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Literature Thesis Topics

This page provides a comprehensive list of literature thesis topics , offering a valuable resource for students tasked with writing a thesis in the field of literature. Designed to cater to a wide array of literary interests and academic inquiries, the topics are organized into 25 diverse categories, ranging from African American Literature to Young Adult Literature. Each category includes 40 distinct topics, making a total of 1000 topics. This structure not only facilitates easy navigation but also aids in the identification of precise research areas that resonate with students’ interests and academic goals. The purpose of this page is to inspire students by presenting a breadth of possibilities, helping them to formulate a thesis that is both original and aligned with current literary discussions.

1000 Literature Thesis Topics and Ideas

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The evolution of African American narrative forms from slave narratives to contemporary fiction.
An analysis of the Harlem Renaissance: Artistic explosion and its impact on African American identity.
The role of music and oral tradition in African American literature.
A study of code-switching in African American literature and its effects on cultural and linguistic identity.
Gender and sexuality in African American women’s literature.
The portrayal of race and racism in the works of Toni Morrison.
The influence of African spirituality and religion in African American literature.
Exploring Afrofuturism through the works of Octavia Butler and N.K. Jemisin.
The representation of the family in African American literature post-1960s.
The use of southern settings in African American literature: A study of place and identity.
Intersectionality in the writings of Audre Lorde and Angela Davis.
The depiction of African American men in literature and media: Stereotypes vs. reality.
The impact of the Black Arts Movement on contemporary African American culture.
Literary responses to the Civil Rights Movement in African American literature.
The role of education in African American autobiographical writing.
The portrayal of historical trauma and memory in African American literature.
Analyzing black masculinity through the works of Richard Wright and James Baldwin.
The treatment of racial ambiguity and colorism in African American fiction.
The influence of hip-hop and rap on contemporary African American poetry.
The narrative strategies used in African American science fiction.
Postcolonial readings of African American literature: Transnational perspectives.
The evolution of black feminism reflected in literature.
The significance of folk motifs in the works of Zora Neale Hurston.
The impact of the Great Migration on literary depictions of African American life.
Urbanism and its influence on African American literary forms.
The legacy of Langston Hughes and his influence on modern African American poetry.
Comparing the racial politics in African American literature from the 20th to the 21st century.
The role of African American literature in shaping public opinion on social justice issues.
Mental health and trauma in African American literature.
The literary critique of the American Dream in African American literature.
Environmental racism and its representation in African American literature.
The adaptation of African American literary works into films and its cultural implications.
Analyzing class struggle through African American literary works.
The portrayal of African Americans in graphic novels and comics.
Exploring the African diaspora through literature: Connections and divergences.
The influence of Barack Obama’s presidency on African American literature.
Representation of African American LGBTQ+ voices in modern literature.
The use of speculative elements to explore social issues in African American literature.
The role of the church and religion in African American literary narratives.
Literary examinations of police brutality and racial profiling in African American communities.
The evolution of the American Dream in 20th-century American literature.
An analysis of naturalism and realism in the works of Mark Twain and Henry James.
The depiction of the frontier in American literature and its impact on national identity.
Exploring postmodern techniques in the novels of Thomas Pynchon and Don DeLillo.
The influence of immigration on American narrative forms and themes.
The role of the Beat Generation in shaping American counter-culture literature.
Feminist themes in the novels of Sylvia Plath and Toni Morrison.
Ecocriticism and the portrayal of nature in American literature from Thoreau to contemporary authors.
The depiction of war and its aftermath in American literature: From the Civil War to the Iraq War.
The treatment of race and ethnicity in the novels of John Steinbeck.
The role of technology and media in contemporary American fiction.
The impact of the Great Depression on American literary works.
An examination of gothic elements in early American literature.
The influence of transcendentalism in the works of Emerson and Whitman.
Modernist expressions in the poetry of Wallace Stevens and Ezra Pound.
The depiction of suburban life in mid-20th-century American literature.
The cultural significance of the Harlem Renaissance in the development of American literature.
Identity and self-exploration in the essays of Ralph Waldo Emerson.
Analyzing the concept of alienation in the works of Edward Albee and Arthur Miller.
The role of political activism in the plays of August Wilson.
The portrayal of children and adolescence in American literature.
The use of satire and humor in the novels of Kurt Vonnegut.
Exploring the American South through the literature of Flannery O’Connor and William Faulkner.
The representation of LGBTQ+ characters in American novels from the 1960s to present.
Consumer culture and its critique in American post-war fiction.
The legacy of slavery in American literature and its contemporary implications.
The motif of the journey in American literature as a metaphor for personal and collective discovery.
The role of the wilderness in shaping American environmental literature.
An analysis of dystopian themes in American science fiction from Philip K. Dick to Octavia Butler.
The representation of Native American culture and history in American literature.
The treatment of mental health in the short stories of Edgar Allan Poe.
American expatriate writers in Paris during the 1920s: Lost Generation narratives.
The influence of jazz music on the narrative structure of American literature.
The intersection of law and morality in the novels of Herman Melville.
Post-9/11 themes in contemporary American literature.
The evolution of feminist literature in America from the 19th century to modern times.
Examining consumerism and its discontents in the novels of Bret Easton Ellis.
The portrayal of American cities in 20th-century literature.
The impact of the civil rights movement on American literary production.
The use of magical realism in the works of contemporary American authors.
The role of fairy tales in the development of child psychology.
Representation of family structures in modern children’s literature.
Gender roles in classic vs. contemporary children’s books.
The evolution of the hero’s journey in children’s literature.
Moral lessons and their conveyance through children’s stories.
The impact of fantasy literature on children’s imaginative development.
Depictions of cultural diversity in children’s books.
The use of animals as characters and their symbolic meanings in children’s stories.
The portrayal of disability in children’s literature and its impact on inclusivity.
The influence of children’s literature on early reading skills.
Analysis of cross-generational appeal in children’s literature.
The role of illustrations in enhancing narrative in children’s books.
Censorship and controversial topics in children’s literature.
Adaptations of children’s literature into films and their impact on the stories’ reception.
The representation of historical events in children’s literature.
Exploring the educational value of non-fiction children’s books.
The treatment of death and loss in children’s literature.
The role of magic and the supernatural in shaping values through children’s books.
Psychological impacts of children’s horror literature.
The significance of award-winning children’s books in educational contexts.
The influence of digital media on children’s book publishing.
Parental figures in children’s literature: From authoritarian to nurturing roles.
Narrative strategies used in children’s literature to discuss social issues.
Environmental themes in children’s literature and their role in fostering eco-consciousness.
The adaptation of classic children’s literature in the modern era.
The portrayal of bullying in children’s books and its implications for social learning.
The use of humor in children’s literature and its effects on engagement and learning.
Comparative analysis of children’s book series and their educational impacts.
Development of identity and self-concept through children’s literature.
The effectiveness of bilingual children’s books in language teaching.
The role of rhyme and rhythm in early literacy development through children’s poetry.
Sociopolitical themes in children’s literature and their relevance to contemporary issues.
The portrayal of technology and its use in children’s science fiction.
The representation of religious themes in children’s books.
The impact of children’s literature on adult readership.
The influence of children’s literature on children’s attitudes towards animals and nature.
How children’s literature can be used to support emotional intelligence and resilience.
The evolution of adventure themes in children’s literature.
Gender representation in children’s graphic novels.
Analyzing the narrative structure of children’s picture books.
Cross-cultural influences in the modernist movements of Europe and Japan.
The depiction of the Other in Western and Eastern literature.
Comparative analysis of postcolonial narratives in African and South Asian literatures.
The concept of the tragic hero in Greek and Shakespearean drama.
The treatment of love and marriage in 19th-century French and Russian novels.
The portrayal of nature in American transcendentalism vs. British romanticism.
Influence of Persian poetry on 19th-century European poets.
Modern reinterpretations of classical myths in Latin American and Southern European literature.
The role of dystopian themes in Soviet vs. American cold war literature.
Magic realism in Latin American and Sub-Saharan African literature.
Comparative study of feminist waves in American and Middle Eastern literature.
The depiction of urban life in 20th-century Brazilian and Indian novels.
The theme of exile in Jewish literature and Palestinian narratives.
Comparative analysis of existential themes in French and Japanese literature.
Themes of isolation and alienation in Scandinavian and Canadian literature.
The influence of colonialism on narrative structures in Irish and Indian English literature.
Analysis of folk tales adaptation in German and Korean children’s literature.
The portrayal of historical trauma in Armenian and Jewish literature.
The use of allegory in Medieval European and Classical Arabic literature.
Representation of indigenous cultures in Australian and North American novels.
The role of censorship in Soviet literature compared to Francoist Spain.
Themes of redemption in African-American and South African literature.
Narrative techniques in stream of consciousness: Virginia Woolf and Clarice Lispector.
The intersection of poetry and politics in Latin American and Middle Eastern literature.
The evolution of the epistolary novel in 18th-century England and France.
Comparative study of the Beat Generation and the Angolan writers of the 1960s.
The depiction of spiritual journeys in Indian and Native American literatures.
Cross-cultural examinations of humor and satire in British and Russian literatures.
Comparative analysis of modern dystopias in American and Chinese literature.
The impact of globalization on contemporary European and Asian novelists.
Postmodern identity crisis in Japanese and Italian literature.
Comparative study of the concept of heroism in ancient Greek and Indian epics.
Ecocriticism in British and Brazilian literature.
The influence of the French Revolution on English and French literature.
Representation of mental illness in 20th-century American and Norwegian plays.
Themes of migration in the Caribbean and the Mediterranean literatures.
Gender and sexuality in contemporary African and Southeast Asian short stories.
The literary portrayal of technological advances in German and American literature.
Comparative study of children’s fantasy literature in the British and Egyptian traditions.
The role of the supernatural in Japanese and Celtic folklore narratives.
The impact of digital culture on narrative forms in contemporary literature.
Representation of the global financial crisis in 21st-century novels.
Analysis of identity and self in the age of social media as depicted in contemporary literature.
The role of dystopian themes in reflecting contemporary societal fears.
Post-9/11 political and cultural narratives in American literature.
The influence of migration on shaping multicultural identities in contemporary novels.
Gender fluidity and queer identities in contemporary literary works.
Environmental concerns and ecocriticism in 21st-century fiction.
The resurgence of the epistolary novel form in the digital age.
The depiction of mental health in contemporary young adult literature.
The role of indigenous voices in contemporary world literature.
Neo-colonialism and its representation in contemporary African literature.
The intersection of film and literature in contemporary storytelling.
Analysis of consumerism and its critique in modern literary works.
The rise of autobiographical novels in contemporary literature and their impact on narrative authenticity.
Technological dystopias and human identity in contemporary science fiction.
The representation of terrorism and its impacts in contemporary literature.
Examination of contemporary feminist literature and the evolution of feminist theory.
The literary treatment of historical memory and trauma in post-Soviet literature.
The changing face of heroism in 21st-century literature.
Contemporary plays addressing the challenges of modern relationships and family dynamics.
The use of supernatural elements in modern literary fiction.
The influence of Eastern philosophies on Western contemporary literature.
The portrayal of aging and death in contemporary novels.
The dynamics of power and corruption in new political thrillers.
The evolution of narrative voice and perspective in contemporary literature.
Representation of refugees and asylum seekers in modern fiction.
The impact of pandemics on literary themes and settings.
Postmodern approaches to myth and folklore in contemporary writing.
The critique of nationalism and patriotism in 21st-century literature.
The use of satire and irony to critique contemporary political climates.
Emerging forms of literature, such as interactive and visual novels, in the digital era.
The representation of class struggle in contemporary urban narratives.
Changes in the portrayal of romance and intimacy in new adult fiction.
The challenge of ethical dilemmas in contemporary medical dramas.
Examination of space and place in the new landscape of contemporary poetry.
Contemporary reimaginings of classical literature characters in modern settings.
The role of privacy, surveillance, and paranoia in contemporary narratives.
The blending of genres in contemporary literature: The rise of hybrid forms.
The portrayal of artificial intelligence and its implications for humanity in contemporary works.
The role of memory and nostalgia in the literature of the Jewish diaspora.
Narratives of displacement and identity in the African diaspora.
The portrayal of the Indian diaspora in contemporary literature.
Cross-cultural conflicts and identity negotiations in Korean diaspora literature.
The influence of colonial legacies on Caribbean diaspora writers.
The concept of “home” and “belonging” in Palestinian diaspora literature.
Exploring the Irish diaspora through literary expressions of exile and return.
The impact of migration on gender roles within Middle Eastern diaspora communities.
Representation of the Vietnamese diaspora in American literature.
Transnationalism and its effects on language and narrative in Chicano/Chicana literature.
Dual identities and the search for authenticity in Italian-American diaspora writing.
The evolution of cultural identity in second-generation diaspora authors.
Comparative analysis of diaspora literature from former Yugoslav countries.
The depiction of generational conflicts in Chinese-American diaspora literature.
The use of folklore and mythology in reconnecting with cultural roots in Filipino diaspora literature.
The representation of trauma and recovery in the literature of the Armenian diaspora.
Intersectionality and feminism in African diaspora literature.
The role of culinary culture in narratives of the Indian diaspora.
Identity politics and the struggle for cultural preservation in diaspora literature from Latin America.
The portrayal of exile and diaspora in modern Jewish Russian literature.
The impact of globalization on diaspora identities as reflected in literature.
Language hybridity and innovation in Anglophone Caribbean diaspora literature.
Literary portrayals of the challenges faced by refugees in European diaspora communities.
The influence of remittances and transnational ties on Filipino diaspora literature.
The use of magical realism to express diasporic experiences in Latin American literature.
The effects of assimilation and cultural retention in Greek diaspora literature.
The role of digital media in shaping the narratives of contemporary diasporas.
The depiction of the African American return diaspora in literature.
Challenges of integration and discrimination in Muslim diaspora literature in Western countries.
The portrayal of Soviet diaspora communities in post-Cold War literature.
The narratives of return and reintegration in post-colonial diaspora literatures.
The influence of historical events on the literature of the Korean War diaspora.
The role of diaspora literature in shaping national policies on immigration.
Identity crisis and cultural negotiation in French-Algerian diaspora literature.
The impact of diaspora on the evolution of national literatures.
Literary exploration of transracial adoption in American diaspora literature.
The exploration of queer identities in global diaspora communities.
The influence of the digital age on the literary expression of diaspora experiences.
Themes of loss and alienation in Canadian diaspora literature.
The role of literature in documenting the experiences of the Syrian diaspora.
The role of the supernatural in the works of Shakespeare.
The portrayal of women in Victorian novels.
The influence of the Romantic poets on modern environmental literature.
The depiction of poverty and social class in Charles Dickens’ novels.
The evolution of the narrative form in British novels from the 18th to the 20th century.
Themes of war and peace in post-World War II British poetry.
The impact of colonialism on British literature during the Empire.
The role of the Byronic hero in Lord Byron’s works and its influence on subsequent literature.
The critique of human rights in the plays of Harold Pinter.
The representation of race and ethnicity in post-colonial British literature.
The influence of Gothic elements in the novels of the Brontë sisters.
Modernism and its discontents in the works of Virginia Woolf and T.S. Eliot.
The treatment of love and marriage in Jane Austen’s novels.
The use of irony and satire in Jonathan Swift’s writings.
The evolution of the tragic hero from Shakespeare to modern plays.
Literary depictions of the British countryside in poetry and prose.
The rise of feminist literature in England from Mary Wollstonecraft to the present.
The portrayal of children and childhood in Lewis Carroll’s works.
Analyzing the quest motif in British Arthurian literature.
The influence of the Industrial Revolution on English literature.
Themes of alienation and isolation in the novels of D.H. Lawrence.
The representation of religious doubt and faith in the poetry of John Donne and George Herbert.
The role of espionage and national identity in British spy novels.
Literary responses to the Irish Troubles in 20th-century British literature.
The evolution of comic and satirical plays in British theatre from Ben Jonson to Tom Stoppard.
The treatment of death and mourning in the works of Emily Dickinson and Christina Rossetti.
Comparative study of myth and mythology in the works of William Blake and Ted Hughes.
The depiction of the British Empire and its legacies in contemporary British literature.
The role of landscape and environment in shaping the novels of Thomas Hardy.
The influence of music and poetry on the lyrical ballads of Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
The impact of technology on society as depicted in the novels of Aldous Huxley.
The critique of societal norms and manners in Oscar Wilde’s plays.
Literary explorations of mental illness in the early 20th century.
The intersection of literature and science in the works of H.G. Wells.
The role of the sea in British literature: From Shakespeare’s tempests to Joseph Conrad’s voyages.
The impact of Brexit on contemporary British literature.
Themes of exile and displacement in the poetry of W.H. Auden.
The influence of American culture on post-war British literature.
The role of the detective novel in British literature, from Sherlock Holmes to contemporary works.
The portrayal of the “New Woman” in late 19th-century English literature.
The evolution of feminist thought in literature from the 19th century to the present.
Analysis of the portrayal of women in dystopian literature.
Intersectionality and its representation in contemporary feminist texts.
The role of women in shaping modernist literature.
Feminist critique of traditional gender roles in fairy tales and folklore.
The portrayal of female agency in graphic novels and comics.
The influence of second-wave feminism on literature of the 1960s and 1970s.
Postcolonial feminism in the works of authors from Africa and the Caribbean.
The depiction of motherhood in feminist literature across cultures.
The impact of feminist theory on the analysis of classical literature.
Ecofeminism: exploring the link between ecology and gender in literature.
Feminist perspectives on sexuality and desire in literature.
The intersection of feminism and disability in literary texts.
The role of the female gothic in understanding women’s oppression and empowerment.
Representation of transgender and non-binary characters in feminist literature.
Feminism and the critique of capitalism in literary works.
The representation of women in science fiction and fantasy genres.
Analysis of domesticity and the private sphere in 19th-century literature.
Feminist reinterpretations of mythological figures and stories.
The role of women in revolutionary narratives and political literature.
Feminist analysis of the body and corporeality in literature.
The portrayal of female friendships and solidarity in novels.
The influence of feminist literature on contemporary pop culture.
Gender and power dynamics in the works of Shakespeare from a feminist perspective.
The impact of digital media on feminist literary criticism.
Feminist literary responses to global crises and conflicts.
Queer feminism and literature: Exploring texts that intersect gender, sexuality, and feminist theory.
The portrayal of women in wartime literature from a feminist viewpoint.
Feminist poetry movements and their contribution to literary history.
The influence of feminist literary theory on teaching literature in academic settings.
Feminist analysis of women’s voices in oral narratives and storytelling traditions.
Representation of women in the detective and mystery genres.
The use of satire and humor in feminist literature to challenge societal norms.
Feminist perspectives on religious texts and their interpretations.
The critique of marriage and relationships in feminist novels.
Women’s narratives in the digital age: Blogs, social media, and literature.
Feminist literature as a tool for social change and activism.
The influence of feminist literature on legal and social policy reforms.
Gender roles in children’s literature: A feminist critique.
The role of feminist literature in redefining beauty standards and body image.
The evolution of the Gothic novel from the 18th century to contemporary Gothic fiction.
The representation of the sublime and the terrifying in Gothic literature.
The role of haunted landscapes in Gothic narratives.
Psychological horror vs. supernatural horror in Gothic literature.
The portrayal of madness in classic Gothic novels.
The influence of Gothic literature on modern horror films.
Themes of isolation and alienation in Gothic fiction.
The use of architecture as a symbol of psychological state in Gothic literature.
Gender roles and the portrayal of women in Victorian Gothic novels.
The revival of Gothic elements in 21st-century young adult literature.
The depiction of villains and anti-heroes in Gothic stories.
Comparative analysis of European and American Gothic literature.
The intersection of Gothic literature and romanticism.
The influence of religious symbolism and themes in Gothic narratives.
Gothic elements in the works of contemporary authors like Stephen King and Anne Rice.
The role of curses and prophecies in Gothic storytelling.
Gothic literature as social and cultural critique.
The representation of death and the afterlife in Gothic novels.
The use of dual personalities in Gothic literature.
The impact of Gothic literature on fashion and visual arts.
The role of secrecy and suspense in creating the Gothic atmosphere.
The depiction of the monstrous and the grotesque in Gothic texts.
Exploring the Gothic in graphic novels and comics.
The motif of the journey in Gothic literature.
The portrayal of science and experimentation in Gothic stories.
Gothic elements in children’s literature.
The role of nature and the natural world in Gothic narratives.
Themes of inheritance and the burden of the past in Gothic novels.
The influence of Gothic literature on the development of detective and mystery genres.
The portrayal of patriarchal society and its discontents in Gothic fiction.
The Gothic and its relation to postcolonial literature.
The use of folklore and myth in Gothic narratives.
The narrative structure and techniques in Gothic literature.
The role of the supernatural in defining the Gothic genre.
Gothic literature as a reflection of societal anxieties during different historical periods.
The motif of entrapment and escape in Gothic stories.
Comparative study of Gothic literature and dark romanticism.
The use of setting as a character in Gothic narratives.
The evolution of the ghost story within Gothic literature.
The function of mirrors and doubling in Gothic texts.
The portrayal of traditional spiritual beliefs in Indigenous literature.
The impact of colonization on Indigenous narratives and storytelling.
Analysis of language revitalization efforts through Indigenous literature.
Indigenous feminist perspectives in contemporary literature.
The role of land and environment in Indigenous storytelling.
Depictions of family and community in Indigenous novels.
The intersection of Indigenous literature and modernist themes.
The representation of cultural trauma and resilience in Indigenous poetry.
The use of oral traditions in modern Indigenous writing.
Indigenous perspectives on sovereignty and autonomy in literary texts.
The role of Indigenous literature in national reconciliation processes.
Contemporary Indigenous literature as a form of political activism.
The influence of Indigenous languages on narrative structure and poetics.
The depiction of urban Indigenous experiences in literature.
Analysis of Indigenous science fiction and speculative fiction.
The portrayal of intergenerational trauma and healing in Indigenous stories.
The role of mythology and folklore in contemporary Indigenous literature.
Indigenous authors and the global literary market.
The use of non-linear narratives in Indigenous storytelling.
Comparative study of Indigenous literatures from different continents.
The portrayal of Indigenous identities in children’s and young adult literature.
Representation of gender and sexuality in Indigenous literature.
The role of art and imagery in Indigenous narratives.
The influence of non-Indigenous readerships on the publication of Indigenous texts.
Environmental justice themes in Indigenous literature.
The depiction of historical events and their impacts in Indigenous novels.
Indigenous literature as a tool for education and cultural preservation.
The dynamics of translation in bringing Indigenous stories to a wider audience.
The treatment of non-human entities and their personification in Indigenous stories.
The influence of Indigenous storytelling techniques on contemporary cinema.
Indigenous authorship and intellectual property rights.
The impact of awards and recognitions on Indigenous literary careers.
Analysis of Indigenous autobiographies and memoirs.
The role of mentorship and community support in the development of Indigenous writers.
Comparative analysis of traditional and contemporary forms of Indigenous poetry.
The effect of digital media on the dissemination of Indigenous stories.
Indigenous resistance and survival narratives in the face of cultural assimilation.
The role of Indigenous literature in shaping cultural policies.
Exploring hybrid identities through Indigenous literature.
The representation of Indigenous spiritual practices in modern novels.
The application of deconstruction in contemporary literary analysis.
The impact of feminist theory on the interpretation of classic literature.
Marxism and its influence on the critique of 21st-century novels.
The role of psychoanalytic theory in understanding character motivations and narrative structures.
Postcolonial theory and its application to modern diaspora literature.
The relevance of structuralism in today’s literary studies.
The intersection of queer theory and literature.
The use of ecocriticism to interpret environmental themes in literature.
Reader-response theory and its implications for understanding audience engagement.
The influence of New Historicism on the interpretation of historical novels.
The application of critical race theory in analyzing literature by authors of color.
The role of biographical criticism in studying authorial intent.
The impact of digital humanities on literary studies.
The application of narrative theory in the study of non-linear storytelling.
The critique of capitalism using cultural materialism in contemporary literature.
The evolution of feminist literary criticism from the second wave to the present.
Hermeneutics and the philosophy of interpretation in literature.
The study of semiotics in graphic novels and visual literature.
The role of myth criticism in understanding modern reinterpretations of ancient stories.
Comparative literature and the challenges of cross-cultural interpretations.
The impact of globalization on postcolonial literary theories.
The application of disability studies in literary analysis.
Memory studies and its influence on the interpretation of narrative time.
The influence of phenomenology on character analysis in novels.
The role of orientalism in the depiction of the East in Western literature.
The relevance of Bakhtin’s theories on dialogism and the carnivalesque in contemporary media.
The implications of translation studies for interpreting multilingual texts.
The use of animal studies in literature to critique human-animal relationships.
The role of affect theory in understanding emotional responses to literature.
The critique of imperialism and nationalism in literature using postcolonial theories.
The implications of intersectionality in feminist literary criticism.
The application of Freudian concepts to the analysis of horror and Gothic literature.
The use of genre theory in classifying emerging forms of digital literature.
The critique of linguistic imperialism in postcolonial literature.
The use of performance theory in the study of drama and poetry readings.
The relevance of Antonio Gramsci’s theory of cultural hegemony in literary studies.
The examination of space and place in urban literature using spatial theory.
The impact of surveillance culture on contemporary narrative forms.
The application of chaos theory to the analysis of complex narrative structures.
The role of allegory in political and religious texts through historical and contemporary lenses.
Adaptation theory and the translation of literary narratives into film.
The role of the director as an interpreter of literary texts in cinema.
Comparative analysis of narrative techniques in novels and their film adaptations.
The impact of film adaptations on the reception of classic literature.
The portrayal of historical events in literature and film.
The influence of screenplay structure on literary narrative forms.
The representation of gender roles in book-to-film adaptations.
The intertextuality between film scripts and their source novels.
The use of visual symbolism in films adapted from literary works.
The portrayal of psychological depth in characters from literature to film.
The adaptation of non-fiction literature into documentary filmmaking.
The impact of the author’s biographical elements on film adaptations.
The role of music and sound in enhancing narrative elements from literature in films.
The evolution of the horror genre from literature to film.
The representation of science fiction themes in literature and their adaptation to cinema.
The influence of fan culture on the adaptation process.
The depiction of dystopian societies in books and their cinematic counterparts.
The challenges of translating poetry into visual narrative.
The portrayal of magical realism in literature and film.
The depiction of race and ethnicity in adaptations of multicultural literature.
The role of the viewer’s perspective in literature vs. film.
The effectiveness of dialogue adaptation from literary dialogues to film scripts.
The impact of setting and locale in film adaptations of regional literature.
The transformation of the mystery genre from page to screen.
The adaptation of children’s literature into family films.
The narrative construction of heroism in literary epics and their film adaptations.
The influence of graphic novels on visual storytelling in films.
The adaptation of classical mythology in modern cinema.
The ethics of adapting real-life events and biographies into film.
The role of cinematic techniques in depicting internal monologues from novels.
The comparison of thematic depth in short stories and their film adaptations.
The portrayal of alienation in modern literature and independent films.
The adaptation of stage plays into feature films.
The challenges of adapting experimental literature into conventional film formats.
The representation of time and memory in literature and film.
The adaptation of young adult novels into film franchises.
The role of directorial vision in reinterpreting a literary work for the screen.
The cultural impact of blockbuster adaptations of fantasy novels.
The influence of cinematic adaptations on contemporary novel writing.
The role of censorship in the adaptation of controversial literary works to film.
The portrayal of the American Revolution in contemporary historical novels.
The impact of the World Wars on European literary expression.
The depiction of the Victorian era in British novels.
Literary responses to the Great Depression in American literature.
The representation of the Russian Revolution in 20th-century literature.
The influence of the Harlem Renaissance on African American literature.
The role of literature in documenting the Civil Rights Movement in the United States.
The depiction of colonialism and its aftermath in African literature.
The influence of historical events on the development of national literatures.
The role of literary works in shaping public memory of historical tragedies.
The portrayal of the Holocaust in European and American literature.
The use of allegory to critique political regimes in 20th-century literature.
The depiction of indigenous histories and resistances in literature.
The representation of the French Revolution in romantic literature.
Literature as a tool for national identity construction in postcolonial states.
The portrayal of historical figures in biographical novels.
The influence of the Cold War on spy novels and political thrillers.
The impact of migration and diaspora on historical narratives in literature.
The role of the ancient world in shaping modern historical novels.
The depiction of the Industrial Revolution and its impacts in literature.
The role of women in historical novels from the feminist perspective.
The representation of religious conflicts and their historical impacts in literature.
The influence of myth and folklore on historical narrative constructions.
The depiction of the American West in literature and its historical inaccuracies.
The role of literature in the preservation of endangered languages and cultures.
The impact of digital archives on the study of literature and history.
The use of literature to explore counterfactual histories.
The portrayal of piracy and maritime history in adventure novels.
Literary depictions of the fall of empires and their historical contexts.
The impact of archaeological discoveries on historical fiction.
The influence of the Spanish Civil War on global literary movements.
The depiction of social upheavals and their impacts on literary production.
The role of literature in documenting the environmental history of regions.
The portrayal of non-Western historical narratives in global literature.
The impact of historical laws and policies on the lives of characters in novels.
The influence of public health crises and pandemics on literature.
The representation of trade routes and their historical significance in literature.
The depiction of revolutions and uprisings in Latin American literature.
The role of historical texts in the reimagining of genre literature.
The influence of postmodernism on the interpretation of historical narratives in literature.
The exploration of existential themes in modern literature.
The representation of Platonic ideals in Renaissance literature.
Nietzschean perspectives in the works of postmodern authors.
The influence of Stoicism on characters’ development in classical literature.
The portrayal of ethical dilemmas in war novels.
The philosophical underpinnings of utopian and dystopian literature.
The role of absurdism in the narratives of 20th-century plays.
The concept of ‘the Other’ in literature, from a phenomenological viewpoint.
The depiction of free will and determinism in science fiction.
The influence of feminist philosophy on contemporary literature.
The exploration of Socratic dialogue within literary texts.
The reflection of Cartesian dualism in Gothic novels.
Buddhist philosophy in the works of Eastern and Western authors.
The impact of existentialism on the characterization in novels by Camus and Sartre.
The use of allegory to explore philosophical concepts in medieval literature.
The portrayal of hedonism and asceticism in biographical fiction.
The exploration of phenomenology in autobiographical narratives.
Literary critiques of capitalism through Marxist philosophy.
The relationship between language and reality in post-structuralist texts.
The depiction of nihilism in Russian literature.
The intersection of Confucian philosophy and traditional Asian narratives.
The exploration of human nature in literature from a Hobbesian perspective.
The influence of pragmatism on American literary realism.
The portrayal of justice and injustice in novels centered on legal dilemmas.
The exploration of existential risk and future ethics in speculative fiction.
The philosophical examination of memory and identity in memoirs and autobiographies.
The role of ethics in the portrayal of artificial intelligence in literature.
The literary interpretation of Schopenhauer’s philosophy of pessimism.
The reflection of Epicurean philosophy in modern travel literature.
The influence of Kantian ethics on the narratives of moral conflict.
The representation of libertarian philosophies in dystopian literature.
The philosophical discourse on beauty and aesthetics in literature.
The exploration of virtue ethics through historical biographical novels.
The philosophical implications of transhumanism in cyberpunk literature.
The use of literature to explore the philosophical concept of the sublime.
The narrative structures of temporality and eternity in philosophical novels.
The impact of neo-Platonism on the symbolism in Renaissance poetry.
The portrayal of existential isolation in urban contemporary novels.
The reflection of utilitarianism in social and political novels.
The exploration of ethical ambiguity in spy and thriller genres.
The portrayal of psychological disorders in modernist literature.
Exploration of trauma and its narrative representation in post-war novels.
The use of stream of consciousness as a method to explore cognitive processes in literature.
The psychological impact of isolation in dystopian literature.
The depiction of childhood and development in coming-of-age novels.
Psychological manipulation in the narrative structure of mystery and thriller novels.
The role of psychological resilience in characters surviving extreme conditions.
The influence of Freudian theory on the interpretation of dreams in literature.
The use of psychological archetypes in the development of mythological storytelling.
The portrayal of psychological therapy and its impacts in contemporary fiction.
Analysis of cognitive dissonance through characters’ internal conflicts in novels.
The exploration of the Jungian shadow in villain characters.
Psychological profiling of protagonists in crime fiction.
The impact of societal expectations on mental health in historical novels.
The role of psychology in understanding unreliable narrators.
The depiction of addiction and recovery in autobiographical works.
The exploration of grief and mourning in poetry.
Psychological theories of love as depicted in romantic literature.
The narrative portrayal of dissociative identity disorder in literature.
The use of psychological suspense in Gothic literature.
The representation of anxiety and depression in young adult fiction.
Psychological effects of war on soldiers as depicted in military fiction.
The role of psychoanalysis in interpreting symbolic content in fairy tales.
The psychological impact of technological change as seen in science fiction.
The exploration of existential crises in philosophical novels.
The depiction of social psychology principles in literature about cults and mass movements.
Psychological aspects of racial and gender identity in contemporary literature.
The representation of the subconscious in surreal and absurd literature.
The application of psychological resilience theories in survival literature.
The portrayal of parental influence on child development in family sagas.
Psychological theories of aging as explored in literature about the elderly.
The depiction of sensory processing disorders in fictional characters.
Psychological effects of immigration and cultural assimilation in diaspora literature.
The role of narrative therapy in autobiographical writing and memoirs.
The portrayal of obsessive-compulsive disorder in narrative fiction.
Psychological implications of virtual realities in cyberpunk literature.
The representation of psychopathy in anti-hero characters.
The exploration of group dynamics and leadership in epic tales.
Psychological interpretations of magical realism as a reflection of cultural psyche.
The use of literature in the therapeutic practice and understanding of mental health issues.
The influence of Christian theology on medieval epic poems.
The role of allegory in interpreting medieval morality plays.
The depiction of chivalry and courtly love in Arthurian legends.
Comparative analysis of the heroic ideals in Beowulf and the Song of Roland.
The impact of the Black Death on the themes of medieval poetry and prose.
The portrayal of women in medieval romances.
The use of dreams as a narrative device in medieval literature.
The representation of the otherworldly and supernatural in medieval texts.
The function of medieval bestiaries in literature and their symbolic meanings.
The influence of the Crusades on medieval literature across Europe.
The evolution of the troubadour and trouvère traditions in medieval France.
The depiction of feudalism and social hierarchy in medieval narratives.
The role of satire and humor in the Canterbury Tales.
The impact of monastic life on medieval literary production.
The use of vernacular languages in medieval literature versus Latin texts.
The portrayal of sin and redemption in Dante’s Divine Comedy.
The literary responses to the Mongol invasions in medieval Eurasian literature.
The development of allegorical interpretation in medieval biblical exegesis.
The influence of Islamic culture on medieval European literature.
The representation of Jewish communities in medieval Christian literature.
The concept of kingship and rule in Anglo-Saxon literature.
The use of landscape and nature in medieval Celtic stories.
The role of pilgrimage in shaping medieval narrative structures.
The depiction of witchcraft and magic in medieval texts.
Gender roles and their subversion in Middle English literature.
The literary legacy of Charlemagne in medieval European epics.
The portrayal of disability and disease in medieval literature.
The use of relics and iconography in medieval religious writings.
The medieval origins of modern fantasy literature tropes.
The use of cryptography and secret messages in medieval romance literature.
The influence of medieval astronomy and cosmology on literary works.
The role of manuscript culture in preserving medieval literary texts.
The depiction of Vikings in medieval English and Scandinavian literature.
Medieval literary depictions of Byzantine and Ottoman interactions.
The representation of sermons and homilies in medieval literature.
The literary forms and functions of medieval liturgical drama.
The influence of classical antiquity on medieval literary forms.
The use of irony and parody in medieval fabliaux.
The role of the troubadour poetry in the development of lyrical music traditions.
The impact of medieval legal texts on contemporary narrative forms.
The influence of urbanization on narrative form in Modernist literature.
Stream of consciousness technique in the works of Virginia Woolf and James Joyce.
The role of symbolism and imagery in T.S. Eliot’s poetry.
The depiction of the World War I experience in Modernist novels.
The impact of Freudian psychology on Modernist character development.
The intersection of visual arts and narrative structure in Modernist poetry.
The critique of imperialism and colonialism in Modernist texts.
The representation of gender and sexuality in Modernist literature.
The influence of technology and industrialization on Modernist themes.
The use of fragmentation and non-linear narratives in Modernist fiction.
The evolution of the novel form in Modernist literature.
The role of existential philosophy in shaping Modernist themes.
The critique of traditional values and societal norms in Modernist works.
The portrayal of alienation and isolation in the Modernist era.
The impact of Jazz music on the rhythm and structure of Modernist poetry.
The role of expatriate writers in the development of Modernist literature.
The influence of Russian literature on Modernist authors.
The exploration of time and memory in Modernist narrative techniques.
The depiction of urban alienation and anonymity in Modernist literature.
The role of patronage and literary salons in the promotion of Modernist art.
The impact of cinema on Modernist narrative techniques.
The representation of religious doubt and spiritual crisis in Modernist texts.
The influence of Cubism on the form and structure of Modernist poetry.
The use of irony and satire in the critiques of Modernist society.
The interplay between Modernist literature and the emerging psychoanalytic discourse.
The depiction of the breakdown of language and communication in Modernist works.
The role of the anti-hero in Modernist novels.
The impact of existential despair on the themes of Modernist literature.
The representation of the New Woman in Modernist fiction.
The influence of Eastern philosophies on Modernist thought and writings.
The critique of materialism and consumer culture in Modernist literature.
The role of myth and narrative reconfiguration in Modernist poetry.
The depiction of war trauma and its aftermath in Modernist literature.
The representation of racial and ethnic identities in Modernist works.
The impact of avant-garde movements on Modernist literary forms.
The influence of European intellectual movements on American Modernist writers.
The role of the flâneur in Modernist literature and urban exploration.
The exploration of linguistic innovation in the works of Gertrude Stein.
The critique of historical progress in Modernist narratives.
The impact of existentialism on the depiction of the absurd in Modernist theatre.
The representation of colonial impact on identity in postcolonial narratives.
The role of language and power in postcolonial literature.
The portrayal of gender and resistance in postcolonial women’s writings.
The depiction of hybridity and cultural syncretism in postcolonial texts.
The influence of native folklore and mythology in postcolonial storytelling.
The critique of neocolonialism and globalization in contemporary postcolonial literature.
The exploration of diaspora and migration in postcolonial narratives.
The role of the subaltern voice in postcolonial literature.
The impact of postcolonial theory on Western literary criticism.
The representation of landscapes and spaces in postcolonial works.
The portrayal of historical trauma and memory in postcolonial fiction.
The exploration of identity and belonging in postcolonial children’s literature.
The use of magical realism as a political tool in postcolonial literature.
The depiction of urbanization and its effects in postcolonial cities.
The role of religion in shaping postcolonial identities.
The impact of apartheid and its aftermath in South African literature.
The representation of indigenous knowledge systems in postcolonial texts.
The critique of patriarchy in postcolonial narratives.
The exploration of linguistic decolonization in postcolonial writing.
The portrayal of conflict and reconciliation in postcolonial societies.
The depiction of postcolonial resistance strategies in literature.
The representation of climate change and environmental issues in postcolonial contexts.
The role of education in postcolonial literature.
The impact of tourism and exoticism on postcolonial identities.
The exploration of economic disparities in postcolonial narratives.
The representation of refugees and asylum seekers in postcolonial literature.
The portrayal of political corruption and governance in postcolonial works.
The depiction of cultural preservation and loss in postcolonial societies.
The role of oral traditions in contemporary postcolonial literature.
The portrayal of transnational identities in postcolonial fiction.
The exploration of gender fluidity and sexuality in postcolonial texts.
The depiction of labor migration and its effects in postcolonial literature.
The role of the media in shaping postcolonial discourses.
The impact of Western pop culture on postcolonial societies.
The portrayal of intergenerational conflict in postcolonial families.
The depiction of mental health issues in postcolonial contexts.
The exploration of postcolonial futurism in African speculative fiction.
The representation of native resistance against colonial forces in historical novels.
The critique of linguistic imperialism in postcolonial education.
The depiction of decolonization movements in postcolonial literature.
The use of metafiction and narrative self-awareness in postmodern literature.
The role of irony and playfulness in postmodern texts.
The exploration of fragmented identities in postmodern novels.
The deconstruction of traditional narrative structures in postmodern works.
The representation of hyperreality and the simulation of reality in postmodern fiction.
The critique of consumer culture and its influence on postmodern characters.
The exploration of historiographic metafiction and the reinterpretation of history.
The role of pastiche and intertextuality in postmodern literature.
The depiction of paranoia and conspiracy in postmodern narratives.
The portrayal of cultural relativism and the challenge to universal truths.
The use of multimedia and digital influences in postmodern writing.
The exploration of existential uncertainty in postmodern philosophy and literature.
The role of gender and identity politics in postmodern texts.
The depiction of postmodern urban landscapes and architecture in literature.
The representation of globalization and its effects in postmodern novels.
The portrayal of ecological crises and environmental concerns in postmodern fiction.
The critique of scientific rationalism and technology in postmodern literature.
The exploration of linguistic experimentation and its impact on narrative.
The role of the anti-hero and flawed protagonists in postmodern stories.
The depiction of social fragmentation and alienation in postmodern works.
The representation of non-linear time and its effect on narrative perspective.
The portrayal of the dissolution of boundaries between high and low culture.
The use of parody and satire to critique political and social norms.
The exploration of subjectivity and the breakdown of the authorial voice.
The role of performance and spectacle in postmodern drama.
The depiction of marginalization and minority voices in postmodern literature.
The representation of the interplay between virtual and physical realities.
The portrayal of ephemeral and transient experiences in postmodern texts.
The critique of capitalism and neoliberal economics in postmodern narratives.
The exploration of human relationships in the context of media saturation.
The depiction of dystopian societies and their critiques of contemporary issues.
The role of surreal and absurd elements in postmodern storytelling.
The portrayal of cultural pastiches and their implications for identity formation.
The exploration of narrative unreliability and ambiguous truths.
The depiction of multiple realities and parallel universes in postmodern fiction.
The representation of anarchism and resistance in postmodern literature.
The critique of colonial narratives and their postmodern reevaluations.
The exploration of therapeutic narratives in postmodern psychology and literature.
The role of chance and randomness in the structure of postmodern plots.
The portrayal of artistic and cultural decadence in postmodern settings.
The impact of humanism on the themes and forms of Renaissance poetry.
The influence of Renaissance art on the literature of the period.
The role of court patronage in the development of literary forms during the Renaissance.
The depiction of love and courtship in Shakespeare’s comedies.
The use of classical myths in Renaissance drama.
The portrayal of political power in the plays of Christopher Marlowe.
The evolution of the sonnet form from Petrarch to Shakespeare.
The representation of women in Renaissance literature and the role of gender.
The impact of the Reformation on English literature during the Renaissance.
The development of narrative prose during the Renaissance.
The influence of Italian literature on English Renaissance writers.
The role of allegory in Spenser’s The Faerie Queene .
The depiction of the supernatural in Renaissance drama.
The exploration of identity and self in Renaissance autobiographical writings.
The rise of satire and its development during the English Renaissance.
The concept of the tragic hero in Renaissance tragedy.
The role of travel and exploration narratives in shaping Renaissance literature.
The influence of Machiavellian philosophy on Renaissance literary characters.
The representation of religious conflicts and sectarianism in Renaissance texts.
The depiction of colonialism and its early impacts in Renaissance literature.
The portrayal of the city and urban life in Renaissance literature.
The use of rhetoric and persuasion in the sermons and speeches of the Renaissance.
The depiction of friendship and societal bonds in Renaissance literature.
The influence of Renaissance music on the poetic forms of the time.
The role of magic and science in the literature of the Renaissance.
The treatment of classical philosophy in Renaissance humanist literature.
The representation of nature and the environment in pastoral literature.
The depiction of courtly and peasant life in Renaissance drama.
The influence of Renaissance literature on later literary movements.
The portrayal of villains and their motivations in Renaissance plays.
The development of printing technology and its impact on Renaissance literature.
The role of language and dialect in the literature of the English Renaissance.
The depiction of the New World in Renaissance travel literature.
The exploration of moral and ethical issues in Renaissance philosophical writings.
The impact of Spanish literature on the Renaissance literary scene.
The role of soliloquies in deepening character development in Renaissance drama.
The treatment of death and mortality in Renaissance poetry.
The representation of court politics and intrigue in Renaissance historical plays.
The development of comedic elements in Renaissance literature.
The exploration of Renaissance literary criticism and its approaches to interpretation.
The exploration of nature and the sublime in Romantic poetry.
The role of the individual and personal emotion in Romantic literature.
The impact of the French Revolution on Romantic literary themes.
The representation of the Byronic hero in Romantic novels.
The influence of Gothic elements on Romantic literature.
The depiction of women and femininity in the works of Romantic poets.
The role of imagination and creativity in Romantic theories of art and literature.
The portrayal of childhood and innocence in Romantic literature.
The influence of Eastern cultures on Romantic poetry and prose.
The interplay between science and religion in Romantic texts.
The Romantic fascination with death and the macabre.
The depiction of landscapes and rural life in Romantic poetry.
The role of folklore and mythology in shaping Romantic narratives.
The impact of Romanticism on national identities across Europe.
The exploration of exile and alienation in Romantic literature.
The critique of industrialization and its social impacts in Romantic writing.
The development of the historical novel in Romantic literature.
The role of letters and correspondence in Romantic literary culture.
The representation of revolutionary ideals and their disillusionment in Romantic texts.
The exploration of human rights and liberty in Romantic works.
The portrayal of artistic genius and its torments in Romantic literature.
The depiction of friendship and romantic love in Romantic poetry.
The influence of Romantic literature on the development of modern environmentalism.
The role of music and its inspiration on Romantic poetry.
The exploration of time and memory in Romantic literary works.
The depiction of urban versus rural dichotomies in Romantic texts.
The impact of Romanticism on later literary movements such as Symbolism and Decadence.
The role of melancholy and introspection in Romantic poetry.
The representation of dreams and visions in Romantic literature.
The depiction of storms and natural disasters as metaphors in Romantic writing.
The exploration of political reform and radicalism in Romantic works.
The portrayal of the supernatural and its role in Romantic narratives.
The influence of Romantic literature on the visual arts.
The depiction of heroism and adventure in Romantic epics.
The role of solitude and contemplation in Romantic poetry.
The exploration of national folklore in the Romantic movement across different cultures.
The critique of reason and rationality in favor of emotional intuition.
The depiction of the quest for immortality and eternal youth in Romantic literature.
The role of the pastoral and the picturesque in Romantic aesthetics.
The exploration of spiritual and transcendental experiences in Romantic texts.
The role of dystopian worlds in critiquing contemporary social issues.
The portrayal of artificial intelligence and its ethical implications in science fiction.
The evolution of space opera within science fiction literature.
The depiction of alternate histories in fantasy literature and their cultural significance.
The use of magic systems in fantasy novels as metaphors for real-world power dynamics.
The representation of gender and sexuality in speculative fiction.
The influence of scientific advancements on the development of science fiction themes.
Environmentalism and ecocriticism in science fiction and fantasy narratives.
The role of the hero’s journey in modern fantasy literature.
The portrayal of utopias and their transformation into dystopias.
The impact of post-apocalyptic settings on character development and moral choices.
The exploration of virtual reality in science fiction and its implications for the future of society.
The representation of alien cultures in science fiction and the critique of human ethnocentrism.
The use of mythology and folklore in building fantasy worlds.
The influence of cyberpunk culture on contemporary science fiction.
The depiction of time travel and its impact on narrative structure and theme.
The role of military science fiction in exploring warfare and peace.
The portrayal of religious themes in science fiction and fantasy.
The impact of fan fiction and its contributions to the science fiction and fantasy genres.
The exploration of psychological themes through science fiction and fantasy narratives.
The role of colonization in science fiction narratives.
The impact of science fiction and fantasy literature on technological innovation.
The depiction of societal collapse and reconstruction in speculative fiction.
The role of language and linguistics in science fiction, such as in creating alien languages.
The portrayal of non-human characters in fantasy literature and what they reveal about human nature.
The use of science fiction in exploring philosophical concepts such as identity and consciousness.
The representation of disabled characters in science fiction and fantasy.
The influence of historical events on the development of fantasy literature.
The critique of capitalism and corporate governance in dystopian science fiction.
The role of political allegory in science fiction during the Cold War.
The representation of indigenous peoples in fantasy settings.
The impact of climate change on the settings and themes of speculative fiction.
The exploration of bioethics and genetic modification in science fiction.
The impact of globalization as seen through science fiction narratives.
The role of women authors in shaping modern science fiction and fantasy.
The exploration of sentient machines and the definition of life in science fiction.
The use of archetypes in fantasy literature and their psychological implications.
The narrative strategies used to build suspense and mystery in fantasy series.
The influence of Eastern philosophies on Western science fiction.
The portrayal of family and community in post-apocalyptic environments.
The representation of the British Empire and colonialism in Victorian novels.
The impact of the Industrial Revolution on the social landscape in Victorian literature.
The depiction of gender roles and the domestic sphere in Victorian novels.
The influence of Darwinian thought on Victorian characters and themes.
The role of the Gothic tradition in Victorian literature.
The portrayal of morality and ethics in the works of Charles Dickens.
The exploration of class disparity and social mobility in Victorian fiction.
The depiction of urban life and its challenges in Victorian literature.
The role of realism in Victorian novels and its impact on literary form.
The representation of mental illness and psychology in Victorian fiction.
The critique of materialism and consumer culture in Victorian literature.
The portrayal of children and childhood in Victorian narratives.
The exploration of romanticism versus realism in Victorian poetry.
The depiction of religious doubt and spiritual crises in Victorian texts.
The role of women writers in the Victorian literary scene.
The portrayal of the “New Woman” in late Victorian literature.
The exploration of scientific progress and its ethical implications in Victorian works.
The depiction of crime and punishment in Victorian detective fiction.
The influence of aestheticism and decadence in late Victorian literature.
The representation of imperial anxieties and racial theories in Victorian novels.
The role of sensation novels in shaping Victorian popular culture.
The portrayal of marriage and its discontents in Victorian literature.
The depiction of rural life versus urbanization in Victorian narratives.
The exploration of philanthropy and social reform in Victorian texts.
The role of the supernatural and the occult in Victorian fiction.
The portrayal of art and artists in Victorian literature.
The representation of travel and exploration in Victorian novels.
The depiction of the aristocracy and their decline in Victorian literature.
The influence of newspapers and media on Victorian literary culture.
The role of patriotism and national identity in Victorian writings.
The exploration of the Victorian underworld in literature.
The depiction of legal and judicial systems in Victorian fiction.
The portrayal of addiction and vice in Victorian texts.
The role of foreign settings in Victorian novels.
The depiction of technological advancements in transportation in Victorian literature.
The influence of French and Russian literary movements on Victorian authors.
The role of epistolary form in Victorian novels.
The portrayal of altruism and self-sacrifice in Victorian narratives.
The depiction of servants and their roles in Victorian households.
The exploration of colonial and postcolonial readings of Victorian texts.
The role of translation in shaping the global reception of classic literary works.
The impact of globalization on the development of contemporary world literature.
Comparative analysis of national myths in literature across different cultures.
The influence of postcolonial theory on the interpretation of world literature.
The depiction of cross-cultural encounters and their implications in world novels.
The role of exile and migration in shaping the themes of world literature.
The representation of indigenous narratives in the global literary marketplace.
The portrayal of urbanization in world literature and its impact on societal norms.
The exploration of feminist themes across different cultural contexts in literature.
The depiction of historical trauma and memory in literature from post-conflict societies.
The role of magical realism in expressing political and social realities in Latin American literature.
The exploration of identity and hybridity in diaspora literature from around the world.
The impact of censorship and political repression on literary production in authoritarian regimes.
Comparative study of the Gothic tradition in European and Latin American literature.
The influence of religious texts on narrative structures and themes in world literature.
The role of nature and the environment in shaping narrative forms in world literature.
The exploration of time and memory in post-Soviet literature.
The portrayal of love and marriage across different cultural contexts in world novels.
The impact of technological changes on narrative forms and themes in world literature.
The exploration of human rights issues through world literature.
The depiction of war and peace in Middle Eastern literature.
Comparative analysis of the tragic hero in Greek tragedy and Japanese Noh theater.
The role of traditional folk stories in contemporary world literature.
The influence of African oral traditions on modern African literature.
The exploration of social justice and activism in world literature.
The portrayal of children and childhood in world literature.
The depiction of the supernatural and the uncanny in world literary traditions.
The impact of colonial histories on contemporary literature in former colonies.
The exploration of gender and sexuality in Scandinavian literature.
The portrayal of disability and mental health in world literature.
The role of food and cuisine in cultural identity as depicted in world literature.
Comparative study of poetry from the Middle Eastern and Western traditions.
The exploration of death and the afterlife in world religious texts and their literary influences.
The portrayal of the artist and the creative process in world literature.
The impact of economic crises on characters and plot development in world novels.
The exploration of architectural spaces and their symbolism in world literature.
The role of multilingualism and code-switching in narrative development in world literature.
The depiction of aging and intergenerational relationships in world novels.
The influence of classical Chinese literature on East Asian modern narratives.
The role of the sea and maritime culture in world literary traditions.
The portrayal of identity and self-discovery in YA literature.
The representation of mental health issues in YA novels.
The evolution of the coming-of-age narrative in modern YA fiction.
The role of dystopian settings in YA literature as metaphors for adolescent struggles.
The depiction of family dynamics and their impact on young protagonists.
The treatment of romance and relationships in YA fiction.
The exploration of LGBTQ+ themes and characters in YA literature.
The impact of social media and technology on character development in YA novels.
The portrayal of bullying and social exclusion in YA fiction.
The representation of racial and cultural diversity in YA literature.
The use of fantasy and supernatural elements to explore real-world issues in YA fiction.
The role of friendship in character development and plot progression in YA novels.
The depiction of resilience and personal growth in YA protagonists.
The influence of YA literature on young readers’ attitudes towards social issues.
The portrayal of disability and inclusivity in YA narratives.
The role of sports and extracurricular activities in shaping YA characters.
The exploration of historical events through YA historical fiction.
The impact of war and conflict on young characters in YA literature.
The depiction of academic pressure and its consequences in YA novels.
The portrayal of artistic expression as a form of coping and identity in YA literature.
The use of alternate realities and time travel in YA fiction to explore complex themes.
The role of villainy and moral ambiguity in YA narratives.
The exploration of environmental and ecological issues in YA literature.
The portrayal of heroism and leadership in YA novels.
The impact of grief and loss on YA characters and their journey.
The depiction of addiction and recovery narratives in YA literature.
The portrayal of economic disparities and their effects on young characters.
The representation of non-traditional family structures in YA novels.
The exploration of self-empowerment and activism in YA literature.
The depiction of crime and justice in YA mystery and thriller genres.
The role of mythology and folklore in crafting YA fantasy narratives.
The portrayal of exile and migration in YA fiction.
The impact of YA literature in promoting literacy and reading habits among teens.
The exploration of gender roles and expectations in YA novels.
The depiction of peer pressure and its influence on YA characters.
The portrayal of escapism and adventure in YA fiction.
The role of magical realism in conveying psychological and emotional truths in YA literature.
The exploration of ethical dilemmas and moral choices in YA narratives.
The depiction of the future and speculative technology in YA science fiction.
The portrayal of societal norms and rebellion in YA dystopian novels.

We hope this comprehensive list of literature thesis topics empowers you to narrow down your choices and sparks your curiosity in a specific area of literary studies. With 1000 unique topics spread across 25 categories, from traditional to emerging fields, there is something here for every literary scholar. The diversity of topics not only reflects the dynamic nature of literature but also encompasses a range of perspectives and cultural backgrounds, ensuring that every student can find a topic that resonates deeply with their scholarly interests and personal passions. Utilize this resource to embark on a thought-provoking and intellectually rewarding thesis writing journey.

Literature and Thesis Topic Potential

Literature encompasses a vast and vibrant spectrum of themes and narrative techniques that mirror, critique, and reshape the complex world we live in. For students embarking on the challenging yet rewarding journey of thesis writing, delving into the multitude of literature thesis topics can unlock profound insights and present significant scholarly opportunities. This exploration is not merely an academic exercise; it is a deep dive into the human experience, offering a unique lens through which to view history, culture, and society. Engaging with literature in this way not only enhances one’s understanding of various literary genres and historical periods but also sharpens analytical, critical, and creative thinking skills.

Current Issues in Literature

One prevailing issue in contemporary literary studies is the exploration of identity and representation within literature. This includes examining how narratives portray race, gender, sexuality, and disability. The rise of identity politics has encouraged a reevaluation of canonical texts and a push to broaden the literary canon to include more diverse voices. Such studies challenge traditional narratives and open up discussions on power dynamics within literature.

Another significant issue is the impact of digital technology on literature. The digital age has introduced new forms of literature, such as hypertext fiction and digital poetry, which utilize the interactive capabilities of digital devices to create multifaceted narratives. This shift has led to new interpretations of authorship and readership, as the boundaries between the two blur in interactive media. Thesis topics might explore how these technological innovations have transformed narrative structures and themes or how they affect the psychological engagement of the reader.

Environmental literature has also emerged as a poignant area of study, especially in the context of growing global concerns about climate change and sustainability. This trend in literature reflects an urgent need to address the relationship between humanity and the natural world. Theses in this area could examine narratives that focus on ecological disasters, the anthropocene, or the role of non-human actors in literature, providing new insights into environmental ethics and awareness.

Recent Trends in Literature

The recent trend towards blending genres within literature has led to innovative narrative forms that defy conventional genre classifications. Works that fuse elements of science fiction, fantasy, and historical fiction challenge readers to engage with literature in new and complex ways. These hybrid genres often address contemporary issues through the lens of speculative or fantastical settings, offering fresh perspectives on familiar problems. Thesis topics in this area could explore how these blended genres comment on societal issues or how they represent historical narratives through a fantastical lens.

Another noteworthy trend is the increasing prominence of autobiographical and memoir writing, which highlights personal narratives and individual experiences. This shift towards personal storytelling reflects a broader societal interest in authentic and individualized narratives, often exploring themes of identity, trauma, and resilience. Students could develop thesis topics that analyze how these works serve as both personal catharsis and a social commentary, or how they use narrative techniques to blur the lines between fiction and non-fiction.

Global literature, written in or translated into English, has expanded the geographical boundaries of literary analysis and introduced a plethora of voices and stories from around the world. This trend not only diversifies the range of literary works available but also introduces new themes and narrative strategies influenced by different cultural backgrounds. Thesis research could investigate how global literature addresses universal themes through culturally specific contexts, or how it challenges Western literary paradigms.

Future Directions in Literature

As literature continues to evolve, one of the exciting future directions is the potential integration of literary studies with emerging technologies like artificial intelligence and machine learning. These technologies could lead to new forms of literary creation and analysis, where AI-generated literature becomes a field of study, or where machine learning is used to uncover patterns in large volumes of text. Thesis topics might explore the ethical implications of AI in literature, the authenticity of AI-authored texts, or how AI can be used to interpret complex literary theories.

Another future direction is the increasing intersection between literature and other disciplines such as neuroscience, psychology, and anthropology. This interdisciplinary approach can deepen understanding of how literature affects the human brain, influences behavior, or reflects cultural evolution. Students could develop theses that examine the neurocognitive impacts of reading fiction, or how literary studies can contribute to our understanding of human culture and societal development.

Finally, the role of literature in addressing and influencing social and political issues is likely to increase. As global challenges like migration, inequality, and climate change persist, literature that addresses these issues not only provides commentary but also raises awareness and fosters empathy. Future thesis topics could focus on how literature serves as a tool for social justice, how it influences public policy, or how it helps shape collective memory and identity in times of crisis.

The exploration of literature thesis topics offers students a panorama of possibilities for deep academic inquiry and personal growth. By engaging deeply with literature, students not only fulfill their academic objectives but also gain insights that transcend scholarly pursuits. This exploration enriches personal perspectives and fosters a profound appreciation for the power of words and stories. The pursuit of literature thesis topics is thus not merely academic—it is a journey into the heart of human experience, offering endless opportunities for discovery and impact.

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Developing a Thesis

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Once you've read the story or novel closely, look back over your notes for patterns of questions or ideas that interest you. Have most of your questions been about the characters, how they develop or change?

For example: If you are reading Conrad's The Secret Agent , do you seem to be most interested in what the author has to say about society? Choose a pattern of ideas and express it in the form of a question and an answer such as the following: Question: What does Conrad seem to be suggesting about early twentieth-century London society in his novel The Secret Agent ? Answer: Conrad suggests that all classes of society are corrupt. Pitfalls: Choosing too many ideas. Choosing an idea without any support.

Once you have some general points to focus on, write your possible ideas and answer the questions that they suggest.

For example: Question: How does Conrad develop the idea that all classes of society are corrupt? Answer: He uses images of beasts and cannibalism whether he's describing socialites, policemen or secret agents.

To write your thesis statement, all you have to do is turn the question and answer around. You've already given the answer, now just put it in a sentence (or a couple of sentences) so that the thesis of your paper is clear.

For example: In his novel, The Secret Agent , Conrad uses beast and cannibal imagery to describe the characters and their relationships to each other. This pattern of images suggests that Conrad saw corruption in every level of early twentieth-century London society.

Now that you're familiar with the story or novel and have developed a thesis statement, you're ready to choose the evidence you'll use to support your thesis. There are a lot of good ways to do this, but all of them depend on a strong thesis for their direction.

For example: Here's a student's thesis about Joseph Conrad's The Secret Agent . In his novel, The Secret Agent , Conrad uses beast and cannibal imagery to describe the characters and their relationships to each other. This pattern of images suggests that Conrad saw corruption in every level of early twentieth-century London society. This thesis focuses on the idea of social corruption and the device of imagery. To support this thesis, you would need to find images of beasts and cannibalism within the text.

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Since its inception in 1969, Studies in the Novel has published incisive criticism of the novel across all periods and genres, and from all interpretive approaches. Covering both emerging and established novelists, its issues feature five to six essays, eight to ten reviews of recent books on novels and novelists, and the occasional review essay. Ambitious, comprehensive coverage includes essays reflecting interdisciplinary and theoretically diverse approaches to the novel, and articles are rigorously refereed by scholars drawn from an extensive international pool. Once a year, Studies in the Novel engages a renowned guest editor and publishes a special issue focused on a single topic or author. Studies in the Novel is a member journal of the Council of Editors of Learned Journals.

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Literary Criticism

Introduction
Literary Theories
Steps to Literary Criticism
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thesis examples

SAMPLE THESIS STATEMENTS

These sample thesis statements are provided as guides, not as required forms or prescriptions.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The thesis may focus on an analysis of one of the elements of fiction, drama, poetry or nonfiction as expressed in the work: character, plot, structure, idea, theme, symbol, style, imagery, tone, etc.

In “A Worn Path,” Eudora Welty creates a fictional character in Phoenix Jackson whose determination, faith, and cunning illustrate the indomitable human spirit.

Note that the work, author, and character to be analyzed are identified in this thesis statement. The thesis relies on a strong verb (creates). It also identifies the element of fiction that the writer will explore (character) and the characteristics the writer will analyze and discuss (determination, faith, cunning).

Further Examples:

The character of the Nurse in Romeo and Juliet serves as a foil to young Juliet, delights us with her warmth and earthy wit, and helps realize the tragic catastrophe.

The works of ecstatic love poets Rumi, Hafiz, and Kabir use symbols such as a lover’s longing and the Tavern of Ruin to illustrate the human soul’s desire to connect with God.

The thesis may focus on illustrating how a work reflects the particular genre’s forms, the characteristics of a philosophy of literature, or the ideas of a particular school of thought.

“The Third and Final Continent” exhibits characteristics recurrent in writings by immigrants: tradition, adaptation, and identity.

Note how the thesis statement classifies the form of the work (writings by immigrants) and identifies the characteristics of that form of writing (tradition, adaptation, and identity) that the essay will discuss.

Further examples:

Samuel Beckett’s Endgame reflects characteristics of Theatre of the Absurd in its minimalist stage setting, its seemingly meaningless dialogue, and its apocalyptic or nihilist vision.

A close look at many details in “The Story of an Hour” reveals how language, institutions, and expected demeanor suppress the natural desires and aspirations of women.

The thesis may draw parallels between some element in the work and real-life situations or subject matter: historical events, the author’s life, medical diagnoses, etc.

In Willa Cather’s short story, “Paul’s Case,” Paul exhibits suicidal behavior that a caring adult might have recognized and remedied had that adult had the scientific knowledge we have today.

This thesis suggests that the essay will identify characteristics of suicide that Paul exhibits in the story. The writer will have to research medical and psychology texts to determine the typical characteristics of suicidal behavior and to illustrate how Paul’s behavior mirrors those characteristics.

Through the experience of one man, the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, accurately depicts the historical record of slave life in its descriptions of the often brutal and quixotic relationship between master and slave and of the fragmentation of slave families.

In “I Stand Here Ironing,” one can draw parallels between the narrator’s situation and the author’s life experiences as a mother, writer, and feminist.

SAMPLE PATTERNS FOR THESES ON LITERARY WORKS

1. In (title of work), (author) (illustrates, shows) (aspect) (adjective).

Example: In “Barn Burning,” William Faulkner shows the characters Sardie and Abner Snopes struggling for their identity.

2. In (title of work), (author) uses (one aspect) to (define, strengthen, illustrate) the (element of work).

Example: In “Youth,” Joseph Conrad uses foreshadowing to strengthen the plot.

3. In (title of work), (author) uses (an important part of work) as a unifying device for (one element), (another element), and (another element). The number of elements can vary from one to four.

Example: In “Youth,” Joseph Conrad uses the sea as a unifying device for setting, structure and theme.

4. (Author) develops the character of (character’s name) in (literary work) through what he/she does, what he/she says, what other people say to or about him/her.

Example: Langston Hughes develops the character of Semple in “Ways and Means”…

5. In (title of work), (author) uses (literary device) to (accomplish, develop, illustrate, strengthen) (element of work).

Example: In “The Masque of the Red Death,” Poe uses the symbolism of the stranger, the clock, and the seventh room to develop the theme of death.

6. (Author) (shows, develops, illustrates) the theme of __________ in the (play, poem, story).

Example: Flannery O’Connor illustrates the theme of the effect of the selfishness of the grandmother upon the family in “A Good Man is Hard to Find.”

7. (Author) develops his character(s) in (title of work) through his/her use of language.

Example: John Updike develops his characters in “A & P” through his use of figurative language.

Perimeter College, Georgia State University, http://depts.gpc.edu/~gpcltc/handouts/communications/literarythesis.pdf

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Chapter Four: Theory, Methodologies, Methods, and Evidence

Research Methods

You are viewing the first edition of this textbook. a second edition is available – please visit the latest edition for updated information..

This page discusses the following topics:

Research Goals

Research method types.

Before discussing research methods , we need to distinguish them from methodologies and research skills . Methodologies, linked to literary theories, are tools and lines of investigation: sets of practices and propositions about texts and the world. Researchers using Marxist literary criticism will adopt methodologies that look to material forces like labor, ownership, and technology to understand literature and its relationship to the world. They will also seek to understand authors not as inspired geniuses but as people whose lives and work are shaped by social forces.

Example: Critical Race Theory Methodologies

Critical Race Theory may use a variety of methodologies, including

Interest convergence: investigating whether marginalized groups only achieve progress when dominant groups benefit as well
Intersectional theory: investigating how multiple factors of advantage and disadvantage around race, gender, ethnicity, religion, etc. operate together in complex ways
Radical critique of the law: investigating how the law has historically been used to marginalize particular groups, such as black people, while recognizing that legal efforts are important to achieve emancipation and civil rights
Social constructivism: investigating how race is socially constructed (rather than biologically grounded)
Standpoint epistemology: investigating how knowledge relates to social position
Structural determinism: investigating how structures of thought and of organizations determine social outcomes

To identify appropriate methodologies, you will need to research your chosen theory and gather what methodologies are associated with it. For the most part, we can’t assume that there are “one size fits all” methodologies.

Research skills are about how you handle materials such as library search engines, citation management programs, special collections materials, and so on.

Research methods are about where and how you get answers to your research questions. Are you conducting interviews? Visiting archives? Doing close readings? Reviewing scholarship? You will need to choose which methods are most appropriate to use in your research and you need to gain some knowledge about how to use these methods. In other words, you need to do some research into research methods!

Your choice of research method depends on the kind of questions you are asking. For example, if you want to understand how an author progressed through several drafts to arrive at a final manuscript, you may need to do archival research. If you want to understand why a particular literary work became a bestseller, you may need to do audience research. If you want to know why a contemporary author wrote a particular work, you may need to do interviews. Usually literary research involves a combination of methods such as archival research , discourse analysis , and qualitative research methods.

Literary research methods tend to differ from research methods in the hard sciences (such as physics and chemistry). Science research must present results that are reproducible, while literary research rarely does (though it must still present evidence for its claims). Literary research often deals with questions of meaning, social conventions, representations of lived experience, and aesthetic effects; these are questions that reward dialogue and different perspectives rather than one great experiment that settles the issue. In literary research, we might get many valuable answers even though they are quite different from one another. Also in literary research, we usually have some room to speculate about answers, but our claims have to be plausible (believable) and our argument comprehensive (meaning we don’t overlook evidence that would alter our argument significantly if it were known).

A literary researcher might select the following:

Theory: Critical Race Theory

Methodology: Social Constructivism

Method: Scholarly

Skills: Search engines, citation management

Wendy Belcher, in Writing Your Journal Article in 12 Weeks , identifies two main approaches to understanding literary works: looking at a text by itself (associated with New Criticism ) and looking at texts as they connect to society (associated with Cultural Studies ). The goal of New Criticism is to bring the reader further into the text. The goal of Cultural Studies is to bring the reader into the network of discourses that surround and pass through the text. Other approaches, such as Ecocriticism, relate literary texts to the Sciences (as well as to the Humanities).

The New Critics, starting in the 1940s, focused on meaning within the text itself, using a method they called “ close reading .” The text itself becomes e vidence for a particular reading. Using this approach, you should summarize the literary work briefly and q uote particularly meaningful passages, being sure to introduce quotes and then interpret them (never let them stand alone). Make connections within the work; a sk “why” and “how” the various parts of the text relate to each other.

Cultural Studies critics see all texts as connected to society; the critic therefore has to connect a text to at least one political or social issue. How and why does the text reproduce particular knowledge systems (known as discourses) and how do these knowledge systems relate to issues of power within the society? Who speaks and when? Answering these questions helps your reader understand the text in context. Cultural contexts can include the treatment of gender (Feminist, Queer), class (Marxist), nationality, race, religion, or any other area of human society.

Other approaches, such as psychoanalytic literary criticism , look at literary texts to better understand human psychology. A psychoanalytic reading can focus on a character, the author, the reader, or on society in general. Ecocriticism look at human understandings of nature in literary texts.

We select our research methods based on the kinds of things we want to know. For example, we may be studying the relationship between literature and society, between author and text, or the status of a work in the literary canon. We may want to know about a work’s form, genre, or thematics. We may want to know about the audience’s reading and reception, or about methods for teaching literature in schools.

Below are a few research methods and their descriptions. You may need to consult with your instructor about which ones are most appropriate for your project. The first list covers methods most students use in their work. The second list covers methods more commonly used by advanced researchers. Even if you will not be using methods from this second list in your research project, you may read about these research methods in the scholarship you find.

Most commonly used undergraduate research methods:

Scholarship Methods: Studies the body of scholarship written about a particular author, literary work, historical period, literary movement, genre, theme, theory, or method.
Textual Analysis Methods: Used for close readings of literary texts, these methods also rely on literary theory and background information to support the reading.
Biographical Methods: Used to study the life of the author to better understand their work and times, these methods involve reading biographies and autobiographies about the author, and may also include research into private papers, correspondence, and interviews.
Discourse Analysis Methods: Studies language patterns to reveal ideology and social relations of power. This research involves the study of institutions, social groups, and social movements to understand how people in various settings use language to represent the world to themselves and others. Literary works may present complex mixtures of discourses which the characters (and readers) have to navigate.
Creative Writing Methods: A literary re-working of another literary text, creative writing research is used to better understand a literary work by investigating its language, formal structures, composition methods, themes, and so on. For instance, a creative research project may retell a story from a minor character’s perspective to reveal an alternative reading of events. To qualify as research, a creative research project is usually combined with a piece of theoretical writing that explains and justifies the work.

Methods used more often by advanced researchers:

Archival Methods: Usually involves trips to special collections where original papers are kept. In these archives are many unpublished materials such as diaries, letters, photographs, ledgers, and so on. These materials can offer us invaluable insight into the life of an author, the development of a literary work, or the society in which the author lived. There are at least three major archives of James Baldwin’s papers: The Smithsonian , Yale , and The New York Public Library . Descriptions of such materials are often available online, but the materials themselves are typically stored in boxes at the archive.
Computational Methods: Used for statistical analysis of texts such as studies of the popularity and meaning of particular words in literature over time.
Ethnographic Methods: Studies groups of people and their interactions with literary works, for instance in educational institutions, in reading groups (such as book clubs), and in fan networks. This approach may involve interviews and visits to places (including online communities) where people interact with literary works. Note: before you begin such work, you must have Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval “to protect the rights and welfare of human participants involved in research.”
Visual Methods: Studies the visual qualities of literary works. Some literary works, such as illuminated manuscripts, children’s literature, and graphic novels, present a complex interplay of text and image. Even works without illustrations can be studied for their use of typography, layout, and other visual features.

Regardless of the method(s) you choose, you will need to learn how to apply them to your work and how to carry them out successfully. For example, you should know that many archives do not allow you to bring pens (you can use pencils) and you may not be allowed to bring bags into the archives. You will need to keep a record of which documents you consult and their location (box number, etc.) in the archives. If you are unsure how to use a particular method, please consult a book about it. [1] Also, ask for the advice of trained researchers such as your instructor or a research librarian.

What research method(s) will you be using for your paper? Why did you make this method selection over other methods? If you haven’t made a selection yet, which methods are you considering?
What specific methodological approaches are you most interested in exploring in relation to the chosen literary work?
What is your plan for researching your method(s) and its major approaches?
What was the most important lesson you learned from this page? What point was confusing or difficult to understand?

Write your answers in a webcourse discussion page.

Introduction to Research Methods: A Practical Guide for Anyone Undertaking a Research Project by Catherine, Dr. Dawson
Practical Research Methods: A User-Friendly Guide to Mastering Research Techniques and Projects by Catherine Dawson
Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches by John W. Creswell Cheryl N. Poth
Qualitative Research Evaluation Methods: Integrating Theory and Practice by Michael Quinn Patton
Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches by John W. Creswell J. David Creswell
Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners by Ranjit Kumar
Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques by C.R. Kothari

Strategies for Conducting Literary Research Copyright © 2021 by Barry Mauer & John Venecek is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How to Write a Thesis, According to Umberto Eco

In 1977, three years before Umberto Eco’s groundbreaking novel “ The Name of the Rose ” catapulted him to international fame, the illustrious semiotician published a funny and unpretentious guide for his favorite audience: teachers and their students. Now translated into 17 languages (it finally appeared in English in 2015), “How to Write a Thesis” delivers not just practical advice for writing a thesis — from choosing the right topic (monograph or survey? ancient or contemporary?) to note-taking and mastering the final draft — but meaningful lessons that equip writers for a lifetime outside the walls of the classroom. “Your thesis is like your first love” Eco muses. “It will be difficult to forget. In the end, it will represent your first serious and rigorous academic work, and this is no small thing.”

“Full of friendly, no-bullshit, entry-level advice on what to do and how to do it,” praised one critic, “the absolutely superb chapter on how to write is worth triple the price of admission on its own.” An excerpt from that chapter can be read below.

Once we have decided to whom to write (to humanity, not to the advisor), we must decide how to write, and this is quite a difficult question. If there were exhaustive rules, we would all be great writers. I could at least recommend that you rewrite your thesis many times, or that you take on other writing projects before embarking on your thesis, because writing is also a question of training. In any case, I will provide some general suggestions:

You are not Proust. Do not write long sentences. If they come into your head, write them, but then break them down. Do not be afraid to repeat the subject twice, and stay away from too many pronouns and subordinate clauses. Do not write,

The pianist Wittgenstein, brother of the well-known philosopher who wrote the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicusthat today many consider the masterpiece of contemporary philosophy, happened to have Ravel write for him a concerto for the left hand, since he had lost the right one in the war.

Write instead,

The pianist Paul Wittgenstein was the brother of the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. Since Paul was maimed of his right hand, the composer Maurice Ravel wrote a concerto for him that required only the left hand.

The pianist Paul Wittgenstein was the brother of the famous philosopher, author of the Tractatus. The pianist had lost his right hand in the war. For this reason the composer Maurice Ravel wrote a concerto for him that required only the left hand.

Do not write,

The Irish writer had renounced family, country, and church, and stuck to his plans. It can hardly be said of him that he was a politically committed writer, even if some have mentioned Fabian and “socialist” inclinations with respect to him. When World War II erupted, he tended to deliberately ignore the tragedy that shook Europe, and he was preoccupied solely with the writing of his last work.

Rather write,

Joyce had renounced family, country, and church. He stuck to his plans. We cannot say that Joyce was a “politically committed” writer even if some have gone so far as describing a Fabian and “socialist” Joyce. When World War II erupted, Joyce deliberately ignored the tragedy that shook Europe. His sole preoccupation was the writing of Finnegans Wake.

Even if it seems “literary,” please do not write,

When Stockhausen speaks of “clusters,” he does not have in mind Schoenberg’s series, or Webern’s series. If confronted, the German musician would not accept the requirement to avoid repeating any of the twelve notes before the series has ended. The notion of the cluster itself is structurally more unconventional than that of the series. On the other hand Webern followed the strict principles of the author of A Survivor from Warsaw. Now, the author of Mantra goes well beyond. And as for the former, it is necessary to distinguish between the various phases of his oeuvre. Berio agrees: it is not possible to consider this author as a dogmatic serialist.

You will notice that, at some point, you can no longer tell who is who. In addition, defining an author through one of his works is logically incorrect. It is true that lesser critics refer to Alessandro Manzoni simply as “the author of the Betrothed,” perhaps for fear of repeating his name too many times. (This is something manuals on formal writing apparently advise against.) But the author of The Betrothed is not the biographical character Manzoni in his totality. In fact, in a certain context we could say that there is a notable difference between the author of The Betrothed and the author of Adelchi , even if they are one and the same biographically speaking and according to their birth certificate. For this reason, I would rewrite the above passage as follows:

When Stockhausen speaks of a “cluster,” he does not have in mind either the series of Schoenberg or that of Webern. If confronted, Stockhausen would not accept the requirement to avoid repeating any of the twelve notes before the end of the series. The notion of the cluster itself is structurally more unconventional than that of the series. Webern, by contrast, followed the strict principles of Schoenberg, but Stockhausen goes well beyond. And even for Webern, it is necessary to distinguish among the various phases of his oeuvre. Berio also asserts that it is not possible to think of Webern as a dogmatic serialist.

You are not e. e. cummings. Cummings was an American avant-garde poet who is known for having signed his name with lower-case initials. Naturally he used commas and periods with great thriftiness, he broke his lines into small pieces, and in short he did all the things that an avant-garde poet can and should do. But you are not an avant-garde poet. Not even if your thesis is on avant-garde poetry. If you write a thesis on Caravaggio, are you then a painter? And if you write a thesis on the style of the futurists, please do not write as a futurist writes. This is important advice because nowadays many tend to write “alternative” theses, in which the rules of critical discourse are not respected. But the language of the thesis is a metalanguage , that is, a language that speaks of other languages. A psychiatrist who describes the mentally ill does not express himself in the manner of his patients. I am not saying that it is wrong to express oneself in the manner of the so-called mentally ill. In fact, you could reasonably argue that they are the only ones who express themselves the way one should. But here you have two choices: either you do not write a thesis, and you manifest your desire to break with tradition by refusing to earn your degree, perhaps learning to play the guitar instead; or you write your thesis, but then you must explain to everyone why the language of the mentally ill is not a “crazy” language, and to do it you must use a metalanguage intelligible to all. The pseudo-poet who writes his thesis in poetry is a pitiful writer (and probably a bad poet). From Dante to Eliot and from Eliot to Sanguineti, when avant-garde poets wanted to talk about their poetry, they wrote in clear prose. And when Marx wanted to talk about workers, he did not write as a worker of his time, but as a philosopher. Then, when he wrote The Communist Manifesto with Engels in 1848, he used a fragmented journalistic style that was provocative and quite effective. Yet again, The Communist Manifesto is not written in the style of Capital, a text addressed to economists and politicians. Do not pretend to be Dante by saying that the poetic fury “dictates deep within,” and that you cannot surrender to the flat and pedestrian metalanguage of literary criticism. Are you a poet? Then do not pursue a university degree. Twentieth-century Italian poet Eugenio Montale does not have a degree, and he is a great poet nonetheless. His contemporary Carlo Emilio Gadda (who held a degree in engineering) wrote fiction in a unique style, full of dialects and stylistic idiosyncrasies; but when he wrote a manual for radio news writers, he wrote a clever, sharp, and lucid “recipe book” full of clear and accessible prose. And when Montale writes a critical article, he writes so that all can understand him, including those who do not understand his poems.

Begin new paragraphs often. Do so when logically necessary, and when the pace of the text requires it, but the more you do it, the better.

Write everything that comes into your head , but only in the first draft. You may notice that you get carried away with your inspiration, and you lose track of the center of your topic. In this case, you can remove the parenthetical sentences and the digressions, or you can put each in a note or an appendix. Your thesis exists to prove the hypothesis that you devised at the outset, not to show the breadth of your knowledge.

Use the advisor as a guinea pig. You must ensure that the advisor reads the first chapters (and eventually, all the chapters) far in advance of the deadline. His reactions may be useful to you. If the advisor is busy (or lazy), ask a friend. Ask if he understands what you are writing. Do not play the solitary genius.

Do not insist on beginning with the first chapter . Perhaps you have more documentation on chapter 4. Start there, with the nonchalance of someone who has already worked out the previous chapters. You will gain confidence. Naturally your working table of contents will anchor you, and will serve as a hypothesis that guides you.

Do not use ellipsis and exclamation points, and do not explain ironies . It is possible to use language that is referential or language that is figurative . By referential language, I mean a language that is recognized by all, in which all things are called by their most common name, and that does not lend itself to misunderstandings. “The Venice-Milan train” indicates in a referential way the same object that “The Arrow of the Lagoon” indicates figuratively. This example illustrates that “everyday” communication is possible with partially figurative language. Ideally, a critical essay or a scholarly text should be written referentially (with all terms well defined and univocal), but it can also be useful to use metaphor, irony, or litotes. Here is a referential text, followed by its transcription in figurative terms that are at least tolerable:

[ Referential version :] Krasnapolsky is not a very sharp critic of Danieli’s work. His interpretation draws meaning from the author’s text that the author probably did not intend. Consider the line, “in the evening gazing at the clouds.” Ritz interprets this as a normal geographical annotation, whereas Krasnapolsky sees a symbolic expression that alludes to poetic activity. One should not trust Ritz’s critical acumen, and one should also distrust Krasnapolsky. Hilton observes that, “if Ritz’s writing seems like a tourist brochure, Krasnapolsky’s criticism reads like a Lenten sermon.” And he adds, “Truly, two perfect critics.”

[ Figurative version :] We are not convinced that Krasnapolsky is the sharpest critic of Danieli’s work. In reading his author, Krasnapolsky gives the impression that he is putting words into Danieli’s mouth. Consider the line, “in the evening gazing at the clouds.” Ritz interprets it as a normal geographical annotation, whereas Krasnapolsky plays the symbolism card and sees an allusion to poetic activity. Ritz is not a prodigy of critical insight, but Krasnapolsky should also be handled with care. As Hilton observes, “if Ritz’s writing seems like a tourist brochure, Krasnapolsky’s criticism reads like a Lenten sermon. Truly, two perfect critics.”

You can see that the figurative version uses various rhetorical devices. First of all, the litotes: saying that you are not convinced that someone is a sharp critic means that you are convinced that he is not a sharp critic. Also, the statement “Ritz is not a prodigy of critical insight” means that he is a modest critic. Then there are the metaphors : putting words into someone’s mouth, and playing the symbolism card. The tourist brochure and the Lenten sermon are two similes , while the observation that the two authors are perfect critics is an example of irony : saying one thing to signify its opposite.

Now, we either use rhetorical figures effectively, or we do not use them at all. If we use them it is because we presume our reader is capable of catching them, and because we believe that we will appear more incisive and convincing. In this case, we should not be ashamed of them, and we should not explain them . If we think that our reader is an idiot, we should not use rhetorical figures, but if we use them and feel the need to explain them, we are essentially calling the reader an idiot. In turn, he will take revenge by calling the author an idiot. Here is how a timid writer might intervene to neutralize and excuse the rhetorical figures he uses:

[ Figurative version with reservations :] We are not convinced that Krasnapolsky is the “sharpest” critic of Danieli’s work. In reading his author, Krasnapolsky gives the impression that he is “putting words into Danieli’s mouth.” Consider Danieli’s line, “in the evening gazing at the clouds.” Ritz interprets this as a normal geographical annotation, whereas Krasnapolsky “plays the symbolism card” and sees an allusion to poetic activity. Ritz is not a “prodigy of critical insight,” but Krasnapolsky should also be “handled with care”! As Hilton ironically observes, “if Ritz’s writing seems like a vacation brochure, Krasnapolsky’s criticism reads like a Lenten sermon.” And he defines them (again with irony!) as two models of critical perfection. But all joking aside …

I am convinced that nobody could be so intellectually petit bourgeois as to conceive a passage so studded with shyness and apologetic little smiles. Of course I exaggerated in this example, and here I say that I exaggerated because it is didactically important that the parody be understood as such. In fact, many bad habits of the amateur writer are condensed into this third example. First of all, the use of quotation marks to warn the reader, “Pay attention because I am about to say something big!” Puerile. Quotation marks are generally only used to designate a direct quotation or the title of an essay or short work; to indicate that a term is jargon or slang; or that a term is being discussed in the text as a word, rather than used functionally within the sentence. Secondly, the use of the exclamation point to emphasize a statement. This is not appropriate in a critical essay. If you check the book you are reading, you will notice that I have used the exclamation mark only once or twice. It is allowed once or twice, if the purpose is to make the reader jump in his seat and call his attention to a vehement statement like, “Pay attention, never make this mistake!” But it is a good rule to speak softly. The effect will be stronger if you simply say important things. Finally, the author of the third passage draws attention to the ironies, and apologizes for using them (even if they are someone else’s). Surely, if you think that Hilton’s irony is too subtle, you can write, “Hilton states with subtle irony that we are in the presence of two perfect critics.” But the irony must be really subtle to merit such a statement. In the quoted text, after Hilton has mentioned the vacation brochure and the Lenten sermon, the irony was already evident and needed no further explanation. The same applies to the statement, “But all joking aside.” Sometimes a statement like this can be useful to abruptly change the tone of the argument, but only if you were really joking before. In this case, the author was not joking. He was attempting to use irony and metaphor, but these are serious rhetorical devices and not jokes.

You may observe that, more than once in this book, I have expressed a paradox and then warned that it was a paradox. For example, in section 2.6.1, I proposed the existence of the mythical centaur for the purpose of explaining the concept of scientific research. But I warned you of this paradox not because I thought you would have believed this proposition. On the contrary, I warned you because I was afraid that you would have doubted too much, and hence dismissed the paradox. Therefore I insisted that, despite its paradoxical form, my statement contained an important truth: that research must clearly define its object so that others can identify it, even if this object is mythical. And I made this absolutely clear because this is a didactic book in which I care more that everyone understands what I want to say than about a beautiful literary style. Had I been writing an essay, I would have pronounced the paradox without denouncing it later.

Always define a term when you introduce it for the first time . If you do not know the definition of a term, avoid using it. If it is one of the principal terms of your thesis and you are not able to define it, call it quits. You have chosen the wrong thesis (or, if you were planning to pursue further research, the wrong career).

Umberto Eco was an Italian novelist, literary critic, philosopher, semiotician, and university professor. This article is excerpted from his book “ How to Write a Thesis .”

	Sometimes the lessons that stick the most are the ones never intended to be taught. \|
	Reconnecting children and nature may be the last cause in America that transcends political, religious, racial, and professional barriers. \|
	Meryl Alper, ethnographer and author of “Kids Across the Spectrums,” explores the role of media and technology in the everyday lives of children on the autism spectrum. \|
	Educators should ask not who is curious, but how is each person curious? \|

Department of English

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Noble, Mary (March 2007) – “Primitive Marriage: Anthropology and Nineteenth-Century Fiction”

Passannante, Gerard (January 2007) – “The Lucretian Renaissance: Ancient Poetry and Humanism in an Age of Science”

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Horowitz, Evan (January 2006) – “The Writing of Modern Life”

White, Gillian (November 2005) – “ ‘We Do Not Say Ourselves Like That in Poems’: The Poetics of Contingency in Wallace Stevens and Elizabeth Bishop

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Home » Research Contribution – Thesis Guide

Research Contribution – Thesis Guide

Table of Contents

Research Contribution

Definition:

Research contribution refers to a novel and significant addition to a particular field of study that advances the existing knowledge, theories, or practices. It could involve new discoveries, original ideas, innovative methods, or insightful interpretations that contribute to the understanding, development, or improvement of a specific research area.

Research Contribution in Thesis

In a thesis , the research contribution is the original and novel aspect of the research that adds new knowledge to the field. It can be a new theory , a new methodology , a new empirical finding, or a new application of existing knowledge.

To identify the research contribution of your thesis, you need to consider the following:

What problem are you addressing in your research? What is the research gap that you are filling?
What is your research question or hypothesis, and how does it relate to the problem you are addressing?
What methodology have you used to investigate your research question or hypothesis, and why is it appropriate?
What are the main findings of your research, and how do they contribute to the field?
What are the implications of your research findings for theory, practice, or policy?

Once you have identified your research contribution, you should clearly articulate it in your thesis abstract, introduction, and conclusion. You should also explain how your research contribution relates to the existing literature and how it advances the field. Finally, you should discuss the limitations of your research and suggest future directions for research that build on your contribution.

How to Write Research Contribution

Here are some steps you can follow to write a strong research contribution:

Define the research problem and research question : Clearly state the problem or gap in the literature that your research aims to address. Formulate a research question that your study will answer.
Conduct a thorough literature review: Review the existing literature related to your research question. Identify the gaps in knowledge that your research fills.
Describe the research design and methodology : Explain the research design, methods, and procedures you used to collect and analyze data. This includes any statistical analysis or data visualization techniques.
Present the findings: Clearly present your findings, including any statistical analyses or data visualizations that support your conclusions. This should be done in a clear and concise manner, and the conclusions should be based on the evidence you’ve presented.
Discuss the implications of the findings: Describe the significance of your findings and the implications they have for the field of study. This may include recommendations for future research or practical applications of your findings.
Conclusion : Summarize the main points of your research contribution and restate its significance.

When to Write Research Contribution in Thesis

A research contribution should be included in the thesis when the research work adds a novel and significant value to the existing body of knowledge. The research contribution section of a thesis is the opportunity for the researcher to articulate the unique contributions their work has made to the field.

Typically, the research contribution section appears towards the end of the thesis, after the literature review, methodology, results, and analysis sections. In this section, the researcher should summarize the key findings and their implications for the field, highlighting the novel aspects of the work.

Example of Research Contribution in Thesis

An example of a research contribution in a thesis can be:

“The study found that there was a significant relationship between social media usage and academic performance among college students. The findings also revealed that students who spent more time on social media had lower GPAs than those who spent less time on social media. These findings are original and contribute to the literature on the impact of social media on academic performance, providing insights that can inform policies and practices for improving students’ academic success.”

Another example of a research contribution in a thesis:

“The research identified a novel method for improving the efficiency of solar panels by incorporating nanostructured materials. The results showed that the use of these materials increased the conversion efficiency of solar panels by up to 30%, which is a significant improvement over traditional methods. This contribution advances the field of renewable energy by providing a new approach to enhancing the performance of solar panels, with potential applications in both residential and commercial settings.”

Purpose of Research Contribution

Purpose of Research Contribution are as follows:

Here are some examples of research contributions that can be included in a thesis:

Development of a new theoretical framework or model
Creation of a novel methodology or research approach
Discovery of new empirical evidence or data
Application of existing theories or methods in a new context
Identification of gaps in the existing literature and proposing solutions
Providing a comprehensive review and analysis of existing literature in a particular field
Critically evaluating existing theories or models and proposing improvements or alternatives
Making a significant contribution to policy or practice in a particular field.

Advantages of Research Contribution

Including research contributions in your thesis can offer several advantages, including:

Establishing originality: Research contributions help demonstrate that your work is original and unique, and not simply a rehashing of existing research. It shows that you have made a new and valuable contribution to the field.
Adding value to the field : By highlighting your research contributions, you are demonstrating the value that your work adds to the field. This can help other researchers build on your work and advance the field further.
Differentiating yourself: In academic and professional contexts, it’s important to differentiate yourself from others. Including research contributions in your thesis can help you stand out from other researchers in your field, potentially leading to opportunities for collaboration, networking, or future job prospects.
Providing clarity : By articulating your research contributions, you are providing clarity to your readers about what you have achieved. This can help ensure that your work is properly understood and appreciated by others.
Enhancing credibility : Including research contributions in your thesis can enhance your credibility as a researcher, demonstrating that you have the skills and knowledge necessary to make valuable contributions to your field. This can help you build a strong reputation in the academic community.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Developing a Thesis Statement

Many papers you write require developing a thesis statement. In this section you’ll learn what a thesis statement is and how to write one.

Keep in mind that not all papers require thesis statements . If in doubt, please consult your instructor for assistance.

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement . . .

Makes an argumentative assertion about a topic; it states the conclusions that you have reached about your topic.
Makes a promise to the reader about the scope, purpose, and direction of your paper.
Is focused and specific enough to be “proven” within the boundaries of your paper.
Is generally located near the end of the introduction ; sometimes, in a long paper, the thesis will be expressed in several sentences or in an entire paragraph.
Identifies the relationships between the pieces of evidence that you are using to support your argument.

Not all papers require thesis statements! Ask your instructor if you’re in doubt whether you need one.

Identify a topic

Your topic is the subject about which you will write. Your assignment may suggest several ways of looking at a topic; or it may name a fairly general concept that you will explore or analyze in your paper.

Consider what your assignment asks you to do

Inform yourself about your topic, focus on one aspect of your topic, ask yourself whether your topic is worthy of your efforts, generate a topic from an assignment.

Below are some possible topics based on sample assignments.

Sample assignment 1

Analyze Spain’s neutrality in World War II.

Identified topic

Franco’s role in the diplomatic relationships between the Allies and the Axis

This topic avoids generalities such as “Spain” and “World War II,” addressing instead on Franco’s role (a specific aspect of “Spain”) and the diplomatic relations between the Allies and Axis (a specific aspect of World War II).

Sample assignment 2

Analyze one of Homer’s epic similes in the Iliad.

The relationship between the portrayal of warfare and the epic simile about Simoisius at 4.547-64.

This topic focuses on a single simile and relates it to a single aspect of the Iliad ( warfare being a major theme in that work).

Developing a Thesis Statement–Additional information

Your assignment may suggest several ways of looking at a topic, or it may name a fairly general concept that you will explore or analyze in your paper. You’ll want to read your assignment carefully, looking for key terms that you can use to focus your topic.

Sample assignment: Analyze Spain’s neutrality in World War II Key terms: analyze, Spain’s neutrality, World War II

After you’ve identified the key words in your topic, the next step is to read about them in several sources, or generate as much information as possible through an analysis of your topic. Obviously, the more material or knowledge you have, the more possibilities will be available for a strong argument. For the sample assignment above, you’ll want to look at books and articles on World War II in general, and Spain’s neutrality in particular.

As you consider your options, you must decide to focus on one aspect of your topic. This means that you cannot include everything you’ve learned about your topic, nor should you go off in several directions. If you end up covering too many different aspects of a topic, your paper will sprawl and be unconvincing in its argument, and it most likely will not fulfull the assignment requirements.

For the sample assignment above, both Spain’s neutrality and World War II are topics far too broad to explore in a paper. You may instead decide to focus on Franco’s role in the diplomatic relationships between the Allies and the Axis , which narrows down what aspects of Spain’s neutrality and World War II you want to discuss, as well as establishes a specific link between those two aspects.

Before you go too far, however, ask yourself whether your topic is worthy of your efforts. Try to avoid topics that already have too much written about them (i.e., “eating disorders and body image among adolescent women”) or that simply are not important (i.e. “why I like ice cream”). These topics may lead to a thesis that is either dry fact or a weird claim that cannot be supported. A good thesis falls somewhere between the two extremes. To arrive at this point, ask yourself what is new, interesting, contestable, or controversial about your topic.

As you work on your thesis, remember to keep the rest of your paper in mind at all times . Sometimes your thesis needs to evolve as you develop new insights, find new evidence, or take a different approach to your topic.

Derive a main point from topic

Once you have a topic, you will have to decide what the main point of your paper will be. This point, the “controlling idea,” becomes the core of your argument (thesis statement) and it is the unifying idea to which you will relate all your sub-theses. You can then turn this “controlling idea” into a purpose statement about what you intend to do in your paper.

Look for patterns in your evidence

Compose a purpose statement.

Consult the examples below for suggestions on how to look for patterns in your evidence and construct a purpose statement.

Franco first tried to negotiate with the Axis
Franco turned to the Allies when he couldn’t get some concessions that he wanted from the Axis

Possible conclusion:

Spain’s neutrality in WWII occurred for an entirely personal reason: Franco’s desire to preserve his own (and Spain’s) power.

Purpose statement

This paper will analyze Franco’s diplomacy during World War II to see how it contributed to Spain’s neutrality.

The simile compares Simoisius to a tree, which is a peaceful, natural image.
The tree in the simile is chopped down to make wheels for a chariot, which is an object used in warfare.

At first, the simile seems to take the reader away from the world of warfare, but we end up back in that world by the end.

This paper will analyze the way the simile about Simoisius at 4.547-64 moves in and out of the world of warfare.

Derive purpose statement from topic

To find out what your “controlling idea” is, you have to examine and evaluate your evidence . As you consider your evidence, you may notice patterns emerging, data repeated in more than one source, or facts that favor one view more than another. These patterns or data may then lead you to some conclusions about your topic and suggest that you can successfully argue for one idea better than another.

For instance, you might find out that Franco first tried to negotiate with the Axis, but when he couldn’t get some concessions that he wanted from them, he turned to the Allies. As you read more about Franco’s decisions, you may conclude that Spain’s neutrality in WWII occurred for an entirely personal reason: his desire to preserve his own (and Spain’s) power. Based on this conclusion, you can then write a trial thesis statement to help you decide what material belongs in your paper.

Sometimes you won’t be able to find a focus or identify your “spin” or specific argument immediately. Like some writers, you might begin with a purpose statement just to get yourself going. A purpose statement is one or more sentences that announce your topic and indicate the structure of the paper but do not state the conclusions you have drawn . Thus, you might begin with something like this:

This paper will look at modern language to see if it reflects male dominance or female oppression.
I plan to analyze anger and derision in offensive language to see if they represent a challenge of society’s authority.

At some point, you can turn a purpose statement into a thesis statement. As you think and write about your topic, you can restrict, clarify, and refine your argument, crafting your thesis statement to reflect your thinking.

As you work on your thesis, remember to keep the rest of your paper in mind at all times. Sometimes your thesis needs to evolve as you develop new insights, find new evidence, or take a different approach to your topic.

Compose a draft thesis statement

If you are writing a paper that will have an argumentative thesis and are having trouble getting started, the techniques in the table below may help you develop a temporary or “working” thesis statement.

Begin with a purpose statement that you will later turn into a thesis statement.

Assignment: Discuss the history of the Reform Party and explain its influence on the 1990 presidential and Congressional election.

Purpose Statement: This paper briefly sketches the history of the grassroots, conservative, Perot-led Reform Party and analyzes how it influenced the economic and social ideologies of the two mainstream parties.

Question-to-Assertion

If your assignment asks a specific question(s), turn the question(s) into an assertion and give reasons why it is true or reasons for your opinion.

Assignment : What do Aylmer and Rappaccini have to be proud of? Why aren’t they satisfied with these things? How does pride, as demonstrated in “The Birthmark” and “Rappaccini’s Daughter,” lead to unexpected problems?

Beginning thesis statement: Alymer and Rappaccinni are proud of their great knowledge; however, they are also very greedy and are driven to use their knowledge to alter some aspect of nature as a test of their ability. Evil results when they try to “play God.”

Write a sentence that summarizes the main idea of the essay you plan to write.

Main idea: The reason some toys succeed in the market is that they appeal to the consumers’ sense of the ridiculous and their basic desire to laugh at themselves.

Make a list of the ideas that you want to include; consider the ideas and try to group them.

nature = peaceful
war matériel = violent (competes with 1?)
need for time and space to mourn the dead
war is inescapable (competes with 3?)

Use a formula to arrive at a working thesis statement (you will revise this later).

although most readers of _______ have argued that _______, closer examination shows that _______.
_______ uses _______ and _____ to prove that ________.
phenomenon x is a result of the combination of __________, __________, and _________.

What to keep in mind as you draft an initial thesis statement

Beginning statements obtained through the methods illustrated above can serve as a framework for planning or drafting your paper, but remember they’re not yet the specific, argumentative thesis you want for the final version of your paper. In fact, in its first stages, a thesis statement usually is ill-formed or rough and serves only as a planning tool.

As you write, you may discover evidence that does not fit your temporary or “working” thesis. Or you may reach deeper insights about your topic as you do more research, and you will find that your thesis statement has to be more complicated to match the evidence that you want to use.

You must be willing to reject or omit some evidence in order to keep your paper cohesive and your reader focused. Or you may have to revise your thesis to match the evidence and insights that you want to discuss. Read your draft carefully, noting the conclusions you have drawn and the major ideas which support or prove those conclusions. These will be the elements of your final thesis statement.

Sometimes you will not be able to identify these elements in your early drafts, but as you consider how your argument is developing and how your evidence supports your main idea, ask yourself, “ What is the main point that I want to prove/discuss? ” and “ How will I convince the reader that this is true? ” When you can answer these questions, then you can begin to refine the thesis statement.

Refine and polish the thesis statement

To get to your final thesis, you’ll need to refine your draft thesis so that it’s specific and arguable.

Ask if your draft thesis addresses the assignment
Question each part of your draft thesis
Clarify vague phrases and assertions
Investigate alternatives to your draft thesis

Consult the example below for suggestions on how to refine your draft thesis statement.

Sample Assignment

Choose an activity and define it as a symbol of American culture. Your essay should cause the reader to think critically about the society which produces and enjoys that activity.

Ask The phenomenon of drive-in facilities is an interesting symbol of american culture, and these facilities demonstrate significant characteristics of our society.This statement does not fulfill the assignment because it does not require the reader to think critically about society.

Drive-ins are an interesting symbol of American culture because they represent Americans’ significant creativity and business ingenuity.

Among the types of drive-in facilities familiar during the twentieth century, drive-in movie theaters best represent American creativity, not merely because they were the forerunner of later drive-ins and drive-throughs, but because of their impact on our culture: they changed our relationship to the automobile, changed the way people experienced movies, and changed movie-going into a family activity.

While drive-in facilities such as those at fast-food establishments, banks, pharmacies, and dry cleaners symbolize America’s economic ingenuity, they also have affected our personal standards.

While drive-in facilities such as those at fast- food restaurants, banks, pharmacies, and dry cleaners symbolize (1) Americans’ business ingenuity, they also have contributed (2) to an increasing homogenization of our culture, (3) a willingness to depersonalize relationships with others, and (4) a tendency to sacrifice quality for convenience.

This statement is now specific and fulfills all parts of the assignment. This version, like any good thesis, is not self-evident; its points, 1-4, will have to be proven with evidence in the body of the paper. The numbers in this statement indicate the order in which the points will be presented. Depending on the length of the paper, there could be one paragraph for each numbered item or there could be blocks of paragraph for even pages for each one.

Complete the final thesis statement

The bottom line.

As you move through the process of crafting a thesis, you’ll need to remember four things:

Context matters! Think about your course materials and lectures. Try to relate your thesis to the ideas your instructor is discussing.
As you go through the process described in this section, always keep your assignment in mind . You will be more successful when your thesis (and paper) responds to the assignment than if it argues a semi-related idea.
Your thesis statement should be precise, focused, and contestable ; it should predict the sub-theses or blocks of information that you will use to prove your argument.
Make sure that you keep the rest of your paper in mind at all times. Change your thesis as your paper evolves, because you do not want your thesis to promise more than your paper actually delivers.

In the beginning, the thesis statement was a tool to help you sharpen your focus, limit material and establish the paper’s purpose. When your paper is finished, however, the thesis statement becomes a tool for your reader. It tells the reader what you have learned about your topic and what evidence led you to your conclusion. It keeps the reader on track–well able to understand and appreciate your argument.

Writing Process and Structure

This is an accordion element with a series of buttons that open and close related content panels.

Getting Started with Your Paper

Interpreting Writing Assignments from Your Courses

Generating Ideas for

Creating an Argument

Thesis vs. Purpose Statements

Architecture of Arguments

Working with Sources

Quoting and Paraphrasing Sources

Using Literary Quotations

Citing Sources in Your Paper

Drafting Your Paper

Generating Ideas for Your Paper

Introductions

Paragraphing

Developing Strategic Transitions

Conclusions

Revising Your Paper

Peer Reviews

Reverse Outlines

Revising an Argumentative Paper

Revision Strategies for Longer Projects

Finishing Your Paper

Twelve Common Errors: An Editing Checklist

How to Proofread your Paper

Writing Collaboratively

Collaborative and Group Writing

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Tags: Fiction Research , Fiction Writing

The most basic understanding of “fiction” in literature is that it is a written piece that depicts imaginary occurrences. There is this unspoken assumption that fiction, because it is of imagined events, has nothing to do with reality (and therefore researching for a novel is not important). This is far from the truth.

The history of fiction writing presents an inherent paradox: the most gripping of novels require you to write of imagined events in a realistic way. If we accept literature as a reflection of the world around us, then we must also acknowledge that the best of fiction stems from reality. It may be an account of imaginary events, but is still heavily rooted in the real.

Elevate your novel after research and writing. Learn more

For a writer, this means in-depth research about various aspects of novel writing , including cultural and social context, character behavior, and historical details.

Your task is (ever so slightly) easier if you are writing about situations contemporary to you. But the further you go back, through the annals of history, the harder it becomes to strive for such authenticity.

Grammar mistakes are jarring, but so are plot holes. An inconsistent story is off-putting to even the most immersed reader. So, here’s the bottom line: do n’t assume, and get your research down.

Why is research important for fiction?

Because even William Shakespeare, one of the most iconic figures of literature, erred in making anachronisms. One of the most famous literary anachronisms is in his play Julius Caesar , in Cassius’ line:

“The clock has stricken three.” (Act II, Scene 1)

The error is that clocks that “struck” were invented almost 14 centuries after the play was set!

But Shakespeare was a giant. We have forgiven these misgivings because Shakespearean literature is rich even with such minuscule errors. As for us foolish mortals, it’s probably best to do our research thoroughly.

Having a detailed understanding of the landscape that you are writing about is one of the most effective ways to draw your reader into the story world. Your extensive knowledge of your chosen topic will also give you a stable and authoritative voice in your writing.

What should you be researching?

As you might have realized by now, there are various aspects of your novel you should be researching. To start with, we’ve split fiction writing research into two categories: content and form. By content, we mean the details and elements you should focus on within your story. By form, we mean the style and genre of writing you wish to eventually adopt.

Needless to say, these two categories will overlap with each other as you make your story more streamlined.

A story’s setting is one of the most important elements of fiction writing. It is essentially the time and space that your narrative is set in or the story’s backdrop. A story might have a gripping narrative and well-rounded characters, but it is incomplete if the reader doesn’t have a sense of where it’s all happening. As part of your setting, you can include geographical, cultural, social, and political details that you feel are relevant to the story.

In other words, you are essentially creating a “world” for your story . These may seem like tiny details to add to your otherwise imaginary story, but they provide depth and plausibility to your story.

One cool way to get a lowdown on these intricate spatial details like roads, mountains, hills, monuments, and other geographical landmarks is through tools like Google Maps and Street View . This is especially useful if you have to write about a place you can’t visit or you simply want to get geographical descriptions right.

The worst thing you could do as a writer is to assume things. This is a misstep that is quite unnecessary and can easily be avoided with some research. The information you have already gathered while researching your setting is a good enough start. What you now need to do with all these seemingly scattered pieces of information is to make sure they do not contradict each other.

Character details and human behavior

In plotting your story, you will also automatically gain an understanding of the intention and goals of your characters. In order to flesh them out and ensure that they are dynamic and interesting, research is required.

An understanding of human behavior and nature is a very important skill for a good writer. The stereotype of a perceptive and observant writer is, in fact, due to quite a practical need! Even if your characters do not exist in reality, they should seem real enough for your readers to be able to relate to them.

Historical and social background

Your story world is not just the time, place, and immediate surroundings of your characters. Irrespective of what setting your story has, it also has the larger context of the world that your characters reside in. This could be from a real point in history (like Victorian England, 1920s jazz era, etc.) or it could be completely made up (Oceania from 1984, or Panem).

But irrespective of whether you’re writing historical fiction or creating a new world altogether, it must be thorough and consistent in supporting your plot. As a writer, you must clearly understand the culture and systems that your characters are a part of. A well-rooted universe also gives readers an insight into a character’s identity.

Writing style and genre

If you are writing a novel in a particular genre, it’s important to be aware of writing conventions and tropes commonly used in that genre. The best, and most obvious, way to do this is to read novels and stories in your genre of choice. Look at the top-rated and critically acclaimed books and study them carefully. Be critical in your study, try to understand the author’s creative writing process, and look at the style and tone they try to evoke.

Aside from this, you could also take a look at books about novel writing in general. These will give you general, but useful information about novel writing, like when to write long descriptions and when to cut straight to the action.

How should you be researching?

Read about what you are researching. Books, articles, and other forms of print media are great ways to gather information on culture, history, and society. Biographies and memoirs are great for character insight (especially if you’re basing your book on a real person). If you’re basing your novel in the real world, you know what to do next. If you’re creating your own world, this is still a good basis for whatever you cook up within your world.
Films and TV are great sources for helping you develop your character as they help you understand character traits and motivation in your story. Additionally, they might also help you visualize your story.
If you are writing about characters with a niche profession (for example), take interviews with people who are in that field. For instance, if you are writing a detective story, talk to people in your police precinct and observe their behavior.
If you are writing about specific locations, read up about that. In the age of the internet, there are many resources and forums where you can interact with people around the world.
Try to visit the locations you are writing about and spend some time there , to gain an insight into what life in that place is like.

Incorporating research into fiction

Be selective about your details. Whether or not you actually incorporate the details that you have researched, knowing your world well will make your writing infinitely better.

Because of all the information you have amassed, there is a certain bias you acquire as an “expert” on the subject of your story. So if you include a lot of information, there is a danger of your work sounding too technical.

Make sure that every detail you include is directly relevant to the plot. Keep it simple: and avoid unnecessary plot holes.

You can use these practical tips to research for your next story. Once you research and complete your story, the next step is to edit and publish your work. As a trusted brand offering editing and proofreading services , we’d love to help you refine your work.

Here are some other articles you might find interesting:

5 Elements of a Short Story & 6 Stages of a Plot
What is Flash Fiction? Definition, Examples & Types

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Master thesis: should I say that some results are a novelty in the field?

I am nearly at the end of my master thesis and, according to my research, the last part of it deals with something that has not been treated before in any paper/book I have found.

To make things more clear: in my thesis I am applying a method well known in literature, which has been applied many times on simple structural elements built on purpose to validate the method. In my thesis I have started applying the method on simple structures too, to be sure I have implemented it correctly. Then, in the last part, I apply it on a real-world structure using real measurements (not numerical generated ones).

The problem is that I am not sure if I should underline this fact as a novelty in the method application. According to my literature research, this approach has not been tried yet, but I can speak only 2 languages, therefore I looked for books/papers written in those 2 languages only.

What if this thing has been already done by someone else on a paper written in another language? Then my results will not be a novelty anymore, so I should not mention it in my thesis and this will also affect the 'goodness' of my work too (because my thesis will not actually add any useful information to the already existing literature).

How can I deal with this situation?

1 Can you not just explain that the method is novel in those two languages? – dbmag9 Commented Mar 15, 2015 at 14:50
Yes, but I still have the problem that if it is not a real novelty than my thesis ends up being just a replication of results already obtained – Rhei Commented Mar 15, 2015 at 14:51
6 I got scooped half way through mine by a paper in Nature. Still, I passed with flying colours. – Davidmh Commented Mar 15, 2015 at 19:36
@Rhei: Does your university, or your task description, impose any requirement for your thesis to be new? – O. R. Mapper Commented Mar 15, 2015 at 20:12
1 Are the extra points granted for the value of the original research or for the effort involved in doing original research without having prior work to fall back on? For a master thesis I would guess it's the latter and in that case it'd be reasonable to assume that you'd still get full credit even if prior research turns up in another language. Such research wouldn't diminish the effort you put in your thesis since you wouldn't have been able to use it to make your work easier. – Lilienthal Commented Mar 16, 2015 at 10:56

2 Answers 2

A general guideline for writing papers (which also extends to theses) is: Never claim that something is new/novel, and at least some journals or publishers reflect this in their guidelines, e.g., here . If you publish something, it is always implied that this is new according to your knowledge or, if it isn’t, that you properly cited whoever did it before you.

The very most I have seen people claim is something along the lines of:

To our knowledge, X has not been attempted before.

which would be the truth in your case. I would however even refrain from such a sentence, as it should be implicit when you do not cite. However, in some disciplines (like yours) this may be common or acceptable, respectively.

What if this thing has been already done by someone else on a paper written in another language? Then […] this will also affect the 'goodness' of my work too (because my thesis will not actually add any useful information to the already existing literature).

Master theses are (or at least should be) evaluated differently than papers and the main goal is not to produce something useful but to perform a proper scientific investigation (or similar). Of course, if you were assigned a proper topic, the two things are usually somewhat equivalent. But if, e.g., somebody publishes a paper doing the same things as your thesis one month before your defense, this does not diminish the quality of the investigation you performed¹. Something similar holds, if it turns out that somebody already published something similar in another language or under totally different keywords in another field (rendering it very difficult to find).

Moreover, the duty of deciding whether something is actually novel lies at least to some extent on your supervisor: If somebody already investigated the topic of your thesis, you should not have been assigned this topic in the first place. You cannot be expected to know whether your topic hasn’t already been investigated before starting your thesis, because you probably do not even know where to search.

¹ It may even underline the importance of what you have been investigating and that your work is on a publishable level.

This is a common situation, since it really isn't possible to be absolutely certain that nobody has done this work before. What I find people usually do is:

Do the best literature search you can. As for references in other languages, in many fields it's common that papers written in, say, French, will have an abstract in English, so you'd have a chance of finding them even if you can't read French. But if you find a French paper whose abstract suggests that it may contain similar results to yours, then it is your duty to find a way to read it (look for a translation, ask a colleague to translate, learn some French yourself if necessary) and make sure.

Once you are satisfied you have done a diligent search, write something like "this result appears to be new" or "as far as we know, this result has not been obtained previously".

If it later turns out that your result was already known, be prepared to acknowledge that the other author had priority, and to be able to show that although you did a reasonably diligent search, you did not find the prior paper, and that your result was truly obtained independently (not plagiarized).

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What Is a Thesis? | Ultimate Guide & Examples

What Is a Thesis? | Ultimate Guide & Examples

Published on September 14, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on April 16, 2024.

A thesis is a type of research paper based on your original research. It is usually submitted as the final step of a master’s program or a capstone to a bachelor’s degree.

Writing a thesis can be a daunting experience. Other than a dissertation , it is one of the longest pieces of writing students typically complete. It relies on your ability to conduct research from start to finish: choosing a relevant topic , crafting a proposal , designing your research , collecting data , developing a robust analysis, drawing strong conclusions , and writing concisely .

Thesis template

You can also download our full thesis template in the format of your choice below. Our template includes a ready-made table of contents , as well as guidance for what each chapter should include. It’s easy to make it your own, and can help you get started.

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Thesis vs. thesis statement, how to structure a thesis, acknowledgements or preface, list of figures and tables, list of abbreviations, introduction, literature review, methodology, reference list, proofreading and editing, defending your thesis, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about theses.

You may have heard the word thesis as a standalone term or as a component of academic writing called a thesis statement . Keep in mind that these are two very different things.

A thesis statement is a very common component of an essay, particularly in the humanities. It usually comprises 1 or 2 sentences in the introduction of your essay , and should clearly and concisely summarize the central points of your academic essay .
A thesis is a long-form piece of academic writing, often taking more than a full semester to complete. It is generally a degree requirement for Master’s programs, and is also sometimes required to complete a bachelor’s degree in liberal arts colleges.
In the US, a dissertation is generally written as a final step toward obtaining a PhD.
In other countries (particularly the UK), a dissertation is generally written at the bachelor’s or master’s level.

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The final structure of your thesis depends on a variety of components, such as:

Your discipline
Your theoretical approach

Humanities theses are often structured more like a longer-form essay . Just like in an essay, you build an argument to support a central thesis.

In both hard and social sciences, theses typically include an introduction , literature review , methodology section , results section , discussion section , and conclusion section . These are each presented in their own dedicated section or chapter. In some cases, you might want to add an appendix .

Thesis examples

We’ve compiled a short list of thesis examples to help you get started.

Example thesis #1: “Abolition, Africans, and Abstraction: the Influence of the ‘Noble Savage’ on British and French Antislavery Thought, 1787-1807” by Suchait Kahlon.
Example thesis #2: “’A Starving Man Helping Another Starving Man’: UNRRA, India, and the Genesis of Global Relief, 1943-1947″ by Julian Saint Reiman.

The very first page of your thesis contains all necessary identifying information, including:

Your full title
Your full name
Your department
Your institution and degree program
Your submission date.

Sometimes the title page also includes your student ID, the name of your supervisor, or the university’s logo. Check out your university’s guidelines if you’re not sure.

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An abstract is a short summary of your thesis. Usually a maximum of 300 words long, it’s should include brief descriptions of your research objectives , methods, results, and conclusions. Though it may seem short, it introduces your work to your audience, serving as a first impression of your thesis.

Theoretical framework

Your literature review can often form the basis for your theoretical framework, but these are not the same thing. A theoretical framework defines and analyzes the concepts and theories that your research hinges on.

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Abstract: Recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) have sparked optimism about their potential to accelerate scientific discovery, with a growing number of works proposing research agents that autonomously generate and validate new ideas. Despite this, no evaluations have shown that LLM systems can take the very first step of producing novel, expert-level ideas, let alone perform the entire research process. We address this by establishing an experimental design that evaluates research idea generation while controlling for confounders and performs the first head-to-head comparison between expert NLP researchers and an LLM ideation agent. By recruiting over 100 NLP researchers to write novel ideas and blind reviews of both LLM and human ideas, we obtain the first statistically significant conclusion on current LLM capabilities for research ideation: we find LLM-generated ideas are judged as more novel (p < 0.05) than human expert ideas while being judged slightly weaker on feasibility. Studying our agent baselines closely, we identify open problems in building and evaluating research agents, including failures of LLM self-evaluation and their lack of diversity in generation. Finally, we acknowledge that human judgements of novelty can be difficult, even by experts, and propose an end-to-end study design which recruits researchers to execute these ideas into full projects, enabling us to study whether these novelty and feasibility judgements result in meaningful differences in research outcome.

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Open access
Published: 08 September 2024

Novel composite of nano zinc oxide and nano propolis as antibiotic for antibiotic-resistant bacteria: a promising approach

Shaimaa Atalla Salama 1 ,
Doaa Essam 2 ,
Aya I. Tagyan 3 ,
Ahmed A. Farghali 4 ,
Ensaf M. Khalil 1 ,
Yasser F. Abdelaleim 5 ,
Wael N. Hozzein 3 ,
Mohammed Mubarak 6 ,
Fahd A. Nasr 6 ,
Abdullah A. Eweis 3 ,
Mohammed Al-Zharani 6 &
Rehab Mahmoud 7

Scientific Reports volume 14 , Article number: 20894 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Biotechnology
Nanoscience and technology

This study proposes an innovative approach to combat the escalating threat of antibiotic resistance in bacteria by introducing a novel ZnO-propolis nanocomposite (ZnO-P NCs). The overuse of antibiotics, particularly during events like the COVID-19 pandemic, has intensified bacterial resistance, necessitating innovative solutions. The study employs a cost-effective and controllable biosynthesis method to produce ZnO nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs), with propolis extract crucially contributing to the reduction and stabilization of Zn 2+ ions. A biodegradable nano-propolis matrix is then created by incorporating ZnO-NPs, forming the ZnO-P NCs. Structural stability is confirmed through FT-IR and Zeta potential analysis, while nanoscale properties are validated via TEM, SEM, and XRD analyses. The antimicrobial efficacy of various substances, including propolis, nano propolis, ethanolic propolis extract, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-P NCs, is assessed against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, alongside a comparison with 28 antibiotics. Among the bacteria tested, Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 ATCC15692 was more sensitive (40 mm) to the biosynthesized nanocomposite ZnO-P NCs than to ZnO-NPs (38 mm) and nanopropolis (32 mm), while Escherichia coli was resistant to nanopropolis (0 mm) than to ZnO-NPs (31 mm), and ZnO-P NCs (34 mm). The study reveals a synergy effect when combining propolis with green-synthesized ZnO-NPs in the form of ZnO-P NCs, significantly improving their efficiency against all tested bacteria, including antibiotic-resistant strains like E. coli . The nanocomposite outperforms other materials and antibiotics, demonstrating remarkable antibacterial effectiveness. SEM imaging confirms the disruption of bacterial cell membranes by ZnO-NPs and ZnO-P NCs. The study emphasizes the potential applications of ZnO-NPs integrated into biodegradable materials and underscores the significance of the zinc oxide-propolis nanocomposite in countering antimicrobial resistance. Overall, this research offers a comprehensive solution to combat multidrug-resistant bacteria, opening avenues for novel approaches in infection control.

Introduction

In light of the growing threat posed by drug-resistant bacteria and the infections they cause, there is an urgent need for a comprehensive and effective response. Rampant antibacterial resistance highlights the urgent need for innovative therapeutic approaches propagated through the injudicious application of antibiotics, as exemplified by the widespread antibiotic usage during the COVID-19 pandemic 1 . In combating the escalating challenge posed by antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli ( E. coli ), ongoing research and development endeavors are imperative 2 . The emergence of multidrug-resistant strains necessitates the exploration of novel treatment modalities, encompassing innovative drug targets, combination therapies, and non-antibiotic approaches 3 , 4 . Therefore, ZnO, as a versatile inorganic material, is acknowledged for its intrinsic antimicrobial properties, ZnO has been extensively harnessed in various forms to counteract bacterial, fungal, and viral infections 5 , 6 . Likewise, the integration of ZnO-NPs into a nano-composite configuration augments its antimicrobial efficacy, attributed to heightened surface area and reactivity 7 . Alongside, propolis, a natural resinous substance collected by honeybees from plant sources, has antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties 8 due to its enrichment with an intricate blend of bioactive constituents (e.g. flavonoids, phenolic acids, and terpenes) 9 . The transformation of propolis into nanoparticles and their subsequent inclusion in a nano-composite matrix facilitates improved bioavailability and controlled release of its bioactive elements 10 .

Notably, the combination of ZnO-based compounds and propolis has demonstrated remarkable antimicrobial potential. In parallel, the amalgamation of ZnO and propolis within a nano-composite framework presents a promising avenue of investigation with multifaceted benefits.

Nanotechnology achieved the most significant breakthrough in recent years. So, it is expected that the confluence of ZnO and propolis within a nano-composite precipitates synergistic enhancement of their antimicrobial attributes, expanding their scope to encompass an array of microorganisms spanning bacteria, fungi, and beyond. The introduction of ZnO-NPs has a physical perturbation mechanism wherein microbial cell walls or membranes are susceptible to structural compromise, culminating in cellular demise 11 . This is complemented by propolis nanoparticles’ inhibitory actions on microbial growth and inflammation, which are concomitant with their support of wound-healing processes 12 . The dimensionality of nanoparticles confers penetration advantages into various tissues 13 , enabling augmented interaction with microbial entities and elevating the overall efficacy of the ZnO-propolis synergy.

However, it is important to underscore that the optimal formulation, dosing regimen, and safety parameters of the ZnO-propolis nano-composite necessitate meticulous research and development. Rigorous investigations are essential to unravel the precise mechanisms of action, long-term stability, and potential interactions within biological systems. This promising innovation, residing at the intersection of nanotechnology and antimicrobial therapy, holds the potential to instigate a paradigm shift in the pursuit of efficacious clinical interventions against antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

In conclusion, the contributions of this research are dual-pronged: Firstly, it unveils the finesse of synthesizing ZnO-NPs and their seamless integration into cutting-edge biodegradable matrices, thereby establishing a trajectory for multifarious applications. Secondly, it introduces an efficacious and transformative ZnO-propolis nanocomposite, emblematic of an innovative therapeutic approach countering the specter of multidrug-resistant bacteria. Negotiating the contemporary exigencies of infection control, this research transcends the boundaries of bacterial resistance, catalyzing a paradigm shift in the pursuit of clinically impactful interventions.

Methodology

All solutions have been formulated with Milli-Q water. Zinc nitrate, Zn (NO 3 )2.6H 2 O (M.W. 297.49), was acquired from Oxford Laboratory Reagent. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), aluminum chloride (AlCl 3 ), sodium nitrite (Na 2 NO 3 ), Folin–Ciocalteau reagent, Gallic acid, and catechin were all purchased from Sigma Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ) is available from El-Nasr Pharmaceutical Chemicals in Cairo, Egypt. Carlo Erba Reagent provided doxorubicin and hydrochloric acid (HCl). After ripening in August and October (seasons 2021), propolis was collected from honeybee ( Apis mellifera ) colonies reared in modern hives in Tanta, El-Gharbya governorate, Egypt.

Preparation of propolis nanoparticles

Propolis was size-reduced to nanoparticles utilizing a ball mill as a top-down method. The unprocessed propolis was put into a stainless steel ball mill container with ceramic balls that ranged in diameter from 1.11 to 1.75 cm and were weighted 10:1 by propolis to the vessel. The container was revolved using ball mill equipment (photon, Egypt) for 24 h at 900 rpm. The created powder was collected.

Green synthesis of ZnO-NPs using propolis

ZnO-NPs are formed using a modified version of the co-precipitation approach 14 . Twenty g of propolis was boiled with 200 ml milli-Q water at 100 °C for 10 min using a magnetic stirrer heater. The liquid portion was removed using a pipette and filtered through filter paper. 2.98 g of Zn (NO 3 ) 2 .6H 2 O was added to 100 ml of the obtained extract using a magnetic stirrer at room temperature, and the mixture was stirred for 1 h. The color change was noticed, confirming the reaction. The pellet was obtained after the fluid had been centrifuged at 8000 rpm for 15 min. The resultant pellet underwent three rounds of centrifugation while being suspended in distilled water, and it was then dried at 40 °C. ZnO-NPs are obtained in powder form. This powder is mashed in a ceramic mortar pestle to get a finer nature. Figure 1 depicts the process of making ZnO-NPs using propolis.

Green synthesis method of ZnO-NPs using propolis.

ZnO-propolis nanocomposite preparation

ZnO-P NCs were synthesized by repeating the procedures for preparing ZnO-NPs. Five grams of the synthesized nano-propolis were added to the medium for 1 h before precipitation in the presence of ultrasound. The generated ZnO-NPs were deposited directly on the surface of propolis nanoparticles forming ZnO-P NCs. The solution was then filtered, washed thoroughly several times, and dried at 40 °C.

Characterization

The PANalytical X-ray diffractometer (Empyrean) was utilized to conduct XRD analysis using Cu K radiation with a wavelength of 40 kV, scanning at a rate of 0.02 min −1 from 0° to 80° (2θ), and operating the device at a current of 35 mA and a voltage of acceleration of 40 kV. Bruker-Vertex 70 was used to conduct FTIR spectra. Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and a transmission electron microscope (TEM) were used to analyze the morphology of the synthesized nanoparticles. The microstructure and surface morphology of green Zn and Zn-P NCs were studied using HRTEM (JOEL JEM-2100) at accelerating voltage (200 kV). Zetasizer Nano (Malvern Instruments Ltd., UK) assessed zeta potential and the hydrodynamic particle size. The method for preparing samples for zeta potential measurement was described in earlier work 15 . The band gap of the samples was calculated from the respective absorption edge by using an ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometer. Furthermore, FESEM was employed to detect the antibacterial effect of prepared ZnO-propolis nanocomposite (ZnO-P NCs) against Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli after 2, 6, and 12 h.

Total phenolic and flavonoid content determination

The Folin-Ciocalteu technique was used to measure the total phenolic contents of nano-propolis and the synthetic nanoparticles 16 . Aliquots of 0.1 g of lyophilized propolis powder and the synthesized nanoparticles were dissolved in 1 ml of distilled water. 0.1 ml of this solution was mixed with 0.1 ml of the 50% Folin–Ciocalteau reagent, 2 ml of sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ), and 2.8 ml of distilled water. After 30 min of incubation, the reaction mixture’s absorbance at 30 nm was determined using a spectrophotometer (Hitachi, Model 100–20) against distilled water blank. As a standard, gallic acid was used. Using the five-point standard curve (0–250 mg/l), total phenolic contents in propolis and the synthesized nanoparticles have been measured in triple, respectively. The calculation was expressed in milligrams of gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g). According to 17 , the total flavonoid content was measured using the aluminum chloride colorimetric method. In 1 ml of distilled water, aliquots 0.1 g of the synthesized nanoparticles and propolis were separately dissolved. 5 ml of the resultant solution was combined with 2.8 ml of distilled water, 1.5 ml alcohol (95%), 0.1 ml aluminum chloride (AlCl 3 ) (10%), and 0.1 ml potassium acetate (CH 3 COOK) (1 M). The reaction mixture’s absorbance was measured at 415 nm against a distilled water blank using a spectrophotometer (Hitachi, Model 100–20) after a 40-min incubation period at room temperature. The standard was selected to be quercetin. Using the five-point standard curve (0–75 mg/l) in triplicate, the amounts of total flavonoid content in the samples were each measured. It was presented in milligrams of quercetin equivalents (QE) per gram of lyophilized powder.

Antimicrobial activity

Bacterial strains

Gram-negative bacteria.

Three species of gram-negative bacteria E. coli O:157 ATCC 1659, Salmonella typhi ATCC 13,076, and P. aeruginosa PAO1 ATCC15692.

Gram-positive bacteria

Two species of gram-positive bacteria Bacillus cereus ATCC 11,778 and S. aureus ATCC 13,565.

All strains mentioned above were obtained as actively growing cultures from the microbial culture collection of the Microbiological Resources Centre Cairo (MIRCEN), Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.

Agar well-diffusion method

The antimicrobial activity of propolis, nano propolis, propolis extract, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis was examined against five bacteria selected based on their relevance to public health. 10 µL of each fresh bacterial culture at a concentration of 10 5 CFU/ml were inoculated in molten sterile nutrient agar medium (NA), which contains peptone 5 g, yeast extract 5 g, beef extract 3 g, agar 20 g, 1 L of distilled water at the medium pH was perfect to be 7. Wells of 5 mm diameter were made by a sterile tip made of polystyrene on the agar plates. Various concentrations such as 75, 150, 225, and 300 µg of propolis, nanopropolis, propolis extract, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis were added to separate wells. The negative control used in the tests was the water. The Petri plates containing the inoculated samples were sealed with Parafilm and then placed in a microbial incubator set at 37 °C for 24 h. Afterward, the inhibition zones were measured to assess and analyze the potential impact of propolis, propolis extract, nanopropolis, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis. The antimicrobial activity was determined based on four separate replicates.

The antimicrobial activity of commercial antibiotics compared with nanopropolis, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis

The disc diffusion method is a widely used technique for assessing the susceptibility of bacteria to various antibiotics 18 . In this method, antibiotic-impregnated discs were placed onto the surface of an agar plate that had been inoculated with the 5 tested bacteria. Table 1 demonstrates the 28 commercial antibiotics that were used as standard antibiotics to control the sensitivity of the tested bacteria for comparison. These antibiotics were obtained from (Pasteur Lab, Egypt). The data is expressed as the diameter of the growth inhibition zone in millimeters. The diffusion of the antibiotic from the disc into the agar created a concentration gradient, which allows for the evaluation of the bacterial sensitivity to the antibiotic. Appropriate agar plates, such as nutrient agar, were prepared and allowed to solidify. The tested bacteria of 10 6 CFU/ml concentration were swabbed over the surface of the agar plate. This is typically done with a sterile cotton swab. Subsequently, the agar plates were placed in an incubator at 37 ° C for 24 h. During this time, the antibiotic diffuses into the agar, creating a concentration gradient surrounding the discs. After incubation, the plates were examined. The inhibition zones around each disc were calculated in millimetres. The size of the zones of inhibition is compared to nanopropolis, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis at a concentration of 300 µg.

Determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) of propolis, nanopropolis, propolis extract, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis

Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) The broth dilution method was used to determine the MIC of propolis, nanopropolis, propolis extract, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis, following the protocol described by 19 . The extracts were diluted in Mueller Hinton broth to concentrations of 750, 500, 400, 250, 100, 75, 50, 40, and 30 µg/mL. Each dilution was inoculated with 10 5 CFU/mL of bacterial culture. Control tubes without bacterial inoculation were maintained. The tubes were incubated anaerobically at 37 °C for 24 h. The MIC was defined as the lowest concentration of the extract that inhibited visible bacterial growth (i.e., no turbidity).

To increase the precision of the MIC determination, a more refined concentration gradient was applied using the agar dilution method.

Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) To determine the MBC, 100 µL of the samples from the MIC assay that showed no visible growth were inoculated onto fresh Mueller–Hinton agar plates without any antimicrobial agents. The inoculated samples were evenly spread using a sterile loop. The agar plates were then incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. After incubation, the plates were examined for bacterial colonies. The MBC was defined as the lowest concentration at which no bacterial colonies were observed.

By following these procedures, we ensured the accuracy and reliability of the MIC and MBC values for the tested compounds.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis

Preparation and treatment of bacterial cells.

Escherichia coli and S. aureus bacterial cultures were grown to the mid-logarithmic phase in Mueller–Hinton broth at 37 °C. The cultures were then divided into control and treatment groups. For the treatment groups, ZnO-propolis nanocomposite was added to the bacterial suspensions to achieve a final concentration based on the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) determined in previous experiments.

Sample preparation

Control samples (without ZnO-propolis nanocomposite) and treated samples were incubated for varying time points (2 h, 6 h, and 12 h).

After incubation, bacterial cells were harvested by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 10 min.

The cell pellets were washed twice with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4) to remove any residual media or non-bound nanocomposite.

The washed cell pellets were fixed with 2.5% glutaraldehyde in PBS for 2 h at room temperature to preserve the cellular structures.

Fixed cells were washed again with PBS and then subjected to a dehydration series using increasing concentrations of ethanol (30%, 50%, 70%, 90%, and 100%) for 10 min each.

Drying and coating

Dehydrated samples were dried using a critical point dryer to avoid any structural collapse.

The dried samples were mounted onto SEM stubs and sputter-coated with a thin layer of gold to enhance conductivity.

SEM imaging was performed using a scanning electron microscope at an accelerating voltage of 15 kV.

Multiple fields were examined to ensure representative imaging of the bacterial cells.

Statistical analysis

A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted at a significance level of p < 0.05 to assess the differences, followed by the implementation of the Tukey test using the software tool Origin (2019). The analysis encompassed four replicates for each set of data, ensuring a robust evaluation.

Ethical approval and consent to participate

Not Applicable as the study not applied on human or animals study. The article does not include any studies on human participants or animals conducted by any of the authors.

Results and discussion

Xrd analysis.

As seen in Fig. 2 a, the x-ray diffractogram analysis was used to examine the structural composition of propolis extract, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis. Propolis’s wide variety of chemical components frequently result in amorphous or weakly crystalline formations. The pure propolis structural pattern is observed in the area 2θ = 21.5°, according to works of literature 20 . According to published literature, ZnO-NPs XRD patterns revealed semi-crystalline structures with 2θ at 34.5°, 36.4°,44.2°,48.1°,57.12°, and 63.2°, indexed to (002), (101), (012), (100), (102), and (103), respectively 21 , 22 . ZnO-propolis patterns showed decreased intensity peaks for both propolis and ZnO, suggesting the formation of a ZnO-propolis nanocomposite. X-ray diffraction (XRD) data is frequently used to determine the crystallite size (D) of nanomaterials using the Debye–Scherrer equation. The crystallite size is related to the scattering angle (θ), the complete width at half maximum of the XRD peak (β), and the X-ray wavelength (λ) in the equation.

( a ) XRD patterns and ( b ) FTIR characteristics of propolis, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis.

The computed crystallite size of the ZnO-propolis nanocomposite at the high-intensity peak (2θ = 21.1°) is 9.70 nm based on the given formula and parameters. The average size of the crystalline domains inside the nanocomposite material, as deduced from the XRD investigation, is provided by this estimation.

Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy

The FT-IR spectroscopy technique was applied to study the chemical compositions and structures of propolis extract, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis (Fig. 2 b). For propolis, A broad band at 3383 cm −1 is associated with the hydroxyl group (OH) molecule’s stretching vibrations that are present in flavonoids and the phenolic compounds and also associated with N–H stretching vibrations of amide bonds in propolis 23 , 24 . The stretching vibrations of the CH 2 groups exhibit asymmetry at 2925 cm −1 and symmetry at 2852 cm −1 arising from organic substances that include hydrocarbon groups or aliphatic chains 23 . The carbonyl stretching vibrations (C=O) seen in substances like flavonoids and phenolic acids are shown by the peak at 1631 cm −1 25 . The flavonoid family’s C-H stretching vibrations are represented by the absorption bands at 1453 cm −1 and 1376 cm −1 26 . These peaks help identify flavonoids by indicating particular structural components that are present in them. A weak band at 1168 cm −1 is ascribed to alkene C=C bending vibrations 27 . The band at around 1021 cm −1 , has C–O stretching vibrations, which are prevalent in ethers, alcohols, and esters, which are found in different propolis constituents 28 . Typically, bands about the stretching and bending vibrations of C–H from aromatic rings, specifically associated with phenolic chemicals, are detected within the 900–500 cm −1 range 28 . For the ZnO-NPs spectrum, a strong wide peak at 3131 cm −1 is ascribed to the stretching vibration of hydroxyl (OH) groups 26 . The 1561 cm −1 band is associated with the amide groups’ C=O stretching vibrations. The Band at 1444 cm −1 is linked to the –C–H bond’s bending vibration 26 . 1047 cm −1 band relates to the stretching vibration of C–O 26 . The bending vibrations of =C–H are assigned to the 955 cm −1 and 694 cm −1 bands. The stretching vibration of Zn–O bonds is responsible for the 457 cm −1 , which ensures the creation of the product 26 , 28 , 29 . The ZnO-propolis spectrum contains the same bands of pure propolis with a small shift indicating the chemical interaction between ZnO and propolis. Also, the small band at 457 cm −1 indicates the presence of Zn–O bonds in the structure.

Morphological analysis

Figure 3 shows the morphological structures of the propolis extract, ZnO-NPs, and the ZnO-propolis analyzed by SEM and TEM. SEM micrographs of the propolis material, are shown in Fig. 3 a; the particles have a size of a few hundred nanometers and have an uneven form due to agglomeration. ZnO-NPs in Fig. 3 b exhibited smooth and semi-hexagonal structures. For ZnO-propolis, Fig. 3 c, small nanoparticles with a roughly fair and uniform distribution devoid of empty or crack space on a wide scale.

SEM micrographs ( a , b , and c ), and TEM images ( d , e , and f ) of propolis extract, ZnO-NPs, and the ZnO-propolis respectively. ( g ) EDX for the ZnO-propolis nanocomposite.

The TEM images are shown in Fig. 3 (d, e and f). The propolis’s TEM image shows agglomerated particles indicating that the sample’s constituent structures or particles have been clustered or aggregated, Fig. 3 d. ZnO-NPs showed small spherical-shaped ZnO-NPs connected. The TEM image of ZnO-propolis in Fig. 3 f shows the tiny spherical ZnO-NPs adhering to or connecting with the propolis nanosheets’ surface. The close bonding or tight attachment of these ZnO-NPs onto the propolis nanosheets suggests a strong interaction or bonding between the ZnO-NPs and the propolis material.

An energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis, Fig. 3 g, can be used to determine the elemental composition of a material. The elemental composition of the nanocomposite was shown by the EDX Spectra, indicating the presence of elements like zinc (Zn), carbon (C), oxygen (O), and maybe sodium (Na) and potassium (K) in the sample.

The dispersion of components throughout a sample’s surface utilizing this method was demonstrated by the EDX mapping study. The homogeneity and distribution of various elements, such as zinc, carbon, and oxygen, throughout the produced material, are shown in a map or image. This mapping demonstrates the uniform or even dispersion of these constituents throughout the material and confirms their geographical distribution.

Zeta potential (ZP) and size distribution

The zeta potential values of the generated nanomaterials can be used to assess their stability. Therefore, values of ZP between ± 30 mV are thought to be optimal for stabilizing nano-dispersion effectively. According to Fig. 4 (a, b, and c), the zeta potential values of the propolis, ZnO-NPs, and the ZnO-propolis, were − 34 mV, − 11.8 mV, and − 27.1 mV, respectively. The nanocomposite showed higher stability compared to the pure propolis. Figure 5 (a, b, and c) illustrates the measured particle size distributions for the propolis, ZnO-NPs, and the ZnO-propolis samples, which were 2119, 1601, and 1751 nm, respectively. It is confirmed that the nanocomposite has formed when the hydrodynamic size of the nanocomposite is greater than that of ZnO-NPs 29 . ZnO-propolis sample is similar in size to ZnO NP. It seems that a partial fragment of propolis is attached to the ZnO NP; this may be related to the green synthesis the particles have a capping agent from extracts used in the particle preparation, which increases the hydrodynamic size of ZnO NPs and near to the size of nanocomposite.

Zeta potential of ( a ) propolis extract, ( b ) ZnO-NPs, and ( c ) propolis.

Particle size distributions of ( a ) propolis extract, ( b ) ZnO-NPs, and ( c ) the ZnO-propolis.

The solution is considered stable when the materials’ zeta potential is within the range of − 30 to + 30 eV 30 . According to the data, the propolis has − 34 eV, which means that it is more negatively charged and less stable in the propolis solution. ZnO-NPs solution exhibited less negativity and a more stable system (− 11.8 eV). Given that the ZnO-propolis’s zeta potential is − 27 eV, it is more logistic to have propolis particles in the structure.

Optical properties

UV–Vis absorption patterns are critical for understanding the optical characteristics and energy structures of propolis, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis. The UV–Vis spectra in Fig. 6 a shows a clear absorbance peak for propolis material at around 277.7 nm. Figure 6 b shows an absorbance peak at 278.8 nm for ZnO-NPs. Figure 6 c shows an absorbance peak of ZnO-propolis at around 280 nm. The occurrence of ZnO-propolis nanocomposite having an absorption peak at a slightly higher wavelength compared to ZnO-NPs can be defined as a “red shift” in terms of spectral alterations 31 . The red shift may result from a variety of processes, including modifications to the nanoparticles’ size, shape, or surface characteristics after they are added to the nanocomposite. Additionally, it might imply that the ZnO-NPs and other elements of the nanocomposite interact or form chemical bonds, changing the energy levels and ultimately influencing the absorption properties 31 . The information provided explains how the optical bandgap energies for propolis, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis nanocomposite (inset images) were calculated using the Tauc equation.

α is the coefficient of absorption. The incident light energy is represented by hv, which is computed using the formula hν = 1240/λ, where λ is the incident light’s wavelength. B is an absorbance-related constant. E g stands for band gap energy. The transition mode is represented by the constant m 32 , 33 , 34 . Propolis, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis had band gap energies of 2.37 eV, 2.89 eV, and 2.66 eV, respectively, which were determined based on the data that was supplied. The observed patterns indicate that the band gap energies rise when the particle size or composite structure increases from propolis to the nanocomposite. Changes in the material’s composition, size, morphology, or interactions between its constituent parts may all be responsible for this rise in band gap energy. In accordance with Eq. ( 1 ) below, which defines the relationship between particle size ( a ) and band gap ( E g ), Researchers investigated how size affected band gap, and their findings indicate that band gap rises as size decreases 35 , 36

UV–vis absorption spectra and thus plots for bandgap energy (inserted images) of ( a ) propolis, ( b ) ZnO nanoparticles, and ( c )ZnO-propolis.

(where E bulk represents the bulk band gap, ΔE pertains to the phenomenon of quantum confinement, m e * denotes the effective mass of an electron, m h * signifies the effective mass of a hole, and h refers to Planck's constant). The reason for this is due to quantum confinement effects, which occur when a nanoparticle decreases in size and contains more electrons and holes in a smaller volume. This confinement results in a rise in the energy difference, or band gap, between the valence band and the conduction band. Because of this, band gaps are generally higher in smaller than in larger nanoparticles of the same material 35 , 36 . This results correlate with our band gab and zeta size.

Antimicrobial activity of propolis, nano propolis, propolis extract, ZnO nanoparticles, and ZnO-propolis

The antimicrobial activity was tested using an agar well diffusion assay. The antibacterial effect of propolis, nano propolis, propolis extract, ZnO nanoparticles, and ZnO-propolis was visualized against five pathogens like E. coli , S. typhi, and P. aeruginosa , B. cereus, and S. aureus , which was drawn in Figs. 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 and 12 . Results demonstrate that biosynthesized nanopropolis, ZnO nanoparticles, and ZnO-propolis increase in a dose-dependent manner. The antimicrobial properties of propolis are primarily attributed to its positive charges, which disrupt the negatively charged components of macromolecules on the surface of microbial cells. This disruption leads to membrane leakage 37 . Among the tested bacteria, E. coli showed higher susceptibility and proved to be the most resistant among all. Figures 7 C–E and 8 A–C showed that when propolis, nanopropolis, and propolis extract were used, there was no inhibition observed in the growth of E. coli , while it was sensitive bacteria for ZnO nanoparticles and ZnO-propolis (Figs. 7 A, B and 10 D, E). From Fig. 7 , P. aeruginosa is the most sensitive to propolis, nanopropolis, and propolis extract, however, S. typhi , S. aureus and B. cereus are resistant, whereas E. coli was not affected at all. So raw propolis, nanopropolis, and propolis extract represent the least effective compounds in achieving the antibacterial effect the antimicrobial activity compared with the other agents used in our study, but ZnO nanoparticles, and especially ZnO-propolis, have been recorded to show antimicrobial effects in the laboratory (vitro) against all tested pathogens 38 , 39 (Fig. 8 ). The antimicrobial effect of ZnO nanoparticles and ZnO-propolis can be attributed to their ability to hinder the DNA and RNA synthesis within bacterial cells. Additionally, they have the potential to disturb the functionality of bacterial cytoplasmic membranes and disrupt the energy metabolism of bacteria 40 . Several studies have demonstrated that ZnO nanoparticles can effectively hinder the proliferation of various pathogenic bacteria. These include Salmonella enteritidis , Vibrio parahaemolyticus , E. coli , Listeria monocytogenes , and Salmonella typhimurium 41 , 42 , 43 .

Antimicrobial activity of ( A ) ZnO nanoparticles, ( B ) ZnO-propolis, ( C ) propolis, ( D ) nanopropolis, and ( E ) propolis extract. Vertical bars represent the means ± standard deviation (means ± SD) of three replicates (n = 3).

Determination of inhibition zones of ( A ) propolis, ( B ) nanopropolis, ( C ) propolis extract, ( D ) ZnO nanoparticles, and ( E ) ZnO-propolis against E. coli.

Determination of inhibition zones of ( A ) propolis, ( B ) nanopropolis, ( C ) propolis extract, ( D ) ZnO nanoparticles, and ( E ) ZnO-propolis against S. typhi.

Determination of inhibition zones of ( A ) propolis, ( B ) nanopropolis, ( C ) propolis extract, ( D ) ZnO nanoparticles, and ( E ) ZnO-propolis against P. aeruginosa.

Determination of inhibition zones of ( A ) propolis, ( B ) nanopropolis, ( C ) propolis extract, ( D ) ZnO nanoparticles, and ( E ) ZnO-propolis against S. aureus.

Determination of inhibition zones of ( A ) propolis, ( B ) nanopropolis, ( C ) propolis extract, ( D ) ZnO nanoparticles, and ( E ) ZnO-propolis against B. cereus.

We found that ZnO-propolis was effective against all tested bacteria and this effectiveness increased with increasing in its dose to reach its maximum inhibition zone at 300 µg (Fig. 7 B). At a concentration of 300 µg of ZnO nanoparticles, E. coli was the most resistant, while P. aeruginosa was the most sensitive as shown in Fig. 7 A.

The antimicrobial activity was measured by assessing the inhibition zones for each compound against the tested bacterial strains. The data demonstrate the comparative effectiveness of each treatment in inhibiting bacterial growth, with ZnO-propolis showing the most significant activity across all tested microorganisms.

Comparison of nanopropolis, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis antimicrobial activity with 28 different commercial antibiotics

The antibacterial effect of nanopropolis, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis was visualized against five pathogens: E. coli , S. typhi and P. aeruginosa , B. cereus, and S. aureus , which was drawn in Fig. 13 . Results demonstrate that biosynthesized nanopropolis, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis increase in a dose-dependent manner. The ZnO-propolis is the most effective against all tested bacteria. Whereas S. typhi is the most sensitive in contrast to E. coli , and B. cereus are resistant while P. aeruginosa and S. aureus have moderate effects. In general, ZnO-NPs had a higher antimicrobial effect than propolis extract, followed by nano-propolis, and propolis, respectively. It was noted that when ZnO-NPs were combined with nanopropolis in the nanocomposite, a synergy effect appeared, and the antimicrobial effect of ZnO-propolis nanoparticles was the highest ever.

Inhibition zone diameter (mm) of ( A ) E. coli , ( B ) S. typhi , ( C ) P. aeruginosa , ( D ) S. aureus , and ( E ) B. cereus treated with antibiotics compared with nanopropolis, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis. Vertical bars represent the means ± standard deviation (SD) of three replicates (n = 3).

Escherichia coli has evolved a range of antibiotic resistance mechanisms, enabling it to resist the actions of numerous antibiotics. It has exhibited resistance to 9 out of 28 tested antibiotics as shown in (Fig. 13 A). Interestingly, ZnO-NPs have demonstrated greater potency than most antibiotics, except for kanamycin, imipenem, nalidixic acid, and norfloxacin. Notably, nanopropolis exhibited no inhibitory effect on E. coli , consistent with findings from 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 .

When ZnO-NPs and nano propolis were combined, synergistic interactions were observed, amplifying their antibacterial properties. The resulting ZnO-propolis exhibited the highest inhibitory effect on resistant E. coli , effectively enhancing the initially absent effect of nanopropolis and complementing the action of ZnO-NPs through synergy. This synergy effect between ZnO-NPs and nanopropolis in their composite formulation indicates that the combined impact of these two components surpasses the sum of their individual effects, leading to a significantly enhanced overall biological activity.

Salmonella typhi exhibits resistance to 7 out of 28 tested antibiotics, as illustrated in (Fig. 13 B). Interestingly, nanopropolis demonstrated a moderate bactericidal effect, yielding an inhibition zone diameter of 18 mm. In contrast, ZnO-NPs displayed robust bactericidal activity against S. typhi , resulting in a notable 34 mm inhibition zone diameter. Remarkably, the treatment involving the ZnO-propolis revealed a synergistic antibacterial effect against S. typhi , characterized by an expansive 40 mm inhibition zone. Notably, this combined effect surpassed the efficacy of all 28 antibiotics, except for kanamycin.

In Fig. 13 C P. aeruginosa is resistant to 14 antibiotics out of 28 antibiotics. However, nanopropolis had a high bactericidal activity with a 30 mm Inhibition zone diameter. ZnO-NPs had strong bactericidal activity against P. aeruginosa with a 38 mm Inhibition zone diameter , in contrast, a synergistic antibacterial activity against P. aeruginosa was observed in ZnO-propolis treatment with 40 mm, it was more potent than the effect of all 28 antibiotics.

Staphylococcus aureus is resistant to 8 antibiotics out of 28 antibiotics as shown in Fig. 13 D, however, nanopropolis had moderate bactericidal activity with an 18 mm Inhibition zone diameter. ZnO-NPs had strong bactericidal activity against S. aureus with a 30 mm Inhibition zone diameter, in contrast, a synergistic antibacterial effect against S. aureus was observed in ZnO-propolis treatment with 38 mm, it was more potent than the effect of all antibiotics except imipenem.

Bacillus cereus demonstrates resistance to 11 out of the 28 tested antibiotics as illustrated in Fig. 13 E. Impressively, nanopropolis displayed a high level of bactericidal activity, resulting in a substantial 20 mm inhibition zone diameter. Conversely, ZnO-NPs exhibited robust bactericidal activity against B. cereus , yielding a noteworthy 33 mm inhibiting zone diameter. Remarkably, the ZnO-propolis treatment revealed a synergistic antibacterial effect against B. cereus , characterized by an impressive 35 mm inhibition zone. Notably, this combined effect surpassed the efficacy of all 28 antibiotics.

Determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) of propolis, nanopropolis, propolis extract, ZnO-NPs, ZnO-propolis

The MIC value can be affected by various factors for example temperature, the quantity of the initial microbial inoculation, and the specific type of microorganism involved 49 . Table 2 presents the MIC values, ranging from 30 to 500 g/mL for the evaluated compounds when tested against the selected microorganisms. The MIC of the propolis, nanopropolis, propolis extract, ZnO-NPs, and ZnO-propolis were determined against E. coli , S. typhi , P. aeruginosa , B. cereus, and S. aureus .

Regarding the propolis, it had an antibacterial effect against P. aeruginosa (100 µg/mL) but was less effective against S. typhi (500 µg/mL), S. aureus (250 µg/mL), and B. cereus (400 µg/mL). Otherwise, it had no antibacterial effect on E. coli at the tested concentrations. About the Nanopropolis, it was effective against S. typhi , P. aeruginosa , and S. aureus (100 µg/mL for each) with the highest superiority for the first, less effective against B. cereus (250 µg/mL) and S. typhi (400 µg/mL), and ineffective against E. coli . This indicates the antibacterial effectiveness of nanosized fractions of Propolis, enhancing its penetration into the bacteria cells. The Propolis Extract, had the highest effect against S. aureus (50 µg/mL), B. cereus (75 µg/mL), and P. aeruginosa (100 µg/mL) with the highest superiority in antibacterial effectiveness for the first, and less effective for S. typhi (400 µg/mL), while there was no antibacterial effect for E. coli . This signifies that the Propolis Extract has concentrated specific bioactive compounds, enhancing its antibacterial activity. On the other hand, ZnO-NPs are consistently effective across all tested bacteria with MIC values ranging from 50 to 75 µg/mL. This suggests its broad-spectrum antibacterial effect. Compared to ZnO-NPs, the ZnO-propolis exhibited the highest potency with the lowest MIC values across most bacteria: P. aeruginosa (30 µg/mL), S. typhi, and S. aureus (40 µg/mL each), E. coli (50 µg/mL), and B. cereus (50 µg/mL). Hence, the incorporation of ZnO-NPs in the prepared composite had an enhancing antibacterial effect against all bacteria, especially E. coli due to its reactive oxygen species (ROS). Moreover, the synergistic interaction between ZnO-NPs and propolis, enhances their specific antibacterial properties, resulting in the superior performance of ZnO-Propolis. The ZnO-Propolis likely benefits from both the ROS generation and membrane disruption by ZnO-NPs, and the bioactive compounds in propolis.

On the other hand, the MBC values (Table 3 ) showed that the Propolis, Nanopropolis, and Propolis Extract had weak bactericidal activity on S. typhi and P. aeruginosa . Moreover, they did not have any bactericidal effect on E. coil , suggesting limited use against certain gram-negative bacteria. Otherwise, propolis Extract had the highest bactericidal effect on S. aureus (75 µg/mL each) and B. cereus (100 µg/mL). This can be attributed to the concentration of bioactive compounds in the extract of Propolis as previously mentioned. Like ZnO-NPs, ZnO-propolis illustrated improved bactericidal impact against all bacteria strains with a slightly better bactericidal effect for the letter. This indicates that ZnO-NPs and ZnO-propolis are highly effective in killing both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The synergistic impacts of ZnO-NPs and propolis in ZnO-propolis nanocomposite contribute to this enhanced bactericidal activity. This combination boosts the bactericidal mechanisms of both components, resulting in a more effective antimicrobial agent.

In particular, the antibacterial attributes of these active substances could be linked to their lipophilic nature. This characteristic may result in alterations in the membrane potential, heightened permeability of the cytoplasmic membrane to protons and potassium ions, and depletion of the intracellular ATP reservoir 37 . The antimicrobial characteristics of ZnO-propolis are linked to both the hydrolysis of peptidoglycan layers within the bacterial cell wall and perturbations in the bacterial cell membrane 50 , 51 .

According to the MIC and MBC, gram-negative bacteria are generally more resistant to antibiotics than gram-positive bacteria. This is because gram-negative bacteria have an outer membrane that acts as a barrier, making it more difficult for antibiotics to penetrate and disrupt the bacterial cell. Furthermore, bacteria with a Gram-negative cell wall structure often have efflux pumps that can pump antibiotics out of the cell, further contributing to their resistance. Nevertheless, it is crucial to emphasize that the level of antibiotic resistance can significantly differ across various bacterial species, and the precise mechanisms of resistance can vary. In the current study, the high value of MBC was recorded by S. typhi .

SEM analysis of ZnO-propolis nanocomposite activity against E. coli and S. aureus

Figures 14 and 15 show the results of incubating both control and treated E. coli and S. aureus strains for 2, 6, and 12 h. Figure 14 and 15 A represents the negative control of bacterial strains without ZnO-propolis nanocomposite. Initial observations (after 2 h) revealed early indications of interaction between the ZnO-propolis nanocomposite and the bacterial cell surface. These interactions were characterized by minor surface irregularities (Figs. 14 and 15 C), while no changes were observed in the control treatments (Figs. 14 and 15 B). After 6 h, more pronounced morphological changes were observed, including membrane disruptions, pore formation, and changes in cell shape (Figs. 14 and 15 E). No changes were observed also in the control treatments (Figs. 14 and 15 D). Finally, in the later stages (12 h), advanced damage or cell death occurs, including cell lysis, significant surface degradation, and complete structural collapse (Figs. 14 and 15 G). No morphological changes were observed in the control group (Figs. 14 and 15 F).

SEM photographs showing the antibacterial effect of ZnO-propolis nanocomposite against E. coli . ( A ) Negative control (without ZnO-propolis nanocomposite); ( B ) Negative control (after 2 h); ( C ) Bacterial cells treated with ZnO-propolis nanocomposite (after 2 h), showing destruction and erosion of the cell wall; ( D ) Negative control (after 6 h); ( E ) Bacterial cells treated with ZnO-propolis nanocomposite (after 6 h), showing spheroplasts; ( F ) Negative control (after 12 h); ( G ) Bacterial cells treated with ZnO-propolis nanocomposite (after 12 h), showing complete destruction and loss of cell structure.

SEM photographs showing the antibacterial effect of ZnO-propolis nanocomposite against S. aureus . ( A ) Negative control (without ZnO-propolis nanocomposite); ( B ) Negative control (after 2 h); ( C ) Bacterial cells treated with ZnO-propolis nanocomposite (after 2 h), showing destruction and erosion of the cell wall; ( D ) Negative control (after 6 h); ( E ) Bacterial cells treated with ZnO-propolis nanocomposite (after 6 h), showing spheroplasts; ( F ) Negative control (after 12 h); ( G ) Bacterial cells treated with ZnO-propolis nanocomposite (after 12 h), showing complete destruction and loss of cell structure.

The combination of ZnO and propolis in a nanocomposite can synergistically enhance their antimicrobial properties and broaden their spectrum of activity against bacteria. The ZnO NPs physically damage the cell walls or membranes of microorganisms, leading to their disruption and death. Meanwhile, the bioactive compounds in propolis further inhibit microbial growth.

Important antibacterial activity mechanisms include the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), the release of antimicrobial zinc ions, and electrostatic contact. As the primary mechanism of antibacterial activity, ROS production, particularly during specific wavelengths of light absorption, was suggested. ROS was produced using a variety of methods, including bacterial surface adsorption, electron/hole pair creation, interaction of the created pairs with oxygen and water, and formation of other intermediates. However, it has also been suggested that another effective antibacterial mechanism involves the production of antimicrobial ions like Zn +2 and the electrostatic interaction of NPs with microbes. The direct (production of ROS inside the bacterial cell) and indirect (generation of ROS outside the bacterial cell) approaches for the interaction of NPs with bacteria and the formation of ROS.

The nanocomposite formulation provides advantages such as increased stability, controlled release of active components, and improved targeting of specific sites or organisms. The small size of nanoparticles allows for better penetration into tissues and increased interaction with microbial cells, enhancing the effectiveness of the ZnO and propolis combination.

ZnO-NPs and propolis both exhibit antimicrobial properties. The combination of these two components in a composite can result in synergistic effects, leading to improved inhibition of a broad spectrum of microorganisms, including bacteria. The mechanisms of action involve multiple pathways, such as physical damage to microbial cell walls, disruption of essential cellular processes, and increased oxidative stress within the microorganisms.

In this research work, the ZnO-propolis composite was synthesized using propolis and ZnO NPs. Propolis nanocomposite has been combined with ZnO as a powerful stabilizing agent to create ZnO-propolis nanocomposite. The outcomes obtained from the ZnO-propolis demonstrated its efficacy as a potent antimicrobial material. Utilizing UV–Vis spectroscopy, SEM, and TEM analyses, the existence of elemental Zn in the nanocomposite was validated, showing a rod-like structure with dimensions ranging from 30 to 150 nm. Furthermore, the synthesized ZnO-propolis composite, incorporating propolis, was verified to enhance its antimicrobial effectiveness against a range of bacteria, including E. coli , S. typhi , P. aeruginosa , B. cereus , and S. aureus . Our current research focuses on developing a cost-effective and environmentally friendly approach for creating a ZnO nanocomposite. This synthesized ZnO-propolis composite holds promise as an effective antimicrobial material for potential use in forthcoming biomedical applications.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Degree celsius

Analysis of variance

Deoxyribonucleic acid

Ribonucleic acid

Energy dispersive X-ray

Fourier transform infrared radiation

Minimum bactericidal concentration

Milligrams to liter

Mueller–Hinton agar

Minimum inhibitory concentration

Nutrient agar medium

Quercetin equivalents

Reactive oxygen species

Scanning electron microscopy

Transmission electron microscopy

X-ray diffraction

Zinc Oxide nanoparticles

Zinc Oxide -propolis nanocomposite

Zeta potential

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the supported and funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU) (grant number IMSIU-RP23091). Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

This work was supported and funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU) (grant number IMSIU-RP23091).

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Aya I. Tagyan, Wael N. Hozzein & Abdullah A. Eweis

Materials Science and Nanotechnology Department, Faculty of Postgraduate Studies for Advanced Sciences, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt

Ahmed A. Farghali

Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Fayoum University, Fayoum, 6354, Egypt

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Methodology, formal analysis, visualization, writing original draft: S.A.S., D.E., A.I.T., Project administration, supervision, funding acquisition, resources: W.N.H., A.A.F., M.Al.-Z., R.M., M.M., F.A.N. Conceptualization, software, writing original draft, validation: E.M.K., Y.F.A., A.A. Eweis was added to the list of authors for him valuable contribution in addressing the reviewers’ feedback regarding the NPs-bacterial cell surface interaction and the remarkable activity of composite and improvement the antimicrobial discussion section.

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Salama, S.A., Essam, D., Tagyan, A.I. et al. Novel composite of nano zinc oxide and nano propolis as antibiotic for antibiotic-resistant bacteria: a promising approach. Sci Rep 14 , 20894 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-70490-8

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