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Principles of Multimedia Learning

Richard Mayer’s seminal book Multimedia Learning details his extensive research on how to structure multimedia materials effectively to maximize learning. Relying on numerous experiments, he distills his findings into 12 principles that constitute (in part) what he refers to as the “cognitive theory of multimedia learning.” This theory and its principles provide guidance on how to create effective multimedia presentations for learning.

This article introduces the cognitive psychology foundation upon which Mayer’s principles are built and then summarizes each principle. Let’s begin by discussing Mayer’s assumptions on how people learn.

Information Processing

Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning makes three assumptions about how humans process information: the dual-channel assumption, the limited-capacity assumption, and the active-processing assumption.

The Dual-Channel Assumption

According to Mayer (2009), the dual-channel assumption dictates that “humans possess separate channels for processing visual and auditory information” (p. 63). The first is the visual–pictorial channel, which processes images seen through the eyes (including words displayed on a screen). The other channel is the auditory–verbal channel, which processes spoken words.

The Limited-Capacity Assumption

The limited-capacity assumption suggests that humans have a hard limit on the amount of information they can process at any given moment. This is probably intuitive to anyone who’s sat in a sports bar and tried to watch several games at the same time or tried to listen to the news while having a conversation.

Although it’s difficult to nail it down, Mayer suggests that most people can maintain maybe five to seven “chunks” of information in working memory at a given time (p. 67). He also indicates that individuals at the higher end of that range may have stronger metacognitive strategies, which allow them to manage their limited cognitive resources more efficiently.

The Active-Processing Assumption

The active-processing assumption asserts that humans don’t learn by just passively absorbing information. Instead, they need to engage in active cognitive processes, namely identifying and selecting relevant material, organizing it into visual and/or verbal models, and integrating those new models with prior knowledge (p. 70). The cognitive theory of multimedia learning fundamentally argues against a “knowledge transmission” approach to learning in favor of a student-centered “knowledge construction” model. Students, he argues, are not “empty vessels” waiting to be filled up with information but must instead work to synthesize words and pictures into meaningful information that is stored in long-term memory.

Cognitive Load Theory

In some ways, we can see cognitive load theory as being an extension of the limited-capacity assumption. Given that we have a limited ability to process information in real time, instructors should aim to construct multimedia that manage intrinsic load, optimize germane load, and minimize extraneous load to ensure maximum storage in long-term memory. So while Mayer’s principles provide insight on how to effectively construct multimedia messages for learning, each also maps to a best practice in managing cognitive load.

In short, the cognitive theory of multimedia learning assumes that the human mind is a dual-channel, limited-capacity, active-processing system, and that presenters must construct multimedia messages to manage all three types of cognitive load accordingly. Mayer adopts a constructivist view of learning in which multimedia are not simply information delivery systems, but rather cognitive aids for knowledge construction (p. 14).

Now that we’ve established the cognitive psychology foundation, let’s move on to summarizing each principle.

Principles That Minimize Extraneous Load

The coherence principle.

“People learn better when extraneous material is excluded rather than included.” (p. 89)

The coherence principle is about minimizing extraneous processing. Instructors should not include information in their multimedia messages that will not be assessed, is merely intended to “spice up” the presentation, or distracts from learning goals overall.

Mayer also warns against including seductive details (interesting but irrelevant material that the presenter might include to re-engage the audience or create emotional responses), which the audience often retains better than the intended core message (p. 97). Given that learning is an active process, these extraneous details may interfere with learners’ construction of mental models to represent the material.

To address this principle:

• Include only graphics, text, and narration that support learning goals (i.e., don’t use decorative images or supplemental materials).
• Don’t use background music.
• Use simple visuals (as opposed to realistic or detailed visuals).

The Signaling Principle

“People learn better when cues that highlight the organization of the essential material are added.” (p. 108)

Particularly when multiple pieces of information are on-screen, learners need to know what to pay attention to, where they are in the presentation, and how to integrate the information to construct their own mental models. Accordingly, the signaling principle recommends that instructors add cues that direct learners’ attention to salient material. Mayer is careful to point out that this can be overdone, so presenters should use signals sparingly.

• Use arrows, highlighting, and other signals to draw attention to important information.
• Include an advance organizer (content that presents the organizational structure of your multimedia presentation) and refer back to it when you advance to a new section.

The Redundancy Principle

“People learn better from graphics and narration than some graphics, narration, and printed text.” (p. 118)

Many multimedia presentations involve a combination of spoken words, graphics, and on-screen text. However, the redundancy principle suggests that multimedia messages are most effective when learners encounter just spoken words and graphics. When instructors include text on-screen, they risk overwhelming their learners’ visual channels with both pictures and words, and inadvertently direct their cognitive processes to resolving differences between the spoken text and the printed text.

• When delivering a narrated presentation, use either graphics or text, but not both.
• Minimize the use of text during a narrated presentation.

The Spatial Contiguity Principle

“Students learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented near rather than far from each other on the page or screen.” (p. 135)

The specifics of the spatial contiguity principle may be somewhat more intuitive than Mayer’s other principles. In short, it suggests that instructors should keep text (such as labels or captions) near to the graphics that they describe. If they do so, they minimize the cognitive effort that learners must expend to align the meaning of text and images themselves. Thus, instead of scanning the screen to make such connections, learners can devote that cognitive effort to integration and connection building.

• Place text in close proximity with the graphics it refers to.
• Provide feedback close to the questions or answers it refers to.
• Present directions on the same screen as an activity.
• Have people read any text before beginning an animated graphic.

The Temporal Contiguity Principle

“Students learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented simultaneously rather than successively.” (p. 153)

To maximize learning, the temporal contiguity principle dictates that narration and animation should be delivered concurrently. For example, students shouldn’t hear about a process and then watch an animation of it afterward; instead, instructors should time the narration to play along with the animation.

• Time narration appropriately to play along with animations.

Principles That Manage Intrinsic Load

The segmenting principle.

“People learn better when a multimedia message is presented in user-paced segments rather than as a continuous unit.” (p. 175)

Mayer’s experiments involved presenting asynchronous multimedia messages to research subjects (messages that largely focused on describing processes, such as how lightning forms). He determined that when students had the ability to control the pace of the lesson, they performed better on recall and transfer tests. Thus, the segmenting principle has two implications: (a) users should have control over the pace of the multimedia lesson, and (b) instructors should chunk material appropriately to allow for adequate processing on each slide or screen.

• Allow users to control the pace of the lesson, such as speed controls or “next” buttons.
• Break down long segments of material into smaller pieces.

The Pre-Training Principle

“People learn more deeply from a multimedia message when they know the names and characteristics of the main concepts.” (p. 189)

The necessity of managing essential (or intrinsic) load suggests that it’s easy for novice learners to become overwhelmed by the quantity or complexity of the information in a multimedia message. The pre-training principle accordingly recommends that instructors define key terms or concepts before diving into descriptions of processes. Otherwise, students will be stuck trying to learn a process’s component parts while also attempting to build a mental model of the process itself, which may hinder learning. In essence, pre-training is about scaffolding learning and helping students establish appropriate prior knowledge before beginning a multimedia lesson.

• Define key terms (such as names, definitions, locations, and characteristics) before beginning a process-based presentation, either in a separate presentation, handout, or similar material.
• Ensure people know how to use a tool (such as Excel) before asking them to perform learning activities within it.

The Modality Principle

“People learn more deeply from pictures and spoken words than from pictures and printed words.” (p. 200)

The dual-channel and limited-capacity assumptions lead in part to the modality principle, which recommends that instructors use narration instead of on-screen text when pictures are present. If multimedia messages contain pictures and on-screen text, the combination may overwhelm learners’ visual channels. Instead, instructors should only speak words (rather than include them on-screen), which spreads the load across both the visual and the verbal channels (also known as “modality offloading”; p. 204).

• Lists key steps
• Provides directions
• Provides references
• Presents important information to non-native English speakers

Principles That Optimize Germane Load

The multimedia principle.

“People learn better from words and pictures than from words alone.” (p. 223)

You could argue that the multimedia principle is a starting point for all the other principles, given that it indicates that learners perform better when exposed to words and pictures rather than just words. Given that multimedia presentations may or may not be narrated, it’s important to underscore that the “words” in this case should be either printed or spoken, but not both (in keeping with the other multimedia principles). Effectively leveraging pictures and words together fosters generative processing.

• Include images to illustrate key points.
• Ensure that all images enhance or clarify meaning (rather than being purely decorative).
• Favor static images over animations (with some exceptions).

The Personalization Principle

“People learn better from multimedia presentations when words are in conversational style rather than formal style.” (p. 242)

According to the personalization principle, having a more relaxed tone in an online class can actually positively impact learning. Thus, instructors should avoid stiff, academic language, and instead use more approachable colloquial language. Try to think of the presentation as a one-on-one conversation with each student. Informal language has the effect of creating social cues within the presentation that “prime the activation of a social response in the learner—such as the commitment to try to make sense out of what the speaker is saying” (p. 247).

• Use contractions.
• Use first and second person (“I,” “you,” “we,” “our,” etc.).
• If using a script, try to make an extemporaneous-sounding performance.
• Use polite speech (“please,” “you might like to,” “let’s,” etc.).

The Voice Principle

“People learn better when narration is spoken in a human voice rather than in a machine voice.” (p. 242)

The voice principle is perhaps the oddest of the group, but it is still worthy of mention, particularly given the speed at which technology is developing. This principle suggests that narration is better done by a human than a computer. Mayer stresses that the research on this principle is still preliminary.

• Include narration that’s performed by a human rather than a computer.

The Image Principle

“People do not necessarily learn better when the speaker’s image is added to the screen.” (p. 242)

The image principle is the only multimedia principle that’s not affirmative in its phrasing. It states that including an image of an instructor’s “talking head” during a multimedia presentation doesn’t necessarily improve learning outcomes. Just as with the voice principle, Mayer is careful to point out that the research on the image principle is still preliminary. Nonetheless, early results suggest that you don’t necessarily add value by showing your face during a narrated presentation.

• Avoid including a video of yourself during an asynchronous multimedia presentation containing pictures and words.
• There are no words or pictures.
• You wish to establish instructor or social presence.

Boundary Conditions

Mayer is careful to set “boundary conditions” for his multimedia principles—situations in which the principles may not apply as strongly. For example, with respect to the segmenting principle (which advises multimedia designers to chunk their materials and allow users to control pacing), Mayer’s research suggested that its effects may not be as strong when the material is simple, when the material is slow paced, or when learners are experienced with the material.

Although each principle has its own set of these conditions (which we encourage you to read about in Mayer’s book if you’re interested), there is at least one high-level qualification that’s worth mentioning. Mayer proposes an overarching individual differences principle , which suggests that “certain of the twelve design principles reviewed in this book may help low-experience learners but not help high-experience learners” (pp. 271–272). This speaks strongly to the role of prior knowledge in multimedia learning—indeed, in learning overall. Mayer argues, in fact, “prior knowledge is the single most important individual difference dimension in instructional design. If you could know just one thing about a learner, you would want to know the learner’s prior knowledge in the domain” (p. 193).

You may be wondering about what kind of media Mayer is addressing in his research. Although generally his experiments involved asynchronously produced multimedia presentations (that is, there were no live lectures), they were presented across a variety of media. Accordingly, he believes these principles embody best practices across a variety of media:

The cognitive theory of multimedia learning is based on a knowledge-construction view in which learners actively build mental representations in an attempt to make sense out of their experiences. Instead of asking which medium makes the best deliveries, we might ask which instructional techniques help guide the learner’s cognitive processing of the presented material. (p. 231)

With these conditions in mind, it’s important to sum up the conditions that make up the cognitive theory of multimedia learning:

• The principles apply to low-knowledge learners.
• The principles apply to multimedia messages that describe processes.
• The principles are medium agnostic.

Mayer’s overarching thesis—that people learn better when you use pictures and words together—may be intuitive to many instructors. What may be less intuitive, however, is how to maximize the efficacy of multimedia messages based on the specifics of how humans process information during learning. Mayer’s theories are a rejection of multimedia learning as knowledge transmission (transplanting information from instructor to learner) and response strengthening (promoting recall through drill and practice methods). Instead, the theory embraces a knowledge construction perspective: “that multimedia learning is a sense-making activity in which the learner seeks to build a coherent mental representation from the presented material” (p. 17).

Here are the big takeaways from this article:

• When it comes to learning, the human mind is a dual-channel, limited-capacity, active-processing system.
• Instructors should manage their learners’ essential processing, optimize their generative processing, and minimize their extraneous processing through thoughtful construction of multimedia presentations.
• These principles are most applicable when the multimedia messages describe processes and when learners are inexperienced.

Clearly, Mayer’s multimedia principles provide quite a few guidelines for the design of multimedia presentations. For convenience, we’ve summarized them in a table in a separate document, which you can download here .

Mayer’s theory aligns with contemporary thinking on effective learning, which embraces a constructivist perspective: Students learn most effectively when they have to construct their own knowledge structures and mental models. As Mayer tells us, “instructional design involves not just presenting information, but also presenting it in a way that encourages learners to engage in appropriate cognitive processing” (p. 168). By following the principles of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, instructors can help ensure that their multimedia presentations will enhance student learning.

Mayer, R. E. (2009).  Multimedia learning  (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

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Multimedia Learning

How to present information to improve learning.

On this page:

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning (ctml).

Multimedia learning describes learning through the use of pictures and words. Examples of multimedia learning include watching a PowerPoint presentation, watching a pre-recorded lecture or reading a physics textbook.

Multimedia Principle

The multimedia principle serves as the foundation for Multimedia Design Theory. This principle asserts that deeper learning occurs from words and pictures than from just words. Simply adding images or graphics to words does not assure a deeper level of learning, however. Multimedia instructional content is more likely to create a meaningful learning experience if the content is developed with the following assumptions from cognitive science in mind:

• Active processes assumption Active learning entails carrying out a coordinated set of cognitive processes during learning.
• Dual-channel assumption Dual channels, one for visual/pictorial and one for auditory/verbal processing.
• Limited-capacity assumption Each channel has limited capacity for processes.

From Mayer, 2005, Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.

Why should I use Multimedia Design Theory?

Working memory.

Working memory is the part of memory that consciously processes information. Working memory is severely limited (see Memory and Learning ). Because much of the instructional content presented to students is novel, faculty must remember the limitations of working memory when they design instructional materials. Lessons developed with consideration for the limitations of students working memory are more likely to be effective than lessons developed without. For example, if you provide students with written instructions for small-group activities, instead of simply stating the instructions one time, students will not need to remember the instructions as they work.

Cognitive Load

One problem that can arise when words and pictures are presented together is a situation called cognitive overload. In this scenario, the processing demands associated with the learning task exceed the learner’s cognitive processing capacity. There are three types of cognitive load: extraneous, intrinsic and germane. Poor instructional design can increase each of these.

• Extraneous cognitive load This type of cognitive load results when students are asked to use working memory for tasks other than the primary learning objective. Such designs fail to steer working memory resources towards schema construction and automation. From the example above, students must use working memory to remember the instructions for the small-group activity, instead of focusing on the key concepts that the faculty just taught.
• Intrinsic cognitive load This type of cognitive load result from the inherent complexity of the information that must be processed. For example, understanding a complex equation that includes Greek symbols means the student must be able to remember and keep track of the mathematical meaning of each symbol. Instructional design can’t eliminate intrinsic load, but faculty should realize that they have automated many skills and concepts that students must still use working memory to understand and process.
• Germane cognitive load This type of cognitive load results from effortful learning, leading to schema production and automation. This is different from intrinsic load which is the inherent work involved in the task, while germane cognitive load is the work involved in learning from the task. For example, a multiplication problem has the same intrinsic load for a fifth grade student and a teacher, but higher germane cognitive load for the young student who is learning more from the task.

Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning

When presenting multimedia content to students, faculty can take certain steps to reduce cognitive load and to help ensure an effective transmission of the material. Mayer & Moreno (2003) outline nine specific strategies to reduce the cognitive load of multimedia presentations:

• Off-loading Move some essential processing from the visual channel to the auditory channel, or vice versa if there is too much verbal explanation given. Learning is more effective when information is presented as audio rather than as text on the screen.
• Segmenting Take time to pause between small content segments to allow students time to process information. Learning is more effective when a lesson is presented in small pieces rather than as a continuous entity.
• Pre-training Include relevant names and characteristics of system components. Learning is better when students are aware of names and behaviors of various system components.
• Weeding Eliminate extraneous, albeit interesting, material. Learning is more effective without the inclusion of extraneous information. At least one study has shown, however, that up to 50% additional extraneous material did not harm learner performance if it was interesting or motivating.
• Signaling Include cues for how to process material to avoid processing extraneous material. Learning is more effective when signals are included. For example, add directions for how to move through a system diagram that does not have a clear linear path.
• Aligning Place written words near corresponding graphics to reduce the need for visual scanning. Learning is more effective when words are placed near corresponding image parts.
• Eliminate redundancy Don’t present identical streams of spoken or written words. Learning is more effective when information is presented as audio as opposed to as audio and on-screen text. For example, don’t read your PowerPoint slides to students.
• Synchronizing Present audio and corresponding images simultaneously. Learning is more effective when images and narration are presented simultaneously as opposed to successively.
• Individualizing Assure that students possess skill for holding mental representations.
• Research-Based Principles for Designing Multimedia Instruction (Chapter)
• Application of Multimedia Design Principles to Visuals used in Course-Books: An Evaluation Tool (Article)
• Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning.  Educational psychologist ,  38 (1), 43-52.
• Mayer, R. E. (2005). Introduction to Multimedia Learning & Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (pp. 1–48). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
• Muller, D. A.; Lee, K. J.; Sharma, M. D. (2008). "Coherence or interest: Which is most important in online multimedia learning?" (PDF). Australasian Journal of Educational Technology. 24 (2): 211–221. Retrieved October 19, 2008.

Center for Teaching

Multimedia presentations.

More and more professors are using presentation technologies to bring visual aids into their classroom. More and more students expect a professor to distribute lecture slides to the class, either in hard copy or via the World Wide Web.

Professors deciding to use such slides in their teaching face many questions. What sorts of material should go on the slides? Are there limits to the amount of text one should put on a slide? How does one arrange the material for optimum viewing? Should the slides be distributed before class, after class, or not at all? If one decides to distribute them, should one do that in hard copy or via a course web site?

An instructor’s use of visual aids in teaching, like other elements of the teaching practice, should be congruent with the instructor’s general approach to teaching. However, there are general rules and guidelines that the instructor can follow; we attempt to develop some of these below. On this page we present briefly stated rules and guidelines and also provide some links to other resources for those who would like more information.

• General guidelines for slide design
• Suggestions for uses of slides
• Links to other web-based resources

General Guidelines for Slide Design

Font selection.

• Sans serif fonts are better than serif fonts. Serif fonts have small embellishments or lines at the base of each letter. These embellishments make it easier to follow a line of text on the printed page, but they are a distraction on a screen. So select a sans serif font (like Helvetica or Arial) instead of a serif font (like Times New Roman) for your PowerPoint slides.
• Font size is crucial. You can find many rules for determining the proper font size for a particular presentation setting. A good general rule is to use at least 28 point for body text and 38 point for heading text.

Working with colors.

• Remember that some (perhaps 5 – 10%?) of people are colorblind, so avoid using such color combinations as red text on a green background.
• Standard advice is to use light text on a dark background in projected presentations, but pay attention to the strength of the image projected by the projector. One graphics person suggested yellow text on an indigo background. (There are some who recommend dark text on a light background if the room is large.) (Note: if you’re using transparencies and an overhead projector, don’t use dark backgrounds.)
• Pay attention to how different colors go together, and remember that the shades you see on your monitor are not necessarily the ones you’ll see when projecting your presentation.

Text and white space.

• Blank space on a slide is important – as a general rule, if you find yourself wanting to reduce the font size so that you can get more text on the screen, it’s probably a good idea to consider redesigning the slide so that you have less text on it.
• The standard limit is either 7 x 7 (seven lines, no more than seven words each) or 5 x 5 (five lines, no more than five words each) on each slide.

Suggestions for Uses of Slides

If you’re using slides to illustrate and/or  support a lecture …..

• Remember that lecture notes on a slide play a different role in a lecture than do lecture notes that only the lecturer can see. If you try to make them play the same role, you’re likely to find students reading your slides instead of listening to you.
• List major points of your lecture. Several of the major points might stay on the screen as you develop each of them in turn, providing a way for those listening to the lecture to place each point in the larger context.
• List important terms. Again, one slide with several terms might remain on the screen for some time, allowing you to refer to each of them as you introduce them in your lecture.
• Illustrate with images. Sometimes a picture can make words worth much more than they are without the picture.

While instructors tend to think of lectures when they think of using visual aids in teaching, images can also be used to  support classroom discussions .

• Move participants through stages of understanding. Suppose you have a discussion in which students are asked to work together to analyze a dataset and reach a particular conclusion about the dataset. You could begin with a slide that presents the dataset in a disorganized way and ask the students to work together to identify patterns. As the discussion progressed to identify patterns that you would expect students to identify, you might then present a slide that showed these patterns. The discussion would proceed, supported at each stage by a slide that exhibited the patterns identified at that stage.
• Take, organize, project real-time notes on discussion. Students often take notes during a discussion. Have students take turns serving as primary notetaker for the discussion, recording these notes in real time in a word processor projected onto the screen. Students develop the skill of recording and organizing information as a discussion is taking place. Moreover, these notes are in electronic form and therefore easily revised and reproduced. Notes taken in one class session can provide the basis for discussions later in the term.
• Organize small-group work. If you have students working in small groups, you can put prompts for group work on slides that are projected as the students do their work. You could move students gently from one stage to the next by changing the prompts.
• PowerPoint tutorial . There are many tutorials for PowerPoint. Here’s one developed at Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis.
• Active Learning with PowerPoint . An in-depth discussion of strategies for teaching with PowerPoint from the Center for Teaching and Learning at the University of Minnesota.
• PowerPoint: Possibilities and Problems . Eugene V. Gallagher and Michael Reder of Connecticut College discuss how teachers can use PowerPoint thoughtfully and effectively .
• Serif vs sans serif fonts . Here’s a discussion that’s more fully developed than the one above, but still very brief.
• Choices about font size . If you’re not satisfied with the general guidelines given above regarding font size in PowerPoint presentations, than you might consider using the rule described on this page.
• Noted information designer  Edward Tufte offers his thoughts on the uses and misuses of Power Point (and other presentation software) in his  The Cognitive Style of Power Point , an excerpt of which is available  here . Also see Tufte’s article,  PowerPoint is Evil from the September 2003 issue of Wired magazine.It should be noted that in his analysis of PowerPoint, Tufte often neglects to address the use of PowerPoint (and other slideware) to complement what a speaker says. He points out that a PowerPoint slideshow is limited in the ways that it can convey information as a stand-alone document, but he doesn’t address ways that a slideshow can enhance an in-person presentation.
• For a different approach to using PowerPoint and other slideware to complement an in-person presentation, read  Garr Reynold’s advice on designing slides . Reynolds is the author of  Presentation Zen: Simple Ideas on Presentation Design and Delivery . See also Reynolds’  Presentation Zen blog for additional thoughts on presentations.

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Multimedia Applications in Education

• Conference paper
• First Online: 09 January 2019
• Cite this conference paper

• Smilen Antonov Savov 22 ,
• Rumiana Antonova 22 &
• Kamen Spassov 22  

Part of the book series: Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation ((ASTI))

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The aim of this paper is to focus on some of the multimedia applications used in educational process. This paper offers several definitions of multimedia, identifies a sample of the most popular multimedia technologies, the most important tools and provides a discussion of their content and sources for further information. The paper stresses on five major multimedia components such as: text, sound, video, graphics design, and animation. The paper illustrates how the students learn, improve, update their knowledge and test themselves through multimedia technologies. The paper shows the pros and cons of multimedia education technologies, using some traditional and experimental techniques. In the various stages of the application of multimedia in education, the importance is described in the visualization of industry 4.0 and in the software tools of digital transformation.

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Savov, S.A., Antonova, R., Spassov, K. (2019). Multimedia Applications in Education. In: Al-Masri, A., Curran, K. (eds) Smart Technologies and Innovation for a Sustainable Future. Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01659-3_30

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Multimedia use and its impact on the effectiveness of educators: a technology acceptance model perspective

• Xuan Tang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9557-2068 1 ,
• Siti Rohaida Binti Mohamed Zainal 1 &
• Quan Li 2  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  10 , Article number:  923 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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• Cultural and media studies
• Science, technology and society

Amidst the contemporary shifts within early childhood education (ECE) in China, the significance of multimedia tools and their effective deployment by educators is increasingly paramount. Situated within the theoretical underpinnings of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), this inquiry elucidates the intricate dynamics between the Perceived Usefulness (PU) and Perceived Ease of Use (PEU) of said tools and their consequential influence on educators’ effectiveness. Empirical data gleaned from a rigorous quantitative survey of 400 educators within ECE institutions in Guangdong Province underscore the importance of PU and PEU as determinants of the successful assimilation of multimedia tools, thereby influencing the pedagogical efficacy of educators. There are several implications of this investigation. The study primarily contributes to the academic discourse by bridging a discernible lacuna and offering insights into multimedia tool adoption dynamics within the specific milieu of ECE in China. The findings have implications for a spectrum of stakeholders, from multimedia tool developers to educational policy-makers, underscoring that tools, to be truly transformative, must be perceived as both intrinsically valuable and user-centric. Notwithstanding the robustness of the findings, the geographically circumscribed focus on Guangdong Province warrants prudence in generalizing insights across China. This suggests the need for future scholarly endeavours to broaden the research purview across diverse provinces, aspiring to provide a more holistic understanding of the dynamics of multimedia tool integration within China’s expansive ECE domain.

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Introduction.

In the contemporary landscape, rapid advancements in multimedia technologies are significantly transforming educational practices worldwide (Shunkov et al., 2022 ). This technological shift is especially pronounced in China’s Early Childhood Education (ECE) sector (Nisak et al., 2022 ), where professionals educators play a pivotal role. These roles emphasise their contributions that extend beyond conventional teaching to a wide range of nurturing, mentoring, and developmental responsibilities. The emergence of the educator aligns with directives from China’s central government in 2019 (Central People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China, 2019 ). However, as multimedia tools become increasingly embedded in educational arenas, educators are challenged with leveraging their capabilities to optimize their effectiveness (Sudarsana, 2018 ).

Using multimedia tools extends beyond mere access; it encompasses acceptance and skilful implementation of such technologies. In this context, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) offers a comprehensive framework to decipher the variables affecting technology utilization (Davis et al., 1989 ). A noticeable void exists in the current literature regarding the influence of multimedia on educator effectiveness in China, signalling a research opportunity.

Addressing this gap, our study delves into how multimedia applications, grounded in TAM principles, impact educator effectiveness in Guangdong Province, China. The research makes multiple contributions. Primarily, it shapes educational strategies and methodologies by shedding light on factors influencing educator effectiveness in multimedia applications. Furthermore, employing TAM to analyse multimedia dynamics as used by educators, this study introduces a fresh perspective, especially considering the specific cultural and regional background.

This research endeavours to elucidate multimedia utilization and its repercussions on educators’ effectiveness. We aim to explore the interplay of TAM variables, including Multimedia of Perceived Usefulness (PU), Perceived Ease of Use (PEU), and their bearing on Educators’ Effectiveness (EE) in Guangdong Province, China. To realize this, a quantitative survey method is adopted, targeting educators from the province’s ECE domain.

Our study’s paramount contribution lies in the novel application of TAM to ECE in China. The insights promise to demystify the determinants fuelling the successful integration of multimedia technologies in education, potentially amplifying educator effectiveness and enriching ECE quality (Livingstone et al., 2019 ). Consequently, this inquiry stands at the juncture of technology acceptance, education, and productivity, heralding both theoretical innovations and tangible enhancements in the domain.

Literature review

Conceptualization and role of educators in early childhood education.

China’s evolving ECE landscape, particularly in Guangdong Province, has led to the emergence of educators as a distinctive role that unifies educational and caregiving responsibilities (Kong, 2023 ; Zhao et al., 2022 ). These professionals cultivate children’s holistic development and facilitate a vital communication bridge between homes and educational institutions (Arvola et al., 2021 ). Nevertheless, Guangdong’s flourishing ECE sector must also grapple with maintaining quality standards and addressing the scarcity of adequately trained educators (Oon et al., 2019 ).

The educator role originated from the unique societal and policy context in China. The pivotal turning point came in 2019 when the Chinese central government decreed the provision of care services for infants and toddlers under three years of age (Central People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China, 2019 ). Consequently, the scope of the role expanded beyond traditional educational duties to incorporate professional caregiving services. This broader remit led to reconsidering the term ECE educator and represents a more refined classification within ECE, acknowledging these professionals’ distinct and substantial contributions during children’s critical early developmental stages.

The emergence of this role has its challenges. The scarcity of qualified educators and escalating demand for ECE services have heightened concerns regarding the quality of care and education in some contexts. Moreover, the inconsistent availability of ongoing professional development opportunities, critical for enhancing educators’ competencies and practices, compounds these challenges (Logan et al., 2020 ).

Efforts towards improving ECE are evident in China’s ongoing policy initiatives, encompassing national and regional strategies to enhance early childcare services (Central People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China, 2019 ; Guangdong Provincial People’s Government, 2020 ). As the integration of new media technology becomes more commonplace in ECE settings, educators are poised at the intersection of numerous opportunities and challenges within this rapidly evolving educational milieu.

Multimedia technologies in early childhood education: adoption and integration

Multimedia technologies, a critical facet of modern education, encompass interactive, digital, and combined media to enhance teaching and learning experiences (Neo and Neo, 2004 ). This includes digital tools, such as tablets, software applications, video and audio tools, interactive whiteboards, and online platforms. They enable a combination of text, graphics, sound, animation, and video to create engaging, multisensory learning environments (Kamran, 2019 ).

In today’s technological environment, these multimedia technologies have markedly influenced global ECE practices, including those in China. Recognizing the pivotal role technology plays in education, the Chinese government has been proactively fostering its integration, catalysing technology adoption within ECE environments (Adarkwah, 2021 ).

Many digital tools and resources have been ingeniously woven into China’s ECE curricula to enhance children’s learning experiences and facilitate the acquisition of essential 21st-century competencies (Weng and Li, 2018 ). In addition, the proliferation of multimedia technologies has diversified communication and collaboration channels among educators, children, and parents, enabling remote and flexible learning paradigms (Anderson and Rivera Vargas, 2020 ). Government initiatives, such as the “Internet Plus” education strategy and the “National Outline for Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development (2010–2020)”, illustrate China’s commitment to encouraging technology use in educational settings, including ECE (Li et al., 2016 ).

However, the extent of multimedia technology integration within Chinese ECE contexts varies and is influenced by factors such as geographical location, funding availability, and access to resources (Luo et al., 2023 ). While urban ECE institutions equipped with advanced digital resources are typically at the vanguard of this shift, rural institutions grapple with infrastructural, financial, and access-related challenges (Hu et al., 2021 ).

Given this scenario, there is a critical need for professional development and training programs that equip educators with the necessary skills to efficiently integrate multimedia technologies into their pedagogical practices. Thus, understanding the factors contributing to successful technology adoption in Chinese ECE settings and the specific roles and experiences of educators within technology-enhanced ECE environments is a crucial avenue for future research.

Implications of multimedia technologies in early childhood education: opportunities and challenges

Multimedia technologies’ integration within ECE offers notable benefits but, at the same time, poses some challenges. A thorough understanding of both aspects is instrumental to enhancing the practical application of technology in ECE settings.

Multimedia technologies stand to significantly improve children’s learning experiences (Naluwooza et al., 2023 ). They foster learner engagement, enable personalized learning experiences, and expand access to diverse learning resources (Ismoilovich and Ravshanbekovich, 2023 ). With multimedia-enhanced learning activities, children can develop critical 21st-century skills such as creativity, problem solving, and critical thinking (Alzubi, 2023 ). Furthermore, multimedia technologies offer educators refined methods for assessing learner progress and addressing individual needs. They enhance stakeholder communication and collaboration and provide the groundwork for flexible, remote learning environments. Finally, they can foster continuity between home and school learning environments (Sonnenschein et al., 2021 ).

However, incorporating multimedia technologies into ECE settings is challenging (Lindeman et al., 2021 ). For example, excessive screen time poses potential risks to children’s physical health and social development (Kaimara et al., 2022 ). Organizations such as the American Academy of Paediatrics advise limited screen time for young children and underscore the importance of educator and parental supervision (Przybylski, 2019 ).

Educators may also need help integrating technology into their practices due to technical skill gaps, inadequate training, or resource limitations (Hu et al., 2021 ). These challenges necessitate ongoing professional development and adequate support for educators.

The digital divide—a disparity in access to digital resources—can intensify existing inequalities in educational opportunities among children from different socioeconomic backgrounds (Reddick et al., 2020 ). Thus, ensuring equitable access to multimedia technologies is critical to delivering inclusive, high-quality ECE experiences.

Hence, despite the manifold benefits multimedia technologies offer for ECE, it is vital to navigate the associated challenges to ensure meaningful, effective, and equitable technology integration. Understanding educators’ experiences within technology-enhanced ECE environments and identifying the factors influencing successful technology adoption are critical steps towards optimizing multimedia technology use in early childhood education.

The intersection of multimedia efficacy and educator efficiency: bridging prior research with current inquiry

The multimedia integration in ECE is not just a matter of technological innovation; it represents a significant shift in pedagogical practices and educator roles. This nexus between technology and education offers a compelling backdrop to understand the evolving role of educators and the factors that affect their effectiveness.

Mertala ( 2019 ) highlighted the nuanced roles of teachers beyond imparting education. They also attend to students’ emotional, physical, and social needs and their role in society. Teachers’ beliefs and attitudes become paramount when introducing technology, especially multimedia tools, into the educational sphere. Mertala suggests that there is a critical role that educators’ beliefs play in shaping their approach to technology. However, while Mertala brings to light the importance of beliefs, there is a gap in understanding how these beliefs directly influence the effectiveness of educators in utilizing multimedia in their teaching.

Drawing insights from Latini et al. ( 2020 ), the choice of medium for reading, whether print or digital, has been shown to affect comprehension processes. Their study suggests that participants exhibited more integrative processing with printed than digital materials. This raises critical questions about the potential challenges educators might face while leveraging multimedia resources. If comprehension is affected by the medium, then understanding how this affects the effectiveness of educators in imparting knowledge remains to be fully explored.

Li et al. ( 2019 ) extensively analysed multimedia learning trends over two decades. While they identified prevailing themes and trends, such as the importance of cognitive load and animation in multimedia learning, their practical application and impact on educator effectiveness are underresearched. Knowing the trends is essential, but how they align with the day-to-day practices of educators and their efficacy in diverse educational settings is an area our study seeks to explore further.

Gong ( 2022 ) discussed the confluence of multimedia technology and children’s drama education. The study highlighted the promising potential of human–computer interaction technologies in preschool drama education. However, while the tools and methodologies are advancing, understanding the nuances of how educators adapt to and effectively implement these tools in their curriculum is a dimension that needs to be deeply examined by Gong.

Last, Coskun and Cagiltay ( 2022 ) used eye-tracking metrics to understand learners’ cognitive processes in animated multimedia settings. Their insights provide a nuanced understanding of the relationship between design, attention, and learning outcomes. However, how educators can harness this understanding to improve their effectiveness, especially when animations and simulations become standard tools, remains an area with potential for further inquiry.

Our research aims to fill the gaps identified above by examining the direct impact of multimedia tools and methodologies on the effectiveness of educators. We seek to understand how these multimedia advancements, while promising on the surface, translate into real-world effectiveness in educational contexts, especially in Guangdong Province. Our inquiry aims to provide a more grounded perspective that juxtaposes the promise of multimedia with the practical realities and challenges faced by educators.

Theoretical framework and hypothesis development

Overview of the technology acceptance model (tam).

The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), developed by Davis et al. ( 1989 ), is a seminal theoretical framework in information systems (Granić, 2023 ). Crafted to predict and understand user acceptance and utilization of information technology, TAM pivots around two principal determinants: Perceived Usefulness (PU) and Perceived Ease of Use (PEU) (Warsono et al., 2023 ).

As shown in Fig. 1 , both PU and PEU are directly linked to an individual’s Behavioural Intention to Use (BIU), a system within the TAM framework. When educators perceive multimedia technology to be advantageous (PU) and user-friendly (PEU), their intention to integrate and employ that technology (BIU) increases. This intention ultimately materializes as Actual System Use, representing the integration and use of multimedia tools in their teaching methods.

Technology Acceptance Model.

In the context of our research, which probes the effects of multimedia on the effectiveness of educators, TAM serves as an instrumental analytical framework. Utilizing TAM, we can systematically analyse how educators evaluate multimedia technologies regarding their perceived advantages and user accessibility. Furthermore, by integrating specific external variables pertinent to the educational realm—such as institutional guidelines, pedagogical training, or curriculum directives—we can direct our insights towards the factors influencing the acceptance and adaptation of multimedia tools by educators.

Building on these theoretical foundations, our research model and hypotheses will explore the complex interplay between perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and the diverse external variables that influence an educator’s decision to incorporate multimedia technologies into educational strategies.

Applying TAM to this study

The TAM has become instrumental in probing the determinants driving technology adoption, especially within educational landscapes. It is highly pertinent when integrating multimedia technology into teaching paradigms. At the heart of this examination lies the quest to discern educators’ perspectives on the benefits and ease of using such multimedia tools. Based on the solid foundations of TAM, the present study seeks to debunk the hidden correlations between educators’ adoption of multimedia technology and their subsequent effectiveness.

Two pivotal independent variables underscore this inquiry. First, the PU serves as a barometer measuring the extent of educators’ conviction that multimedia tools can bolster the quality of their pedagogical endeavours. This translates into gauging the level of agreement among educators that multimedia-rich content can curate a learning experience that is in-depth and interactive for students. Complementing this is the second variable, PEU, which focuses on the anticipations of educators regarding how seamlessly multimedia technology can be woven into their teaching fabric. The underlying contemplation is whether educators perceive these technologies as intuitive additions to their teaching arsenal, bereft of any substantial impediments.

By synthesizing these several strands, the focal point that emerges is the dependent variable of Educators’ Effectiveness (EE). This encapsulates the tangible, positive repercussions observed when multimedia instruments are deployed in instructional settings. Effectiveness is broadly conceived, ranging from a palpable surge in student engagement to discernible strides in learning outcomes or even the clarity of feedback on delivered content.

Based on the above, we formulate the following hypotheses. Figure 2 shows the variables and their hypothesized relationships.

Research Model.

Hypothesis 1 (H1): The PU of multimedia tools significantly affects EE.

Hypothesis 2 (H2): The PEU of multimedia tools significantly affects EE.

Hypothesis 3 (H3): PEU significantly affects the PU of multimedia tools among educators.

Methodology

Questionnaire design and measurement items.

This study leverages a quantitative research design and employs a meticulously crafted questionnaire to extract insights from educators, parents, and other pivotal stakeholders within ECE in Guangdong Province, China. The focus is to elucidate participants’ demographics and perceptions of multimedia technology’s PU and PEU and its influence on the effectiveness of educators in ECE.

Our questionnaire is influenced by the foundational works of Davis et al. ( 1989 ) and Seligman ( 2001 ) for the PU and PEU dimensions. Notably, while Seligman’s original research revolved around computer-based patient records (CBPR), we adapted his items, replacing “CBPR” with “multimedia technology in ECE” to better fit our study context. A 5-point Likert scale was used for all items covered by the variables, with 1 indicating strong disagreement and 5 indicating strong agreement.

Below Table 1 presents the dimensions, their corresponding items, the item number, and the originating sources:

Deploying this questionnaire on Questionnaire Star ( https://www.wjx.cn/ ) aligns with our commitment to accessibility and participant data protection. This online format guarantees a streamlined data collection process, reaching a wider sample base. Furthermore, all collected data are safeguarded through strict measures, ensuring participant confidentiality. The gathered data will be statistically analysed to identify pertinent patterns and relationships.

Sampling technique and sample size

A cluster sampling technique was employed to ensure that the study sample adequately represented the target population of educators in Guangdong Province. The process involves grouping participants based on their roles and geographical locations and ensures the inclusion of diverse perspectives while accounting for the potential variation in experiences with technology-enhanced ECE across different settings.

Utilizing Cochran’s ( 1977 ) method for determining sample size in survey research, it was possible to determine the ideal sample size for this study.

where: n 0  = required sample size; Z = Z score (1.96 for a 95% confidence level); p  = estimated proportion of the population with the characteristic of interest (0.5, if unknown); q = complementary proportion (1-p); E = margin of error (e.g., 0.05 for a 5% margin of error)

As reported by Shen ( 2022 ) and cited by the official website of the National People’s Congress of the PRC (2022), there are ~90,000 educators employed in over 5400 early childhood education institutions within Guangdong Province.

To initiate the process, the complementary proportion (q) is computed:

Subsequently, the values are input into Cochran’s formula:

Consequently, with a margin of error of 5%, the estimated sample size for this study is ~384 participants.

Using Cochran’s formula and the stratified random sampling technique will enhance the study’s internal and external validity, ensuring that the findings can be generalized to the broader population of educators within Guangdong Province.

Based on the data needs described above, we employed a systematic and purposive sampling strategy to select participating institutions and educators within our data sampling pool. Based on information from the Infant Care and Early Development Industry Association of Guangdong Province China ( 2023 ), 225 ECE member institutions are located across various cities in Guangdong Province, China.

Our first step involved the systematic sampling of institutions. We selected every fifth institution from the Infant Care and Early Development Industry Association list to ensure broad coverage. Given our population size of 225 institutions, this systematic selection yielded a sample of 45 institutions.

Following the selection of institutions, we employed purposive sampling to select educators within these chosen establishments. Our goal is to achieve a target sample size of 384 educators. Therefore, we aim to disseminate approximately ten questionnaires per institution, adjusting the exact number slightly based on the total number of educators available at each institution.

Data analysis

Utilizing the SPSSAU tool (The SPSSAU Project, 2023 ), this study used descriptive and inferential statistical methodologies. Descriptive statistics offered insight into data features, encompassing central tendencies and variability metrics. The questionnaire’s reliability, construct validity, and item analysis were assessed.

Structural equation modelling (SEM) was then employed through the abovementioned analysis tool to decipher relationships between observable variables and underlying constructs, such as the influence of Innovative Behaviour on Professional Community and Shared Leadership. Through these methods, the study empirically addressed the research hypotheses.

Results and analysis

From August 2 to August 11, 2023, we distributed questionnaires to 450 educators affiliated with institutions that are members of the Infant Care and Early Development Industry Association. We received 400 valid responses; the response rate was high at 89%, representing substantial participation from the targeted educators.

Participants’ demographic information

This section provides a detailed breakdown of the demographic data of the participants who took part in the survey, as shown in Table 2 . A total of 400 respondents participated, and their demographic information spans five main categories: gender, age, education level, years of experience in their current role, and the location of their ECE institution.

From Table 2 , most participants were female, representing 70.75% of the total respondents. Most participants were between the ages of 25 and 45, with the largest group being those aged 35–45. The predominant education level was a vocational/technical diploma, held by 48.75% of participants. Most respondents had 1–3 years of experience in their current role, and a significant majority, 90.25%, were associated with ECE institutions located in urban areas.

Reliability and validity

In our study, the reliability of the questionnaire was measured using Cronbach’s alpha for the 24 items, as shown in Table 3 . Based on a sample of 400 respondents, the calculated Cronbach’s alpha was 0.958. Generally, in social science research a Cronbach’s alpha value above 0.7 is acceptable, suggesting that the questionnaire items have good internal consistency.

As shown in Table 4 , the KMO statistic was calculated to be 0.966. A KMO value close to 1 suggests that patterns of correlations are relatively compact, and, hence, factor analysis should yield distinct and reliable factors. Specifically, KMO values greater than 0.8 are considered significant, indicating that the dataset is suitable for factor analysis. Moreover, Bartlett’s Test data also support this view, as shown in Table 4 .

Items analysis

The data in Table 5 compare the means (M) and standard deviations (SD) for PU, perceived PEU, and EE between the low and high groups. All items for PU, PEU, and EE consistently show statistically significant differences between the low and high groups, as evidenced by p values that are all <0.01. The asterisks also reinforce this, which denote significance at the 0.01 level.

For the PU items, the low group’s mean values range between 2.58 and 2.82, whereas the high group’s mean values are between 4.32 and 4.51. The t values (or CR values) for these comparisons are all significantly large, ranging from 10.090 to 13.023, further affirming the robustness of the difference between the two groups. Similarly, for the PEU items, the low group’s means are between 2.72 and 2.94, while the high group’s means span from 4.39 to 4.52. Their t values (CR) fluctuate from 10.412 to 12.476, emphasizing the marked distinction in perceived ease of use between the two groups. Last, concerning EE items, the low group’s means are from 2.49 to 2.85, while the high group’s means are more elevated, ranging from 4.37 to 4.58. The t values for these items vary between 10.803 and 14.269, with the latter being the highest t value in the entire table, indicating the most significant difference observed between the low and high groups for item EE-1.

Hence, the evident difference in mean scores across all items for PU, PEU, and EE between the low and high groups suggests a marked difference in the perceptions of usefulness, ease of use, and effectiveness of multimedia tools between these two categories. The consistently significant p values solidify this observation, underscoring that these differences are statistically significant and not due to random chance.

Figure 3 shows the average scores for each item, giving us an overall picture of respondents’ attitudes and values towards the question.

For the PU measures, the average responses range between 3.795 and 3.875. This suggests that participants, on average, leaned towards agreeing that the multimedia tools were helpful, as these scores are closer to 4 on a 5-point scale. The slight variations within this range are subtle, with PU-4 having the highest mean value of 3.875, indicating that this aspect of perceived usefulness had the highest agreement among respondents. Regarding the PEU domain, the average responses span from 3.845 to 3.935, which implies that participants typically found multimedia tools relatively easy to use. The highest average value is for PEU-3 at 3.935, which might indicate a specific feature or aspect of the multimedia tool that was particularly intuitive for the respondents. For EE, the mean values fluctuate between 3.853 and 3.947. These values again tilt towards the higher end of the scale, signifying that, on average, participants felt that multimedia tools enhanced the effectiveness of educators. Within this domain, EE-7 registers the highest mean value of 3.947, suggesting that participants most recognized or valued this specific dimension of effectiveness.

SEM analysis

Table 6 presents various metrics assessing the fit of a statistical model.

A central focus is on the chi-square statistic (χ 2  = 394.034) with degrees of freedom (df) of 249. Although the p value is significant at 0.000, caution should be exercised when interpreting this result, as chi-square is known to be sensitive to sample size. A more informative indicator might be the chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (χ2/df). This ratio stands at 1.582, well below the recommended threshold of 3, suggesting an acceptable fit of the model.

Several goodness-of-fit indices support this observation: the goodness-of-fit index (GFI = 0.927), comparative fit index (CFI = 0.983), normed fit index (NFI = 0.955), and nonnormed fit index (NNFI = 0.981) all exceed the desired threshold of 0.9. Moreover, the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) is 0.038. Values below 0.05 frequently signify a strong alignment with the data, although values up to 0.08 are acceptable. This observation further reinforces the proposition of a model that fits well. The evaluation above is additionally supported by the RMSEA 90% Confidence Interval, which spans from 0.031 to 0.045, falling within the permitted range.

In addition, the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) of 0.024 further supports the adequacy of the model’s fit, as values below 0.1 are typically considered favourable. Other indices, such as the AGFI (0.912), IFI (0.983), PGFI (0.769), PNFI (0.862), and PCFI (0.887), further reinforce the robustness of the model’s fit to the observed data.

The presented fit indicators consistently signal a satisfactory model fit to the data, making it a robust foundation for drawing subsequent inferences.

Table 7 comprehensively delineates the predictive relationships between various constructs. Examining these relationships offers a panorama of the associations and their strengths, highlighting the constructs’ ability to predict various outcomes.

The nonstandardized regression coefficients and standard errors present the raw associations between the predictor and the outcome variables. Meanwhile, the z (critical ratio value) and p values provide statistical indicators for the significance of these relationships. The standardized regression coefficients provide insight into the relative strength of the relationships, adjusting for the scales of the variables.

A closer look at the relationships suggests that PU, PEU, and EE are significant predictors for their respective outcome variables, as evidenced by p values consistently being less than 0.001.

For instance, the association between PU and EE reveals a nonstandardized coefficient of 0.227, with a standardized value of 0.242, underscoring a moderate yet significant relationship. Similarly, PEU’s influence on PU and EE stands out, particularly with a substantial effect on PU, as shown by a standardized coefficient of 0.506. Such findings emphasize the central role these predictors play in determining the outcomes.

Moreover, the predictors’ relationships with their respective measures, such as PU’s association with PU-1 to PU-6 and EE’s influence on EE-1 to EE-12, are all statistically robust. This is evident from the significant critical ratio values and the consistently significant p values.

In essence, the table provides a comprehensive view of the regression relationships, underscoring the robustness and significance of the predictors in explaining the variances in their corresponding outcomes. This analytical exposition aids in understanding the crucial pathways and associations in the studied context, offering valuable insights for scholars and practitioners alike.

Figure 4 illustrates the research model, visually mapping the intricate relationships between constructs reinforced by the standardized regression coefficients and offering a concise graphical summary of the statistical findings presented in the Model Regression Coefficient Summary Table.

Research Model with Data Testing.

Our study aimed to explore the potential relationships between multimedia tools and PU and PEU and the resultant effects on EE. Drawing on the data and subsequent analyses, we arrive at the following conclusions concerning the hypotheses.

PU of multimedia tools significantly affects EE

Our data robustly support this hypothesis, showing a significant positive regression coefficient of 0.227 ( p  < 0.001, standardized coefficient: 0.242). This reveals a clear connection between the perceived value of multimedia tools and the resulting effectiveness of educators. In essence, when multimedia tools are perceived as valuable and relevant, educators are more likely to integrate them effectively into their teaching and care methods, leading to enhanced outcomes in early childhood education. This highlights the inherent need for developers and policy-makers to ensure that multimedia tools are not only technologically advanced but also cater directly to the practical needs of educators.

PEU of multimedia tools significantly affects EE

The hypothesis is strongly supported by our findings, reflected by a significant regression coefficient of 0.493 ( p  < 0.001, standardized coefficient: 0.487). The implications of this are profound. If educators find multimedia tools cumbersome or nonintuitive, even the most advanced features can be underutilized, undermining potential educational benefits. The ease with which these professionals can navigate and apply multimedia tools directly impacts their ability to harness their full potential, directly influencing the quality of the education and care provided.

PEU significantly affects the PU of multimedia tools among educators

The data offer a solid endorsement for this hypothesis, with a regression coefficient of 0.545 ( p  < 0.001, standardized coefficient: 0.506). This suggests a symbiotic relationship between ease of use and perceived value. If a multimedia tool is user-friendly, its perceived utility among educators increases, making it more likely to be integrated into their daily routines. This intertwining of utility and usability underscores the importance of holistic tool design, where functionality and user experience are both prioritised.

Overall, the conclusions drawn from our hypotheses provide a compelling narrative about the importance of both perceived usefulness and ease of use in the context of multimedia tools for educators. It is not merely about creating technologically sophisticated tools; it is about ensuring they align with the practical needs and comfort levels of educators. As the landscape of early childhood education in China continues to evolve, these insights offer critical guidance for both tech developers and educational policy-makers, emphasizing the need for tools that are both potent and accessible.

The intricate connection between technology, specifically multimedia tools, and education has been extensively examined in academic research. With the ever-evolving landscape of digital learning, it is imperative to understand the factors that influence the successful adoption and effectiveness of these tools. Our study, rooted in this context, offers several insights that warrant discussion.

First, our findings align with the broader literature that emphasizes the role of PU in technology adoption. The significant effect of PU on EE aligns with the tenets of the TAM, which posits that the perceived usefulness of technology is a primary determinant of its acceptance and use. This result underscores the importance for developers and educators alike to ensure that multimedia tools incorporate advanced features and are genuinely helpful in the intended context.

Our observation on the role of PEU sheds light on a critical aspect of technology implementation in educational contexts. The positive influence of PEU on educators’ effectiveness is a testament to the age-old adage: simplicity is the ultimate sophistication. It is about more than having a tool with many features; its potential benefits remain unrealized if it is not user-friendly. The influence of PEU on PU further cements the notion that tools perceived as easy to use are also deemed more practical. This interconnectedness suggests that usability and utility are not mutually exclusive but intertwined dimensions that educational technology developers must address concurrently.

In addition, the robust effect size of the relationship between PEU and PU is noteworthy. While usefulness is paramount, the ease with which educators can harness this usefulness is equally critical. This has significant implications for training and professional development programs. As institutions introduce new multimedia tools, they must ensure that support mechanisms are in place to make the transition smooth for educators.

However, our study is not without its limitations. Factors such as cultural nuances, institutional peculiarities, or regional specifics might affect the observed relationships. It is also relevant to highlight that our survey was conducted exclusively in Guangdong Province. As such, the findings may not be generalizable to other provinces in China, suggesting the need for caution when interpreting the outcomes.

In conclusion, our investigation stresses the significance of the association between perceived usefulness and ease of use in determining the effectiveness of multimedia tools for educators. As we navigate deeper into the digital age, these revelations serve not just as scholarly reflections but as essential guideposts for stakeholders straddling technology and education, mapping out the trajectory of digital education.

Directions for future studies

Given the geographical limitation of our study in Guangdong Province, future research could explore similar dynamics in other provinces of China to ascertain the generalizability of our findings. Cross-provincial comparisons might identify regional variances in the adoption and effectiveness of multimedia tools. In addition, longitudinal studies could be conducted to track changes in perceptions and usage patterns over time, offering insights into the evolving nature of digital learning. There is also a potential avenue to delve deeper into specific multimedia tool features and their direct impact on educators’ teaching methodologies and student outcomes. Ultimately, as technology continues to permeate educational settings, it is imperative for research to stay abreast of these developments, ensuring that tools are both relevant and effective in the ever-changing educational landscape.

Data availability

The data are not publicly available due to privacy protection. The data that support the findings of this study are available on reasonable request from the corresponding author.

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Xuan Tang & Siti Rohaida Binti Mohamed Zainal

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Tang, X., Zainal, S.R.B.M. & Li, Q. Multimedia use and its impact on the effectiveness of educators: a technology acceptance model perspective. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 923 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02458-4

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The Transformative Power of Multimedia in Higher Education Online Course Design

By john schneider | february 7, 2024.

In the rapidly evolving landscape of higher education, online courses have become a cornerstone of learning, providing flexibility and accessibility to students worldwide. Amid this shift, the role of multimedia in online course design has emerged as a key factor in shaping engaging and effective learning experiences.

Enhanced Engagement and Retention

Multimedia elements, such as videos, graphics, and interactive content, have a profound impact on student engagement and information retention. The combination of visual and auditory stimuli not only captures attention but also facilitates a deeper understanding of complex concepts. Engaged students are more likely to retain information and actively participate in discussions, creating a vibrant online learning community.

Accessibility and Inclusivity

Multimedia in online course design goes beyond text-based content, making educational materials accessible to diverse learners. Visual aids, for instance, benefit those with different learning preferences, and captioned videos ensure content accessibility for individuals with hearing impairments. Embracing multimedia promotes inclusivity and accommodates a wide range of learning styles, fostering an environment where every student can thrive.

Real-world Application

Integrating multimedia elements allows educators to bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and real-world application. Videos, simulations, and case studies provide students with practical insights, enabling them to see how the concepts they learn in class are applied in professional settings. This approach not only enhances the relevance of the content but also prepares students for the challenges they may encounter in their future careers.

Global Collaboration and Connectivity

Multimedia facilitates global collaboration by breaking down geographical barriers. Video conferencing, collaborative online projects, and multimedia-rich discussions enable students to connect with peers and experts from around the world. This interconnectedness not only broadens perspectives but also prepares students for a globalized workforce, where effective communication and collaboration are essential skills.

Adaptability and Personalization

Multimedia supports the creation of adaptive and personalized learning experiences. Through interactive quizzes, multimedia presentations, and self-paced modules, students can tailor their learning journey to their individual needs and preferences. This flexibility accommodates diverse learning paces and styles, empowering students to take control of their education.

The incorporation of multimedia in higher education online course design is not merely a trend but a necessity in creating dynamic, engaging, and inclusive learning environments. As educational institutions continue to embrace the digital landscape, the transformative power of multimedia will play a pivotal role in shaping the future of online education, fostering a rich and interactive educational experience for students worldwide.

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Multimedia presentations in education: theoretical approach and the use of innovative features

Katedra informačních technologií a technické výchovyPedagogická fakultaFaculty of Educatio

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Multimedia tools in the teaching and learning processes: A systematic review

M.d. abdulrahaman.

a Department of Information and Communication Science, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

b Department of Telecommunication Science, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

A.A. Oloyede

N.t. surajudeen-bakinde.

c Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

L.A. Olawoyin

O.v. mejabi, y.o. imam-fulani.

d Department of Religions, Faculty of Arts, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

e Department of Mass Communication, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

Access to quality education is still a major bottleneck in developing countries. Efforts at opening the access to a large majority of citizens in developing nations have explored different strategies including the use of multimedia technology. This paper provides a systematic review of different multimedia tools in the teaching and learning processes with a view to examining how multimedia technologies have proven to be a veritable strategy for bridging the gap in the provision of unrestricted access to quality education and improved learners' performance. The review process includes conducting an extensive search of relevant scientific literature, selection of relevant studies using a pre-determined inclusion criteria, literature analysis, and synthesis of the findings of the various studies that have investigated how multimedia have been used for learning and teaching processes. The review examines various case study reports of multimedia tools, their success and limiting factors, application areas, evaluation methodologies, technology components, and age groups targeted by the tools. Future research directions are also provided. Apart from text and images, existing tools were found to have multimedia components such as audio, video, animation and 3-D. The study concluded that the majority of the multimedia solutions deployed for teaching and learning target the solution to the pedagogical content of the subject of interest and the user audience of the solution while the success of the different multimedia tools that have been used on the various target groups and subjects can be attributed to the technologies and components embedded in their development.

Education, Media in education, Teaching/learning strategies, Pedagogical issues, Systematic review

1. Introduction

Multimedia is a combination of more than one media type such as text (alphabetic or numeric), symbols, images, pictures, audio, video, and animations usually with the aid of technology for the purpose of enhancing understanding or memorization ( Guan et al., 2018 ). It supports verbal instruction with the use of static and dynamic images in form of visualization technology for better expression and comprehension ( Alemdag and Cagiltay, 2018 ; Chen and Liu, 2008 ). The hardware and software used for creating and running of multimedia applications is known as multimedia technology ( Kapi et al., 2017 ). Multimedia technology has some characteristics like integration, diversity, and interaction that enable people to communicate information or ideas with digital and print elements. The digital and print elements in this context refer to multimedia-based applications or tools used for the purpose of delivering information to people for better understanding of concepts.

Indeed, various aspects of human endeavours, especially the educational sector, are being transformed by the advent of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). ICT involves the use of hardware and software for the purpose of collecting, processing, storing, presenting, and sharing of information mostly in digital forms. Multimedia technology is an important aspect of ICT that deals with how information can be represented and presented digitally, using different media such as text, audio, video, among others ( Guan et al., 2018 ). It involves the combination of several technologies provide information in the best possible formats, packages, and sizes.

However, when used in the classroom or for educational purposes, the design quality and sophistication of multimedia application must be high enough to combine the different elements of the cognitive processes so as to achieve the best mimicking of the teacher. There are different types of multimedia applications available in the market today. These applications have been deployed for different educational purposes such as the works deployed for Mathematics classes, Social Sciences, Sciences, Physiology, Physics and Physical Education Studies ( Al-Hariri and Al-Hattami 2017 ; Anderson, 1993 ; Chen and Liu, 2008 ; Chen and Xia, 2012 ; Ilhan and Oruc, 2016 ; Jian-hua & Hong, 2012 ; Milovanovi et al., 2013 ; Shah and Khan, 2015 ).

The central problem, however, remains the same. Which is, the problem of how to use the applications to provide students with stimulating experience by delivering information for better understanding of concepts. While it is important to develop various applications for effective teaching delivery, each of these applications has its own focus area, peculiarities, target age, merits and demerits. Thus, the taxonomy and component synthesis for the development of the multimedia application need to be extensively investigated as these would affect the teaching delivery, learning and wider applicability. Some of the multimedia solutions have been deployed, tested and recorded significant success, while some did not record marginal success.

The success stories also vary with location, target age and deployment purposes. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to provide a systematic review of the scientific published studies that examined different multimedia tools in the teaching and learning process with a view to identifying the existing multimedia-based tools, understanding their usage, application areas and impacts on education system. In order words, the study, through a systematic review of literature, aims at identifying the existing multimedia-based tools for teaching and learning; understanding their usage and limiting factors, application areas, evaluation methodologies, technology components synthesis and impacts on education system.

To this end, the study is guided by the following research questions:

• (1) What are the existing multimedia tools in teaching and learning?
• (2) What type of multimedia component fits an audience?
• (3) What types of multimedia components are adopted in the existing tools?
• (4) What evaluation methodologies are useful for successful outcome?
• (5) What factors aid success or failure in the use of multimedia tools for teaching and learning?

The outcome of this study is aimed at serving as a guide for teachers and education administrators while selecting multimedia tools and applications for teaching in schools. So, in this study, the taxonomy and component synthesis of some widely cited multimedia applications are provided. Various case studies and results are examined. Furthermore, barriers limiting the usage of ICT and multimedia in teaching and learning are identified; and some unresolved cases and future research decisions are outlined.

The subsequent parts of this paper include Section 2 , which is the literature review that examines multimedia technology and its place in teaching and learning; Section 3 , the research methodology; Section 4 , presentation of results; Section 5 , discussion of the findings; and Section 6 , the conclusion, recommendations and suggestions for future work.

2. Literature review

2.1. multimedia learning and teaching: concepts and resources.

Multimedia or digital learning resources assist learners to get on well with mental representations with the use of different media elements, which support information processing. Information, which is made up of content and sometimes learning activities, are presented with the use of the combination of text, image, video and audio by digital learning resources. It has been demonstrated, by research on using multimedia for learning, that there are more positive results observed in learners who combine picture and words than those who use words only ( Chen and Liu, 2008 ; Mayer, 2008 ). As stated in Eady and Lockyer (2013) , different pedagogy methods were implemented by the use of digital resources. Their paper presented how the authors were able to introduce topics to students, demonstrate to them, stimulate a group, make different text types available and engage students in an interactive manner.

Generally speaking, multimedia technology for educational purposes can be categorised according to whether they are used for teaching or for learning. Some of the different multimedia or digital learning resources are listed in Eady and Lockyer (2013) . Furthermore, according to Guan et al. (2018) , several studies have established the importance of multimedia technologies to education and the widespread adoption of multimedia tools. Multimedia generally involves the use of technology and the widespread adoption of multimedia applications in education is as a result of its many benefits ( Almara'beh et al., 2015 ). Some of the benefits of the multimedia application tools for teaching and learning are summarized as follows:

• (1) Ability to turn abstract concepts into concrete contents
• (2) Ability to presents large volumes of information within a limited time with less effort
• (3) Ability to stimulates students' interest in learning
• (4) Provides teacher with the ability to know students position in learning.

Multimedia designed for learning refers to the process of building mental representation from words and pictures in different contexts. They are designed to assist learning with tools which can be used in presentations, class room or laboratory learning, simulations, e-learning, computer games, and virtual reality, thereby allowing learners to process information both in verbal and pictorial forms ( Alemdag and Cagiltay, 2018 ). Multimedia designed for learning requires understanding of some theories such as cognitive theory of multimedia learning, which postulates three assumptions that describe how people learn from instructional multimedia materials. These assumptions can be phrased as dual-channel, limited capacity, and active processing ( Alemdag and Cagiltay, 2018 ). Dual-channel assumes that learners have many channels to separate visual and auditory information. The restricted/limited capacity assumes that there is a limit to the load of data that can be processed in each channel. Understanding these will allow teachers not overwhelming learners with much information. On the other hand, learners will be aware of their information processing limitations or capabilities. Active processing proposes that when it comes to information selection, organization, and integration, human beings are active agents and are capable of managing the forms of information they are interacting with.

The appropriate use of ICT in teaching transforms the learning environment from teacher-centred to learner-centred ( Coleman et al., 2016 ) just as it is transforming all aspects of human life ( Guan et al., 2018 ). Coleman et al., (2016) emphasised that the shifting from teaching to learning creates a student-centred learning where teachers are there as facilitators and not sages on the stages, thus changing the role of the teacher from knowledge transmitter to that of a facilitator, knowledge navigator and a co-learner. Keengwe et al., (2008a) concluded that the application of multi-media technologies ensures a very productive, interesting, motivating, interactive and quality delivery of classroom instruction while addressing diverse learners' needs.

2.2. Role of multimedia technology in teaching and learning

Technology is evolving and scholars in the areas of Information Technology (IT) and education technology are continuing to study how multimedia technologies can be harnessed for the enhancement of teaching and learning. A software tool can be used to expand teaching and learning in various fields. It is important to provide students with practical experience in most fields of learning.

The importance of multimedia technologies and applications in education as a teaching or learning tool cannot be over emphasized. This has been confirmed in several studies that have investigated the impact of multimedia technology to the education system. Milovanovi et al. (2013) demonstrated the importance of using multimedia tools in Mathematics classes and found that the multimedia tool greatly enhances students' learning. Several works exist that show that multimedia enhances students' learning ( Aloraini, 2012 ; Al-Hariri and Al-Hattami, 2017 ; Barzegar et al., 2012 ; Chen and Xia 2012 ; Dalacosta et al., 2009 ; Jian-hua & Hong, 2012 ; Janda, 1992 ; Keengwe et al., 2008b ; Kingsley and Boone, 2008 ; Shah and Khan, 2015 ; Taradi et al., 2005 ; Zin et al., 2013 ).

Multimedia communication has close similarities to face-to-face communications. It is less restricted than text and ensures better understanding ( Pea, 1991 ). Multimedia technology helps simplify abstract content, allows for differences from individuals and allows for coordination of diverse representation with a different perspective. The use of the computer-based technique as an interface between students and what they are learning with suitable fonts and design can be very valuable.

Certainly, multimedia technology brings about improvement in teaching and learning, however, there are a number of limitations in this technology for educational purposes. Some of these limitations include unfriendly programming or user interface, limited resources, lack of required knowledge and skill, limited time and high cost of maintenance among others ( Al-Ajmi and Aljazzaf, 2020 ; Putra, 2018 ).

2.3. Multimedia evaluation techniques

Evaluation entails assessing whether a multimedia programme fulfils the purposes set including being useful for its target audience. Kennedy and Judd (2007) make the point that developers of multimedia tools have expectations about the way they will be used which could be functional (focused on the interface) or educational (involving the learning designs, processes and outcomes). It is important to note that there are different methods used in the evaluation of multimedia and most evaluations entail experiments, comparisons and surveys. The primary goal is to balance assessment validity with efficiency of the evaluation process ( Mayer, 2005 ).

Survey research has two common key features – questionnaires (or interviews) and sampling, and is ideally suited for collecting data from a population that is too large to observe directly and is economical in terms of researcher time, cost and effort when compared to experimental research. However, survey research is subject to biases from the questionnaire design and sampling including non-response, social desirability and recall and may not allow researchers to have an in-depth understanding of the underlying reasons for respondent behaviour ( West, 2019 ; Kelley et al., 2003 ).

Generally, comparison studies follow the format of comparing outcome from an experimental group using the multimedia being evaluated against a control group. This method has been criticised for having inadequate treatment definition, not specifying all treatment dimensions and failure to measure treatment implementation, among others ( Yildiz and Atkins, 1992 ).

Faced with the subjective nature of surveys and the limitations from comparison studies, eye tracking and other student behaviour such as emotional response, provides information not consciously controlled by the student or researcher and is used as an objective data gathering technique. Eye tracking research is a multi-disciplinary field that tracks eye movements in response to visual stimuli ( Horsley et al., 2014 ). Data from eye-tracking allows researchers to validate empirically and objectively, how learners comprehend the multimedia content, the attention of the learner while analysing the multimedia content, and the cognitive demand of the content ( Molina et al., 2018 ). Eye tracking is quite interesting as it provides a useful source of information in the case of children. This is because gathering information using the traditional techniques is more difficult especially when it involves children's interests and preferences ( Molina et al., 2018 ).

Earlier attempts at analysing student behaviour while engaging with online material included analysing student access computer logs, and the frequency of participation and duration of participation ( Morris et al., 2005 ). Nie and Zhe (2020) demonstrated that the conventional method of manually analysing student behaviour is gradually becoming less effective compared to online classroom visual tracking. They found that the online classroom visual tracking behaviour can be divided into several components: selection, presentation, mapping, analysis and collection, as well as the analysis from students' facial expression.

Several works exist that use student behaviour tracking to examine how students interact with multimedia learning tools. For instance, Agulla et al. (2009) , incorporated in a learning management system (LMS), student behaviour tracking that provided information on how much time the student spent in front of the computer examining the contents. They did so through the use of face tracking, fingerprint and speaker verification. Alemdag and Cagiltay (2018) conducted a systematic review of eye-tracking research on multimedia learning and found that while this research method was on the rise it was mainly used to understand the effects of multimedia use among higher education students. They also identified that although eye movements were linked to how students select, organise and integrate information presented through multimedia technologies, metacognition and emotions were rarely investigated with eye movements.

Molina et al. (2018) used eye-tracking in evaluating multimedia use by primary school children. Some studies have used a combination of eye tracking data and verbal data in order to gain insight into the learners' cognitions during learning and how they perceived the learning material ( Stark et al., 2018 ).

As much as eye-tracking and other behavioural research present opportunity for objective evaluation, difficulty of interpretation is one of the limitations of eye-movement data ( Miller, 2015 ), and it is not surprising that the traditional methods of evaluation through questionnaire administration and surveys are still commonly used.

3. Research methodology

This study adopted a research design that involves a searching method for identifying the articles to be reviewed for solving a specific research problem. It includes a systematic review of the article contents for analysis and synthesis. The systematic review follows the procedure outlined in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis for Protocol (PRISMA-P) 2015 guideline as provided in the work of Moher et al. (2015) , an extension of Liberati et al. (2009) . The guideline is to facilitate a carefully planned and documented systematic review in a manner that promotes consistency, transparency, accountability and integrity of review articles. Although it was originally developed for the analysis of health related studies, it is now widely adopted in other fields of study. Furthermore, the study involves protocol that includes identifying the data sources for the search, the keywords for the search and the inclusion criteria. To aid in synthesis of the identified articles, key points from the articles are summarised in tables and quantifiable components are analysed.

3.1. Data sources

The quality of a systematic review starts with the data sources used for identifying the articles to be selected for the review. This requires a thorough search and scrutiny of existing literatures from variety of academic databases and journals. The academic databases and journals considered for this review include Science Direct, IEEE Explore, ACM Digital library, Google Scholar, Springer, Wiley Online Library, Taylor & Francis, EBSCOHOST, Web of Science, and Scopus. These databases are reputable bibliographic sources and journals or conference papers indexed in them are deemed reputable and of good quality.

3.2. Search keywords

In order to ensure appropriate primary search terms are used and relevant papers are carefully selected for the review purpose, the literature search method of Kitchenham et al. (2009) was adopted. While it is expected that searching on a main string should be sufficient for the query output to collect all related papers, this is not the case always; hence the inclusion of substrings. Some problems associated with the databases used for the study are:

• • Some do not have automatic root recognition
• • Some have limitation of how many words to use e.g. IEEE, 15 words
• • Some databases offer advanced or expert search
• • ACM, IEEE and others do not have anything, not even a precedence rule.

The search terms for relevant literatures in the academic databases and journals specified in section 3.1 , are: “multimedia”, “multimedia technology”, “multimedia technology + Education”, “ICT impact + Education”, “multimedia tools + Education”, “multimedia + Teaching”, “multimedia + Learning”, “Application Software + Education”, and “Digital + Education”.

3.3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

For the purpose given, each of the articles from the consulted academic databases and libraries had an equal chance of being selected. In order to avoid bias in the selection, a clear principle was set and adopted to form the criteria for inclusion of papers. These criteria are presented in Table 1 .

Table 1

Inclusion criteria of articles.

Thus, the queries using the stated search strings led to a pool of 10,972 articles in the subjects of interest that were online and written in English. All publications found as at the time of the search, which was in May 2019, were included. Publication date constraint for including a paper in the study was not applied. The process of screening this pool of 10,972 articles to meet the purpose of the study is outlined in the next section.

3.4. Exclusion from pooled articles

The number of articles from the database keywords search were reduced in line with the elimination procedure outlined as follows:

• i. elimination of paper based on unrelated title and elimination of duplications from various sources, leading to a reduction from 10,972 to 1,403;
• ii. examination of the abstracts of the 1,403 articles and reduction from 1,403 to 505;
• iii. elimination based on the direction of the article after reading through, leading to reduction from 505 to 78.

The elimination procedure is represented in Figure 1 which shows the flow of the procedure for screening the articles for the study.

Literature elimination process.

Table 2 provides a summary of the databases visited and the respective number of articles (from the final 78) that were obtained from that source.

Table 2

Search databases and number for articles.

Table 2 shows the percentage of the articles sourced from each academic database and reveals that Science Direct accounts for the highest number of the related articles with 25 (32%) papers, closely followed by Google Scholar 20 (26%) and IEEE Explore with 12 (15%) articles. Springer accounts for 8 articles, which represents 10% of the entire reviewed papers, while ACM Digital Library, Taylor and Francis, Web of science and EBSCOHOST contribute 4 (5%), 2 (3%), 4 (5%) and 2 (3%) respectively. The least paper is contributed by Wiley Online Library with one paper, which represents 1% of the entire papers reviewed for this study.

3.5. Data collection and synthesis of results

Based on the selection mechanism, 78 articles were shortlisted for analysis. Each article was reviewed and information extracted from it for tabulation. The information sought included the following: the type of multimedia tool used, the focus area of the tool, the technology that was deployed, the multimedia components used within the tool, how the tool was applied – whether for teaching or learning or both, the location where the tool was tested, and the target age on which the tool was tested. The researchers also tabulated impressions gleaned from the review in a “comments” column. If the tool was evaluated, then the evaluation methodology, target group, sample size, outcome, limitations of the methodology and whether or not the outcome could be generalized, were also presented.

In the next section, the insights from the articles reviewed are presented and some of the findings presented in tables for ease of analyses and synthesis.

After careful application of the procedures for selection as outlined in section 3 , each of the 78 shortlisted articles were subjected to a systematic review which involved extracting information as itemised in section 3.5 . Such information were tabulated for further analysis. Not all the articles were empirical based or contained the desired data items. Nineteen articles which were based on experimental work reported the details of the multimedia tool developed or deployed. Furthermore, 13 articles with details of the evaluation of the use of multimedia tools in teaching and learning were identified. Also revealed, were barriers to the use of multimedia. The findings from the systematic review are presented in this section.

The set of articles reviewed clearly emphasized the importance of multimedia technology to the improvement of teaching and learning environment. Several studies that have investigated the impact of ICT to education stated that multimedia technology has positive impact on the way teachers impart knowledge and the manner in which learners comprehend subject matters. The review also revealed that several multimedia-based tools exist, most of which are usually based on subject, field, age or level at various institutions of learning. In addition, some of the reviewed papers investigated the impact of teaching and/or learning with multimedia based instructional materials using descriptive, qualitative and quantitative research methods with different focus groups for both the pre-test and post-test conditions.

Nevertheless, despite the impact of multimedia tools on the improvement of teaching and learning activities, it could be counterproductive if the computer-based tools are not properly designed or the instructional materials are not well composed. The reviews showed that multimedia adoption in education requires adequate understanding of technology and multimedia types or components required to properly represent concepts or ideas. This implies that a teacher must understand the learners and know what technology or tool needs to be adopted at a given time for a set of targets. According to the reviews, the target groups determine the type of multimedia components employed while preparing instructional materials and the ways they are to be delivered. To provide context, a review of some of the analysed case studies are presented next.

Huang et al. (2017) explored the use of multimedia-based teaching materials that include three view diagrams (3D) and tangible 3D materials to teach 3D modelling course. This was aimed at determining the influence of multimedia technology in meta-cognitive behaviour of students. The authors employed lag sequential analysis as well as interview methods to examine the pattern transformation of students' meta-cognitive behaviour while solving problematic tasks. The evaluation results show that different teaching method and materials produce different meta-cognitive behaviours in student. The result further revealed that compare to traditional instructional instruments, using 3D tangible object in cognitive apprenticeship instruction stimulates more meta-cognitive behaviour. To teach an introductory course to control theory and programming in MATLAB, a video based multimedia guide was created by Karel and Tomas (2015) for distance learning students using Camtasia Studio 7 program. The software can record screen, edit video and create DVD menu. The impact of the multimedia aid tool was evaluated to be positive on the students based on the feedback.

Zhang (2012) created an online teaching and learning resource platform with interactive and integrated features. The platform was created with Macromedia Flash version 8.0, a form of Computer – Aided Drawing (CAD) software that is very easy to use. In an attempt to test student's professional cognition and operational skill cognition as well as learning satisfaction during learning phase, an experimentation technique that utilizes a non-equivalent pre-test and post-test control group was adopted. The evaluation revealed no significant difference between the groups in terms of professional cognition and operation skill cognition. However, it was noted that a significant difference exists in learning satisfaction, which shows a greater satisfaction in the coursework with multimedia Flash compare to that of the traditional learning method.

A web-based multimedia software is another popular educational tool designed to enhance teaching and learning. The major constraints of web-based learning are in its ability to provide personalised learning materials. Hwang et al., (2007) presented a web-based tool for creating and sharing annotations in their study. They then investigated the effect of the tool on learning using college students as a case study after four months of using the tool. The study concluded that there is value in understanding the use of collaborative learning through shared annotation. The paper also carried out a GEFT test on the students and concluded that there was no significant divergence between field – dependent and cognitive style students on the quantity of annotation. The paper also concluded that in the final examination, the tool provided a high motivation for students to study for their final exams.

Similarly, Bánsági and Rodgers (2018) developed a graphic web-based application in the educational sector for liquid – liquid extraction with the help of ternary phase diagram. The application allows chemical engineering students of the University of Manchester to draw liquid – liquid two – phase equilibrium curves and calculate mixture of phase separation among others. The application was put into use for testing purpose during which student usage figure as well as their opinions was sampled for both full – time taught and distance learning courses. The HTML 5, JavaScript, and Cascading Style Sheet (CSS) based application is interactive and easy to be used. In order to further analyse the web application developed, an iTeach questionnaire for the assessment of the efficiency of individual pedagogical approach was administered to students. The study revealed that students find the application useful as it has increased their level of understanding the course.

In order to teach students how to compose and continue delivering text based information in various media forms for current and emerging technologies, Blevins (2018) made students to search and analyse various multimedia technologies used in new media and capable of reflecting on their current and future works by adopting a scaffold project – based activities. The students were taught Augmented Reality (AR) software in a specific way with an assumption that such method will change next time students embark on AR project. After student's evaluation, the assumption was achieved even more than expected.

Ertugrul (2000) provided an overview of some lab view application software for teaching. The focus of the software was to seek for software use friendliness and compatibility faced by users. The paper provided recommendations for selection criterion. Even though the software applications have been found very useful and could compliment for conventional practical teaching particularly where there is shortage of laboratory facilities, the application is not suitable for engineering kind courses that requires hands on and intensive practical. Davies and Cormican (2013) identified the fundamental principles needed when designing a multimedia training tool or material for effective teaching and learning. The principles considered both students and an instructor's perspectives. Experiments were conducted in Ireland using a computer aided design (CAD) training environment. During data collection, mixed methods (i.e. interviews, surveys and a group discussion) were employed and findings showed that computer-based material is the most effective and popular way to learn. However, the costs, perceived lack of skill and insufficient support could be hindering factors.

The department of Computer Science in UiTMNegriSembian, developed three applications, namely, the Greenfoot, Visualization makes Array Easy (VAE) and e-TajweedYassin. The Greenfoot as a Teaching Tool in Object Oriented Programming is a tool that creates scenarios in order to ease visualization of 2D objects interaction in teaching object-oriented programming. The term “scenario” is used in Greenfoot to mean a project, and it has been used as a teaching aid for object-oriented programming (OOP) language introduction course. To ensure that a standard and quality application is built, the teaching aid was developed using System Development Life Cycle (SDLC). The Greenfoot-based scenario shows a great improvement in visualization and object element interaction and an impressive engagement of students during learning process. The application also provides clear illustration of object-oriented concepts to students and enabled them develop a game-like application from the scenario provided.

The Visualization makes Array Easy (VAE) on the other hand was created using the ADDIE model which is made up of Analysis, Design, Develop, Implement and Evaluate for instructional design. The analysis stage recognizes visualization technique as a key factor for enhancing students' understanding of programming concepts. The design stage of VAE took about a week to create a storyboard, while MS PowerPoint with i-Spring and Video Scribe formed the principal software for developing the application using storyboard as a guide. The VAE was instrumental in teaching students some hard programming concepts like Array. The results of the simple test with 60 students showed simulation technique of VAE to be effective in helping students to learn the concepts. To determine the effectiveness of VAE prototype, learnability, efficiency, memorability, accuracy and satisfaction of students were examined.

While the e-TajweedYaasin software was also developed using the ADDIE model (Analysis, Design, Develop, Implement and Evaluate) as an e-learning application, the tool was intended to aid students mastering tajweed and avoid common mistakes that were usually made by previous students who had undergone the course. During the analysis stage, visualization and interactive technique were recognised to be helpful in ensuring that students understand tajweed properly and are able to study with ease. The design stage involved the designing of the application layout with the focus on its easy accessibility to users. In addition, its user interface imitates the traditional teaching method called syafawiah. The development stage involved the use of MS PowerPoint with i-Spring features. The combination of audio, video and animation was more effective in comparison to text only in the promotion of learning. A sample of 51 students were selected to use the system and later, they were evaluated based on their ability to read the surah of Yaasin. A great improvement was observed as the number of mistakes had reduced to all the rules as students were enabled to better recognise and practice the tajweed for the surah of Yaasin ( Kapi et al., 2017 ).

Kapi et al. (2017) compared the effectiveness of three multimedia applications for effective teaching and learning. The applications considered were: Greenfoot Tool for programming; Visualisation Makes Array Easy (VAE) and e-TajweedYasin applications. The comparison looked into the design models used in meeting the desired instructional needs. Findings from the paper showed much more improved students' performance, learning and better understanding of subjects taught.

The advantages of using multimedia tools to teach Physics, which most students think is difficult, are enumerated in Jian-hua & Hong's (2012) work. They established that effective application of multimedia technology in university physics teaching can change the form of information, integrating graph, text, sound and image on PC, improving the expressive force of the teaching content so that the students can actively participate in multi-media activities via multi senses. High-quality university physics multimedia courseware is the best means to provide a variety of audio-visual images, which can show a lot of physical processes and phenomena vividly that is difficult by common means. The tool, especially, combines the advantages of multimedia courseware for university physics and that of traditional teaching of physics, and it greatly helped in improving teaching results of physics ( Jian-hua & Hong, 2012 ).

Two researchers developed a culturally responsive Visual Art Education module at the secondary level so as to assist the teachers to integrate and to implement a multicultural education in the teaching and learning practices at schools with the aim of enhancing students' knowledge and awareness regarding the elements of art and culture inherited by each race that makes up the multiracial society in Malaysia. Microsoft power point authoring tool was the technology with visual art materials including images and texts in a multimedia interactive teaching material for teaching 60 secondary school students, which resulted in accelerated teaching and learning processes with the IT skills of the teachers greatly improved ( Maaruf and Siraj, 2013 ).

Two control groups, pre-test and post-test, were selected for the implementation of a developed multimedia tool for 20 weeks. The tool, multimedia aided teaching (MAT) with text, audio, video and animation, was applied on 60 science students with age less than 15 years. The valid and reliable questionnaires were used as data collection tools. The Attitude Towards Science Scale (ATSS) was used to measure the attitude of both groups before and after treatments. The independent sample t-test was used to analyze the data. The results indicated that MAT is more effective than the traditional one. Students' attitude towards science improved with the use of MAT when compared to the traditional method of teaching ( Shah and Khan, 2015 ).

The effect of multimedia tools on the performance of 67 grade 4 students of social studies in Kayseri, Turkey was presented. Teaching tool with Computer representation with text, audio, video and animation as its components applied on a control group and an experimental group. The study concluded that academic performance of students in social studies was greatly improved when multimedia technique was applied as compared to traditional classroom ( Ilhan and Oruc, 2016 ).

Two samples of 60 senior secondary school II students in two different schools in Lagos State, Nigeria, were selected for the pre-test, post-test control group quasi experimental design in the research by Akinoso. Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT) with twenty-five questions from four topics namely: logarithm, percentage error, range, variance and standard deviation and circle theorems was the tool used. It was concluded that the students in the experimental group where multimedia tool was used performed better than those in the control group. It was equally inferred from the work that students' interest, motivation and participation increased according to the researcher and experimental group's teacher observations ( Akinoso, 2018 ).

Specifically, in the field of engineering, laboratory software applications can be used to provide an interface to providing practical alternatives to students depending on their requirement. Ertugrul (2000) provided a review of LabView software applications. The paper provided some knowledge about laboratory software tools used in the field of engineering and concluded that computer-based technology has advanced up to the stage where it can aid Engineering education at a significantly low price. The paper also highlighted some challenges faced by institutions in selecting and in the use of these software such as the need to upgrade software as the curriculum changes while also providing some future trends.

Zulkifli et al. (2008) examined a self-calibrating automated system for depressed cladding applications as they demonstrated utilizing the Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench (LabVIEW) software and General-Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB) interface. The presented model confirmed that the overall experiment time was reduced by 80% and data obtained is more accurate than caring out the experiment physically. Similarly, Teng et al. (2000) presented a Lab view as a teaching aid for use as power analyzer. The paper showed the tool allows for developmental speed to be accelerated as it is a connection between different workbench instruments.

The structured information extracted from the relevant reviewed articles are presented in the next sections. The systematic review enabled us to extract information from the reviewed articles on the type of multimedia tool the article described, what type of technology the tool deployed, what were the multimedia components utilized, and whether the tool applied to a teaching or learning scenario or both. Furthermore, results from articles reviewed for their evaluation studies are also presented including barriers to multimedia use.

4.1. Multimedia tools, technology, components and applications

The systematic review enabled us to extract information from the reviewed articles on the type of multimedia tool the article described, what type of technology the tool deployed, what were the multimedia components utilized, and whether the tool applied to a teaching or learning scenario or both. The results are presented in Table 3 .

Table 3

Summary of multimedia tools, technology, components and applications for education.

Various multimedia tools were identified in the research papers reviewed. Perhaps, owing to the advancement in multimedia technology, several applications have been developed and deployed to enhance teaching skills and learning environment in many fields of study. These include subject specific tools such as that for teaching and learning Mathematics ( Akinoso, 2018 ), the Chinese language ( Wu and Chen, 2018 ), Physics ( Jian-hua & Hong, 2012 ) and for teaching Social Studies ( Ilhan and Oruc (2016) . All the multimedia tools were developed for teaching except the CENTRA tool ( Eady and Lockyer, 2013 ) and the e-Tajweed Yaasin tool ( Kapi et al., 2017 ). Likewise, all the tools handled learning except the web-based application reported by Bánsági and Rodgers (2018) and the multimedia interactive teaching material ( Maaruf and Siraj, 2013 ).

The tools fell into two categories: standalone or web-based. One-third were web-based (36%) while 65% were standalone.

Technologies identified varied widely. Multimedia tools used included advanced technologies such as computer representation ( Akinoso, 2018 ; Aloraini, 2012 ; Ilhan and Oruc, 2016 ; Milovanovic et al., 2013 ) and augmented reality ( Blevins, 2018 ). High-level web design and programming software were also utilized. For instance, Bánsági and Rodgers (2018) and Hwang et al. (2007) utilized HTML 5, JavaScript and Cascading Style Sheet (CSS), which are software commonly used for web site programming. Camtasia Studio 7 software was used in the development of a video based multimedia guide for teaching and learning ( Karel and Tomas, 2015 ).

A commonly used web design and animation software, Macromedia Flash, was also identified ( Zhang, 2012 ). Object-oriented programming software was reported by Kapi et al. (2017) in the Greenfoot multimedia tool reported by them. Some low end technologies such as word-processing ( Eady and Lockyer, 2013 ) and presentation software ( Kapi et al., 2017 ) were also utilised. Other technologies reported include the use of e-book ( Wu and Chen, 2018 ), computer aided design (CAD) ( Davies and Cormican, 2013 ) and YouTube ( Shoufan, 2019 ).

As shown in Table 3 , several multimedia components were identified. These included text, audio, video, image, animation, annotation and 3D, with several of the multimedia tools combining two or more components. However, the incorporation of 3D was reported only by Huang et al. (2017) . All the analysed papers incorporated text in the multimedia tool reported, except in the tool, CENTRA ( Eady and Lockyer, 2013 ). Animation was also embedded as part of the multimedia tool developed for visualisation ( Kapi et al., 2017 ), for teaching Social Studies ( Ilhan and Oruc, 2016 ), engineering virtual learning tool ( Ertugrul, 2000 ), CAD ( Davies and Cormican, 2013 ), augmented reality ( Blevins, 2018 ) and in tool for teaching Mathematics ( Akinoso, 2018 ). Figure 2 shows the trend in educational technology based on year of publication of the reviewed articles. The figure reveals that while incorporation of audio and video became common as from 2012, 3-D makes its first appearance in 2017. This suggests that as new ICTs emerge educators are likely to try them in the quest for the best learning experience possible.

Educational technology trend based on year of publication.

4.2. Multimedia tools test location and target age

In this section, information on the location where the multimedia tool was tested and the target age of the study group are presented as summarised in Table 4 . The table also includes comments about the articles that could not be captured under any of the tabulation headings.

Table 4

Summary of multimedia tools for education study locations.

The multimedia tools tested were reported in studies from various countries, including Nigeria ( Akinoso, 2018 ), Saudi Arabia ( Aloraini, 2012 ), England ( Bánsági and Rodgers, 2018 ), Ireland ( Davies and Cormican, 2013 ), Australia and Canada ( Eady and Lockyer, 2013 ), Taiwan ( Huang et al., 2017 ), Turkey ( Ilhan and Oruc, 2016 ) Czech republic ( Karel and Tomas, 2015 ), Malaysia ( Maaruf and Siraj, 2013 ), Serbia ( Milovanovic et al., 2013 ), Pakistan ( Shah and Khan, 2015 ) and China ( Wu and Chen, 2018 ).

Various age groups were targeted by the multimedia tool tests. A considerable proportion involved university students with ages starting from 16 or 18 years as specified in the articles ( Bánsági and Rodgers, 2018 ; Huang et al., 2017 ); Hwang et al., 2007 ; Jian-hua & Hong, 2012 ; Kapi et al., 2017 ; Karel and Tomas, 2015 ). Another group targeted were secondary school students ( Akinoso, 2018 ; Maaruf and Siraj, 2013 ) including vocational school students ( Wu and Chen, 2018 ). Shah and Khan (2015) reported testing their multimedia tool on children below the age of 15 years.

4.3. Evaluation methods of multimedia technology tools in education

The articles involving evaluation were examined to identify the methodologies used for the evaluation, the target groups and sample of the evaluation and the evaluation outcome. The limitations of the evaluation were also identified and whether or not the study outcome could be generalized. Thirteen articles were found and the results are presented in Table 5 .

Table 5

Summary of Evaluation methods of multimedia technology Tools in education.

Evaluation of multimedia technology used for teaching and learning is important in establishing the efficacy of the tool. For determination of the impact of a developed tool, an experimental evaluation is more meaningful over a survey. However, the results from the analysis showed that the survey method for evaluation was used nearly as equally as the experimental design.

Experimental based evaluation was conducted by Akinoso (2018) , Aloraini (2012) , Ilhan and Oruc (2016) , and Shah and Khan (2015) in order to determine the effectiveness of the multimedia tool they developed. Another group of experimental evaluations involved designing the research for teaching with or without multimedia aids not necessarily developed by the research team which involved exposing 10–11 year olds ( Dalacosta et al., 2009 ) and elementary school students ( Kaptan and İzgi, 2014 ) to animated cartoons. Another of such evaluation was done by Milovanovi et al. (2013) , who used an experimental and control group to evaluate the impact of teaching a group of university students with multimedia.

In contrast, the survey method was used to elicit the opinion of respondents on the impact of the use of multimedia in teaching and learning and the target group were university students ( Al-Hariri and Al-Hattami, 2017 ; Barzegar et al., 2012 ), secondary school students ( Akinoso, 2018 ; Maaruf and Siraj, 2013 ); one involved interviewing the Professors ( Chen and Xia, 2012 ), another involved 4–10 year olds ( Manca and Ranieri, 2016 ) and a sample of 272 students whose ages were not specified ( Ocepek et al., 2013 ).

The focus areas in which the evaluations were conducted ranged from the sciences including mathematics ( Akinoso, 2018 ; Al-Hariri and Al-Hattami, 2017 ; Dalacosta et al., 2009 ; Kaptan and İzgi, 2014 ; Milovanovi et al., 2013 ) to the social sciences ( Ilhan and Oruc, 2016 ) and the arts ( Maaruf and Siraj, 2013 ). There were evaluations focused on education as a subject as well ( Aloraini, 2012 ; Chen and Xia, 2012 ; Maaruf and Siraj, 2013 ; Manca and Ranieri, 2016 ). While positive outcomes were generally reported, Ocepek et al. (2013) , specified that students in their evaluation study preferred structured texts with colour discrimination.

Sample sizes used in the studies varied widely, from Maaruf and Siraj (2013) that based their conclusions on an in-depth interview of teachers, to Manca and Ranieri (2016) that carried out a survey with a sample of 6,139 academic staff. However, the latter study reported a low response rate of 10.5%. One notable weakness identified was that the findings from all but one of the studies could not be generalized. Reasons for this ranged from inadequate sample size, the exposure being limited to a single lesson, or the sampling method and duration of the experiment not explicitly stated.

4.4. Identified barriers to multimedia use in teaching and learning

The review revealed some challenges that could be barriers to the use of multimedia tools in teaching and learning. Some of these barriers, as found in the reviewed articles, are highlighted as follows:

• • Attitudes and beliefs towards the use of technology in education. Findings from literatures and surveys have shown high resistant to change and negative attitude towards adoption and use of ICT in education ( Cuban et al., 2001 ; Said et al., 2009 ; Snoeyink and Ertmer, 2001 ). In some findings, some respondents perceived no benefits ( Mumtaz, 2000 ; Snoeyink and Ertmer, 2001 ; Yuen and Ma, 2002 ).
• • Lack of teachers' confidence in the use of technology and resistance to change ( Bosley and Moon, 2003 ; Fabry& Higgs, 1997 ; Said et al., 2009 ).
• • Lack of basic knowledge and ICT skills for adoption and use of multimedia tools ( Akbaba-Altun, 2006 ; Bingimlas, 2009 ; Cagiltay et al., 2001 )
• • Lack of access to computing resources such as hardware and software ( Akbaba-Altun, 2006 ; Bosley and Moon, 2003 ; Cinar, 2002 ; Mumtaz, 2000 ; Taylor and Todd, 1995 )
• • Lack of technical, administrative and financial supports ( Akbaba-Altun, 2006 ; Cinar, 2002 ; Said et al., 2009 ; Goktas et al., 2013 )
• • Others include lack of instructional content, basic knowledge and skills, physical environment and lack of time to learn new technologies ( Akbaba-Altun, 2006 ; Cinar, 2002 ; Said et al., 2009 ).

5. Discussion

The findings from the systematic review are discussed in this section with a view to answering the research questions posed. The questions bordered on identifying the existing multimedia tools for teaching and learning and the multimedia components adopted in the tools, the type of audience best suited to a certain multimedia component, the methods used when multimedia in teaching and learning are being evaluated and the success or failure factors to consider.

5.1. Multimedia tools in teaching and learning

The review revealed that multimedia tools have been developed to enhance teaching and learning for various fields of study. The review also shows that multimedia tools are delivered using different technologies and multimedia components, and can be broadly categorized as web-based or standalone.

From the review, it was found that standalone multimedia tools were more than twice (64%) the number of tools that were web-based (36%). Standalone tools are a category of teaching and learning aids which are not delivered or used over the internet, but authored to be installed, copied, loaded and used on teachers or students' personal computers (PCs) or workstations. Standalone tools are especially useful for teaching and practicing new concepts such as 3D technology for modelling and printing ( Huang et al., 2017 ) or understanding augmented reality (AR) software ( Blevins, 2018 ). Microsoft Powerpoint is a presentation tool used in some of the reviewed articles and is usually done with standalone systems.

Standalone tools were favoured over web-based tools probably because the internet is not a requirement which makes the tool possible to deploy in all settings. This means that teachers and students in suburban and rural areas that are digitally excluded, can benefit from such a multimedia tool. This system is considered most useful because a majority of the populace in most developing countries are socially and educationally excluded due to a lack of the necessary resources for teaching and learning. The need to sustainably run an online learning environment may be difficult, and therefore, the standalone, provides a better fit for such settings. However, the problem with a standalone application or system is the platform dependency. For instance, a Windows based application can only run on a windows platform. Also, there will be slow convergence time when there is modification in the curricular or modules, since, each system will run offline and has to be updated manually or completely replaced from each location where the tool is deployed.

The other category, web-based multimedia tools, are authored using web authoring tools and delivered online for teaching and learning purposes. About one-third of the tools identified from the review were web-based although they were used largely in university teaching and learning. Examples of these tools are: online teaching and learning resource platform ( Zhang, 2012 ), graphic web-based application ( Bánsági and Rodgers, 2018 ), multimedia tool for teaching optimization ( Jian-hua & Hong, 2012 ), and educational videos on YouTube ( Shoufan, 2019 ).

One of the benefits of the web based multimedia solution is that it is online and centralized over the internet. Part of its advantages is easy update and deployment in contrast to the standalone multimedia system. The major requirements on the teachers and learners' side are that a web browser is installed and that they have an internet connection. Also, the multimedia web application is platform independent; it does not require any special operating system to operate. The same multimedia application can be accessed through a web browser regardless of the learners' operations system. However, when many people access the resource at the same time, this could lead to congestion, packet loss and retransmission. This scenario happens often when large classes take online examinations at the same time. Also, the data requirements for graphics or applications developed with the combination of video, audio and text may differs with system developed with only pictures and text. Hence, the web based system can only be sustainably run with stable high speed internet access.

A major weakness of web-based multimedia tools is the challenge posed for low internet penetration communities and the cost of bandwidth for low-income groups. As access to the internet becomes more easily accessible, it is expected that the advantages of deploying a web-based multimedia solution will far outweigh the disadvantages and more of such tools would be web-based.

5.2. Components, technology and applications of multimedia tools in education

The results from the review revealed that most of the existing multimedia tools in education consist of various multimedia components such as text, symbol, image, audio, video and animation, that are converged in technologies such as 3D ( Huang et al., 2017 ), Camtasia Studio 7 software ( Karel and Tomas, 2015 ), Macromedia Flash ( Zhang, 2012 ), HTML5, JavaScript, CSS ( Bánsági and Rodgers, 2018 ; Eady and Lockyer, 2013 ; Chen and Liu, 2008 ; Shah and Khan, 2015 ; Shoufan, 2019 ). As shown in Figure 3 , the analysis confirms that text (26.8%) is the predominant multimedia component being used in most of the educational materials while other components such as videos (19.5%), audios (18.3%), images (18.3%) and animation (11.0%) are fairly used in teaching and learning multimedia materials. However, annotation and 3D technologies are least incorporated.

Proportion of multimedia components in reviewed articles.

How these components are combined is shown in Figure 4 . Perhaps, the combination of these four major components (text, video, audio, image) provides the best outcome for the learner and points to the place of text as a most desired multimedia component. The components used also reflect the type of subject matter being addressed. For instance, the audio component is important for language classes while video and image components are stimulating in Biology classes, for example, due to the need for visual perception for the learners. It is, therefore, imperative to note that the choice of the combination of these components could yield variable impacts to learners. Hence, it can be deduced from the studies that most of the tools are applied either as teaching or/and learning aids depending on the nature of the audience and teacher.

Use of various multimedia combinations.

In Figure 4 , we provided the analysis of the component combination of the data set reviewed. The multimedia components combinations range from two to six. This was grouped based on the multimedia components combination employed in each of the data set. Group 1 (G1) represents the number of multimedia application with the combination of Text, Image, audio, Video, and 3D. G2 consists of video and audio, while G13 combines all the multimedia components except the 3D.

Furthermore, a majority of the multimedia applications considered four (4) and two (2) combinations of components in their design as shown in Figure 5 . Tools with five and six components were very few and as the figure reveals, all the tools used at least two components.

Multimedia tools and the number of components utilized.

These findings stress the fact that application of multimedia tools in education and the multimedia component incorporated, are audience, subject, curricula and teacher-specific and the tool needs to be well articulated and structured to achieve its goals.

5.3. Targeted multimedia solutions

Our systematic review also revealed that most multimedia solutions deployed for teaching and learning target the solution to the pedagogical content of the subject of interest (see Table 4 ) and the user audience of the solution ( Table 5 ). Several studies highlighted in Tables  4 and ​ and5 5 showcase multimedia tools used for mathematics classes ( Akinoso, 2018 ; Milovanovi et al., 2013 ), Social science ( Ilhan and Oruc, 2016 ), Physiology ( Al-Hariri and Al-Hattami, 2017 ), Physics ( Jian-hua and Hong, 2012 ), in Chemical engineering ( Bánsági and Rodgers, 2018 ) and teaching of Chinese language ( Wu and Chen, 2018 ). In addition, multimedia tools were utilized for teaching specific principles such as in control theory ( Karel and Tomas, 2015 ) and teaching of arrays ( Kapi et al., 2017 ). That multimedia solutions are subject-based is not surprising given that multimedia involves relaying information using different forms of communication. It follows that multimedia solution developers need to incorporate some text, video, audio, still photographs, sound, animation, image and interactive contents in a manner that best conveys the desired content for teaching or to aid learning.

As stated earlier, the review revealed a variety of user types for the multimedia solutions reported. It is noteworthy that a large proportion of the studies where the target audience were university students, a mixture of graphics, text, audio, video and sometimes animation was utilized ( Aloraini 2012 ; Blevins, 2018 ; Huang et al., 2017 ; Shah and Khan, 2015 ). While a sizeable number of solutions were targeted at secondary school students (such as Maaruf and Siraj, 2013 , Kapi et al., 2017 , and Ilhan and Oruc, 2016 ), very few studies were identified that targeted students less than 15 years in age. Shah and Khan (2015) targeted a multimedia teaching aid that incorporated text, audio, video and animation. Perhaps the absence of multimedia tools targeted at very young children may be as a result of the inclusion criteria used for identifying articles for the review.

5.4. Success factors

The success of the different multimedia tools that have been used on the various target groups and subjects can be attributed to the technologies and components embedded as shown in Tables  4 and ​ and5. 5 . In most cases where text, audio, video, graphics and animations were the components of choice, significant improvements in teaching and learning are used, as reported in the studies reviewed ( Blevins, 2018 ; Huang et al., 2017 ; Zhang, 2012 ).

These studies also implemented technologies such as 3D modelling and printing; Macromedia flash version 8.0 and augmented reality (AR) software respectively. It is worthy of note that all the above-mentioned multimedia tools were applicable in both the teaching and learning processes. Another set of tools with components being text, audio, video and animation, excluding graphics, and equally applied in both the teaching and learning processes, adopted computer representation as their technologies ( Aloraini, 2012 ; Ilhan and Oruc, 2016 ; Milovanovic et al., 2013 ). Teaching and learning were equally greatly improved in these cases.

5.5. Evaluation methodologies

Our systematic review included a synthesis of the methodologies described by the reviewed articles for evaluating the multimedia tools that they present as shown in the summary in Table 5 . The evaluation methodologies appeared to be different depending on the type of multimedia tool, technology components, deployment strategies, and application area and target groups. However, two main evaluation methods were identified - experimental investigations and the survey methodology.

The experimental approach involved the use of an experimental group and a control group, where the assessment of the impact of the multimedia tool on the students' performance on the experimental group was compared with the performance of the control group who were taught the same content without the use of the multimedia tool. This experimental approach is a widely practiced evaluation method and has proven to be effective. It was deployed by Aloraini (2012) , Milovanovi et al. (2013) , Kaptan and İzgi (2014) , Shah and Khan (2015) , Ilhan and Oruc (2016) and Akinoso (2018) in their studies in the subject area of education, social sciences, general science, science, education and mathematics classes respectively.

Survey, as an evaluation approach which was used in 46% of the studies reviewed, involved the use of questionnaires that were administered to gather opinion on the perceived impact of the multimedia tool from a targeted group of respondents. From the systematic review, it was found that the questionnaire administration approach also varied. The data collection could be face-to-face interview ( Al-Hariri and Al-Hattami, 2017 ; Barzegar et al., 2012 ; Chen and Xia, 2012 ), or online survey ( Armenteros et al., 2013 ; Wang et al., 2020 ).

The difficulty of determining impact from a survey is related to the weaknesses associated with instrument design and sampling biases. It is our opinion that the perceived impact of the technology components used in the development of the multimedia tools may not be accurately ascertained using survey when compared with the actual deployment and experimentation with the multimedia tool that takes place in experimentation approach. Besides, in the survey approach, judgment is merely based on perceptions. Interestingly, the simplicity and ease of the survey method makes it a good option for evaluating larger target groups, and its findings can be generalised when the statistical condition is satisfied ( Krejcie and Morgan, 1970 ).

Although the evaluation studies analysed had publication dates as recently as 2015 to 2018, none reported any objective data collection such as from eye-tracking or other behavioural data. Perhaps, this may be due to our search keyword terms not being wide enough to identify multimedia evaluation studies that used objective data gathering. It could also be that the cost, time and effort needed to collect objective data means that many studies incorporating evaluation are avoiding this route.

5.6. Barriers to multimedia use in teaching and learning

Several barriers to multimedia use in teaching and learning were revealed as a result of the review. Such barriers include resistance to the adoption of ICT, lack of teachers' confidence in the use of technology, resistance to change on the part of teachers, a lack of ICT skills and lack of access to ICT resources. Other barriers identified were the lack of support, lack of time to learn new technologies, lack of instructional content, and the physical environment in which multimedia delivery took place. Some studies reported respondents that perceived no benefits from the use of multimedia. These barriers certainly affect both the integration of multimedia in teaching and learning and the uptake of the multimedia tool.

Most of the barriers identified could be classified into three groups with a major one being the fear or resistance to change. This means that change management must be an integral part of multimedia tools development and deployment in order to achieve the desired goal. Also, barriers such as lack of time and lack of resources should not be underestimated. Some of the studies reported providing the hardware for the multimedia application and such an approach should be considered. Most multimedia tools are ICT driven and as such the identified barrier of lack of ICT skills is an important aspect that must be addressed. This can be done as part of the change process and would also boost the confidence of teachers to incorporate multimedia for teaching.

It is important that the multimedia tool is designed and developed with the end-goal in mind. As indicated, some recipients of multimedia applications did not see any benefit in its use. This means that the multimedia tool should be designed to provide an experience that is worth the teachers and students' time, attention and effort.

6. Conclusions and future research direction

A lot of work has been done to highlight the effectiveness of multimedia as a teaching and learning aid. This paper provides a systematic review of studies on the use of multimedia in education in order to identify the multimedia tools being commonly used to aid teaching and learning. The paper did a systematic review of extant literature that reported studies that have been carried out to determine the extent to which multimedia has been successful in improving both teaching and learning, and challenges of using multimedia for leaning and teaching.

We note, however, that our review, especially of the studies on evaluation of multimedia, leaned more to the outcome from the studies rather than the process. Some of the information that was not captured include how the classroom teacher's mastery of the technology influences the attractiveness of the tool to the learner, both visually and through the content and if the multimedia tool allowed for learners' participation. Also, while studies on multimedia evaluation was of interest to us, this search phrase was not part of the search phrases used. A future review could incorporate these for a richer perspective.

It is obvious from the review that researchers have explored several multimedia in order to develop teaching and learning tools either based on the web or standalone using different technologies. It is observed that there exist several multimedia tools in education, but the proliferation of the tools is attributed to the evolvement of technologies over the years and the continuous teachers' efforts to improving knowledge delivery with respect to the subject areas and target audience. It is also revealed that most multimedia solutions deployed for teaching and learning target the solution to the pedagogical content of the subject of interest and the user audience of the solution. The success of the different multimedia tools that have been used on the various target groups and subjects is also attributed to the technologies and components embedded.

Furthermore, the evaluation methodologies and learning outcomes of the deployment of multimedia tools appeared to be different depending on the type of multimedia tool, technology components, deployment strategies, and application area and target groups. The two main evaluation methodologies identified from the various studies reported in the articles we reviewed were the experimental investigations and the survey methodology.

Attitudes and beliefs towards the use of technology in education, lack of teachers' confidence and resistance to change, lack of basic knowledge and ICT skills, lack of technical, administrative and financial supports, lack of physical environment are some of the barriers identified in the various articles reviewed. These barriers affect the integration of multimedia in education.

For future work, efforts should be made to explore mobile technology with several multimedia components in order to enhance teaching and learning processes across a diverse group of learners in the primary, secondary, vocational, and higher institutions of learning. Such research efforts would be significant in increasing inclusiveness and narrowing the educational divide. Also, research into the change management process for overcoming the barriers to multimedia adoption would be of interest.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development and the writing of this article.

Funding statement

This work was supported by Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TetFund), Ministry of Education, Federal Government of Nigeria 2016–2017 Institutional Based Research Grant.

Competing interest statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

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Manitoba school trustee faces calls to resign after comments on residential schools, reconciliation

Province will launch review of board after incident, education minister says.

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A school trustee in western Manitoba is facing calls to resign, and the province says it's launching a review, after a presentation in which he made comments decried as hateful, including questioning the findings of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on residential schools.

Paul Coffey, a trustee with the Dauphin-based Mountain View School Division, gave a roughly half-hour-long presentation during a board meeting on Monday, ahead of an anti-racism training session Wednesday.

During the presentation, the trustee — who said he went to day school and has European and Indigenous ancestry, including Assiniboine and Chippewa roots — said the Truth and Reconciliation Commission was "causing division amongst people," and questioned the funding reconciliation and inclusion initiatives get from government.

"Residential schools — they were good," Coffey said.

"They're essential for reading and writing and arithmetic. Also enforcement of schools, school attendance.… This was realized by all, like even the people on the reserves," he said during his presentation, which was streamed online and viewed by CBC News.

"It was all nice until its well documented and openly expressed intention to use schools to assimilate, eradicate Indian languages, cultures and spiritual beliefs. So it started out as a good thing and now it turned out not very good."

He also later questioned the findings of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which documented widespread abuse at residential schools Indigenous students were forced to attend.

"You have to start to wonder, how authentic it is when there's absolutely no good stories in Canada about the residential schools?" Coffey said at Monday's meeting. "How is that possible? There's got to be one good story."

The trustee also said that most children who went to what were referred to as Indian day schools "dropped out" and that it wasn't a "a high priority to send kids to school."

Jarri-Ann Thompson, whose family is from Pine Creek First Nation, has two daughters in elementary school in the division. She said she found the presentation hard to listen to.

"I found just shocking for him to even allude to — about the residential schools —  how there might have been some good to it until there wasn't.… As the daughter of a residential school survivor, trust me, it happened," she said.

"I am very active in my daughter's school right now and I see the progress that's being made," said Thompson.

"If we were to cut funding for that, for the education of what really happened in residential schools and what Indigenous culture is, then we're back to Square 1, where I was in school and I used to hide the fact that I was Indigenous."

WATCH | Mother calls on trustee to resign:

Indigenous mother calls on trustee to resign after 'shocking' presentation to school board

CBC News has reached out to Coffey for comment. 

During his presentation, the trustee also questioned legal fights calling for governments to honour treaties as well as land acknowledgments, and said he preferred the word "Indian" to describe Indigenous people, arguing that word honours their heritage.

• More people aware of residential school harms but work still needed, report finds
• National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation gets $5M toward permanent home, urges province for more funding

The trustee also said reference to white privilege is a "racist comment" because groups shouldn't be labelled based on the colour of the skin, and argued acronyms like BIPOC and LGBTQ are "degrading."

"My initial reaction was just of shock and confusion," said Cam Bennett, a retired teacher who used to work at the division. "It seemed like more like Festivus, the airing of the grievances type of thing," he said, in reference to the fictitious holiday from the TV show  Seinfeld.

"There didn't really seem to be a point to it.… Not really behaviour that I would expect from a school board trustee."

Bennett is a member of the Parkland Human Rights Alliance, a group that formed earlier this year to speak on behalf of marginalized groups in the Mountain View division.

On Tuesday, parents with the alliance sent a letter to Education Minister Nello Altomare, urging the province the province to investigate the incident and use "whatever tools that are available to remove trustee Coffey."

Province to launch probe

Altomare told CBC News Wednesday the province is aware of the situation and is launching a governance review to "ensure that particular board remains focused on what their job is."

He declined to say whether Coffey should resign.

"We have to ensure that schools are safe and welcoming places," the minister said. "We need to find out exactly what was going on, institute this governance review and we'll make decisions later."

The Mountain View board of trustees said in a public statement Wednesday Coffey was speaking as an individual, not on behalf of the board.

"We will continue to ensure that our students and staff are working in an environment where every student is valued, nurtured and enabled to realize their full potential," the statement said.

The mayor of Dauphin, the Northwest Métis Council and the Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs all issued statements condemning Coffey's presentation.

Manitoba Teachers' Society president Nathan Martindale said the union "utterly reject[s]" Coffey's comments and is disappointed in the "ignorance displayed by an elected official."

David Chartrand, president of the Manitoba Métis Federation, said the division should remove Coffey "effective immediately."

"He criticizes the Truth and Reconciliation Commission and its findings, saying it's not real, it's not factual. You're talking about judges, lawyers, experts … victims who gave presentation after presentation and research after research," he said.

"I was raised in day school. And I was whipped by the nuns.… I was beaten on the back of my calves because they got tired of me. They put me on my tiptoes in a circle on the chalkboard, because I spoke my language."

Chartrand said people with views like those expressed by Coffey shouldn't be in a position where they oversee schools, saying that gives "racism a clear platform."

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Arturo Chang is a reporter with CBC Manitoba. Before that, he worked for CBC P.E.I. and BNN Bloomberg. You can reach him at [email protected].

With files from Josh Crabb

Salt Lake City School District pauses plan to train all students on what restrooms they can use

A presentation planned for students aimed to instruct kids to use the restroom of the gender they were assigned at birth..

(Rick Egan | The Salt Lake Tribune) Salt Lake City School District Superintendent Elizabeth Grant speaks during a board meeting at Glendale Middle School, on Monday, Nov. 20, 2023.

The Salt Lake City School District told parents Friday it would scrap its plan to deliver a presentation to all students about Utah’s new transgender public restroom ban, informing children about which restrooms they could use at school.

The presentation was meant to tell students, “If your sex is designated as this, you go to this bathroom, and designated as that, you go to that bathroom,” Superintendent Elizabeth Grant said at a recent school board meeting.

But a copy shared with parents beforehand apparently did not “acknowledge the existence” of transgender and nonbinary children, prompting blowback from student families, said Emerson Elementary parent Kristen Kinjo.

The district initially planned to share the presentation with students while they were in class — during homeroom or a school’s weekly broadcast, for example — by May 1, the day certain enforcement mechanisms of the law, HB257 , will go into effect.

Instead, district officials are now reaching out to impacted families directly to make sure transgender and nonbinary children “have the information they need to create a plan that meets both their student’s needs and the requirements of the law,” according to an email the district sent to parents late Friday afternoon.

If a student is not comfortable in a school restroom that the law requires them to use, the district will help them create a support plan outlined in the district’s G-24 Gender Inclusion policy , Grant said at the board meeting.

“We have students who are going to be placed in very difficult positions by this bathroom bill,” Grant added. “And what our team has done has been sensitive and attentive to the law at the same time.”

‘Lack of clarity’ on how districts should be notifying students

District spokesperson Yándary Chatwin said the district decided to roll back its original plan because of a “lack of clarity” in the law, not parent feedback.

According to the bill’s language , school districts are only required to give notice to students of how the law will work, not necessarily share a presentation like the one the district planned with all children during class.

“We were erring on the side of notifying all students, and some folks were interpreting it differently,” she said. “Our intent has been to follow the laws — to make sure that we’re complying with the requirements of us as a school district.”

Utah State Board of Education spokesperson Ryan Bartlett said in a clarifying statement sent to “education partners” Tuesday that the board “has not provided guidance or direction, nor has USBE been directed by the state Legislature to issue guidance or direction, to [local education agencies, such as school districts] regarding this bill.”

He added that school districts “will determine how best to communicate the requirements listed in the bill to the students and families in their respective communities.”

Bill sponsor Rep. Kera Birkeland, R-Morgan, later reiterated USBE’s message in a statement Thursday.

“Recognizing that each school and school district is unique, with unique students, families, and communities, that requirement is left to the determination of [local education agencies], so as long as it is communicated in a common sense, age-appropriate manner that accounts for the needs of all students,” she wrote.

School ‘should be a safe place’

The Salt Lake City School District’s initial plans also changed Friday after the wave of parent feedback, said Kinjo, whose fourth grader goes to Emerson.

“All the parent chats were blowing up,” she said, noting that the district gave parents the choice to opt their children out of the presentations. “Everyone wanted to keep their kids out of this training.”

In response, Kinjo organized a “15-minute dance party” outside of her child’s school on Friday, protesting the new law as well as the school’s planned presentation to students. There, they passed out transgender pride flags, buttons and stickers.

The school had planned to run the district’s K-5 version of the presentation during its morning announcements that day, but pulled it after Grant told all district schools to do so, according to an email Emerson’s principal sent families 35 minutes before the “dance party” and rally.

A copy of the slideshow, which Kinjo shared with The Tribune, stated: “If you were assigned a girl at birth, you need to use the girl’s bathroom ... if you were assigned a boy at birth, you need to use the boy’s bathroom at school.”

Kinjo said her issue with the district’s planned presentation was that it essentially told students they are either a boy or a girl.

“We see that as threatening an already vulnerable population of children, to tell them that they don’t exist in a space that should be a safe place,” Kinjo said.

Grant told The Tribune that she will be working with her team “about what our next steps are” regarding notifying district students of the new law.

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