write an essay on method of food cultivation

Chapter 10: Agriculture and Food

Georgeta Connor

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this section, the student will be able to:

Understand: the origin and evolution of agriculture across the globe

Explain: the environment-agriculture relationship, market forces, institutions, agricultural industrialization, and biorevolution versus sustainable agriculture

Describe: agricultural regions, comparing and contrasting subsistence and commercial agriculture

Connect: the factors of global changes in food production and consumption

CHAPTER OUTLINE

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Agricultural Practices

10.3 Global Changes in Food Production and Consumption

10.4 Summary

10.5 Key Terms Defined

10.6 Works Consulted and Further Reading

10.1 INTRODUCTION

Before the invention of agriculture, people obtained food from hunting wild animals, fishing, and gathering fruits, nuts, and roots. Having to travel in small groups to obtain food, people led a nomadic existence. This remained the only mode of subsistence until the end of the Mesolithic period, some 12,000-10,000 years ago. Then, agriculture gradually replaced the hunting and gathering system, constituting the spread of the Neolithic revolution. Even today, some isolated groups survive as they did before agriculture developed. They can be found in some remote areas such as in Amazonia, Congo, Namibia, Botswana, Tanzania, New Guinea, and the Arctic latitude, where hunting dominates life ( Figures 10.1, 10.2, and 10.3 ).

Figure 10.1 Hadza Hunters; Author | User “Idobi”;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY SA 3.0

Figure 10.2 Pume Hunter and Gatherers;  Author | User “Ajimai”;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY SA 4.0.

Figure 10.3 | Inuit Hunters;  Author | User “Wiki-profile”;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY SA 3.0.

The term agriculture refers to the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock for both sustenance and economic gain. The origin of agriculture goes back to prehistoric times, starting when humans domesticated plants and animals. The domestication of plants and animals as the origin of agriculture was a pivotal transition in human history, which occurred several times independently. Agriculture originated and spread in different regions ( hearths ) of the world, including the Middle East, Southwest Asia, Mesoamerica and the Andes, Northeastern India, North China, and East Africa, beginning as early as 12,000–10,000 years ago. People became sedentary, living in their villages, where new types of social, cultural, political, and economic relationships were created. This period of momentous innovations is known as the First Agricultural Revolution .

Take a look below ( Figure 10.4 ) for the locations where major plants and animals were first domesticated. Pull up a reference map on the internet if you don’t know the locations of the green hearths.

Source: https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog597i_02/node/863

Figure 10.4 Culture Hearth Location and Diffusion Patterns. Author | Source | License |

You should notice that domestication is not distributed entirely evenly across places. It is clustered in what are called culture hearths , referring to regions of the world where many species were domesticated. Check out the video below for a recap of information about domestication, agriculture, and hearth areas.

10.2 AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

Agriculture is a science, a business, and an art ( Figures 10.5 and 10.6 ). Spatially, agriculture is the world’s most widely distributed industry. It occupies more area than all other industries combined, changing the surface of the Earth more than any other. Farming, with its multiple methods, has significantly transformed the landscape (small or large fields, terraces, polders, livestock grazing), being an important reflection of the two-way relationship between people and their environments. The world’s agricultural societies today are very diverse and complex, with agricultural practices ranging from the most rudimentary, such as using the ox-pulled plow, to the most complex, such as using machines, tractors, satellite navigation, and genetic engineering methods. Customarily, scholars divide agricultural societies into categories such as subsistence , intermediate , and developed , words that express the same ideas as primitive , traditional , and modern , respectively. For simplification, farming practices described in this chapter are classified into two categories, subsistence and commercial , with fundamental differences between their practice in developed and developing countries.

Figure 10.5 | Board of Trade; Author | Jeremy Kemp;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | Public Domain.

Figure 10.6 | Tulip Fields in the Netherlands; Author | Alf van Beem;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY NC SA 4.0.

10.2.1 Subsistence Agriculture

Subsistence agriculture replaced hunting and gathering in many parts of the globe. The term subsistence , when it relates to farming, refers to growing food only to sustain the farmers themselves and their families, consuming most of what they produce, without entering into the cash economy of the country. The farm size is small, 2-5 acres (1-2 hectares), but the agriculture is less mechanized; therefore, the percentage of workers engaged directly in farming is very high, reaching 50 percent or more in some developing countries ( Figure 10.6 ). Climate regions play an important role in determining agricultural regions. Farming activities range from shifting cultivation to pastoralism , both extensive forms that still prevail over large regions, to intensive subsistence .

Figure 10.6 Employment in Agriculture, 2014; Author |  Actualitix;  Source |  Actualitix.com;  License | CC BY NC SA 4.0.

10.2.1.1 Shifting Cultivation

Figure 10.7 Slash-and-Burn Farming in Thailand ; Author | User “mattmangum”;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY SA 2.0.

Shifting cultivation, also known as slash-and-burn agriculture , is a form of subsistence agriculture that involves a kind of natural rotation system. Shifting cultivation is a way of life for 150-200 million people, globally distributed in tropical areas, especially in the rain forests of South America, Central and West Africa, and Southeast Asia. The practices involve removing dense vegetation, burning the debris, clearing the area, known as swidden, and preparing it for cultivation (Figure 10.7) . Shifting cultivation can successfully support only low population densities, and as a result of rapid depletion of soil fertility, the fields are actively cultivated usually for three years. As a result, the infertile land has to be abandoned, and another site has to be identified, starting again the process of clearing and planting. The slash-and-burn technique thus requires extensive acreage for new lots, as well as a great deal of human labor, involving at the same time a frequent gender division of labor. The kinds of crops grown can be different from region to region, dominated by tubers, sweet potatoes especially, and grains such as rice and corn. The practice of mixing different seeds in the same swidden in the warm and humid tropics is favorable for harvesting two or even three times per year. Yet, the slash-and-burn practice has some negative impacts on the environment, being seen as ecologically destructive, especially for areas with vulnerable and endangered species.

10.2.1.2 Pastoralism

Involving the breeding and herding of animals, pastoralism is another extensive form of subsistence agriculture. It is adapted to cold and/or dry climates of savannas (grasslands), deserts, steppes, high plateaus, and Arctic zones where planting crops is impracticable. Specifically, the practice is characteristic in Africa (north, central [Sahel], and south), the Middle East, central and southwest Asia, the Mediterranean basin, and Scandinavia. The species of animals vary with the region of the world including, especially, sheep, goats, cattle, reindeer, and camels. Pastoralism is a successful strategy to support a population on less productive land and adapt well to the environment. Three categories of pastoralism can be individualized: sedentary, nomadic, and transhumance.

Sedentary pastoralism refers to those farmers who live in their villages and their herd animals in nearby pastures. Several men usually are hired by the villagers to take care of their animals. Equally important is the practice in which the hired men gather the animals (cattle especially) in the morning, feed them during the day in the nearby pasture, and then return them to the village early in the evening. This is the typical pattern for many traditional European pastoralists.

Nomadic pastoralism is a traditional form of subsistence agriculture in which the pastoralists travel with their herds over long distances and with no fixed pattern. This is a continuous movement of groups of herds and people such as the Bedouins of Saudi Arabia, the Bakhtiaris of Iran, the Berbers of North Africa, the Maasai of East Africa, the Zulus of South Africa, the Mongols of Central Asia, and other groups. The settlement landscape of pastoral nomads reflects their need for mobility and flexibility. Usually, they live in a type of tent (known as a yurt in Central Asia) and move their herds to any available pasture ( Figure 10.8 ). Although there are approximately 10-15 million nomadic pastoralists in the world, they occupy about 20 percent of Earth’s land area. Today, their life is in decline, the victim of more constricting political borders, competing land uses, selective overgrazing, and government resettlement programs.

Figure 10.8 Mongolian Nomads Moving to Autumn Encampment ; Author | User “Yaan”;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY SA 3.0.

Transhumance is a seasonal vertical movement by herding the livestock (cows, sheep, goats, and horses) to cooler, greener high-country pastures in the summer and then returning them to lowland settings for fall and winter grazing.

Herders have a permanent home, typically in the valleys. Generally, the herds travel with a certain number of people necessary to tend them, while the main population stays at the base. This is a traditional practice in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea basins such as southern European countries, the Carpathian Mountains, and the Caucasus countries ( Figures 10.9 and 10.10 ). In addition, near highland zones such as the Atlas Mountains (northwest Africa) and the Anatolian Plateau (Turkey), as well as in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East countries, and Central Asia, the pastoralists have to practice another type of transhumance, such as the movement of animals between wet-season and dry-season pasture.

Figure 10.9 Transhumance in the Pyrenees Mountains ;  Author | User “Clicgauche”;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY SA 1.0.

Figure 10.10 Romanian and Viachs Transhumance in Balkans ; Author | User “Clicgauche”;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY SA 1.0.

10.2.1.3 Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

Intensive subsistence agriculture , characteristic of densely populated regions especially in southern, southeastern, and eastern Asia, involves the effective and efficient use of small parcels of land to maximize crop yield per acre. The practice requires intensive human labor, with most of the work being done by hand and/or with animals. The landscape of intensive subsistence agriculture is significantly transformed, including hillside terraces and raised fields, adding irrigation systems and fertilizers ( Figures 10.11 and 10.12 ). As a result, intensive subsistence agriculture can support large rural populations. Rice is the dominant crop in the humid areas of southern, southeastern, and eastern Asia. In the drier areas, other crops are cultivated such as grains (wheat, corn, barley, millet, sorghum, and oats), as well as peanuts, soybeans, tubers, and vegetables. In both situations, the land is intensively used, and the milder climate of those regions allows double cropping (the fields are planted and harvested two times per year).

Figure 10.11 Rice Terrace, the Philippines ; Author | Susan McCouch;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  Li cense | CC BY 2.5.

Figure 10.11 Raised fields, Vietnam ; Author | Dennis Jarvis;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY SA 2.0.

In recent decades, as the result of the introduction of higher-yielding grain varieties such as wheat, corn, and rice, known as the Green Revolution , tens of millions of subsistence farmers have been lifted above the survival level. The spread of these new varieties throughout the farmlands of South, Southeast, and East Asia and Mexico greatly improved the supply of food in these areas. Equally important was the use of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, and new machines. Today, China and India are self-sufficient in basic foods, while Thailand and Vietnam are two of the top rice exporters in the world. Although hunger and famine persist in some regions of the world, especially in Africa, many people accept that they would be much worse without using these innovations.

10.2.2 Commercial Agriculture

Commercial agriculture , generally practiced in core countries outside the tropics, is developed primarily to generate products for sale to food processing companies. An exception is plantation farming, a form of commercial agriculture which persists in developing countries side by side with subsistence. Unlike the small subsistence farms (1-2 hectares/2-5 acres), the average commercial farm size is over 150 hectares/370 acres (178 ha/193 acres U.S.), and, being mechanized, many of them are family-owned and operated. Mechanization also determines the percentage of the labor force in agriculture, with many developed countries being even below two percent of the total employment, such as Israel, the United Kingdom, Germany, the United States, Canada, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden ( Figure 10.6 ). Moreover, as a result of industrialization and urbanization, many developed countries continue to lose significant areas of agricultural land. North America, for example, had 28.3 percent agricultural land out of the total land area in 1961 and 26 percent in 2014. The European Union decreased its agricultural land from 54.7 percent to 43.8 percent for the same period, during which some countries recorded outstanding decreases, such as Ireland from 81.9 to 64.8 percent, the United Kingdom from 81.8 to 71.2 percent, and Denmark from 74.6 to 62.2 percent, to mention only a few. In addition to the high level of mechanization, to increase their productivity, commercial farmers use scientific advances in research and technology such as the Global Positioning System (autonomous precision seed-planting robot, intelligent systems for animal monitoring, savings in field vegetable-growing through the use of a GPS automatic steering system) and satellite imagery (finding efficient routes for selective harvesting based on remote sensing management).

Climate regions also play an important role in determining agricultural regions . In developed countries, these regions can be individualized as six types of commercial agriculture: mixed crop and livestock, grain farming, dairy farming, livestock ranching, commercial gardening and fruit farming, and Mediterranean agriculture.

10.2.2.1 Mixed Crop and Livestock

Mixed crop and livestock farming extends over much of the eastern United States, central and western Europe, western Russia, Japan, and smaller areas in South America (Brazil and Uruguay) and South Africa. The rich soils, typically involving crop rotation , produce high yields primarily of corn and wheat, adding also soybeans, sugar beets, sunflower, potatoes, fruit orchards, and forage crops for livestock. In practice, there is a wide variation in mixed systems. At a higher level, a region can consist of individual specialized farms (corn, for example) and service systems that together act as a mixed system. Other forms of mixed farming include the cultivation of different crops on the same field or several varieties of the same crop with different life cycles, using space more efficiently, and spreading risks more uniformly. The same farm may grow cereal crops or orchards, for example, and keep cattle, sheep, pigs, or poultry ( Figure 10.13 ).

Figure 10.13 Crop-livestock Integration; Sheep grazing under tall-stemmed fruit trees (the Netherlands); Author | FAO;  Source | FAO;  License | © FAO. Used with permission.

10.2.2.2 Grain Farming

Commercial grain farming is an extensive and mechanized form of agriculture. This is a development in the continental lands of the mid-latitudes (mostly between 30° and 55° North and South latitudes), in regions that are too dry for mixed crop and livestock farming. The major world regions of commercial grain farming are located in Eurasia (from Kyiv, in Ukraine, along southern Russia, to Omsk in western Siberia and Kazakhstan) and North America (the Great Plains). In the southern hemisphere, Argentina, in South America, has a large region of commercial grain farming, and Australia has two such areas, one in the southwest and another in the southeast. Commercial grain farming is highly specialized, and generally, one single crop is grown. The most important crop grown is wheat (winter and spring), used to make flour ( Figure 10.14 ). The wheat farms are very large, ranging from 240 to 16,000 hectares (593-40000 acres). The average size of a farm in the U.S. is about 1000 acres (405 hectares). In these areas land is cheap, making it possible for a farmer to own very large holdings.

Figure 10.14 World Commercial Grain Farming ; Author | CIET NCERT;  Source | NROER;  License | CC BY SA 4.0.

10.2.2.3 Dairy Farming

Dairy farming is a branch of agriculture designed for the long-term production of milk, processed either on a farm or at a dairy plant, for sale. It is practiced near large urban areas in both developed and developing countries. The location of this type of farm is dictated by the highly perishable milk. The ring surrounding a city where fresh milk is economically viable, and supplied without spoiling, is about a 100-mile radius. In the 1980s and 1990s, robotic milking systems were developed and introduced in some developing countries, principally in the EU ( Figure 10.15 ). There is an important variation in the pattern of dairy production worldwide. Many countries that are large producers consume most of this internally, while others, in particular New Zealand, export a large percentage of their production, some from organic farms ( Figure 10.16 ).

Figure 10.15 Rotary Milking Parlor ;  Author | Gunnar Richter;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY SA 3.0.

Figure 10.16 Calves at Organic Dairy Farm ;  Author | Julia Rubinic;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY 2.0.

10.2.2.4 Livestock Ranching

Ranching is the commercial grazing of livestock on large tracts of land. It is an efficient way to raise livestock to provide meat, dairy products, and raw materials for fabrics. Contemporary ranching has become part of the meat-processing industry. Primarily, ranching is practiced on semiarid or arid land where the vegetation is too sparse and the soil too poor to support crops and is a vital part of economies and rural development around the world. In Australia, like in the Americas, ranching is a way of life ( Figure 10.17 ). In the United States, near Greeley, Colorado, there is the world’s largest cattle feedlot, with over 120,000 head, a subsidiary of the food giant ConAgra ( Figure 10.18 ). The largest beef-producing company in the world is the Brazilian multinational corporation JBS-Friboi. Argentina and Uruguay are the world’s top per capita consumers of beef. China is the leading producer of pig meat, while the United States leads in the production of chicken and beef.

Figure 10.17 Ranching ;  Author | William Henry Jackson;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | Public Domain.

Figure 10.18 Feedlot in the Texas Panhandle ;  Author | User “H2O”;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY SA 3.0.

10.2.2.5 Commercial Gardening and Fruit Farming

A market garden is a relatively small-scale business, growing vegetables, fruits, and flowers ( Figure 10.19 ). The farms are small, from under one acre to a few acres (.5-1.5 hectares). The diversity of crops is sometimes cultivated in greenhouses, distinguishing it from other types of farming. Commercial gardening and fruit farming are quite diverse, requiring more manual labor and gardening techniques. In the United States, commercial gardening and fruit farming are the predominant types of agriculture in the Southeast, the region with a warm and humid climate and a long growing season. In addition to the traditional vegetables and fruits (tomatoes, lettuce, onions, peaches, apples, cherries), a new kind of commercial gardening has developed in the Northeast. This is a non-traditional market garden, growing crops that, although limited, are increasingly demanded by consumers, such as asparagus, mushrooms, peppers, and strawberries. Market gardening has become an alternative business, significantly profitable and sustainable, especially with the recent popularity of organic and local food.

Figure 10.19 | Market Farming;  Author | U.S. Department of Agriculture;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | Public Domain. A garden with edible plants for use in a culinary school in Lawrenceville, Georgia

10.2.3 Mediterranean Agriculture

The term “Mediterranean agriculture” applies to the agriculture done in those regions that have a Mediterranean type of climate, hot and dry summers, and moist and mild winters. Five major regions in the world have a Mediterranean type of agriculture, such as the lands that border the Mediterranean Sea (South Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East), California, central Chile, South Africa’s Cape, and in parts of southwestern and southern Australia ( Figure 10.20 ). Farming is intensive, highly specialized, and varied in the kinds of crops raised. The hilly Mediterranean lands, also known as “ orchard lands of the world ,” are dominated by citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, and grapefruits), olives (primary for cooking oil), figs, dates, and grapes (primarily for wine), which are mainly for export. These and other commodities flow to distant markets, Mediterranean products tending to be popular and commanding high prices. Yet, the warm and sunny Mediterranean climate also allows a wide range of other food crops, such as cereals (wheat, especially) and vegetables, cultivated especially for domestic consumption.

Figure 10.20 Mediterranean Regions ; Author | User “me ne frego”;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY SA 4.0.

10.2.4 Plantation Farming

Plantations are large landholdings in developing regions designed to produce crops for export. These forms of farming are commonly found in LDCs but are often owned by corporations in MDCs. Plantations also tend to import workers and provide food, water, and shelter necessities for workers to live there year-round. Usually, they specialize in the production of one particular crop for the market laid out to produce coffee, cocoa, bananas, or sugar in South and Central America; cocoa, tea, rice, or rubber in West and East Africa; tea in South Asia; rubber in Southeast Asia; and/or other specialized and luxury crops such as palm oil, peanuts, cotton, and tobacco ( Figures 10.21 and 10.22 ). Plantations are located in the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, and although they are located in developing countries, many are owned and operated by European or North American individuals or corporations. Even those taken by governments of the newly independent countries continued to be operated by foreigners to receive income from foreign sources. These plantations survived during decolonization, continuing to serve the rich markets of the world. For more information on plantation farming and its dependence on enslaved populations in the past click on this link: https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/plantation-system/ .

Unlike coffee, sugar, rice, cotton, and other traditional crops, exported from large plantations, other crops can be required by the international market such as flowers and specific fruits and vegetables. These represent the nontraditional agricultural exports, which have become increasingly important in some countries or regions such as Argentina, Colombia, Chile, Mexico, and Central America, to mention a few. One important reason for sustaining nontraditional exports is that they complement traditional exports, generating foreign exchange and employment. Thus, plantation agriculture, designed to produce crops for export, is critical to the economies of many developing countries.

Figure 10.21 Coffee Plantation ; Author | User “Prince Tigereye”;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY 2.0.

Figure 10.22 Tea Plantation ;  Author | User “Joydeep”;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY SA 3.0.

LOUISIANA: Louisiana’s plantations were located along the Mississippi River on what is known as “The River Road,” which was used to transport the crops to the ports; they took advantage of the rich alluvial soil from the Mississippi. Before sugar cane, these lands were used to grow indigo, tobacco, cotton, and other crops.

Today Louisiana is among the top ten states in the production of sugar cane, sweet potatoes, rice, cotton, soybeans, and pecans. As for “specialty” commodities, the state ranks number one in the nation for the production of crawfish, shrimp, alligators, and oysters.

10.3 GLOBAL CHANGES IN FOOD PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

10.3.1 commercial agriculture and market forces.

The second agricultural revolution coincided with the Industrial Revolution; it was a revolution that would move agriculture beyond subsistence to generate the kinds of surpluses needed to feed thousands of people working in factories instead of in agricultural fields. Innovations in farming techniques and machinery that occurred in the late 1800s and early 1900s led to better diets, and longer life expectancy, and helped sustain the second agricultural revolution. The railroad helped move agriculture into new regions, such as the United States Great Plains. Geographer John Hudson traced the major role railroads and agriculture played in changing the landscape of that region from open prairie to individual farmsteads. Later, the internal combustible engine made possible the mechanization of machinery and the invention of tractors, combines, and a multitude of large farm equipment. New banking and lending practices helped farmers afford new equipment. In the 1800s, Johann Heinrich von Thünen (1783–1850) experienced the second agricultural revolution firsthand—because of this he developed his model (the Von Thünen Model), which is often described as the first effort to analyze the spatial character of economic activity. This was the birth of commercial agriculture.

Farming is part of agribusiness as a complex political and economic system that organizes food production from the development of seeds to the retailing and consumption of agricultural products. Although farming is just one stage of the complex economic process, it is incorporated into the world economic system of capitalism (globalized). Most farms are owned by individual families, but in this context, many other aspects of agribusiness are controlled by large corporations. Consequently, this type of farming responds to market forces rather than to feed the farmer. Using Von Thünen’s isolated state model, which generated four concentric rings of agricultural activity, geographers explain that the choice of crops on commercial farms is only worthwhile within certain distances from the city. The effect of distance determines that highly perishable products (milk, fresh fruits, and vegetables) need to be produced near the market, whereas grain farming and livestock ranching can be located on the peripheral rings ( Figure 10.23 ).

Figure 10.23 Von Thünen Model ; Author | Erin Silversmith;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | Public Domain. The dot represents a city. The white area around it (1) represents dairy and market gardening; 2) (green) the forest for fuel; 3) (yellow) field crops and grains; 4) (red) ranching and livestock; and the outer (dark green) region represents the wilderness where agriculture is not practiced.

New Zealand , for example, is a particular case of a country whose agriculture was thrown into a global free market. More specifically, its agriculture has changed in response to the restructuring of the global food system and, at the same time, is responding to a new global food regime. For New Zealand to remain competitive, farmers have to intensify the production of high-added value or more customized products, also focusing on nontraditional exports such as kiwi, Asian pears, vegetables, flowers, and venison (meat produced on deer farms) ( Figure 10.24 ). The New Zealand agricultural sector is unique in being the only developed country to be totally exposed to international markets since the government subsidies were removed.

Figure 10.24 Deer Farm, New Zealand; Author | User “LBM1948”;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY SA 4.0.

10.3.2 Biotechnology and Agriculture

Since the 19th century, manipulation and management of biological organisms have been key to the development of agriculture. In addition to the Green Revolution, agriculture has also undergone a biorevolution , involving agricultural biotechnology ( agritech ), an area of agricultural science involving the use of scientific tools and genetic engineering techniques to modify living organisms (or part of organisms) of plants and animals with the potential of outstripping the productivity increases of the Green Revolution and, at the same time, reducing agricultural production costs. Within the agricultural biotechnology process, desired traits are exported from a particular species of crop or animal to different species obtaining transgenic crops , which possess desirable characteristics in terms of flavor, the color of flowers, growth rate, size of harvested products, and resistance to diseases and pests (BT corn, for example, can produce its pesticides).

By removing the genetic material from one organism and inserting it into the permanent genetic code of another, the biotech industry has created an astounding number of organisms that are not produced by nature. It has been estimated that upwards of 75 percent of processed foods on supermarket shelves—from soda to soup, crackers to condiments—contain genetically engineered ingredients. So far, little is known about the impacts of genetically modified (GM) foods on human health and the environment. Consequently, it is difficult to sort the benefits from the costs of their increasing incorporation into global food production. The United States is the leader not only in the number of genetically engineered (GE) food crops but also in the largest areas planted with commercialized biotech crops. Many countries in Europe, for example, consider that genetic modification has not been proven safe, the reason for which they require all food to be labeled and refuse to import GM food. Yet, in the United States, genetic modification is permitted, taking into consideration that there is no evidence yet supporting that it is dangerous. Many people instead consider that they have the right to decide what they eat, and consequently, in their opinion, labeling of GM products must be mandatory. Protests against GMO regulatory structures have been very effective in many countries including the United States ( Figure 10.25 ).

Figure 10.25 Protest against GMOs ; Author | Rosalee Yagihara;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY SA 2.0.

Currently, over 60 countries around the world require labeling of genetically modified foods, including 28 nations in the European Union, Japan, Australia, Brazil, Russia, India, South Africa, China, and other countries ( Figure 10.26 ). The debates regarding labeling certainly will continue. Since no one knows whether GM foods are entirely bad or entirely good, regulatory structures are crucial in protecting human health and the environment.

Figure 10.26 GM Labeling Around the Globe 1 ; Author | User “Co9man”;  Source | Wikimedia Commons;  License | CC BY SA 4.0.

10.3.3 Food and Health

Since the end of World War II, the world’s technically and economically feasible food production potential has significantly expanded. As a result, today, there is more than enough food to feed all the people on Earth ( Figure 10.27 ) Yet, the major issue is the access to food , which is uneven, the reason for which millions of individuals in both the core and the periphery are affected by poverty, preventing them from securing adequate nutrition.

Figure 10.27 Population & Food Supply; Author | FAO;  Source | Infogram;  License | © FAO. Used with permission.

Hunger , chronic (long-term) or acute (short-term), therefore, is one of the most pressing issues facing the world today. Chronic hunger, also known as undernutrition , is an inadequate consumption of the necessary nutrients and/or calories. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) considers at least 1,800 kcal/day for an individual to consume to maintain a healthy life. The world average consumption is 2,780 kcal/day, but there is a significant difference between developed countries, with an average of 3,470 kcal/day (3,800 kcal/day in the U.S.), and developing countries, recording an average of 2,630 kcal/day (even less in sub-Saharan countries). FAO estimates that currently about 800 million people are undernourished globally, significantly less than in the early 1990s, but the majority continue to be counted in southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa ( Figure 10.28 ). One form of hunger is famine , an acute starvation caused even by a population’s command over food resources, natural disasters (e.g., drought in Ethiopia in 1984–1985), or wars. In contrast, in North America, the United States especially, where the food is abundant and inspected for quality, overeating is a national problem, the reason for which the general condition of the population is reflected more by obesity ( Figure 10.29 ).

Figure 10.28 FAO Food Insecurity Map 2021 2 ; Author | Source | License | Open Access.

Figure 10.29 U.S. Adult obesity rates, 2016– 2021;  Author | CDC;  Source | CDC;  License | Public Domain.

Nutritional vulnerability is conceptualized in terms of the notion of food security. According to FAO, food security exists when all people, at all times, have access to food for an active and healthy life. Related to food security is the concept of food sovereignty , which is the right of people, communities, and countries to define their agricultural policies. One factor connected with food in general and food sovereignty especially is the fact that more cropland is redirected to raising biofuels , fuels derived from biological materials. They not only have a significant and increasing impact on global food systems but also result in the evictions of small farmers and poor communities. Read more about food insecurity by going to FEEDING AMERICA using this link https://www.feedingamerica.org/hunger-in-america/food-insecurity .

LOUISIANA: According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, 10.4 percent of American households experienced hunger in 2021. These states have the highest percentages of American households who experienced hunger: Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, West Virginia, Oklahoma, Texas, Alabama, South Carolina, Kentucky, and Missouri . See Figure 10.30 to see where in Louisiana to find the parishes with low food security. To access maps and data from the United States Department of Agriculture for the state of Louisiana: https://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/Louisiana/index.php .

Figure 10.30 Louisiana and Its Levels of Food Insecurity ; Author | Source | License | 

10.3.4 Sustainable Agriculture

Alongside the emergence of a core-oriented food regime especially of fresh fruits and vegetables, a new orientation in agriculture is sustainability. According to the Sustainable Agriculture Initiative (SAI), “ sustainable agriculture is the efficient production of safe, high-quality agricultural products, in a way that protects and improves the natural environment, the social and economic conditions of farmers, their employees and local communities, and safeguards the health and welfare of all farmed species” (SAI Platform 20102018) . More specifically, sustainability in agriculture is the increased commitment to organic farming , the principles, and practices for sustainable agriculture developed by SAI being articulated around three main pillars: society, economy, and environment .

10.4 SUMMARY

Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, domesticating species of plants and animals and creating food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization. It began independently in different parts of the globe, both the Old and New World. Throughout history, agriculture played a dynamic role in expanding food supplies, creating employment, and providing a rapidly growing market for industrial products. Although subsistence, self-sufficient agriculture has largely disappeared in Europe and North America, it continues today in large parts of rural Africa and parts of Asia and Latin America. While traditional forms of agricultural practices continue to exist, they are overshadowed by the global industrialization of agriculture, which has accelerated in the last few decades. Yet, commercial agriculture differs significantly from subsistence agriculture, as the main objective of commercial agriculture is achieving higher profits.

Farmers in both the core and the periphery have had to adjust to many changes that occurred at all levels, from the local to the global. Although states have become important players in the regulation and support of agriculture, at the global level, the World Trade Organization (WTO) has significant implications for agriculture. Social reactions to genetically engineered foods have repercussions throughout the world food system. Currently, the focus is especially on the option that a balanced, safe, and sustainable approach can be the solution not only to achieve sustainable intensification of crop productivity but also to protect the environment. Therefore, agriculture has become a highly complex, globally integrated system, and achieving the transformation to sustainable agriculture is a major challenge.

10.5 KEY TERMS DEFINED

agribusiness : commercial agriculture engaged in the production, processing, and distribution of food

agriculture : a science, art, and business directed to modify some specific portions of the Earth’s surface through the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock for sustenance and profit

biofuels : fuel derived from biological materials

biorevolution : the genetic engineering of plants and animals with the potential to exceed the production of the Green Revolution

biotechnology : the manipulation through genetic engineering of living organisms or their components to make or modify products or processes for specific use

commercial agriculture : a system in which farmers produce crops and animals primarily for sale

conventional farming : agriculture that uses chemicals (fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides) and/or hormone-based practices

crop rotation : method in which the field under cultivation remains the same, but the crop is changed to avoid exhausting the soil

double cropping : a method used in the milder climates in which intensive subsistence fields are planted and harvested twice per year

famine : an extreme scarcity of food

food regime : a specific set of links, indicating the ways a particular type of food is dominant during a specific time

food security : the situation when all people, at all times, have access to food for an active and healthy life

food sovereignty : the right of people, communities, and countries to define their own agricultural policies

globalized agriculture : agriculture increasingly influenced more at the global or regional levels than at the national level

genetically modified organisms (GMOs): organisms that have their DNA modified in a laboratory

Green Revolution : a new agricultural technology characterized by high-yield seeds and fertilizers exported from the core to the periphery to increase agricultural productivity

hunting and gathering : activities through which people obtain food from hunting wild animals, fishing, and gathering fruits, nuts, and roots

intensive subsistence agriculture : a form of subsistence agriculture in which farmers involve the effective and efficient use of small parcels of land to maximize crop yield per hectare

nontraditional agricultural exports : new export crops that contrast with traditional exports

organic farming : a method of crop and livestock production without commercial fertilizers, pesticides, growth hormones, and genetically modified organisms

pastoralism : subsistence activity that involves the breeding and herding of animals to satisfy the human needs of food, shelter, and clothing

pastoral nomadism : a traditional form of subsistence agriculture in which the pastoralists travel with their herds over long distances and with no fixed pattern

plantation : large landholdings in developing regions specialized in the production of one or two crops usually for export to more developed countries

ranching : a form of commercial agriculture in which the livestock graze over an extensive area

shifting cultivation : a form of subsistence agriculture, which involves a kind of natural rotation system

slash-and-burn agriculture : a method for obtaining more agricultural land in which fields are cleared ( swidden ) by slashing the vegetation and burning the debris

subsistence agriculture : farming designed to grow food only to sustain farmers and their families, consuming most of what they produce without entering into the cash economy of the country

sustainable agriculture : the efficient production of safe, high-quality agricultural products in a way that protects and improves the natural environment and the social and economic conditions of farmers and safeguards the health and welfare of all farmed species

swidden : land that is cleared for planting using the slash-and-burn process

transhumance : a seasonal vertical movement by herding the livestock to cooler, greener high-country pastures in the summer and returning them to lowland settings for fall and winter grazing

undernourishment/undernutrition : inadequate dietary consumption that is below the minimum requirement for maintaining a healthy life

10.6 WORKS CONSULTED AND FURTHER READING

Alexandratos, N., and Bruinsma, J. 2012. World agriculture towards 2030/2050. The 2012 revision. www.fao.org/docrep/016e/ap106e.pdf.

Bernstein, H. 2015. Food regimes and food regime analysis: A selective survey.  https://www.iss.nl/fileadmin/ASSETS/iss/Research_and_projects/Research_ networks/L DPI/CMCP_1_Bernstein.pdf.

___. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_biotechnology.

___. AGBIOS (Agriculture and Biotechnology Strategies). Database. http://www.agbios.com.

___. https://www.google.com/agricultural hearths.

___. 2008. Biofuel and food security. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). https://www.ifpri.org/publication/biofuels-and-food-security.

Brandt, K. 1967. Can food supply keep pace with population growth? Foundation for Economic Education (FEE). https://fee.org/articles.

Colman, D., and Nixon, F. 1986. Economics of change in less developed countries. 2nd Ed. Totowa, NJ: Barnes and Noble Books.

___. www.abbreviations.com/commercial agriculture.

___. https://www.google.com/corn production.

___. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy_farming.

De Blij, H. J. 1995. The Earth: An introduction to its physical and human geography . 4E. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

De Blij, H. J., and Muller, P. 2010. Geography: Realms, regions, and concepts. 14 E. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Dickenson, J., Gould, B., Clarke, C., Marther, S., Siddle, D., Smith, C., and Thomas-Hope, E. 1996. A Geography of the Third World. Second edition. New York: Routledge.

Domosh, M., Neumann, R., and Price, P. Contemporary Human Geography: Culture, Globalization, Landscape . New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.

___. https://www.google.com/search?q=maps+world+agric+employment.

___. https://en.actualitix.com/country/wld/employment-in-agriculture.php/ .

Evenson, R. 2008. Environmental planning for a sustainable food supply. In Toward a vision of land in 2015: International perspectives , ed. G. C. Cornia and J. Riddell, 285-305. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

___. https://typesoffarming.wordpress.com/2016/01/21/what-are-the-main-types-offarming.

___. The state of food and agriculture: Climate change, agriculture, and food security. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6132e.pdf.

___. The state of food insecurity in the world 2015. http://www.fao.org/3/ai4646e.pdf.

___. Protecting our food, farm, and environment. Center of Food Safety. http://www.centerforfoodsafety.org/.

___. Food security statistics. www.fao.org/economic/ess/ess-fs/en.

Friedmann, H. Food regimes and their transformation . Food Systems Academy.  www.foodsystemsacademy.org.uk/audio/docs/HF1-Food-regime-Transcript. pdf.

___. Tulip Fields, Lisse, Netherlands. https://in.pinterest.com/pin/.

___. About genetically engineered food. Center for Food Safety. www. centerforfoodsafety.org/issues/311/ge-food/about-ge-foods.

___. Genetically modified foods. Learn. Genetics. Genetic Science Learning Center. http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/science/gmfoods/.

___. Genetically modified food. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_ modified_food.

___. GM food: Viewpoints. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/harvest/viewpoints.

___. 2016. Global status of commercialized biotech/GM crops: Brief 52. ISAAA.  www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/Brief/52/doawnload/isaaa-brief-52-2016. pdf.

___. How to avoid GMOs in your food. https://www.foodandwaterwatch.org/ live-healthy/how-avoid-gmos-your-food.

___. GMO: Labeling around the world. http://www.justlabelit.org/a-gmolabeling-around-the-world/.

___. Just label it: We have a right to know. http://www.justlabelit.org/rightto-know-center/right-to-know/.

Gimenez, E. H., and Shattuck, A. 2011. Food crises, food regimes, and food movements: Rumblings of reform or tides of transformations? Taylor & Francis http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abc/10.1080/03066150.2010.538578

___. Commercial grain farming: Location and characteristics. www. yourarticlelibrary.com/family/commercial-grain-farming-location-andcharacteristics-with maps/25446.

Gruber, Carl. Hunter-Gatherer Men Not the Selfless Providers We Thought. March 31, 2016.  http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/history-culture/2016/03/ hunter-gatherer- men-not-the-selfless-providers-we-thought /.

___. Harvest of Fear . NOVA Frontline. DVD.

___. Herding: Pastoralism, mustering, droving. https://www. nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/herding.

___. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History-_of_agriculture

Hueston, W., and McLeod, A. Overview of the global food system: Changes over time/space and lessons for future food safety. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ books/NBK114491/.

___. Hunger. http://www.fao.org/hunger.en/.

___. Hunger Map. 2015. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4674e.pdf.

___. https://wikipedia.org/wiki/hunter-gatherer.

___. Survival International. Accessed May 5, 2018. https://www.survivalinternational. org/tribes/congobasintribes/.

___. The Ifugao rice terraces. June 1, 2014. https://arlenemay.wordpress.com/2014/06/01/ the-banaue-rice-terraces/.

Knox, P., and Marston, S. 2013. Human Geography: Places and regions in global context . Sixth Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

___. ISAAA (International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications). http://www.isaaa.org.

Lernoud, J., and Willer, H. 2017. Organic agriculture worldwide: Key results from the FIBL survey on organic agriculture worldwide. Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FIBL), Frick, Switzerland. http://orgprints.org/3424/7/fibl-2017global-data-2015.pdf.

Magnan, A. 2012. Food Regime. In The Oxford Handbook of Food History , ed. J. M. Pilcher. Oxford Handbooks. www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/ oxfordhb/9780199729937.001.0001/oxf.

___. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_garden .

___. www.yourarticlelibrary.com/agriculture/mediterranean-agriculture-location-and characteristics-with-diagrams/25443.

___. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed-farming.

___. Characterization of mixed farms. www.fao.org/docrep/004/Y0501E/ y0501e03.htm.

Nap, J.-P., Metz, P., Escaler, M., and Conner, A. 2003. The release of genetically modified crops into the environment. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/10.1046/j.0960-7412.2003.01602.x/full.

___. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_New_Zealand.

___. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wiki/Economy_of_New_Zealand.

___. The interactive map tracks obesity in the United States: 2013 U.S. adult obesity rate. https://www.sciencenews.org/article/interactive-map-tracks-obesity-unitedstates.

___. Organic area. http://faostat.fao.org/static/syb/syb_5000.pdf.

___. Organic farming by country. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_ farming_by_country.

___. Organic farming statistics. http://www.fibl.en/themes/organic-farmingstatistics.html.

___. Organic universe. Down to Earth. Fortnightly of politics of development, environment, and health www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/organicuniverse-38665.

___. Organic world: Global organic farming statistics and news. 2015. http://www.organic-world.net/statistics/statistics-data-tables.html.

___. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastoralism.

___. https://www.videoblocks.com/video/cows-sheep-and-goats-in-front-of-a-yurtger-from-a-m ongolian-nomads-family-xlzkuzf/.

Pulsipher, L. M. 2000. World Regional Geography . New York: W. H. Freeman and Company

___. Rancing. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/rancing.

___. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranch .

Roser, M., and Ritchie, H. Land use in agriculture. https://ourworldindata/ land-use-in-agriculture.

Rowntree, L., Lewis, M., Price, M., and Wyckoff, W. 2006. Diversity amid globalization:  World regions, environment, development . 3rd Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Rubenstein, J. 2013. Contemporary Human Geography . 2e. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Rubenstein, J. 2016. Contemporary Human Geography . 3e. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

___. Slash-and-burn farming in Congo. https://www.youtube.com/channel/ UCxM5DOEmlPN4rd9_Egj12pA/ .

___. Intensive subsistence agriculture. www.yourarticlelibrary.com/ agriculture-intensive-subsistence-agriculture/44620.

___. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture.

___. www.anthro.palomar.edu/subsistence/sub_3.htm.

___. Types of subsistence farming: Primitive and intensive subsistence farming.  www.yourarticlelibrary.com/fg/types-of-subsistence-farming-primitive-andintensive- subsistence-farming/25457.

___. Sustainable agriculture initiative platform: The global food value chain initiative for sustainable agriculture. http://www.saiplatform.org/sustainableagriculture/definition.

Than, Ker. Climate change is linked to waterborne diseases in Inuit communities. April 7, 2012.  https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/04/120405-climate-changewaterborne- diseases-inuit/.

___. Chicago Board of Trade. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Board_ of_Trade/.

___. Transhumance. https://www.britannica.com/topic/transhumance.

___. www.medconsortium.org/projects/tranhumance.

___. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumance.

True, J. 2005. Country before money? Economic globalization and national identity in New Zealand. In Economic nationalism in a globalizing world , ed. E. Helleiner and A. Pickel, Chapter 9. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. https://books.google.com/

Tyson, P. Should we grow GM crops? http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/harvest/ exist/ www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/FCIT/PDF/UPA-WB paper-Final_ October_2008.pdf.

___. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_von_Thunen .

___. https://www.google.com.wheat production.

World Bank. World Development Indicators: Agricultural inputs. wdi.worldbank.org/table/3.2.

World Bank. 2015. Data Bank: World Development Indicators. Agricultural land. www://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.AGRI.ZS?view=chart.

World Bank. 2016. Data Bank: World Development Indicators. Employment in agriculture. www://databank.worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=SL.AGR.  EMPL.ZS&country.

10.7 ENDNOTES

• https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/genetically-modified-organisms/
• https://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/SOFI/2022/docs/map-fies-print.pdf

Introduction to Human Geography Copyright © 2024 by LOUIS: The Louisiana Library Network is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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127 Food Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

When it comes to writing essays about food, the possibilities are endless. From exploring the cultural significance of certain dishes to analyzing the science behind food trends, there are countless topics to choose from. If you're looking for inspiration, here are 127 food essay topic ideas and examples to get you started:

• The impact of food advertising on children's dietary habits
• The rise of veganism in mainstream culture
• The history of chocolate and its cultural significance
• The health benefits of a Mediterranean diet
• The environmental impact of meat consumption
• The role of food in shaping cultural identity
• The ethics of food production and consumption
• The psychology of comfort food
• The science behind food cravings
• The cultural significance of street food
• The history of fast food in America
• The impact of food insecurity on public health
• The rise of food delivery services and their impact on traditional restaurants
• The health risks of processed foods
• The cultural significance of food in literature and film
• The impact of food deserts on low-income communities
• The rise of food blogging and its influence on food culture
• The health benefits of fermented foods
• The history of food preservation techniques
• The impact of food packaging on the environment
• The cultural significance of holiday foods
• The rise of food allergies and their impact on the food industry
• The history of food riots and their role in shaping social movements
• The impact of food waste on the environment
• The role of food in social gatherings and celebrations
• The cultural significance of food rituals and traditions
• The rise of food tourism and its impact on local economies
• The history of food safety regulations
• The health benefits of plant-based diets
• The impact of food trends on consumer behavior
• The cultural significance of food in religious ceremonies
• The rise of food trucks and their influence on urban dining
• The history of food as medicine
• The impact of food insecurity on mental health
• The role of food in shaping national identity
• The health risks of sugar consumption
• The cultural significance of food in art and photography
• The impact of food allergies on social interactions
• The rise of food delivery apps and their impact on the restaurant industry
• The history of food preservation techniques in different cultures
• The health benefits of a plant-based diet
• The cultural significance of food in different regions of the world
• The impact of food advertising on consumer behavior
• The role of food in shaping family relationships
• The rise of food waste and its impact on the environment
• The history of food packaging and its evolution over time
• The health risks of processed foods and artificial additives
• The cultural significance of food in different religious traditions
• The impact of food insecurity on children's academic performance
• The rise of food delivery services and their impact on traditional dining experiences
• The history of food preservation techniques in ancient civilizations
• The health benefits of a Mediterranean diet and its impact on longevity
• The cultural significance of street food in different countries
• The impact of food deserts on low-income communities and their access to nutritious foods
• The rise of food blogging and its influence on food trends
• The history of fast food in America and its role in shaping American dietary habits
• The health risks of sugar consumption and its impact on obesity rates
• The cultural significance of food in different social classes
• The impact of food waste on the environment and potential solutions to reduce waste
• The role of food in social gatherings and celebrations and its impact on community bonding
• The rise of food tourism and its impact on local economies and cultural exchange
• The history of food safety regulations and their evolution over time
• The health benefits of plant-based diets and their impact on chronic diseases
• The cultural significance of food in different religious ceremonies and rituals
• The impact of food allergies on social interactions and mental health
• The role of food in shaping national identity and cultural heritage
• The health risks of processed foods and their impact on public health
• The cultural significance of food in art and literature
• The impact of food advertising on children's dietary habits and preferences
• The rise of veganism in mainstream culture and its impact on the food industry
• The history of chocolate and its cultural significance in different cultures
• The health benefits of a Mediterranean diet and its impact on cardiovascular health
• The environmental impact of meat consumption and potential alternatives
• The role of food in shaping cultural identity and preserving traditions
• The ethics of food production and consumption and

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Food System Primer

• The Food System
• Distribution
• Food & Nutrition
• Food Safety
• Wasted Food
• Food Policy

History of Agriculture

• Industrialization of Agriculture
• Crops & Ecology
• Industrial Food Animal Production
• Food & Climate Change
• Ecological & Urban Agriculture

Agriculture, the cultivation of food and goods through farming, produces the vast majority of the world’s food supply. It is thought to have been practiced sporadically for the past 13,000 years, 1  and widely established for only 7,000 years. 2  In the long view of human history, this is just a flash in the pan compared to the nearly 200,000 years our ancestors spent gathering, hunting, and scavenging in the wild. During its brief history, agriculture has radically transformed human societies and fueled a global population that has grown from 4 million to 7 billion since 10,000 BCE, and is still growing. 3

The road to the present has not been smooth. Resource degradation, rapid population growth, disease, changing climates, and other forces have periodically crippled food supplies, with the poor bearing the brunt of famine. We still face many of the same challenges as our ancestors, in addition to new and even greater threats. To successfully navigate an uncertain future, we can begin by learning from the past.

Dawn of Agriculture

The San are among the first people to have lived in southern Africa, and are one of the few societies that still follow a hunter-gatherer diet. To sustain their lifestyle, San typically spend 12 to 19 hours per week gathering food from the wild—what many might consider a life of leisure. When one San person was asked why he hadn't adopted farming, he replied, "Why should we, when there are so many mongongo nuts in the world? 12 Photo credit: Dietmar Temps, 2010. Creative Commons CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 .

Paleoanthropologists have estimated that the earliest fossil evidence of  Homo sapiens— anatomically modern humans—is roughly 196,000 years old. 4  For the vast majority of the time since our species’ arrival on the evolutionary scene, we acquired food by gathering it from the wild. 1,5  Wild plant-based foods and fungi were important staples in the paleolithic diet, including the wild ancestors of some species that are widely cultivated today. 6  While the ancestral hunt for wild animals is often depicted as an epic conflict against woolly mammoths, woolly rhinos, giant elk, and other prehistoric megafauna, early humans also took to foraging for humble insects 7  and scavenging the remains of dead animals. 8

From as early as 11,000 BCE, people began a gradual transition away from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle toward cultivating crops and raising animals for food. The shift to agriculture is believed to have occurred independently in several parts of the world, including northern China, Central America, and the Fertile Crescent, a region in the Middle East that cradled some of the earliest civilizations. 1  By 6000 BCE, most of the farm animals we are familiar with today had been domesticated. 1  By 5000 BCE, agriculture was practiced in every major continent except Australia. 2

Why did people give up hunting and gathering for farming? There are many plausible reasons, all of which likely played some role at different times and across different parts of the world:

• Changes in climate  may have made it too cold or too dry to rely on wild food sources. 1
• Greater population density  may have demanded more food than could be harvested from the wild, and farming provided more food per acre, even if it did require more time and energy. 1,9
• Overhunting  may have helped push woolly mammoths and other megafauna to extinction. 10
• Changing technology , such as domesticated seeds, would have made agriculture a more viable lifestyle. 5,11

Dawn of Civilizations

Grave chamber of an Egyptian public official, circa 1250 BCE.

The plow is believed to have been used as early as 4,000 years ago in ancient Egypt. Although it brought tremendous gains in short-term productivity, it has also been a major contributor to soil erosion . The loss of fertile topsoil has played a role in the decline of numerous civilizations. 14 Photo: public domain.

For better or for worse, agriculture was a driving force behind the growth of civilizations.

Farming probably involved more work than hunting and gathering, but it is thought to have provided 10 to 100 times more calories per acre. 5  More abundant food supplies could support denser populations, and farming tied people to their land. Small settlements grew into towns, and towns grew into cities. 1

Agriculture produced enough food that people became free to pursue interests other than worrying about what they were going to eat that day. Those who didn’t need to be farmers took on roles as soldiers, priests, administrators, artists, and scholars. As early civilizations began to take shape, political and religious leaders rose up to rule them, creating classes of “haves” and “have-nots.” Whereas hunter-gatherer societies generally viewed resources as belonging to everyone, agriculture led to a system of ownership over land, food, and currency that was not (and is still not) equitably distributed among the people. 1,13

Some have questioned whether moving away from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle was in humanity’s best interests, pointing to problems of social inequality, malnutrition, and military conflict that followed the adoption of farming. 1,5  One prominent scientist has even called agriculture the “worst mistake in the history of the human race.” 12 That may be, but given the size and density of human populations today, returning to a paleolithic lifestyle is not a practical option. Hunting, gathering, and farming, however, can complement one another in ways that provide people with a more varied and abundant food supply. People still harvest  aquatic plants and animals  from the sea, for example, and even urban dwellers might find edible berries, greens, and mushrooms in their local park.

Limits to Growth

In the history of civilization … the plowshare has been far more destructive than the sword. – Daniel Hillel 15

Depleted farmland and a changing climate set the stage for periodic famines throughout much of Europe from 1300 to 1850. 19 This print, titled Dance of Death, conveys the fragility of life during this period. Image attributed to Michael Wolgemut, 1493. Public domain.

Agriculture may have made civilizations possible, but it has never been a safeguard against their collapse. Throughout history, increases in agricultural productivity competed against population growth, resource degradation, droughts, changing climates, and other forces that periodically crippled food supplies, with the poor bearing the brunt of famine.

Like many of their modern counterparts, early farmers often worked land in ways that depleted its fertility. Technological innovations like irrigation (circa 6000 BCE) and the plow (circa 3000 BCE) brought enormous gains in productivity, but when used irresponsibly they degraded soil—the very foundation that makes agriculture possible. 16,17 By the beginning of the Common Era, Roman farmers had degraded their soil to the point where they could no longer grow enough food and had to rely on imports from distant Egypt. Rome’s eventual decline is one of many cautionary tales about the importance of sustainable agriculture. 1

By 1798, economist Thomas Malthus warned that unchecked population growth would outpace food production, setting the stage for widespread starvation. 18 History is no stranger to this scenario—depleted farmland and changing climates set the stage for periodic famines throughout much of Europe from 1300 to 1850. 1,19 Malthus’ critics, meanwhile, argued (and still argue) that scientific innovation would keep famine at bay by always finding ways to increase food production. Although his predictions have not played out exactly as he described, Malthus’ work reminds us that the Earth has limited capacity to support human development.

The Population Boom

Application of anhydrous ammonia (synthetic nitrogen) fertilizer at planting time on an Iowa farm.

Synthetic fertilizers are manufactured using a technique that transforms nitrogen in the atmosphere into a form that can be applied to crops (ammonia). These chemicals have dramatically increased short-term crop yields, though not without  consequences . The heavy use of synthetic fertilizers has become a hallmark of industrial agriculture . Photo credit: Lynn Betts, USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service.

From 1900 to 2011, the global population grew from 1.6 billion to 7 billion. 20 Despite such explosive growth, the world’s farmers produced enough calories in 2012 to feed the entire population, plus an additional 1.6 billion people. 21 Hunger  remains a global crisis, largely because those calories are not evenly distributed across the population, and much of the world’s food supply is  never eaten . Still, the sheer volume of production dwarfs that of earlier generations. What has made such unprecedented abundance possible?

Innovations in food production and distribution have thus far helped food supplies keep pace with population growth. Crops indigenous to the Americas, such as corn, sweet potatoes, and cassava, spread across the globe. The nutrients provided by these prolific crops helped prevent malnutrition, supporting a widespread increase in population over the 18 th  century. 20  Expanded railways, shipping canals, and new machinery for storing and moving grain helped the U.S. become a major exporter of surplus wheat and corn, supplying much of Europe during times of scarcity overseas. 22 Improvements in  refrigerated transport  allowed farmers to ship perishable food over greater distances. 23

Of all the innovations in agriculture, arguably none has been more influential than synthetic fertilizers—chemicals manufactured using a technique that transforms nitrogen in the atmosphere into a form that can be applied to crops (ammonia). First introduced in the early 1900s, synthetic fertilizers dramatically increased crop yields (though not without  consequences ), and have been credited with providing the lion’s share of the world’s food over the 20 th  century. 24 The use of these and other chemicals has become a hallmark of  industrial agriculture .

This list is a starting point for further exploration. Some materials may not reflect the views of the Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future.

For teachers

• Industrialization of Agriculture  (lesson plan). FoodSpan. The Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future.
• Introduction to the US Food System: Public Health, Environment, and Equity  (textbook). Neff RN (editor). Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future. 2014.
• Foodies Unite: Insects Should Be More Food Than Fad . Emma Bryce. The Guardian. 2014.
• Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity  (open access). Pontzer H, Raichlen DA, et al. PLOS One. 2012.
• Are Malthus's Predicted 1798 Food Shortages Coming True?  Jeffrey Sachs. Scientific American. 2008.
• The Worst Mistake in the History of the Human Race . Jared Diamond. Discover Magazine. 1999.
• Refrigeration Nation: A History of Ice, Appliances, and Enterprise in America . Jonathan Rees. 2013.
• Fresh: A Perishable History . Susanne Freidberg. 2009.
• Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations . David Montgomery. 2008.
• The World's Greatest Fix: A History of Nitrogen and Agriculture . G. J. Leigh. 2004.  
• Montgomery D. Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press; 2008.
• Bulliet RW, Crossley PK, Headrick DR, Johnson LL, Hirsch SW. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History, Volume I. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin; 2008.
• Kremer M. Population Growth and Technological Change: One Million B.C. to 1990. Q J Econ. 1993;108(3):681-716.
• Trinkaus E. Early Modern Humans. Annu Rev Anthropol. 2005;34(1):207-230.
• Diamond J. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York, New York: W. W. Norton and Company; 1999.
• Diamond J. Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animal domestication. Nature. 2002;418(6898):700-707.
• Raubenheimer D, Rothman JM, Pontzer H, Simpson SJ. Macronutrient contributions of insects to the diets of hunter-gatherers: A geometric analysis. J Hum Evol . 2014;71:70-76.
• Moleón M, Sánchez-Zapata JA, Margalida A, Carrete M, Owen-Smith N, Donázar JA. Humans and Scavengers: The Evolution of Interactions and Ecosystem Services. Bioscience. 2014.
• Vasey D. An Ecological History of Agriculture: 10,000 B.C. - A.D. 10,000. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press; 1992.
• Stuart AJ, Sulerzhitsky LD, Orlova LA, Kuzmin Y V., Lister AM. The latest woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius Blumenbach) in Europe and Asia: A review of the current evidence. Quat Sci Rev. 2002;21(14-15):1559-1569.
• Dow G, Olewiler N, Reed C. The Transition to Agriculture: Climate Reversals, Population Density, and Technical Change. Simon Fraser University; 2005.
• Diamond J. The Worst Mistake in the History of the Human Race. Discov Mag. 1987:64-66.
• Price TD. Social Inequality at the Foundations of Agriculture. In: Price TD, Feinman G, eds. Foundations of Social Inequality. New York: Platinum Press; 1995.
• Pryor LF. The invention of the plow. Comp Stud Soc Hist. 1985;27(4).
• Hillel D. Out of the Earth: Civilization and the Life of the Soil. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; 1991.
• Montgomery D. Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press; 2008.
• Cohen JE. People control the growth of nonhuman populations. In: How Many People Can the Earth Support?. New York and London: W. W. Norton and Company; 1995.
• Malthus TR. An Essay on the Principle of Population, Volume 1.; 1798.
• Appleby AB. Epidemics and Famine in the Little Ice Age. J Interdiscip Hist. 2013;10(4).
• Cohen JE. How Many People Can the Earth Support? New York and London: W. W. Norton and Company; 1995.
• U.N. Food & Agriculture Organization. FAOSTAT. 2013. http://faostat3.fao.org/.

Essay on Agriculture for Students and Children

500+ words essay on agriculture.

Agriculture is one of the major sectors of the Indian economy. It is present in the country for thousands of years. Over the years it has developed and the use of new technologies and equipment replaced almost all the traditional methods of farming. Besides, in India, there are still some small farmers that use the old traditional methods of agriculture because they lack the resources to use modern methods. Furthermore, this is the only sector that contributed to the growth of not only itself but also of the other sector of the country.

Growth and Development of the Agriculture Sector

India largely depends on the agriculture sector. Besides, agriculture is not just a mean of livelihood but a way of living life in India. Moreover, the government is continuously making efforts to develop this sector as the whole nation depends on it for food.

For thousands of years, we are practicing agriculture but still, it remained underdeveloped for a long time. Moreover, after independence, we use to import food grains from other countries to fulfill our demand. But, after the green revolution, we become self-sufficient and started exporting our surplus to other countries.

Besides, these earlier we use to depend completely on monsoon for the cultivation of food grains but now we have constructed dams, canals, tube-wells, and pump-sets. Also, we now have a better variety of fertilizers, pesticides, and seeds, which help us to grow more food in comparison to what we produce during old times.

With the advancement of technology, advanced equipment, better irrigation facility and the specialized knowledge of agriculture started improving.

Furthermore, our agriculture sector has grown stronger than many countries and we are the largest exporter of many food grains.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Significance of Agriculture

It is not wrong to say that the food we eat is the gift of agriculture activities and Indian farmers who work their sweat to provide us this food.

In addition, the agricultural sector is one of the major contributors to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and national income of the country.

Also, it requires a large labor force and employees around 80% of the total employed people. The agriculture sector not only employees directly but also indirectly.

Moreover, agriculture forms around 70% of our total exports. The main export items are tea, cotton, textiles, tobacco, sugar, jute products, spices, rice, and many other items.

Negative Impacts of Agriculture

Although agriculture is very beneficial for the economy and the people there are some negative impacts too. These impacts are harmful to both environments as the people involved in this sector.

Deforestation is the first negative impact of agriculture as many forests have been cut downed to turn them into agricultural land. Also, the use of river water for irrigation causes many small rivers and ponds to dry off which disturb the natural habitat.

Moreover, most of the chemical fertilizers and pesticides contaminate the land as well as water bodies nearby. Ultimately it leads to topsoil depletion and contamination of groundwater.

In conclusion, Agriculture has given so much to society. But it has its own pros and cons that we can’t overlook. Furthermore, the government is doing his every bit to help in the growth and development of agriculture; still, it needs to do something for the negative impacts of agriculture. To save the environment and the people involved in it.

FAQs about Essay on Agriculture

Q.1 Name the four types of agriculture? A.1 The four types of agriculture are nomadic herding, shifting cultivation, commercial plantation, and intensive subsistence farming.

Q.2 What are the components of the agriculture revolution? A.2 The agriculture revolution has five components namely, machinery, land under cultivation, fertilizers, and pesticides, irrigation, and high-yielding variety of seeds.

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Food and the Environment

Industrial agriculture harms the environment through pollution of air, soil and water.

• Air emissions from livestock operations make up 14.5 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions.
• Conventional crop production degrades soil health and causes soil erosion.
• The high content of nitrogen and other nutrients in manure runoff leads to dead zones in downstream waterways.

Why It Matters

It is impossible to separate our food production, processing and distribution from our environment. Unfortunately, the industrial or “conventional” way of producing food causes large-scale environmental degradation.

Monocropped fields require chemical fertilizers and pesticides that run off into soil and waterways. Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), also known as factory farms, result in excess animal waste that pollutes soil, water and air. These methods of food production use finite resources without replenishing them.

In addition, the way we produce and consume food contributes to global climate change, the effects of which exert a huge impact on the food system. Drought, flood, extreme heat and extreme cold are already affecting crops.

But new advances in sustainable agriculture are rooted in regenerative practices based on a whole ecosystem approach. They invest in the natural environment, rather than depleting it, building soil health, clean water systems and biodiversity. The sustainable approach also reduces industrial farming emissions, building environmental resilience, adapting both food production and the land to climate change.

• Biology Article

Food Production

What is Food Production?

Food production, as the name suggests, is all about preparing food, in which raw materials are converted into ready-made food products for human use either in the home or in the food processing industries. Its process comprises scientific approaches. Food production has many sections and it starts with basic things like cleaning, packing, segregating, sorting, preparing, adding ingredients in correct proportions, presenting, etc.

Let us explore food production notes to learn how the food is produced and what are the methods involved in the production of food.

How is Food Produced?

There are large numbers of plant and animal products, which are used for our well-being. They provide us with food, which comes from both plants and animals. These include grains, pulses, spices, honey, nuts, cereals, milk, vegetables, fruits, egg, meat, chicken, etc. The existence of our life is completely depended on plants and animals. Altogether, plant and animal species provide 90% of global energy.

Types of Food Production

Food production is further classified into different types including, cultivation, selection, crop management, harvesting, crop production , preserving, baking, pasteurizing, pudding, carving, butchering, fermenting, pickling, drink and candy making, restaurants, etc.

Methods of Food Production

• Chopping or slicing of vegetables.
• Curing food.
• Grinding and marinating.
• Emulsification.
• Food fermentation.
• Fermenting beer at brewing industries.
• Boiling, broiling, frying, grilling, steaming and mixing.
• Pasteurization.
• Fruit juice processing.
• Removing the outer layers either by peeling and skinning.
• Gasification of soft drinks.
• Preserving and packaging of food products by vacuum packs.

Introduction to the Hospitality Industry

The hospitality industry is a part of the service industry that includes lodging, amusement parks, tourism, transportation etc. A hospitality unit like restaurants, bars, hotels, etc., consists of many sections of cooking, cleaning, managing, etc.

Education plays a critical role in this profession. Food production is not just cooking and serving. Apart from this, they have to invent, assume, build and manage people.

It is growing very fast and there are many opportunities in the hospitality industry. Food and beverages industry is one of the major contributing sectors under the hospitality industry.

There are many sources of ready-made food like hotels, caterings, event organizations etc. To know more about these, it is essential to know how food is processed in the kitchen.

Introduction to Kitchen

A kitchen is a place where food is being cooked, and it has all the equipment that is required for cooking. The chef is the person who is involved in managing the entire kitchen and cooking along with his staff. There are different units involved in food preparation from selection to waste disposal . Before preparing food it is mandatory to follow food safety guidelines and personal hygiene.

Also Read:  Food Processing

To learn more about food production, its types, methods or any other related topics, register at BYJU’S for food production notes.

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4 ways to improve food productivity

.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo{-webkit-transition:all 0.15s ease-out;transition:all 0.15s ease-out;cursor:pointer;-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;outline:none;color:inherit;}.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo:hover,.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo[data-hover]{-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;}.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo:focus,.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo[data-focus]{box-shadow:0 0 0 3px rgba(168,203,251,0.5);} Gunhild A Stordalen

.chakra .wef-9dduvl{margin-top:16px;margin-bottom:16px;line-height:1.388;font-size:1.25rem;}@media screen and (min-width:56.5rem){.chakra .wef-9dduvl{font-size:1.125rem;}} Explore and monitor how .chakra .wef-15eoq1r{margin-top:16px;margin-bottom:16px;line-height:1.388;font-size:1.25rem;color:#F7DB5E;}@media screen and (min-width:56.5rem){.chakra .wef-15eoq1r{font-size:1.125rem;}} Middle East and North Africa is affecting economies, industries and global issues

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Stay up to date:, middle east and north africa.

With almost every country in the world dealing with some form of malnutrition, and food production being the single most important driver of climate change and environmental damage, the world needs to find a way to feed its growing population with a sustainable, healthy diet. In the Middle East and North Africa (the MENA region) this challenge is particularly complex.

In contrast to other regions of the world, the proportion of undernourished people has increased from 16 million in 1990-92 to 33 million today. Almost one-third of children under the age of five face lifelong health and development impairment due to insufficient access to nutritious foods. At the same time, the region is grappling with rising rates of overweight and obesity, creating an unforeseen “double burden” of malnutrition. Indeed, more than 50% of the region´s adult population is currently overweight or obese, causing a dramatic increase in non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as diabetes and heart disease. It places an enormous burden on healthcare systems.

In the MENA region, the food system is becoming more complex. Climate change, population growth, shifts towards urban living and the adoption of Western diets bring mutually reinforcing challenges. The MENA region has the highest rate of population growth worldwide and a rapidly growing urban population, with 66% expected to be living in cities by 2030. These trends place enormous pressures on the environment and finite resources such as fresh water and land. Half of the population of the MENA region already lives with water stress. As the population grows to nearly 700 million in 2050, water availability per capita will be halved.

The effects go far beyond poor health. Recent research by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) revealed that food insecurity is one of the main drivers of unrest and conflict in MENA. Economic performance is also compromised by poor nutrition. In Egypt alone it is estimated that the consequences of child malnutrition reduces GDP by almost 2%.

Tackling the emerging public health crisis, without exacerbating climate change and environmental damage, requires a radical rethinking of the entire region´s food system, from producer and importer to the end consumer. This will not be an easy task, but there are some priorities that can change the current paradigm.

First, improving nutrition and minimizing the environmental footprint of the food system by making food supplies more diverse, nutritious and sustainable is essential. This means rebalancing production from mono crops and cereals, dairy and meat towards the more diverse production of fruit, vegetables and semi-arid nutritious crops that use less water and are more tolerant of heat. Smallholder farmers, who are often among the most malnourished, and who lack the technology and knowledge necessary to be more efficient and sustainable, are crucial stakeholders in diversifying the food system.

Second, urgent action must be taken to tackle the growing burden of obesity and NCDs in the region. Changing the increasingly obesogenic environment must become a top priority, ensuring everyone has access to healthy and affordable food. A new policy framework aimed at protecting consumers – especially children – from diets that are high in added salt, sugar and saturated fats, and low in micronutrients, is vital. Furthermore, measures and incentives to ensure that healthy, diverse and sustainably produced foods become easily available and affordable must be developed.

Third, investment is needed to facilitate innovations and development of interventions that can improve nutrition in a cost-effective, sustainable way. Fortifying staple foods and condiments with nutrients, for example, is both effective and cheap, costing as little as a few cents per person, per year. There has been significant progress in the region since Saudi Arabia first made adding iron, folic acid and vitamin A to wheat flour mandatory in 1978. Afghanistan, Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Iran, Iraq, Morocco, Oman and Yemen are now all using fortification to reduce micronutrient deficiencies among vulnerable groups. But, there is still much to be done to expand these programmes.

Finally, the private sector needs to be engaged in a meaningful way in finding solutions to a more sustainable and nutritious food system. The food industry is a key stakeholder and a major catalyst for change, so it is important that businesses are included. This will enable policy-makers to create regulatory frameworks that encourage the private sector to step up to the nutrition challenge and invest in more sustainable business operations.

Today, the international community is coming to terms with the importance of addressing the multiple, overlapping challenges of the food system. But, it’s not enough to merely imagine what a better food system will look like. The MENA region has an enormous amount of innovation, technology, resources and expertise. Let’s use them to build a food system that has at its core the provision of sustainable nutritious diets that are accessible to all, and which have both public-health and environmental benefits.

The World Economic Forum on the Middle East and North Africa 2015 takes place at the Dead Sea, Jordan, from 21-23 May. 

This article is based on speeches given at the EATx MENA event, coinciding with the Global Forum for Innovation in Agriculture 2015 , Abu Dhabi.

Authors: Marc Van Ameringen, Executive Director, the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN). Dr. Gunhild A Stordalen, Founder and Director, EAT. Mohamed Saleh Bashanfr, Managing Partner, SECOSALT and Head of Food Specialties Committee at the Egyptian Food Chamber, Ministry of Trade and Industry.

Image: People buy bread on the first day of the Muslim holy fasting month of Ramadan, in a market downtown Tunisia June 29, 2014. REUTERS/Zoubeir Souissi

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The views expressed in this article are those of the author alone and not the World Economic Forum.

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Environmental Impacts of Food Production

Agriculture has a significant environmental impact in three key ways. 

First, it requires large amounts of fresh water , which can cause significant environmental pressures in regions with water stress. It needs water as input and pollutes rivers, lakes, and oceans by releasing nutrients.

It is a crucial driver of climate change, responsible for around one-quarter of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions .

Finally, agriculture has a massive impact on the world’s environment due to its enormous land use . Half of the world’s habitable land is used for agriculture.

Large parts of the world that were once covered by forests and wildlands are now used for agriculture. This loss of natural habitat has been the main driver for reducing the world’s biodiversity . Wildlife can rebound if we reduce agricultural land use and allow natural lands to restore.

Ensuring everyone has access to a nutritious diet sustainably is one of the most significant challenges we face. On this page, you can find our data, visualizations, and writing relating to the environmental impacts of food.

Related topics

• Biodiversity
• Hunger and Undernourishment
• CO₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Key insights on the Environmental Impacts of Food

Food production has a large environmental impact in several ways.

What are the environmental impacts of food and agriculture?

The visualization here shows a summary of some of the main global impacts:

• Food production accounts for over a quarter (26%) of global greenhouse gas emissions. 1
• Half of the world’s habitable land is used for agriculture. Habitable land is land that is ice- and desert-free.
• 70% of global freshwater withdrawals are used for agriculture 2 .
• 78% of global ocean and freshwater eutrophication is caused by agriculture. 3 Eutrophication is the pollution of waterways with nutrient-rich water.
• 94% of non-human mammal biomass is livestock. This means livestock outweigh wild mammals by a factor of 15-to-1. 4 This share is 97% when only land-based mammals are included.
• 71% of bird biomass is poultry livestock. This means poultry livestock outweigh wild birds by a factor of more than 3-to-1. 5

Tackling what we eat, and how we produce our food, plays a key role in tackling climate change, reducing water stress and pollution, restoring lands back to forests or grasslands, and protecting the world’s wildlife.

Half of the world’s habitable land is used for agriculture

Around half of the world’s habitable land is used for agriculture. Habitable land is land that is ice- and desert-free. This is what the visualization shows.

Agricultural land is the sum of pasture used for livestock grazing, and cropland used for direct human consumption and animal feed.

Agriculture is, therefore, the world’s largest land user, taking up more area than forests, or wild grasslands.

Three-quarters of this agricultural land is used for livestock, which is pasture plus cropland used for the production of animal feed. This gives the world just 18% of global calories, and 37% of its protein. The other quarter of land is for crops for human consumption, which provide the majority of the world’s calories and protein.

What you should know about this data

• Other studies find similar distributions of global land: in an analysis of how humans have transformed global land use in recent centuries, Ellis et al. (2010) found that by 2000, 55% of Earth’s ice-free (not simply habitable) land had been converted into cropland, pasture, and urban areas. 6 This left only 45% as ‘natural’ or ‘semi-natural’ land.
• The study by Joseph Poore and Thomas Nemecek (2018) estimates that 43% of ice- and desert-free land is used for agriculture. 83% of this is used for animal-sourced foods. 7
• The difference in these figures is often due to the uncertainty of the size of ‘rangelands’. Rangelands are grasslands, shrublands, woodlands, wetlands, and deserts that are grazed by domestic livestock or wild animals. The intensity of grazing on rangelands can vary a lot. That can make it difficult to accurately quantify how much rangelands are used for grazing, and therefore how much is used for food production.
• But as the review above showed, despite this uncertainty, most analyses tend to converge on an estimate of close to half of habitable land being used for agriculture.

Food is responsible for one-quarter of the world’s emissions

Food systems are responsible for around one-quarter (26%) of global greenhouse gas emissions. 8

This includes emissions from land use change, on-farm production, processing, transport, packaging, and retail.

We can break these food system emissions down into four broad categories:

30% of food emissions come directly from livestock and fisheries . Ruminant livestock – mainly cattle – for example, produce methane through their digestive processes. Manure and pasture management also fall into this category.

1% comes from wild fisheries , most of which is fuel consumption from fishing vessels. 

Crop production accounts for around a quarter of food emissions. This includes crops for human consumption and animal feed.

Land use accounts for 24% of food emissions. Twice as many emissions result from land use for livestock (16%) as for crops for human consumption (8%).

Finally, supply chains account for 18% of food emissions . This includes food processing, distribution, transport, packaging, and retail.

Other studies estimate that an even larger fraction – up to one-third – of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions come from food production. 9 These differences come from the inclusion of non-food agricultural products – such as textiles, biofuels, and industrial crops – plus uncertainties in food waste and land use emissions.

• The source of this data is the meta-analysis of global food systems from Joseph Poore and Thomas Nemecek (2018), published in Science . 10 This dataset is based on data from 38,700 commercially viable farms in 119 countries and 40 products.
• Environmental impacts are calculated based on life-cycle analyses that consider impacts across the supply chain, including land use change, on-farm emissions, the production of agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides, food processing, transport, packaging, and retail.
• Greenhouse gas emissions are measured in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO 2 eq). This means each greenhouse gas is weighted by its global warming potential value. Global warming potential measures the amount of warming a gas creates compared to CO 2 . In this study, CO 2 eq and warming effects are measured over a 100-year timescale (GWP 100 ).

Emissions from food alone would take us past 1.5°C or 2°C this century

One-quarter to one-third of global greenhouse gas emissions come from our food systems. The rest comes from energy.

While energy and industry make a bigger contribution than food, we must tackle both food and energy systems to address climate change.

Michael Clark and colleagues modeled the amount of greenhouse gas emissions that would be emitted from food systems this century across a range of scenarios. 

In a business-as-usual scenario, the authors expect the world to emit around 1356 billion tonnes of CO 2-we by 2100.

As the visualization shows, this would take us well beyond the carbon budget for 1.5°C – we would emit two to three times more than this budget. And it would consume almost all of our budget for 2°C.

Ignoring food emissions is simply not an option if we want to get close to our international climate targets.

Even if we stopped burning fossil fuels tomorrow – an impossibility – we would still go well beyond our 1.5°C target, and nearly miss our 2°C target.

• The source of this data is the meta-analyses of global food systems from Michael Clark et al. (2020), published in Science . 11
• Their ‘business-as-usual’ projection makes the following assumptions: global population increases in line with the UN’s medium fertility scenario; per capita diets change as people around the world get richer (shifting towards more diverse diets with more meat and dairy); crop yields continue to increase in line with historical improvements, and rates of food loss and the emissions intensity of food production remain constant.
• This is measured in global warming potential CO 2 warming-equivalents (CO 2-we ). This accounts for the range of greenhouse gasses, not just CO 2 but also others such as methane and nitrous oxide. We look at the differences in greenhouse gas metrics at the end of our article on the carbon footprint of foods .

What we eat matters much more than how far it has traveled

‘Eat local’ is a common recommendation to reduce the carbon footprint of your diet. But it’s often a misguided one.

Transport tends to be a small part of a food’s carbon footprint. Globally, transport accounts for just 5% of food system emissions. Most of food’s emissions come from land use change and emissions from their production on the farm.

Since transport emissions are typically small, and the differences between foods are large, what types of food we eat matter much more than how far it has traveled. Locally-produced beef will have a much larger footprint than peas, regardless of whether it’s shipped across continents or not.

The visualization shows this.

Producing a kilogram of beef, for example, emits 60 kilograms of greenhouse gasses (CO 2 -equivalents). The production of a kilogram of peas, shown at the bottom of the chart, emits just 1 kilogram of greenhouse gasses. Whether the beef or peas are produced locally will have little impact on the difference between these two foods.

The reason that transport accounts for such a small share of emissions is that most internationally traded food travels by boat, not by plane. Very little food is air-freighted; it accounts for only 0.16% of food miles. 12 For the few products which are transported by air, the emissions can be very high: flying emits 50 times more CO 2 eq than boat per tonne kilometer.

Unlike aviation, shipping is a very carbon-efficient way to transport goods. So, even shipping food over long distances by boat emits only small amounts of carbon. A classic example of traded food is avocados. Shipping one kilogram of avocados from Mexico to the United Kingdom would generate 0.21kg CO 2 eq in transport emissions. 13 This is only around 8% of avocados’ total footprint. 

Even when shipped at great distances, its emissions are much less than locally-produced animal products.

• The source of this data is the meta-analyses of global food systems from Joseph Poore and Thomas Nemecek (2018), published in Science . 14 This dataset is based on data from 38,700 commercially viable farms in 119 countries and 40 products.

Meat and dairy foods tend to have a higher carbon footprint

When we compare the carbon footprint of different types of foods, a clear hierarchy emerges.

Meat and dairy products tend to emit more greenhouse gasses than plant-based foods. This holds true whether we compare on the basis of mass (per kilogram) , per kilocalorie , or per gram of protein, as shown in the chart.

Within meat and dairy products, there is also a consistent pattern: larger animals tend to be less efficient and have a higher footprint. Beef typically has the largest emissions; followed by lamb; pork; chicken; then eggs and fish.

• This data presents global average values. For some foods – such as beef – there are large differences depending on where it is produced, and the farming practices used. Nonetheless, the lowest-carbon beef and lamb still have a higher carbon footprint than most plant-based foods.
• The source of this data is the meta-analyses of global food systems from Joseph Poore and Thomas Nemecek (2018), published in Science . 15 This dataset covers 38,700 commercially viable farms in 119 countries and 40 products.
• Greenhouse gas emissions are measured in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO 2 eq). This means each greenhouse gas is weighted by its global warming potential value. Global warming potential measures the amount of warming a gas creates compared to CO 2 . For CO 2 eq, this is measured over a 100-year timescale (GWP 100 ).

There are also large differences in the carbon footprint of the same foods

The most effective way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the food system is to change what we eat . 

Adopting a more plant-based diet by reducing our consumption of carbon-intensive foods such as meat and dairy – especially beef and lamb – is an effective way for consumers to reduce their carbon footprint.

But there are also opportunities to reduce emissions by optimizing for more carbon-efficient practices and locations to produce foods. For some foods – in particular, beef, lamb, and dairy – there are large differences in emissions depending on how and where they’re produced. This is shown in the chart.

Producing 100 grams of protein from beef emits 25 kilograms of carbon dioxide-equivalents (CO 2 eq), on average. But this ranges from 9 kilograms to 105 kilograms of CO 2 eq – a ten-fold difference.

Optimizing production in places where these foods are produced with a smaller footprint could be another effective way of reducing global emissions.

• The source of this data is the meta-analyses of global food systems from Joseph Poore and Thomas Nemecek (2018), published in Science . 16 This dataset covers 38,700 commercially viable farms in 119 countries and 40 products.

Explore data on the Environmental Impacts of Food

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Essay on Traditional Food

Students are often asked to write an essay on Traditional Food in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Traditional Food

Introduction.

Traditional food is a significant part of our culture that reflects our heritage. It is the food that has been passed down from generation to generation.

Traditional food plays a vital role in preserving our cultural identity. It connects us to our roots and gives us a sense of belonging.

Preparation

The preparation of traditional food involves unique methods and ingredients that are native to a particular region.

Every culture has its own traditional food. This diversity in traditional food makes our world a flavorful place.

In conclusion, traditional food is not just about taste, it’s about culture, history, and identity.

Also check:

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250 Words Essay on Traditional Food

Introduction to traditional food.

Traditional food is an integral part of our cultural identity, encapsulating centuries of history, customs, and rituals. It forms the bedrock of our culinary heritage, providing a unique lens to appreciate our ancestors’ wisdom and creativity.

Significance of Traditional Food

Traditional foods are often nutrient-dense, prepared from locally sourced, seasonally available ingredients, thus promoting sustainability. They are typically unprocessed and free from artificial additives, which contributes to their nutritional superiority over fast or processed foods.

Traditional Food and Cultural Identity

Food traditions are intertwined with cultural identity. They are a form of non-verbal communication that conveys social norms, family values, and regional characteristics. For instance, the Japanese tea ceremony, an embodiment of Zen philosophy, showcases the nation’s respect for tranquility and simplicity.

Threats to Traditional Food

Despite their significance, traditional foods are under threat due to globalization and the rise of fast-food culture. The homogenization of diets has led to the erosion of food diversity, posing a risk to our culinary heritage.

Preserving traditional food is not merely about safeguarding recipes but about preserving our cultural identity and promoting a sustainable lifestyle. Embracing traditional food is a step towards a healthier and more sustainable future, replete with a rich tapestry of diverse culinary experiences.

500 Words Essay on Traditional Food

The essence of traditional food.

Traditional food, often viewed as a cultural artifact, is a reflection of a community’s history, environment, and values. It not only satiates one’s hunger but also connects us to our roots, providing a sense of belonging and identity. As the world turns into a global village, the significance of traditional food has become more evident than ever.

Traditional Food as Cultural Identity

Every region has its unique traditional food, shaped by local resources, climate, and historical events. These foods tell a story – a narrative of survival, adaptation, and innovation. For instance, the Japanese cuisine, known for its simplicity and respect for natural flavors, is a testament to Japan’s minimalist aesthetic and reverence for nature. Similarly, the spice-laden Indian cuisine reflects the country’s diverse cultures and the historical spice trade. These foods, hence, are more than just sustenance; they are a symbol of cultural identity.

Health Benefits of Traditional Food

Traditional foods are typically made from whole, unprocessed ingredients. They are often nutritionally balanced, containing a mix of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats necessary for human health. Furthermore, traditional diets are usually adapted to local conditions and are therefore more sustainable. For example, the Mediterranean diet, rich in fruits, vegetables, and olive oil, is associated with longevity and reduced risk of chronic diseases. It is a diet perfectly adapted to the sunny, coastal regions where these foods are easily grown.

The Role of Traditional Food in Sustainable Development

Traditional food systems can contribute significantly to sustainable development. They promote biodiversity by using a variety of local crops, thus ensuring the conservation of indigenous plant species. Traditional farming methods are often more environmentally friendly, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides. By supporting local food production and consumption, traditional food systems also help to reduce carbon emissions associated with food transportation.

Preservation and Promotion of Traditional Food

Despite the myriad benefits of traditional food, it is threatened by the homogenizing effects of globalization and the rise of fast food culture. Therefore, it is imperative to preserve and promote traditional food. This can be achieved through education, culinary tourism, and policy measures. For instance, schools can incorporate food education in their curriculum, teaching students about the cultural and nutritional significance of traditional food. Culinary tourism can help promote traditional food by showcasing it as a unique cultural experience. On the policy front, governments can provide incentives for local food production and consumption.

Traditional food is a treasure trove of cultural heritage, nutritional wisdom, and sustainable practices. Its preservation and promotion is not just about maintaining cultural diversity but also about ensuring our health and the health of our planet. As we move forward in this globalized world, let us not forget the value of our traditional food, the stories it tells, and the connections it nurtures.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

• Essay on Save Food
• Essay on Organic Food
• Essay on How to Reduce Food Waste

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

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Writing on Preservation and Distribution of Food Essay (Article)

The world today is facing a significant increase in population thus the inability to provide an adequate diet for the expanding population, due to improper distribution of food. A food essay on food preservation is important to address this issue. In this food essay, I will address fundamental requirements a writer can consider.

When writing food preservation essays an individual is required to address several key points. These help to extensively tackle the given food essay topic.

The key points are:

• Provide information on the different types of foods available globally and their importance to the community in the food preservation essay. This is because the methods used in food preservation differ depending on the food to be preserved and the duration of preservation.
• The food essay should tackle the problems associated with food, for example, food spoilage, the causes of these spoilages and their long term solutions. Such a food essay can help create awareness on the subject in the community.
• To address the several different methods used in food preservation in the food essay and the effects of preservation on food appearance, taste and its quality.
• How food preservation affects our health, in terms of nutrition.

Researching a little on the subject is advisable for the food essay to be relevant, credible, and to be taken seriously by the readers. Food preservation being a subject affecting all ages, use of simple language and a broad explanation of the subject is crucial. There are several sources of information a writer can use to come up with a good report on the given food essay.

Therefore, addressing preservation as a food essay can help reduce post-harvest wastage and improve the food condition in the world.

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IvyPanda. (2022, June 20). Writing on Preservation and Distribution of Food. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-essay-writing-on-preservation/

"Writing on Preservation and Distribution of Food." IvyPanda , 20 June 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/food-essay-writing-on-preservation/.

IvyPanda . (2022) 'Writing on Preservation and Distribution of Food'. 20 June.

IvyPanda . 2022. "Writing on Preservation and Distribution of Food." June 20, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-essay-writing-on-preservation/.

1. IvyPanda . "Writing on Preservation and Distribution of Food." June 20, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-essay-writing-on-preservation/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Writing on Preservation and Distribution of Food." June 20, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/food-essay-writing-on-preservation/.

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