors.

These results confirm those of other recent studies, leading many education experts to believe that teacher stress can directly impact the performance and well-being of students.

Causes of Teacher Stress

What causes teacher stress? Research shows that teacher stress is primarily caused by one of three factors : student behaviors, performance assessment, and time management. Here’s an overview of some of the biggest stress triggers for teachers:

Bad Classroom Behavior

In addition to kids misbehaving, the term “bad behavior” can also refer to students not paying attention or not doing their homework or classwork.

The impact on students : Bad behavior always impacts more than the student involved. When a child misbehaves or makes the atmosphere unconducive to study, it disrupts the entire class.

Emphasis on Test Scores

Since the passage of “No Child Left Behind” in 2002, schools are required to conduct mandatory standardized tests —and if “adequate yearly progress” (AYP) results aren’t met, schools are penalized with financial cuts and other punitive measures. This system has created a pressure cooker atmosphere for students and teachers, and has caused curricula to be overhauled so that there’s an overemphasis on these tests throughout the school year.

The impact on students: A number of studies have shown that the current system of standardized testing is causing a significant increase of stress-induced illnesses among students, as they feel the increased pressures imposed on them (and on their teachers) by these testing protocols.

Classroom/School Safety

In an unnerving climate, where school shootings are happening with increased frequency, teachers and students alike are being subjected to ever-changing safety procedures and regular safety drills . The continued public debates about school safety and increased concern has also caused considerably heightened stress.

The impact on students: Schools have become significantly impacted by these higher levels of tension and apprehension. Toward this end, schools are taking measures to calm fears among teachers, students, and parents.

Meetings/Training Sessions

Many teachers cite time management as a constant challenge. With increased safety regulations and new testing protocols, today’s teachers are confronted with ever-increasing (and obligatory) meetings and training sessions. These demands are encroaching more than ever on personal time, contributing to teacher burnout.

The impact on students: When a teacher is stressed and feels overworked or overwhelmed, they have less time to focus on the students and the lessons. This time shortage transmits itself to the classroom and leads to feelings of insecurity and anxiety among students.

The Contagion of Stress

In a recent study, medical researchers discovered that in classrooms where teachers admitted to higher levels of burnout , students were discovered to have higher levels of the stress hormone cortisol . Studies such as these are confirming that teacher stress can be passed on to students—and student performance is being significantly impaired by it.

For now, the results are in, but time will show whether school administrators will be able to act upon these findings by reducing stress in the classroom. If you’re a parent wondering how you can help your student in this area, the best thing you can do is keep a watchful eye for signs of undue stress in your child, offer plenty of support and encouragement (especially during testing season), and talk to you children about any fears or concerns they may have about their time in the classroom.

Related Articles

Six Ways Online Learning Transforms the Academic Journey

September 5 2024

Encouraging Kids to Love Writing: Fun Activities to Spark Creativity 

September 3 2024

A High School Senior’s Checklist for a Great Year 

September 2 2024

Turn Up the Music: The Benefits of Music in Classrooms

August 27 2024

How to Create a Bully-Free Zone 

A Parent’s Guide to Managing and Reducing Student Stress

August 26 2024

Protecting Your Child from Bullying: Signs, Solutions, and the Role of Online Schools

QUIZ: 20 Fun Trivia Facts to Celebrate Culture and Diversity 

August 20 2024

15 Must-Read Books this Hispanic Heritage Month 

August 19 2024

5 Factors That Affect Learning: Insights for Parents 

August 12 2024

Navigating the College Application Process: A Timeline for High School Students and Their Parents 

Education Online? One Family’s Success Story

August 7 2024

Esports vs. Traditional Sports: Exploring Their Surprising Similarities and Key Differences

August 5 2024

Tips for Choosing the Right School for Your Child 

Can Homeschooled Students Play School Sports?

August 2 2024

What is Esports and Why Should My Child Participate?

July 23 2024

Enhance Your Student-Athlete’s Competitive Edge with Online Schooling 

July 22 2024

Preparing for the First Day of Online School 

July 12 2024

Why Arts Education is Important in School

Online School Reviews: What People Are Saying About Online School

Smart Classrooms, Smart Kids: How AI is Changing Education

Everyone Wins When Parents Get Involved In Their Child’s Education

July 11 2024

5 Ways to Start the School Year with Confidence 

July 8 2024

Top Four Reasons Families Are Choosing Online School in the Upcoming Year 

Tips for Scheduling Your Online School Day

July 2 2024

Life After High School: Online School Prepares Your Child For The Future

The Ultimate Back-to-School List for Online and Traditional School 

July 1 2024

Nurturing Digital Literacy in Today’s Kids: A Parent’s Guide

June 25 2024

What Public Schools Can Do About Special Education Teacher Shortages

June 24 2024

Audiobooks for Kids: Benefits, Free Downloads, and More 

7 Fun Outdoor Summer Activities for Kids

June 18 2024

Beat the Summer Slide: Tips for Keeping Young Minds Active 

June 11 2024

How to Encourage Your Child To Pursue a Career

Easy Science Experiments For Kids To Do At Home This Summer

May 31 2024

4 Ways to Get Healthcare Experience in High School 

May 29 2024

5 Strategies for Keeping Students Engaged in Online Learning 

May 21 2024

How Parents Can Prevent Isolation and Loneliness During Summer Break

May 14 2024

The Ultimate Guide to Gift Ideas for Teachers 

How to Thank a Teacher: Heartfelt Gestures They Won’t Forget   

Six Ways Online Schools Can Support Military Families

7 Things Teachers Should Know About Your Child 

April 30 2024

Countdown to Graduation: How to Prepare for the Big Day 

April 23 2024

How am I Going to Pay for College?

April 16 2024

5 Major Benefits of Summer School 

April 12 2024

Inspiring an Appreciation for Poetry in Kids 

April 9 2024

A Parent’s Guide to Tough Conversations

April 2 2024

The Importance of Reading to Children and Its Enhancements to Their Development

March 26 2024

5 Steps to Master College-Level Reading

March 19 2024

10 Timeless Stories to Inspire Your Reader: Elementary, Middle, and High Schoolers

March 15 2024

From Books to Tech: Why Libraries Are Still Important in the Digital Age

March 13 2024

The Evolution of Learning: How Education is Transforming for Future Generations

March 11 2024

The Ultimate Guide to Reading Month: 4 Top Reading Activities for Kids

March 1 2024

Make Learning Fun: The 10 Best Educational YouTube Channels for Kids

February 27 2024

The Value of Soft Skills for Students in the Age of AI

February 20 2024

30 Questions to Ask at Your Next Parent-Teacher Conference

February 6 2024

Four Life Skills to Teach Teenagers for Strong Resumes

January 25 2024

Exploring the Social Side of Online School: Fun Activities and Social Opportunities Await

January 9 2024

Is Your Child Ready for Advanced Learning? Discover Your Options.

January 8 2024

Your Ultimate Guide to Holiday Fun and Activities

December 18 2023

Free Printable Holiday Coloring Pages to Inspire Your Child’s Inner Artist

December 12 2023

Five Reasons to Switch Schools Midyear

December 5 2023

A Parent’s Guide to Switching Schools Midyear

November 29 2023

Building Strong Study Habits: Back-to-School Edition

November 17 2023

A Parent’s Guide to Robotics for Kids

November 6 2023

How to Get Ahead of Cyberbullying

October 30 2023

Bullying’s Effect on Students and How to Help 

October 25 2023

Can You Spot the Warning Signs of Bullying?

October 16 2023

Could the Online Classroom Be the Solution to Bullying?

October 11 2023

Bullying Prevention Starts With Parents

October 9 2023

Could Teacher Performance Exams Change Education?

January 27 2015

How State Testing Affects Students

May 16 2018

How to Combat the Harmful Effects of Stress on Learning

March 21 2018

Sign up for our newsletter

Subscribe to our newsletter and join America’s premier community dedicated to helping students reach their full potential.

Welcome! Subscribe to our newsletter and join America’s premier community dedicated to helping students reach their full potential.

Is Homework Bad for Kids in Elementary School?

As a teacher with a master’s in Education and over a decade of experience in the public education system, I’ve seen firsthand how the traditional model of assigning homework plays out in the lives of young students and their families.

Play. Learn. Thrive.™ only endorses products we authentically love and use. Some of the product links in this post may be affiliate links. That means that if you click them and make a purchase, this site makes a commission. Play. Learn. Thrive.™ is also an Amazon Associate. As an Amazon Associate, we earn from qualifying purchases. It will have no impact on the price you pay or the experience of your purchase. 

While the intent behind homework has often been to reinforce what was learned in class, the reality is that for elementary-aged children, homework can do more harm than good. This post will answer your question, “is homework bad for kids?” and discuss the negative impacts it can have on young children.

**Keep reading because I’ll share how you can OPT OUT of homework AND give you a simple copy and paste e-mail to let your child’s teacher know your plans respectfully .

Skip Ahead:

Historical Perspective on Homework

Homework wasn’t always an integral part of elementary education. In fact, it was originally seen as a way to promote discipline and work ethic in older students. 

Over time, this practice trickled down into elementary schools, where the rationale was that starting early would give younger children a head start. However, the expectations for homework have not evolved to reflect our growing understanding of child development .

Today, elementary school students as young as five or six are coming home with worksheets and assignments, and the assumption is that this will help them achieve better academic performance. 

But research studies show that for elementary school children, this assumption of homework being good for kids is simply not supported by evidence. The benefits of homework at this grade level are minimal, and the academic benefits are often negligible.

Say NO to Homework and Hello to Connection

So, you're looking to reduce homework stress while still helping your kids grow and learn?

I totally get it.The good news is, learning doesn't always have to look like schoolwork. In fact, some of the most valuable lessons come from play, creativity, and spending time together as a family. I’m an educator and a parent, and I know firsthand that the key is finding balance and making small, intentional changes that support your child’s growth while keeping things fun and easy for everyone.

Grab this Family Connections Activities Guide and my simple e-mail template to send a respectful note to your child's teacher letting them know you'll be opting out of homework this year.

Why do Teachers Assign Homework

Teachers often assign homework with the best intentions, aiming to reinforce concepts taught in class, build good study habits, and promote independent learning. 

Many educators believe that homework helps students practice skills, retain information, and prepare for future lessons.

It’s also seen as a way to teach responsibility and time management, as students must manage their workload outside the classroom. 

Additionally, homework can serve as a tool for teachers to gauge a student’s understanding of the material, helping them identify areas where further instruction might be needed.

However, homework assignments are often influenced by school policies or long-standing traditions, and teachers may feel obligated to assign them even when they recognize that the benefits might vary for different age groups, especially for younger students.

What the Research Says about Homework in Elementary School

According to research by education expert Harris Cooper, who conducted a comprehensive review of educational research , the benefits of homework for elementary students are virtually non-existent. 

Cooper’s findings suggest that while homework may have some positive impact for older students, particularly in high school, we do know there is no clear academic advantage for children in elementary school.

In fact, the average homework assignment at this age level does not significantly improve test scores or student achievement. What’s more concerning is the emotional and psychological toll excessive homework can take.

For young children who are still developing basic cognitive and social skills, being saddled with assignments after school can actually backfire. Instead of fostering a love of learning, it often creates frustration, resentment, and anxiety. 

I’ve watched bright, curious children become overwhelmed by the pressure of completing homework, losing the spark that makes them naturally want to learn.

Physical and Mental Health Consequences of Homework in Elementary School

Homework also cuts into time that could be spent on activities that are far more beneficial to a child’s overall well-being , such as physical activity or social time with family. 

When kids come home from school, they need time to unwind, play, and engage in after-school activities. Instead, they often end up sitting for long periods, working through assignments that may not even be meaningful to them. 

This sedentary time is especially problematic when you consider that many children already spend so much of their day sitting at desks.

In terms of mental health , homework can become a significant source of stress—not just for children, but for families as a whole. In many households, the nightly homework routine turns into a battleground, with parents and children feeling frustrated, exhausted, and disconnected. 

Physical symptoms of stress like stomach problems and sleep deprivation are not uncommon, and these can have lasting effects on a child’s well-being.

I’ve had parents tell me how much they dread homework time because it creates tension in their home, and as a teacher, that is heartbreaking to hear. 

Ultimately, young children need space to explore their world in ways that are developmentally appropriate. When homework eats into that time, it deprives them of opportunities to grow in areas that are just as important—if not more so—than academic achievement.

It’s time to rethink the purpose of homework for elementary students and consider what is truly best for their development.

Can Homework Cause Anxiety

Homework can often become a significant source of anxiety for children , especially when they feel overwhelmed by the pressure to complete assignments after an already long school day. 

Many young children struggle with balancing the demands of homework with their need for relaxation and play, leading to feelings of frustration and stress.

The fear of making mistakes, not meeting expectations, or not finishing on time can cause children to internalize a sense of failure or inadequacy, even at an early age.

This anxiety not only affects their academic performance but can also seep into their overall well-being, disrupting sleep, affecting their mood, and diminishing their natural enthusiasm for learning. 

Over time, the constant pressure of homework can turn what should be a joyful pursuit of knowledge into a source of dread, creating a negative association with school and learning.

Why Family Time Matters More Than Homework

One of the most critical lessons I’ve learned as both an educator and a parent is that family time often holds far more value for a child’s growth than any worksheet ever could. 

Elementary-aged children thrive on connection, play, and unstructured moments with the people they love most. Yet, for many families, the pressures of homework steal this precious time away, contributing to a lack of balance between school and family life.

When we prioritize homework over time together as a family, we miss out on some of the most powerful learning opportunities that childhood has to offer.

The Value of Family Time

Family time is where some of the most profound learning happens—learning that goes beyond academics and touches the heart of what it means to be human. It’s during these moments that children feel secure, loved, and understood. 

Whether it’s talking around the dinner table, playing a game together, or simply sharing a story before bed, these interactions build emotional resilience and strengthen family bonds.

Research supports this as well. Studies have shown that children who spend more time engaging with their familie s are more emotionally stable, perform better socially, and develop stronger cognitive abilities. 

Family time fosters the development of life skills that can’t be measured by a standardized test—skills like empathy, communication, problem-solving, and patience. These are the very qualities that help children grow into well-rounded, confident individuals.

When the evening is filled with homework, these opportunities for connection often disappear. Instead of discussing the day or laughing together, the focus shifts to checking off assignments. 

This often leads to a sense of disconnection and even resentment, particularly when children struggle with the work or feel pressure to meet academic expectations.

The Role of Play in Learning

Play is an essential part of learning , especially for young children. Through play, kids naturally explore their world, experiment with ideas, and develop critical thinking skills.

 In fact, many of the problem-solving skills that we hope to teach through homework can be acquired far more effectively through imaginative play, building projects, and outdoor exploration.

Play also promotes creativity and resilience—two traits that are fundamental to lifelong learning. When children are free to play, they learn to take risks, deal with failure, and try new approaches. 

These are lessons that are difficult to teach through structured assignments but come naturally through the unstructured, joyful moments of play.

In contrast, traditional homework often stifles creativity. Repetitive tasks like worksheets or rote memorization do little to encourage innovative thinking or curiosity. In fact, they can dampen a child’s enthusiasm for learning altogether. 

The real learning happens when kids are given the space to pursue their own interests, ask questions, and engage with the world around them.

Creating Meaningful Experiences

So, what should families do instead of focusing on homework? The answer is simple: create meaningful experiences together. These don’t have to be grand or elaborate. 

Sometimes the most impactful moments come from the simplest activities —cooking dinner together, going for a walk, or working on a puzzle as a family.

These shared experiences are the foundation of a child’s development. They teach life skills in a way that’s engaging and meaningful.

For example, cooking together can teach math through measuring ingredients, science through understanding how things cook, and even history and culture through trying new recipes. Going for a walk outside can spark conversations about nature, exercise, and mindfulness. 

These moments foster curiosity and help children develop a love of learning that extends beyond the classroom.

By prioritizing family time, we are giving our children something far more valuable than any homework assignment could offer. 

We are showing them that they are more than just students; they are individuals whose interests, emotions, and well-being matter. In these moments, we nurture their whole selves, not just their academic skills.

Alternatives to Homework for Elementary Children

If we want to move away from the traditional homework model, it’s important to have alternatives that nurture our children’s growth in ways that feel enriching and meaningful. 

The good news is that there are countless ways to encourage learning outside of homework , many of which tap into children’s natural curiosity and love for discovery.

These alternatives not only reinforce the skills children need but also give them the freedom to explore, create, and enjoy childhood.

Encouraging Independent Play and Exploration

One of the most powerful alternatives to homework is independent play . When children are given the space and time to play freely, they engage in a form of learning that is deeply personal and developmentally appropriate. 

Play allows them to test boundaries, experiment with ideas, and develop problem-solving skills—all without the constraints of structured assignments.

Independent play builds confidence and fosters a growth mindset , as children learn to navigate challenges on their own terms. 

Whether they’re building a fort out of couch cushions, creating a masterpiece with chalk on the driveway, or pretending to be explorers in their backyard, they’re learning how to think critically, solve problems, and stay resilient when things don’t go as planned.

Allowing children time for this kind of play gives them a chance to recharge from the structured demands of school and tap into their own creativity and imagination.

It also encourages them to become self-directed learners, which is an essential skill for their future academic and personal success.

Fostering a Love of Learning Outside the Classroom

Another alternative to homework is fostering a love of learning through everyday experiences.

We often think of learning as something that happens only in the classroom or through formal assignments, but in reality, children are constantly learning from the world around them.

Parents can support this by encouraging their children to explore their interests and ask questions. 

For example, if your child is fascinated by dinosaurs, take them to the library to find books on the subject or watch a documentary together.

If they’re curious about how things work, spend time tinkering with household objects or building simple machines together.

These activities teach valuable lessons and build knowledge in ways that are fun and engaging for children.

The goal is to create an environment where learning feels like a natural part of life rather than something that happens only when there’s a worksheet in front of them.

By pursuing their passions and engaging in hands-on learning experiences, children develop a deeper love for knowledge and a stronger sense of curiosity that will serve them well throughout their lives.

Prioritizing Social and Emotional Learning

Elementary-aged children are at a critical stage in their social and emotional development, and this is an area that deserves just as much attention as academic skills. 

Social and emotional learning (SEL) is about helping children develop self-awareness, manage their emotions, build empathy, and establish healthy relationships.

These are essential life skills that cannot be taught through traditional homework. Instead of worksheets, families can focus on activities that promote social and emotional learning.

This might include family discussions where children are encouraged to express their feelings and listen to others, cooperative games that emphasize teamwork and communication, or community service projects that build empathy and a sense of responsibility to others. 

These activities help children learn to navigate the social world with confidence and compassion.

They also teach children how to manage stress, resolve conflicts, and make thoughtful decisions—skills that are crucial for both their personal happiness and their future success.

What Parents Can Do to Advocate for Less Homework

As parents, we hold incredible power to influence the educational experiences of our children. If you believe that traditional homework doesn’t serve your child’s best interests , you’re not alone—and you don’t have to accept it as a given.

By advocating for a more balanced, thoughtful approach to learning, you can help shape a school environment that prioritizes well-being, curiosity, and real-world learning.

Here’s how you can start advocating for less homework and creating a home environment that supports learning without the pressure of assignments.

Can Parents Opt-Out of Homework

The idea that parents can opt out of homework is gaining traction as more families recognize that traditional assignments may not always serve their child’s best interests, especially in elementary school.

Some schools and teachers are open to this option, allowing parents to decide whether or not their child completes homework based on what works best for their family. Parents who opt out often do so to prioritize their child’s well-being, choosing to focus on unstructured play, family time, or personalized learning activities instead.

By opting out, parents take an active role in shaping their child’s education , advocating for a more balanced approach that nurtures both academic and personal growth.

However, it’s important for parents to communicate openly with teachers and schools about their decision, ensuring that everyone is aligned on supporting the child’s overall learning journey.

Communicating with Teachers and Schools

One of the most effective steps parents can take is to start a conversation with their child’s teacher. 

As a former teacher myself, I can tell you that most educators are open to feedback and genuinely want what’s best for their students. Often, teachers assign homework out of habit or due to school policies, not necessarily because they believe it’s the best method for every child.

Frame it as a partnership. 

Express your concerns in a respectful, constructive manner, and focus on your child’s well-being.

For example, you might say, “I’ve noticed that after a long day at school, my child seems exhausted and overwhelmed by homework. I’m wondering if there are ways we can work together to adjust the homework load or explore alternatives that are more beneficial for their development.”

Grab my Opt Out of Homework template here!

Be prepared to offer suggestions. 

Perhaps your child could engage in more hands-on learning at home , or the teacher could suggest activities that align with classroom content but don’t involve traditional homework.

You might also advocate for more reading time or projects that encourage creativity and independent thinking, rather than worksheets and busywork.

If your child’s school has a formal homework policy, it might be helpful to gather other like-minded parents and approach the administration collectively. 

Thankfully, many schools are rethinking their homework policies in light of recent years of research, and showing that there’s parent support for a change can help drive that discussion.

Creating a Home Environment That Supports Learning Without Homework

Even if homework is a part of your child’s school routine, you can create a home environment that balances those demands with opportunities for unstructured learning. One of the best ways to do this is by cultivating a home that encourages exploration, curiosity, and creativity .

Start by making learning a natural part of everyday life. Fill your home with books, art supplies , puzzles, building materials, and other resources that spark interest. 

Minimize toys that do the work for the child (toys should do no more than 10% of the work!), and create a space for play that is minimal and simple. Encourage your children to ask questions, explore their passions, and dive into projects that excite them.

The goal is to make learning feel less like a task and more like a natural extension of their curiosity.

Another key is to prioritize downtime. Make sure your children have time each day to unwind, play freely, and engage in activities that bring them joy. This could mean family game nights, outdoor play, or even just quiet time to read or daydream (remember, boredom is GOOD for kids!). 

When children have time to relax and recharge, they are better equipped to face the challenges of school and life with a positive attitude.

It’s also important to model a love of learning yourself. Let your children see you engaging in activities that involve discovery and growth—whether that’s reading a book, working on a hobby, or trying something new. 

When children see that learning doesn’t end when school is over, they are more likely to adopt that mindset themselves.

Finding a Balance That Works for Your Family

Ultimately, every family is different, and there’s no one-size-fits-all solution when it comes to homework (or anything for that matter!).

The key is finding a balance that works for your family’s unique needs and values. If you feel that your child’s homework load is affecting their well-being or family life, it’s okay to set boundaries.

You might choose to limit the hours of homework your child spends each evening, allowing them to stop after a certain point and focus on other activities.

Advocating for less homework doesn’t mean you’re against education—it means you’re for a more holistic approach to learning that respects your child’s developmental needs.

As parents, we have the right to prioritize what we believe is best for our children, even when it means challenging the status quo. 

By taking small steps, whether that’s having a conversation with a teacher or shifting the focus at home, you can help create a more balanced, enriching experience for your child—one that goes beyond the traditional homework model and nurtures their full potential.

Similar Posts

How to Learn About Your Child’s Interests

12 Fun Indoor Water Play Activities for Kids

A Parents Guide to the Difference Between Fine and Gross Motor Skills

Why Do Babies and Toddlers Throw Things on the Floor?

What To Do When A Child Refuses To Read (Ages 5-9)

Benefits of Recess in Elementary School

The New York Times

Motherlode | when homework stresses parents as well as students, when homework stresses parents as well as students.

Educators and parents have long been concerned about students stressed by homework loads , but a small research study asked questions recently about homework and anxiety of a different group: parents. The results were unsurprising. While we may have already learned long division and let the Magna Carta fade into memory, parents report that their children’s homework causes family stress and tension — particularly when additional factors surrounding the homework come into play.

The researchers, from Brown University, found that stress and tension for families (as reported by the parents) increased most when parents perceived themselves as unable to help with the homework, when the child disliked doing the homework and when the homework caused arguments, either between the child and adults or among the adults in the household.

The number of parents involved in the research (1,173 parents, both English and Spanish-speaking, who visited one of 27 pediatric practices in the greater Providence area of Rhode Island) makes it more of a guide for further study than a basis for conclusions, but the idea that homework can cause significant family stress is hard to seriously debate. Families across income and education levels may struggle with homework for different reasons and in different ways, but “it’s an equal opportunity problem,” says Stephanie Donaldson-Pressman , a contributing editor to the research study and co-author of “ The Learning Habit .”

“Parents may find it hard to evaluate the homework,” she says. “They think, if this is coming home, my child should be able to do it. If the child can’t, and especially if they feel like they can’t help, they may get angry with the child, and the child feels stupid.” That’s a scenario that is likely to lead to more arguments, and an increased dislike of the work on the part of the child.

The researchers also found that parents of students in kindergarten and first grade reported that the children spent significantly more time on homework than recommended. Many schools and organizations, including the National Education Association and the Great Schools blog , will suggest following the “10-minute rule” for how long children should spend on school work outside of school hours: 10 minutes per grade starting in first grade, and most likely more in high school. Instead, parents described their first graders and kindergartners working, on average, for 25 to 30 minutes a night. That is consistent with other research , which has shown an increase in the amount of time spent on homework in lower grades from 1981 to 2003.

“This study highlights the real discrepancy between intent and what’s actually happening,” Ms. Donaldson-Pressman said, speaking of both the time spent and the family tensions parents describe. “When people talk about the homework, they’re too often talking about the work itself. They should be talking about the load — how long it takes. You can have three problems on one page that look easy, but aren’t.”

The homework a child is struggling with may not be developmentally appropriate for every child in a grade, she suggests, noting that academic expectations for young children have increased in recent years . Less-educated or Spanish-speaking parents may find it harder to evaluate or challenge the homework itself, or to say they think it is simply too much. “When the load is too much, it has a tremendous impact on family stress and the general tenor of the evening. It ruins your family time and kids view homework as a punishment,” she said.

At our house, homework has just begun; we are in the opposite of the honeymoon period, when both skills and tolerance are rusty and complaints and stress are high. If the two hours my fifth-grade math student spent on homework last night turn out the be the norm once he is used to the work and the teacher has had a chance to hear from the students, we’ll speak up.

We should, Ms. Donaldson-Pressman says. “Middle-class parents can solve the problem for their own kids,” she says. “They can make sure their child is going to all the right tutors, or get help, but most people can’t.” Instead of accepting that at home we become teachers and homework monitors (or even taking classes in how to help your child with his math ), parents should let the school know that they’re unhappy with the situation, both to encourage others to speak up and to speak on behalf of parents who don’t feel comfortable complaining.

“Home should be a safe place for students,” she says. “A child goes to school all day and they’re under stress. If they come home and it’s more of the same, that’s not good for anyone.”

Read more about homework on Motherlode: Homework and Consequences ; The Mechanics of Homework ; That’s Your Child’s Homework Project, Not Yours and Homework’s Emotional Toll on Students and Families.

What's Next

Why Self-Care for Teachers is Important

• August 8, 2024

As an early childhood educator, you’re the heart of your classroom. Your energy, patience and creativity set the tone for many of your students’ very first educational experiences.

However, it’s easy to forget that in order to take care of others, you must first take care of yourself. Self-care for teachers isn’t just a trendy buzzword; it’s a vital practice for your well-being and effectiveness in the classroom.

Let’s dive into why self-care for teachers is crucial and explore some fun ways to integrate it into your busy life.

Why self-care is important for teachers

You’re probably no stranger to the term “self-care,” but have you ever stopped to consider its importance? The demands of teaching can be overwhelming, and without proper self-care, you can quickly find yourself approaching burnout.

The importance of self-care for teachers cannot be overstated. Here’s why:

• Mental health matters: Teaching is as mentally taxing as it is rewarding. From managing classroom behaviors to planning lessons, your brain is constantly in overdrive. Prioritizing self-care strategies maintain your mental health, reducing stress and preventing burnout. A clear, focused mind is essential for creating a positive learning environment.
• Physical well-being: Long hours on your feet and endless activities take a toll on your body. Regular self-care routines, such as exercise, proper nutrition and adequate sleep, keep you physically fit and ready to tackle each day with enthusiasm.
• Emotional resilience: Preschoolers can be unpredictable, and their boundless energy requires matching stamina. Engaging in self-care strategies helps build emotional resilience, allowing you to handle the ups and downs that come with wrangling a classroom of toddlers.
• Work-life balance for teachers: Striking a healthy work-life balance is critical. Teachers often take work home, blurring the lines between personal and professional life. Embracing self-care encourages setting boundaries, ensuring you have time to relax and recharge outside of the classroom.

Different self-care tips for teachers

With the importance of self-care for teachers in mind, let’s explore some practical and enjoyable ways you can incorporate it into your daily routine.

• Morning rituals: Start your day with a positive mindset. Whether it’s a quiet cup of coffee, a short meditation session or a brisk walk, establishing a morning ritual can set the tone for a calm and productive day.
• Exercise: Physical activity is an excellent stress buster. Find an exercise routine you enjoy, whether it’s yoga, dancing or a simple home workout. The key is consistency, not intensity.
• Healthy eating: It’s not just your kiddos who need to eat their fruits and veggies. Nourish your body with nutritious foods. Meal prepping can save time during busy weeks, and keeping healthy snacks on hand ensures you stay fueled throughout the day.
• Mindfulness and meditation: Taking a few minutes each day to practice mindfulness or meditation can significantly reduce stress. Apps like Headspace offer guided sessions that are perfect for busy schedules.
• Creative outlets: Engage in activities that bring you joy and allow you to express yourself. Whether it’s painting, writing or crafting, creative outlets are a great way to unwind and recharge.
• Professional support networks: Connect with fellow teachers to share experiences, tips and support. Building a strong professional network can provide a sense of community and help you navigate challenges.
• Pamper yourself: Treat yourself to something special regularly. A spa day, a new book or even a long bath can work wonders for your mood and energy levels.
• Reflect and journal: Keep a journal to reflect on your day, jot down what you’re grateful for or simply vent. Journaling can be a therapeutic way to process your thoughts and emotions.
• Unplug: Make it a habit to unplug from technology for a little while each day. Disconnecting from screens allows you to be present in the moment and reduces stress.
• Set boundaries: Learn to say no. It’s okay to decline extra responsibilities if they interfere with your personal time. Setting boundaries is essential for maintaining a healthy work-life balance.

Speaking of boundaries, professional development (PD) is a part of teachers’ lives and while you can’t avoid it, you can take self-paced courses online that fit with your busy schedule.

CCEI offers hundreds of options at your fingertips, so you can knock out PD while also setting boundaries and keeping a healthy work-life balance.

Self-care for teachers is not a luxury; it’s a necessity. The importance of self-care for teachers lies in its ability to sustain your mental, physical and emotional health, enabling you to be the best educator you can be. By prioritizing self-care, you not only enhance your well-being but also set a positive example for your students.

ChildCare Education Institute (CCEI) is the industry leader for online professional development . 

Professional Development Courses

Certificate Programs

Staff Training

Head Start Training

Director Training

Custom Course Hosting

CCEI Company

Trial Course

Trending Topics

StraighterLine Company

Terms of Use  |  Privacy Policy  |  Site Map  |  Code of Conduct  |  Student Handbook English | Student Handbook Spanish © 2024 ChildCare Education Institute 1155 Perimeter Center West, Atlanta, GA 30338 Phone: 1.800.499.9907

• Grades 6-12
• School Leaders

Have you entered to win this adorable math giveaway? ✨

This Teacher’s One Small Shift in Feedback Now Saves Her Hours of Grading

You save time. Students get immediate feedback. Win-win.

As the clock ticked past midnight, I couldn’t help but fret and think about all my fellow co-teachers still surrounded by a sea of papers in their grading marathons. Every teacher has been there—at the mercy of endless assignments waiting for the final grading verdict. I found myself there once, too, but thankfully I received advice on a shift in feedback from a seasoned teacher like @strategicclassroom is advocating for . In the middle fo my first year of teaching, I suddenly got to a place where I was bringing home NO grading! Can you believe it?

This teacher assesses only selected questions for correctness while grading the rest of the assignment for completion.

Here’s why this works:

• Not everything needs to be graded. You don’t have to grade every part of every assignment.
• It balances between completion and correctness. So, why not just assign the questions you intend to grade? Often, students need practice, which a longer assignment offers. But do we need to grade students on practice? Many teachers would argue no.
• This method reduces grading time while ensuring students complete assignments thoroughly.
• Students not knowing which questions will be assessed keeps them engaged with the entire assignment.
• It provides the opportunity for students to self-assess. Provide students with an answer key to self-check the parts not graded for correctness.
• This approach allows you to give quicker feedback, enhancing student learning and maintaining the quality of assessment.

Listen to why @strategicclassroom uses this small shift in feedback for her grading:

@strategicclassroom You don’t have to grade everything AND you also don’t have to grade every part of everything. Let’s talk about a small shift to save you hours of time. #teachertok #grading #assessment #teachertimehacks #teachertimesaver #teacherburnout ♬ original sound – Jen | Teacher Time Hacks

This approach aligns with a newer movement in standards-based grading where students take responsibility for their learning . However, many grading reformers criticize giving credit for completion. If you’re considering this hack and appreciate the concept, adapt it to fit your needs. Nonetheless, I recommend limiting completion points to avoid inflating grades and skewing the feedback on students’ formative progress regarding the standards.

In the comment section, some points were brought up that we’ve summarized here.

“I want so badly to leave 120 individual feedback notes!”

I agree. It was really hard to sit and grade the 120 assignments from each student, and not write out the exact step where each of them individually were messing up. I found better balance with this when I would list the top five or six “mess-ups” from that standard! We all have to set boundaries and limits somehow!

“Why are we providing assignments that have aspects we aren’t going to grade?”

I had this same thought as a teacher, too. I was really puzzled when one of my students was like, “Why am I doing 10 questions when you’re only going to grade 3 or 4 of them?” I didn’t really have anything good to come back with other than I wanted them to practice. But, I’ve heard from the flip side that if a student is doing a step wrong always, then they are just practicing something wrong for 10 whole problems. Food for thought!

“I really need this more laid out.”

I explained this approach to my coworkers like this: if there were ten problems, I might choose a simple “lay-up” question, an intermediate one, a challenging problem, and a word problem to grade. I would only assess the steps and answers of these four problems and then discuss them with the class. One year, while students tackled their bell-work—a weekly spiral assessment—I would spot check just one question from their five-problem homework. After the spiral work time, I’d redistribute the papers, and we would collectively discuss our mistakes, how to address them, and go over any necessary reteaching. There are many ways teachers can implement this strategy; it’s all about finding what works best for us.

“Shouldn’t we just spot check the more dynamic problems?”

Yes! My husband also had this same shift in feedback in his classroom. At class end, they’d collaboratively tackle practice exercises, ironing out issues before assigning dynamic four or five-word problems. These word problems and higher-level Bloom’s taxonomy questions were the only ones students were responsible for in homework.

“This is another great way to drive how we reteach!”

Of course! We like formative assessments as teachers so much because it guides our teaching! We are able to do this with this shift in feedback without spending so many hours grading every problem. If most students only solve one of four spot-check problems correctly, it’s clear we need to reteach some concepts. ADVERTISEMENT

This small shift in grading can change both the teaching and learning experience. It lessens educators’ grading burden and boosts students’ learning by prioritizing critical thinking over mere rote accuracy. As we refine our teaching methods, adopting these hacks not only manages our workload but also enhances our educational impact. So, what do you think?

Looking for more articles like this? Be sure to subscribe to  our newsletters !

Copyright © 2024. All rights reserved. 5335 Gate Parkway, Jacksonville, FL 32256

• Essay Editor

Why Homework Is Good for Students: 20 No-Nonsense Reasons

Is homework beneficial in education? It has long been a cornerstone, often sparking debates about its value. Some argue it creates unnecessary stress, while others assert it’s essential for reinforcing in-class learning. Why is homework important? The reality is, that homework is vital for students' personal and academic growth. It not only improves their grasp of the material but also develops crucial skills that extend well beyond the classroom. This review explores 20 reasons why homework is good and why it continues to be a key element of effective education.

Enhances Study Habits

Does homework help students learn? Establishing strong study habits is essential for long-term success. Home assignment plays a key role in enhancing these habits through regular practice. Here are reasons why students should have homework:

•  Routine Building: Independent work creates a consistent study routine, helping learners form daily study habits. This consistency is crucial for maintaining progress and avoiding last-minute cramming. 
•  Time Management: Managing home assignments teaches students to balance academic duties with other activities and personal time. 
•  Self-Discipline: Finishing assignments requires resisting distractions and staying focused, fostering the self-discipline needed for success in and out of college or school. 
•  Organization: Home task involves tracking preps, deadlines, and materials, improving students' organizational skills. 

These points underscore why homework is good for boosting study habits that lead to academic success. Regular home assignments help learners manage time, stay organized, and build the discipline necessary for their studies.

Facilitates Goal Setting

Setting and achieving goals is vital for student success. Homework assists in this by providing possibilities for setting both short-term and long-term academic objectives. Here’s why is homework beneficial for goal-setting: 

•  Short-Term Objectives: Homework encourages immediate targets, like finishing assignments by deadlines, and helping students stay focused and motivated. 
•  Long-Term Aspirations: Over time, preps contribute to broader accomplishments, such as mastering a subject or improving grades, providing direction in their studies. 
•  Motivation: Completing home tasks boosts motivation by demonstrating results from their effort. Achieving targets reinforces the importance of perseverance. 
•  Planning: Homework teaches essential planning and prioritization skills, helping learners approach tasks systematically. 

These aspects demonstrate the reasons why homework is good for setting and achieving educational targets. Regular preps help students establish clear objectives, plan effectively, and stay motivated.

Improves Concentration

Attention is vital for mastering any subject. Homework offers an opportunity to develop this ability. Here’s why homework is important for boosting attention:

•  Increased Focus: Regular assignments require sustained attention, improving mental engagement over time, benefiting both academic and non-academic tasks. 
•  Better Task Management: Homework teaches managing multiple tasks, enhancing the ability to concentrate on each without becoming overwhelmed. 
•  Mental Endurance: Completing home tasks builds stamina for longer study sessions and challenging tasks, crucial for advanced studies and career success. 
•  Attention to Detail: Home assignments promote careful attention to detail, requiring students to follow instructions and ensure accuracy. 

These elements show ‘why is homework good for students’. Homework aids students in improving their focus, leading to better academic outcomes. Regular practice through homework improves mental engagement.

Reinforces Perseverance

Perseverance is key to success. Homework significantly contributes to teaching this skill. Here are reasons homework is good in supporting the development of perseverance:

•  Problem-Solving: Homework challenges students to tackle difficult problems, fostering perseverance as they approach challenges with determination. 
•  Resilience: Regular homework helps build resilience against academic challenges, developing mental toughness. 
•  Persistence: Homework encourages persistence, teaching students to complete tasks despite difficulties, which is crucial for long-term goals. 
•  Confidence: Completing assignments boosts confidence, motivating students to tackle new challenges with determination. 

These reasons highlight ‘Why is homework good for fostering perseverance?’ Engaging with home tasks consistently helps students overcome obstacles and achieve their goals.

Final Consideration

To recap, the motivating reasons for homework extend well beyond the classroom. From improving study habits and mental engagement to fostering goal-setting and perseverance, the advantages are clear. Preps equip students with skills necessary for personal and academic growth. What do you think are the top 10 reasons why students should have homework among the ones we listed? Discuss with your peers. To refine your homework or essays, consider using tools like the AI Essay Detector and College Essay Generator to boost your academic performance.

Related articles

Best places to do homework that will create a perfect study heaven for you.

Are you wondering, ‘Where can I go to do homework?’ Finding the ideal spot for studying can significantly affect your productivity and overall study experience. Whether you're a student seeking solace or someone looking for a change of scenery, selecting the right environment is key to maximizing your efficiency and focus. In this guide, we’ll discover various places to do homework that can transform your study routine into a more engaging and effective experience. The Importance of Having a C ...

Top 5 Creative Book Report Ideas That Guarantee Success in Class

Assigned reading helps students develop their critical analysis skill, and book reports test their progress. But it is not enough to simply analyze a literary work — you also need to express your creativity while presenting book report ideas. In this article, you will learn the definition of a literary report, its purpose, and five alternative book report ideas to show off your creativity in class. What is a book (literary) report? A book report is an overall summary and personal assessment o ...

How to Write a History Essay: A Guideline for Non-Historians

History is a difficult discipline, no one can argue with that. It is especially challenging to write a history essay when you have zero historian bone in your body. That’s why today our goal is to teach you how to write a history essay. What is history essay? A historical paper is a classic instance of a scholarly work that seeks to examine and give answers to questions about long-gone factual incidents and their consequences. Unlike a simple narrative or description, a history paper demands ...

Discussion Posts: Definition, Overview, Writing Tips

Discussions are an important part of academic studies. They foster collaboration, raise student engagement, and help to better process new information. A common way to involve students in critical debate is through discussion posts. In this article, you will learn what a discussion post is and how to write it. Discussion post and open forum definition A discussion post is a written reply typically used in online forums – websites that encourage users to engage in a debate over various subject ...

How to Focus on Homework: Good Ways to Beat Procrastination

Dealing with homework doesn't have to be an uphill battle. The tips in this article will help you avoid distractions and stop procrastinating, making your study time more useful. You'll be better able to finish homework and do better in school, no matter if you're working on homework for math, science, or any other class. Tips to Focus on Homework and Stop Procrastinating Doing homework can be tough when there are a million things that can distract us. But learning to focus and not procrastin ...

Top 10 Excuses for Not Doing Homework: How to Trick Your Teacher in 2024

Whether it’s because you’re buried in other commitments or just had a seriously off day, finding credible excuses for not doing homework can save your day. Here's a brief look at the top 10 homework excuses, with tips on making them sound as true as possible. Just remember, use these wisely and try to stay on top of your assignments! 1. “My computer crashed right before I finished” In today’s digital world, technology problems are a plausible justification. Claiming that your laptop glitched ...

Top Proven Tips on How to Make Homework Fun

Everyone agrees that school would be much cooler if there were no homework. Alas, this is an impossible wish. Luckily, no one stops us from making it fun! In this article, you will find some awesome tips on how to make homework fun. 1. Create a comfortable study space Having a separate place where you can study is very important. Sure, you might think sitting on a couch with a laptop in your lap is as fun as it can get, but in reality, it may hinder your progress. Your brain knows that the co ...

How to Write a Table of Contents for Research Paper: A Complete Guide

After hundreds of hours of non-stop working, the research essay is finished! Unfortunately, it is not the time to celebrate. That’s when you must get down to one of the least pleasant things in professional college or high school writing – a table of contents. The following article will define table of contents, discuss its purpose, and provide guidance on how to make a table of contents for a research paper. What is a research paper table of contents? Academic essays can be from 2–3 to hundr ...

Sat 7 Sept 2024

2024 newspaper of the year

@ Contact us

Your newsletters

I’m a teacher and believe that homework should be banned

California's trying to pass a law banning homework - we should too..

It’s clear that parents are fed up with the amount of homework their children are expected to do every day after school. From as early as reception, children are saddled with often hours of homework a day. Amidst juggling extra-curricular activities, tuition and simply spending time together as a family, it feels like homework is leaving less and less time for children – and their parents – to have a life beyond school.

It’s little wonder that calls to ban homework entirely are growing throughout the western world.

Most recently, the state of California was reported as being close to passing a law to outlaw homework, in order to limit stress for pupils and parents. The Healthy Homework Act, which requires teachers to consider if homework requires parental support and access to technology, has passed both chambers but awaits approval from the state governor.

In the battle against homework, it’s often teachers who are the supposed bad guys – the authoritarian figures in the background inflicting hours of pointless tasks upon our students just for our own amusement. But as a secondary school teacher of eight years, I’m here to tell you that I’m no fan of homework either.

In fact, I’ll let you into a secret: many of us teachers who issue homework in line with the policy of the schools we work at agree that homework should be banned too. It’s not just parents and kids.

My career has taught me that the best learning happens in a classroom under the supervision of a qualified and competent teacher who knows their subject, not an overburdened parent struggling to remember their own decades-old schooling while trying not to burn the fish fingers.

In my view, home is for other types of learning. There is so much for kids to absorb when they are free to actually have a conversation with a family member, to help a parent cook a new recipe or to play outside with a sibling. Often these can be more important than what children get out of doing hours of homework a night.

Then, of course, you have the emotional toll on children with developing brains and bodies that need nurturing (and resting) rather than overburdening.

In 2023, almost two thirds of children reported feeling anxious due to school and the most prominent factor in their stress, experienced by 55 per cent of children, was homework.

There is already a mental health epidemic among young people, fuelled by cuts to vital public services, the legacy of the pandemic and overstretched schools which simply can’t continue to plug the gaps where the state constantly fails.

Teachers like me are paying for parents' lack of discipline

Giving children the space they need to simply have a childhood once they leave the school gates – to play games, to relax, to socialise – would be far more beneficial for their emotional wellbeing than lumbering an extra hour of geography or science onto their already long school day.

But as ever in our fiercely divided nation, homework has the most catastrophic impact on the households that are already struggling.

I’ve seen with my own eyes how the attainment gap widens when some students have quiet, calm homes to study in, and others are living in cramped housing without even a bed of their own let alone a desk. Or when pupils are juggling caring for younger siblings with cooking dinner because their parents are taking extra shifts to make ends meet.

I’ve witnessed the stress inflicted on students who face endless detentions and punishments for incomplete homework, when really the reason behind these missed tasks was out of their control.

The class divide is already so impenetrable within the classroom. So how can we expect homework to do anything but exacerbate the issue? Some children have state of the art tablets and laptops at their disposable (not to mention educated, wealthy parents with enough stability to actually be present in the evenings).

Others have the dwindling data on their mum’s old phone that they need to share with five siblings – and parents who are more concerned with figuring out where the next meal is coming from than book reports and times tables.

In an ideal world in which every young person had the same resources at their disposal, maybe homework wouldn’t be so bad. But we live in a system on its knees thanks to the economic policies of successive governments that have made life progressively harder for the most disadvantaged.

If we really care about tackling inequality, we need to realise that it is unfair to assign a portion of our young people’s daily learning to be done at home. We forget that “home” looks so different for each child.

Nadeine Asbali is a secondary school teacher in London

Most Read By Subscribers

• Search Please fill out this field.
• Newsletters
• Sweepstakes

New Survey Reveals Teachers Are Unhappy at Work—Here’s How To Support Educators

Experts say there are ways for parents to help.

Perhaps the saddest thing about a new teacher satisfaction survey conducted by ProCare Therapy , a school therapy and teacher staffing agency, is that no one will be surprised to learn just how unhappy today’s educators are .

Of course, we all have anecdotes about how schools are understaffed and teacher turnover seems higher than ever. But the data from this survey underscores the startling facts behind what parents see happening every day in classrooms. Consider that, according to the findings, 47.2% of educators feel that teaching has negatively impacted their mental health.

The reasons teachers cited for dissatisfaction with their jobs include the quality of their school system, student-teacher ratios, and the rates of turnover. As far as the factors that contribute to whether teachers are happy in their roles, autonomy and the cost of living are incredibly important, per the Teacher Haven Index, commissioned in the survey.

GettyImages/Leren Lu

The Best and Worst States for Teachers

The Index ranked all 50 states by where teachers are the happiest. Here are the top 10 in order:

• North Dakota
• West Virginia
• South Dakota

The bottom 10 states for teacher happiness are:

• Massachusetts
• Rhode Island

Per survey, 15.5% of teachers said they would be happier if they had a more manageable workload, 12.6% said a better work-life balance would improve their job satisfaction, and 10.9% reported wanting mental health support.

How Parents Can Better Support Teachers

Teachers are dealing with so much more than many people realize, such as budgets cuts, an ever-changing curriculum, and even the politicization of their role in society, says Lightning Jay, PhD, assistant professor, Department of Teaching Learning and Educational Leadership at Binghamton University.

In light of these findings, and how challenging it is to be an educator in America today, it’s imperative for parents to help teachers to be happier in their jobs. That can only add up to a better learning environment for kids.

Indeed, as ProCare Therapy Senior Vice President Stephanie Morris tells Parents , “Parents can be a powerful source of support for teachers, and there are a few key ways they can make a real difference.” 

Communication is key

For starters, Morris says that open communication between parents and teachers is essential. “Keeping a respectful and consistent dialogue with teachers helps parents stay informed and involved, and it makes it easier to address any challenges together," shares Morris.

Suzanne Barchers, EdD, Education Advisory Board Chair at Lingokids , a play and learning app for kids, offers the advice that being patient, and avoiding heated confrontations is key. “Present yourself as a collaborator,” Dr. Barchers recommends, adding that parents should not expect teachers to solve all of their student’s issues.

Show your appreciation

Simple gestures of appreciation also go a long way toward supporting teachers, according to Morris. “A heartfelt thank you or a small token of gratitude can really remind them that their efforts are valued,” she says. That can include classroom donations of school supplies , books, and our time, which according to Morris, helps alleviate the financial burden on teachers, and improve their work-life balance.

“What teachers really need is daily appreciation,” adds Dr. Barchers. She echoes Morris in suggesting that volunteering your time can truly go a long way in supporting teachers, such as organizing a snack donation rotation among the class parents.

And don’t forget the rest of the school staff, including the principal, paraprofessionals, librarian, secretaries, janitors, and cafeteria workers. “All these people are dedicated to education," Dr. Barchers says. "Many receive extremely low wages."

Parents who show appreciation to teachers can help make the job feel worth it, Dr. Jay says. And it doesn’t have to be anything elaborate. “A quick note telling the principal about how wonderful a teacher is; even a text saying ‘thank you’ goes a long way,” he says. “If a teacher has ever made your day by calling home with good news about your child, you know how meaningful a little praise is and you know how easy it would be to reciprocate.”

Support educators on a larger scale

Finally, Rachel Cederbaum , founder and lead academic coach behind Gold Signature Writers LLC , an academic and enrichment service for students in grades K-12, as well as a former high school English teacher, says that parents can support teachers on a larger scale as well. “Joining local committees and writing to their local congressperson to advocate for teachers is also key,” she urges.

Dr. Jay adds that showing up at school board meetings is key—and not just to express discontent. “Teachers need to hear from happy parents to balance out the angry voices,” he says. 

The Teacher Haven Index: Best States for Educators . Pro Care Therapy . 2024.

Related Articles

International

• U.S. Elections
• Left Opinions
• Mon David Pakman
• Tue Ruben Navarrette
• Wed Adrienne Lawrence
• Thu Jordan Reid
• Fri Dr. Rashad Richey
• Right Opinions
• Mon Larry Lindsey
• Tue Ben Weingarten
• Wed Newt Gingrich
• Timothy Carney
• John Fortier
• Matthew Continetti
• Robert Doar
• Fri Star Parker
• Peter Zeihan
• Dr. Frank Luntz
• Weapons and Warfare™
• America Speaks with Dr. Frank Luntz
• Editorial Mission

California set to approve groundbreaking law that cuts homework, alleviates stress

By Jack Aylmer (Energy Correspondent), Mathew Grisham (Digital Producer), Mirlie Larose (Producer), Jack Henry (Video Editor)

In California, a new law that could dramatically change the way homework is handled in state schools is nearing approval. The Healthy Homework Act is now awaiting the governor’s signature after passing both chambers of the state Legislature.

It aims to not only reduce homework, but also stress among students and parents. The author of the bill, Assemblywoman Pilar Schiavo, says she was inspired by a conversation with her young daughter, who asked if she could “ban homework.”

Download the SAN app today to stay up-to-date with Unbiased. Straight Facts™.

Point phone camera here

Schiavo said many parents support the idea, expressing frustration of the lack of quality time with their kids. Heavy homework and extracurricular activities topped the list of those potential distractions.

People supporting the current levels of homework argue that it sets up kids for future success. Supporters of the new bill argue that it can damage mental health and place an unnecessary burden on families.

The bill aims to address these concerns by encouraging teachers to carefully consider whether the homework they assign requires parental support or access to technology that not all students have. The Administrators Association of San Diego City Schools, a union representing management employees, is urging lawmakers to pass the legislation.

The union said it would help address the harmful effects of excessive or poorly designed homework , and mentioned that homework is linked to stress, headaches, exhaustion and even physical health problems like weight loss.

Mental and physical health aren’t the only concerns. The rise of artificial intelligence also raises new challenges in the classroom. Educators worry that students are using tools like ChatGPT to complete their assignments.

Related Stories

• LA school district joins growing number of schools considering cellphone bans
• 4-day school week gains popularity for teacher recruitment
• Utah schools spending $72M in upgrades amid rise in school shootings

Jack Aylmer

IN CALIFORNIA, A NEW LAW THAT COULD DRAMATICALLY CHANGE THE WAY HOMEWORK IS HANDLED IS NEARING APPROVAL. 

THE HEALTHY HOMEWORK ACT, WHICH PASSED BOTH CHAMBERS OF THE STATE LEGISLATURE, IS NOW AWAITING THE GOVERNOR’S SIGNATURE. IF IT BECOMES LAW, IT COULD NOT ONLY REDUCE HOMEWORK BUT REDUCE STRESS FOR BOTH STUDENTS AND PARENTS. 

THE AUTHOR OF THE BILL, ASSEMBLYWOMAN PILAR SCHIAVO, SAYS SHE WAS INSPIRED BY CONVERSATION WITH HER NINE-YEAR-OLD DAUGHTER, WHO ASKED IF SHE COULD “BAN HOMEWORK.” 

SCHIAVO SAYS MANY PARENTS SUPPORT THE IDEA, EXPRESSING FRUSTRATION OVER THE LACK OF QUALITY TIME WITH THEIR KIDS DUE TO HEAVY HOMEWORK LOADS AND EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES.

SUPPORTERS OF HOMEWORK BELIEVE IT SETS KIDS UP FOR FUTURE SUCCESS, WHILE OPPONENTS ARGUE IT CAN DAMAGE MENTAL HEALTH AND PLACE AN UNNECESSARY BURDEN ON FAMILIES. 

THE BILL AIMS TO ADDRESS THESE CONCERNS BY ENCOURAGING TEACHERS TO CAREFULLY CONSIDER WHETHER THE HOMEWORK THEY ASSIGN REQUIRES PARENTAL SUPPORT OR ACCESS TO TECHNOLOGY, THAT NOT ALL STUDENTS HAVE. 

THE ADMINISTRATORS ASSOCIATION OF SAN DIEGO CITY SCHOOLS, A UNION REPRESENTING MANAGEMENT EMPLOYEES, IS URGING LAWMAKERS TO PASS THE HEALTHY HOMEWORK ACT, SAYING IT WOULD HELP ADDRESS THE HARMFUL EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE OR POORLY DESIGNED HOMEWORK. THE UNION MENTIONED THAT HOMEWORK IS LINKED TO STRESS, HEADACHES, EXHAUSTION AND EVEN PHYSICAL HEALTH PROBLEMS LIKE WEIGHT LOSS. 

MENTAL and PHYSICAL HEALTH AREN’T THE ONLY CONCERNS, THE RISE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE ALSO RAISES NEW CHALLENGES IN THE CLASSROOM. EDUCATORS WORRY THAT STUDENT ARE USING TOOLS LIKE CHAT GPT TO COMPLETE THEIR ASSIGNMENTS.

AS CALIFORNIA INCHES CLOSER TO POTENTIALLY PASSING THE HEALTHY HOMEWORK LAW, THE CONVERSATION AROUND HOMEWORK, AND “HOW MUCH” CONTINUES TO EVOLVE.

WE’LL KEEP YOU UPDATED AS THIS STORY DEVELOPS. 

MediaMiss™

Underreported stories from each side

Grassley releases new details of Iran-backed assassination plots against Trump, Biden and others

Trump staffers in Arlington incident identified

Unbiased news.

MOST POPULAR

Dye in Doritos used to make mice skin see-through

Red Lobster to exit bankruptcy with fmr. P.F. Chang CEO in charge

Father of Georgia school shooting suspect charged with murder

Putin endorses Harris for US presidency, citing her ‘fascinating’ laugh

Michigan’s first ‘i voted’ sticker contest draws inspiration from folklore and more, trump campaign staffers involved in arlington cemetery altercation identified, presidential election scores trump a legal victory in hush money case, irs recovers $1.3b in unpaid taxes from high-income americans, new york mandates panic buttons for major retailers under new worker safety law, san francisco deporting migrants linked to open-air drug markets, rome considers timed ticket system for trevi fountain, telegram modifies privacy stance, will monitor private chats after ceo’s arrest, china ending international adoption program; american families in limbo, dutch officials fine clearview ai $33.7m for ‘illegal database’ of faces, new mexico sues snapchat over alleged child exploitation and abuse, scientists edge closer to better internet and navigation with nuclear clocks, unbiased news. directly to your inbox. free.

Learn more about our emails. Unsubscribe anytime.

By entering your email, you agree to the Terms & Conditions and acknowledge the Privacy Policy .