phd physics wikipedia

Doctoral Program (Ph.D.)

• Graduate Programs

The Physics Ph.D. program provides students with opportunities to perform independent research in some of the most current and dynamic areas of physics. Students develop a solid and broad physics knowledge base in the first year through the core curriculum, departmental colloquia, and training.

Upper-level courses and departmental seminar series subsequently provide more specialized exposure. Armed with the core knowledge, doctoral students join a research group working in an area of particular interest. This research is performed in very close collaboration with one or more faculty whose interests span a wide range of physics fields.

Sc.M. en route to Ph.D.

Eight courses from the core group (PHYS2010, 2030, 2040, 2050, 2060, 2140: techniques in experimental physics, classical theoretical physics, quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics) and other 2000-level courses. Up to two research courses. Courses from outside the department might be substituted with the permission of the DGS.

All core courses, four advanced courses, comprehensive examination, preliminary examination, faculty-supervised research, dissertation and oral defense.

Applicants are expected to have a strong background in physics or closely related subjects at the undergraduate level. All applications are evaluated holistically to assess the applicant's preparation and potential for graduate coursework and independent research, which can be demonstrated in multiple ways.

The Physics Subject GRE scores are  required  (general GRE scores are not required).

Three recommendation letters from faculty or others acquainted with the applicant's academic and/or research qualifications are required.

If you have submitted an application and need to make changes or add to the application, do not send the materials to the Physics department. The department is unable to alter or add to your application. Contact the  Graduate School staff  for all changes.  

Ph.D. Program Milestones and Guideposts

• Work toward joining a research group
• Pass 3 courses per semester if a TA or 4 courses per semester if a Fellow with at least 50% B's or better
• Complete 6 core courses (PHYS 2010, 2030, 2040, 2050, 2060, 2140)
• Begin research
• Complete PHYS2010 (or other core courses) if not taken during Year 1
• Complete at least 2 advanced courses
• Pass qualifying exam
• Complete 2nd Year Ethics Training
• Identify prelim committee
• Continue research
• Complete remaining advanced courses
• Pass preliminary exam and advance to candidacy
• Complete thesis research
• Write and defend thesis

Ph.D. Resources

• Ph.D. Program Student Handbook
• Graduate Core Course Listing
• Finding a Research Group
• Comprehensive Exam Information
• Ph.D. Second Year Ethics Training Requirement
• Ph.D. Preliminary Exam Requirements and Guidelines
• Ph.D. Prelim Form
• Physics Department Defense Form
• Ph.D. Dissertation Defense Requirements and Guidelines
• Ph.D. Course Waiver/Permission Form

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PhD in Physics

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The PhD in Physics is a full-time period of research that introduces or builds upon research skills and specialist knowledge. Students are assigned a research Supervisor, a specialist in part or all of the student's chosen research field, and join a research group that might vary in size between a handful to many tens of individuals.

Although the Supervisor is responsible for the progress of a student's research programme, the extent to which a postgraduate student is assisted by the Supervisor or by other members of the group depends almost entirely on the structure and character of the group concerned. The research field is normally determined at entry after consideration of the student's interests and the facilities available. The student, however, may work within a given field for a period of time before their personal topic is determined.

There is no requirement made by the University for postgraduate students to attend formal courses or lectures for the PhD. Postgraduate work is largely a matter of independent research and successful postgraduates require a high degree of self-motivation. Nevertheless, lectures and classes may be arranged, and students are expected to attend both seminars (delivered regularly by members of the University and by visiting scholars and industrialists) and external conferences. Postgraduate students are also expected to participate in the undergraduate teaching programme at some time whilst they are based at the Cavendish, in order to develop their teaching, demonstrating, outreach, organisational and person-management skills.

It is expected that postgraduate students will also take advantage of the multiple opportunities available for transferable skills training within the University during their period of research.

Learning Outcomes

By the end of the research programme, students will have demonstrated:

• the creation and interpretation of new knowledge, through original research or other advanced scholarship, of a quality to satisfy peer review, extend the forefront of the discipline, and merit publication
• a systematic acquisition and understanding of a substantial body of knowledge which is at the forefront of an academic discipline or area of professional practice
• the general ability to conceptualise, design and implement a project for the generation of new knowledge, applications or understanding at the forefront of the discipline and to adjust the project design in the light of unforeseen problems
• a detailed understanding of applicable techniques for research and advanced academic enquiry; and
• the development of a PhD thesis for examination that they can defend in an oral examination and, if successful, graduate with a PhD

The University hosts and attends fairs and events throughout the year, in the UK and across the world. We also offer online events to help you explore your options:

Discover Cambridge: Master’s and PhD study webinars - these Spring events provide practical information about applying for postgraduate study.

Postgraduate Virtual Open Days - taking place in November each year, the Open Days focus on subject and course information.

For more information about upcoming events visit our events pages .

Key Information

3-4 years full-time, 4-7 years part-time, study mode : research, doctor of philosophy, department of physics, course - related enquiries, application - related enquiries, course on department website, dates and deadlines:, lent 2025 (closed).

Some courses can close early. See the Deadlines page for guidance on when to apply.

Easter 2025

Michaelmas 2025, easter 2026, funding deadlines.

These deadlines apply to applications for courses starting in Michaelmas 2025, Lent 2026 and Easter 2026.

Similar Courses

• Physics MPhil
• Planetary Science and Life in the Universe MPhil
• Mathematics MPhil
• Computational Methods for Materials Science CDT PhD
• Astronomy MPhil

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Admissions Information for Prospective Graduate Students

Thank you for considering the PhD program in Physics at MIT. Information regarding our graduate program and our application process can be found below and through the following webpages and other links on this page. If your questions are not answered after reviewing this information, please contact us at [email protected] .

Here are some links to pages relevant to prospective students:

• Material Required for a Complete Application , and information about When/How to Apply can be found below on this page.
• We have an FAQ which should help to answer many questions, and we provide Application Assistance from staff and students if you don’t find what you need in the FAQ.
• Additional Guidance about the application itself, along with examples, can be found on a separate page. The graduate application is available at https://apply.mit.edu/apply/ .
• General information about the graduate program and research areas in the physics department may also be of use.
• MSRP (MIT Summer Research Program) is designed to give underrepresented and underserved students access to an MIT research experience, pairing each student with a faculty member who will oversee the student conducting a research project at MIT.

Statement regarding admissions process during COVID Pandemic (Updated Summer 2023)

MIT has adopted the following principle: MIT’s admissions committees and offices for graduate and professional schools will take the significant disruptions of the COVID-19 outbreak in 2020 into account when reviewing students’ transcripts and other admissions materials as part of their regular practice of performing individualized, holistic reviews of each applicant.

In particular, as we review applications now and in the future, we will respect decisions regarding the adoption of Pass/No Record (or Credit/No Credit or Pass/Fail) and other grading options during the unprecedented period of COVID-19 disruptions, whether those decisions were made by institutions or by individual students. We also expect that the individual experiences of applicants will richly inform applications and, as such, they will be considered with the entirety of a student’s record.

Ultimately, even in these challenging times, our goal remains to form graduate student cohorts that are collectively excellent and composed of outstanding individuals who will challenge and support one another.

Questions or concerns about this statement should be directed to the Physics Department ( [email protected] ).

Applying to the MIT Department of Physics

We know that the application process can be time-consuming, stressful, and costly. We are committed to reducing these barriers and to helping all applicants receive a full and fair assessment by our faculty reviewers. Help is available from the Physics Graduate Admissions Office at [email protected] and additional assistance from current students is offered during the admissions season. Further details are described at the end of this page in our Assistance for Prospective Applicants section.

The list below describes the important elements of a complete application. Please reach out to us at [email protected] if you have a concern or logistical difficulty that could prevent you from providing your strongest application.

Required for a Complete Application

1. online application and application fee.

• MIT Graduate Admissions Online Graduate Application
• Application Fee: $90

2. University Transcript(s)

Unofficial transcripts are sufficient for our initial review, with final transcripts required as a condition of matriculation for successful applicants. Applicants should include a scan of their transcript(s) and, if a degree is in progress, should include a list of the class subjects being taken in the current semester. The portal will allow applicants to log back into the application after the deadline to add their Fall term grades when they are available.

Note: We will respect decisions regarding the adoption of Pass/No Record (or Credit/No Credit or Pass/Fail) and other grading options during the unprecedented period of COVID-19 disruptions, whether those decisions were made by institutions or by individual students.

3. Standardized Test Results

• GRE Tests : The Physics GRE (PGRE) is recommended but not required for graduate applications. All applications will be given full consideration with or without GRE scores.
• TOEFL or IELTS Test or a waiver is required for non-native English speakers. MIT’s TOEFL school code is 3514; the code for the Department of Physics is 76. IELTS does not require a code. Eligibility for TOEFL/IELTS waivers is in our FAQ section .
• Self-reported scores are sufficient for our initial application screening, with official scores required for admitted students as a condition of their offer. Applicants should attach a scanned copy of their test score report.

4. Letters of Recommendation

Letters should include any individual work applicants have done and/or areas where they have special strengths. It is possible to submit up to 6 total letters, but 3 are sufficient for a complete application and committee members may evaluate applications based on the first three letters that they read.

5. Statement of Objectives

Research is central to graduate study in physics. The Statement of Objectives/Purpose should include descriptions of research projects, aptitude and achievements as completely as possible. This important part of the application provides an opportunity to describe any interests, skills, and background relative to the research areas selected on the application form. Applicants should share anything that prepares them for graduate studies and describe their proudest achievements.

Additional Application Materials

• Research, Teaching, and Community Engagement – Any special background or achievement that prepares the applicant for Physics graduate studies at MIT. This may include research at their undergraduate school as part of their Bachelor or Master degree, or summer research at another program or school.  We also value our student’s contributions to their community on a variety of scales (from institutional to societal) and we encourage applicants to tell us about their teaching and community engagement activities.  The “experience” questions are intended to provide a CV-like listing of achievements, some of which may be elaborated on in the “Statement of Objectives” and/or the optional “Personal Statement”.
• Publications, Talks, and Merit Based Recognition – Recognition of success in research, academics, and outreach can take many forms, including publications, talks, honors, prizes, awards, fellowships, etc.  This may include current nominations for scholarships or papers submitted for publication.
• Optional Personal Statement – Members of our community come from a wide variety of backgrounds and experiences. We welcome any personal information that will help us to evaluate applications holistically and will provide context for the applicant’s academic achievements. This statement may include extenuating circumstances, significant challenges that were overcome, a non-traditional educational background, description of any advocacy or values work, or other information that may be relevant.
• Detailed instructions for each application section, and many examples , can be found on the “ Additional Guidance ” page.  The detailed instructions are lengthy, and are intended to be read only “as needed” while you work on your application (i.e., you don’t need to go read the whole thing before you start).

When/How to Apply

When : Applications can be submitted between September 15 and December 15 by 11:59pm EST for the following year.

How : The application is online at https://apply.mit.edu/apply/

Application Assistance

Faculty, students, and staff have collaborated to provide extensive guidance to prospective applicants to our graduate degree program, which we detail below:

• Our website provides answers to many frequently asked admissions questions
• Admissions staff are available for questions at [email protected] . We encourage students to send their questions early in the application process, as staff become increasingly busy with requests as the application deadline approaches!
• The Physics Graduate Application Assistance Program ( PhysGAAP ) is run by current graduate students and offers online webinars, office hours, and one-on-one mentoring. Registration is now open for Fall 2024 , and more information is provided below.

Physics Graduate Application Assistance Program (PhysGAAP)

PhysGAAP is a program offering resources for students applying to graduate school, and it was first started to reduce the barriers for application to the MIT Physics PhD program and address the underrepresentation of students from historically excluded communities. Our services include annual webinars about the application process, office hours to answer questions, and a one-on-one mentoring program for students who would benefit from more in-depth, individual assistance. Visit the PhysGAAP website for more information! 

The Fall 2024 webinars will be held on October 16th at 9-10am and 4-5pm. Zoom and Slido information will be sent 1 week before the webinar to applicants who have registered for PhysGAAP using this form .

Recordings of past webinars can also be found on our website . Please note past webinars may contain outdated information about some topics, such as GRE requirements.

Office Hours

Our Office Hours are a space where you can briefly chat with an MIT Physics graduate student about questions you may have about applying to graduate school. For example, if you have questions about the specifics of applying to MIT Physics, what materials you need for your application, or other questions that only require a one-time meeting, office hours may be a good option for you.

Information about the Office Hours program will be sent out to those who register for PhysGAAP through this form .

1-on-1 Mentorship

1-on-1 mentoring is offered for students who would benefit from more in-depth individual assistance. Our capacity is limited, so we will give preferential consideration to PhysGAAP Mentorship applicants who would most benefit from the program and can demonstrate that they are a good fit. We therefore ask prospective applicants to start by asking their questions at our webinars and office hours program. 

If applicants want further assistance, they may apply to the PhysGAAP Mentorship Program, which pairs prospective graduate school applicants with current graduate students who can provide feedback on their application and insight into graduate school and the MIT Physics PhD program. 

Applications for the PhysGAAP Mentorship Program will open later in the Fall and are expected to close in early-mid November . To stay up to date on when the applications open, please register for PhysGAAP through this form .

Please note that participation in PhysGAAP is not considered during admissions review. It helps applicants put forward their strongest materials, but does not guarantee admission into our graduate program.

Admissions/Application FAQs

Our Frequently Asked Questions provide further information about degree requirements, funding, educational background, application deadlines, English language proficiency, program duration, start dates and deferrals, and fee waiver requests.

The MOST Frequently Asked Question…

What is included in a strong graduate application for physics at mit.

Applications are assessed holistically and many variables are considered in the application review process. The following four main factors are required for a complete application.

• the applicant’s statement of objectives or purpose,
• transcripts of past grades,
• score reports of any required standardized tests,
• three letters of reference.

In addition, any past research experience, publications, awards, and honors are extremely helpful, particularly if they are in the area(s) of the applicant’s interest(s). Applicants may also include a personal statement in their application to provide context as the materials are assessed.

Applications are routed to admission committee members and other faculty readers using the “areas of interest” and any faculty names selected from the menu as well as based on the research interests included in the statement of objectives. Please select the areas of interest that best reflect your goals.

Instructions are available in the application itself , with further guidance on our Additional Guidance page. The Physics Admissions Office will respond to questions sent to [email protected] .

General Questions Regarding the PhD Program in Physics

Must i have a degree in physics in order to apply to this graduate program.

Our successful applicants generally hold a Bachelor of Science degree in Physics, or have taken many Physics classes if they have majored in another discipline. The most common other majors are astronomy, engineering, mathematics, and chemistry. Bachelor of Science degrees may be 3-year or 4-year degrees, depending on the education structure of the country in which they are earned.

What are the requirements to complete a PhD?

The requirements for a PhD in Physics at MIT are the doctoral examination, a few required subject classes, and a research-based thesis. The doctoral examination consists of a written and an oral examination. The written component may be satisfied either by passing the 4 subject exams or by passing designated classes related to each topic with a qualifying grade; the oral exam will be given in a student’s chosen research area. The Physics Department also requires that each student take two classes in the field of specialization and two physics-related courses in fields outside the specialty. Research for the thesis is conducted throughout the student’s time in the program, culminating in a thesis defense and submission of the final thesis.

Can I take courses at other schools nearby?

Yes. Cross-registration is available at Harvard University and Wellesley College.

How many years does it take to complete the PhD requirements?

From 3 to 7 years, averaging 5.6 years.

How will I pay for my studies?

Our students are fully supported financially throughout the duration of their program, provided that they make satisfactory progress. Funding is provided from Fellowships (internal and external) and/or Assistantships (research and teaching) and covers tuition, health insurance, and a living stipend. Read more about funding .

Note: For more detailed information regarding the cost of attendance, including specific costs for tuition and fees, books and supplies, housing and food as well as transportation, please visit the Student Financial Services (SFS) website .

How many applications are submitted each year? How many students are accepted?

Although the number varies each year, the Department of Physics usually welcomes approximately 45 incoming graduate students each year. Last year we received more than 1,700 applications and extended fewer than 90 offers of admission.

What are the minimum grades and exam scores for admitted applicants?

There are no minimum standards for overall grade point averages/GPAs. Grades from physics and other related classes will be carefully assessed. Under a special COVID-19 policy, MIT will accept transcripts with a variety of grading conventions, including any special grading given during the COVID-19 pandemic. PGREs (Physics subject GRE) is not required for graduate applications but is recommended.

Our program is conducted in English and all applicants must demonstrate their English language proficiency. Non-native English speakers should review our policy carefully before waiving the TOEFL/IELTS requirements. We do not set a minimum requirement on TOEFL/IELTS scores; however, students who are admitted to our program typically score above the following values:

• IELTS – 7
• TOEFL (computer based) – 200
• TOEFL (iBT) – 100
• TOEFL (standard) – 600

The Application Process

When is the deadline for applying to the phd program in physics.

Applications for enrollment in the fall are due each year by 11:59pm EST on December 15 of the preceding year. There is no admission cycle for spring-term enrollment.

The COVID-19 pandemic has made it difficult for me to take tests in person. Can I still apply?

PGRE (Physics subject GRE) is not required for graduate applications but is recommended. Non-native English speakers who are not eligible for a test waiver should include their results from either an in-person or online version of the TOEFL or IELTS test.

Does the Department of Physics provide waivers for the English language exam (TOEFL/IELTS)?

An English language exam (IELTS, TOEFL, TOEFL iBT, or the C2 Cambridge English Proficiency exam) is required of all applicants who are from a country in which English is not the primary language. Exceptions to this policy will be considered for candidates who, at the start of their graduate studies in 2025, will have been in the US or in a country whose official language is English for three years or longer and who will have received a degree from a college or university in a country where the language of education instruction is English. An interview via telephone, Zoom, or Skype may be arranged at the discretion of the Admissions Committee. More information on a possible English Language Waiver Decision (PDF).

Does the Department of Physics provide application fee waivers?

Although we do not want the MIT application fee to be a barrier to admission, we cannot provide application fee waivers to all who request one.  The Department of Physics has a limited number of fee waivers to grant. Applicants should first investigate their eligibility for a fee waiver through the Office of Graduate Education . Those not eligible will be prompted to submit a departmental application. Fee waiver requests will only be considered *before* an applicant has submitted the application, but *after* they have completed all parts of the application, including transcript uploads and requests for letters of recommendation. Fee waiver requests for incomplete applications will not be considered. Fee waiver requests will be considered on a first-come-first-served basis, and not after December 1. Furthermore, applications lacking the paid fee or a fee waiver by 11:59pm EST on December 15 will not be reviewed or considered for admission.

Can I arrange a visit to the Physics Department or a specific research area?

We are not currently hosting or meeting with outside visitors in person, nor are we facilitating visits to our classrooms. Current graduate students and prospective applicants should direct any questions by email to [email protected] .

Applicants are invited to send specific questions to the Physics Admissions Office and some questions may be forwarded to current students for further information. Admitted students will be invited to attend an in-person open house.

Can I receive an update on the status of my application?

Candidates can check on the status of their application at apply.mit.edu/apply at any time. It is the applicant’s responsibility to ensure that all items are sent.

When will I be notified of a final decision?

Applicants will be notified via email of decisions by the end of February. If you have not heard from us by March 1, please send email to [email protected] .

We do not provide results by phone.

Can admitted students start in a term other than the next Fall semester?

Applications submitted between September 15 and December 15 by 11:59pm EST are assessed for the following Fall semester. We do not provide a separate admission review cycle for the Spring semester. Individual research supervisors may invite incoming students to start their research during the summer term a few months earlier than their studies would normally begin. All other incoming students start their studies in late August for the Fall term.

Once admitted, applicants may request a one-year deferral to attend a specific academic program or for another approved reason, with single semester deferrals for the following Spring term granted only rarely.

Graduate School

Graduate school in physics or related fields generally refers to a post-baccalaureate education sequence where a student earns their doctorate degree, or Ph.D. Unlike a baccalaureate whose requirements primarily focus on classes, Ph.D. programs focus on an original research contribution in the form of a written thesis and typically defense in front of a committee.

Because of the heavy research focus, you should only ever go to graduate school if you enjoy doing research. It is by no means the necessary "next step" (certainly not in comparison to the transition from high school to college, which is a more common and broadly applicable path). While it is true that, in many cases, Ph.D. holders make slightly more money in industry, it is also true that Ph.D. students forego ~5-6 or more years of working in private industry, and thus any promotions or experience associated therewith. That being said, grad school is the next step if you are planning a future career in academia.

Note that grad school does not have to follow directly after undergrad; many people first go to industry for a number of years before deciding to return to grad school, and many of these people go on to take up permanent positions in academia.

It is important to keep in mind that any Ph.D. program worth your while will pay you to go. While there is technically a tuition, the school will almost always cover this, and allot you a stipend anywhere between $13,000 to $34,000 or even more annually. This is because, as a salaried researcher, you are actually contributing value to the university in the form of original research and teaching responsibilities.

• 1.1 Writing a Statement of Purpose
• 1.2 Graduate Record Examination (GRE)
• 1.3 Graduate Record Examination, Physics Subject Test (PGRE)
• 1.4 Letters of Recommendation
• 2 Applying for External Fellowships
• 3 Visiting and Choosing Graduate Schools
• 4 Graduate School Abroad

Preparing for the Application

Students who go to graduate school straight out of undergrad typically apply to grad school during their senior (fourth) year, first (fall) semester, though some students choose to take a gap year to either do external research, finish up projects, or travel.

While requirements vary, typically grad school in physics (and often related fields such as astrophysics) will require:

• One or more research/purpose/diversity statements
• A score on the Graduate Record Exam (GRE)
• A score on the GRE Physics Subject Test (PGRE)
• Three letters of recommendation

Writing a Statement of Purpose

When writing a statement of purpose to a graduate school, it helps to think about the following questions:

• Why am I applying to graduate school?
• What kind of research have I done in the past, and how does this research prepare me for graduate study?
• What about the specific program I am applying to is appealing to me?
• Who would I want to work with, and what kind of work would I want to do with them, if I went to this school?

All of these questions are immensely important to include in a statement of purpose. Successful grad school applicants typically communicate their enthusiasm for research, extensive past research experience (and deliverables such as papers, talks, and posters), and a number of faculty with whom they would like to work.

Believe it or not, graduate programs are immensely different, and it is extremely valid (and common) to choose a graduate school based off of the faculty who are there. As you reach this point in your academic career, you will realize that, oftentimes, even top schools may lack researchers in your specific field, and you should take this into account. Moreover, it pays to verify directly with potential research advisors whether or not they plan on taking graduate students, and what kind of advising style they have (e.g., hands-off, hands-on). It is also beneficial to keep in mind other nearby institutions with which your prospective school frequently interacts.

Some examples are below:

• California Institute of Technology: Carnegie Observatories
• Columbia University: Flatiron Institute
• Princeton University: Institute of Advanced Study
• University of Chicago: Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics
• University of California, Berkeley: Lawrence-Berkeley National Laboratory
• Stanford University: SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
• University of California, Santa Barbara: Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics
• University of Hawaii at Manoa: Keck Observatory

One common mistake that students make when writing statements of purpose is subconsciously implementing self-deprecating language. This may take an explicit form: "Even though I don't know much about...," but can often take more subtle forms:

• "My research advisor assigned me to ..." - You want to sound directed in your research. While it may be true that you did work assigned by your advisor, the graduate admissions committee what to know what about what you , not your advisor, did.
• "I characterized growths and ran code to fit spectra." - This sort of language is a mistake because, rather than focusing on the day-to-day mechanical applications of what you are doing, you should show some perspective in why what you're doing is interesting. You should make big-picture statements about the motivation of your project, and what you specifically tried to learn and what the outcome was.
• "I learned a lot." - About what? Talking about what you have learned can be extremely helpful, but you should be concrete about this.

If you have a paper (not necessarily first- or even high author position), poster, or presentation, you should absolutely mention this in your statement of purpose, even if it appears in your curriculum vitae (~resume). It will help convince people that you have had exposure to the actual process of doing research, and are thus likely to succeed in grad school.

Even students who go to top schools experience imposter syndrome, but bearing this fact in mind should convince you that writing confidently can only help you, and is not "dishonest," even if you feel like you still have a lot to learn.

Also, when talking about your undergraduate research, you should make sure to establish that you did a substantial amount of research that will actually prepare you to do the work you want to with the person you want to work with. For instance, if you have a lot of experience in particle physics but barely any experience in other fields, then you should express an interest in working with the particle physics faculty member there whom you find most appealing, even if your primary interest now is in condensed matter. You'll have plenty of time to explore other fields in grad school. In the meantime, you just need to make sure that when you talk about what you're interested in, you have enough experience in the field to know what you want to do in it and to do it.

Graduate Record Examination (GRE)

The Graduate Record Examination (GRE) is a standardized examination either conducted on paper or administered via a computer at a specialized facility. It has three parts, a "verbal reasoning" language section (scored 130-170), a "quantitative reasoning" mathematics section (scored 130-170), and an "analytical writing" essay section (scored 0-6). The GRE is administered by the ETS corporation and is taken by basically all students in the United States applying to graduate school in any subject. As such, it is extremely general knowledge which is comparable to the standard SAT/ACT in difficulty and content. This being said, you should be able to take the GRE basically as early in your college experience as you would like, though it is typical for students to take it during the same semester that they are applying for grad school.

Graduate Record Examination, Physics Subject Test (PGRE)

The Graduate Record Examination, Physics Subject Test (PGRE) is a standardized examination typically taken on paper on the contents of a typical physics undergraduate curriculum, and is graded from 200-990 in increments of 10 points. The score on the PGRE is slightly more important than that of the standard GRE. It is a 2 hour and 50 minute multiple choice exam with ~100 questions. According to ETS, the breakdown of the content of the exam is as follows:

• CLASSICAL MECHANICS — 20% (such as kinematics, Newton's laws, work and energy, oscillatory motion, rotational motion about a fixed axis, dynamics of systems of particles, central forces and celestial mechanics, three-dimensional particle dynamics, Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalism, noninertial reference frames, elementary topics in fluid dynamics)
• ELECTROMAGNETISM — 18% (such as electrostatics, currents and DC circuits, magnetic fields in free space, Lorentz force, induction, Maxwell's equations and their applications, electromagnetic waves, AC circuits, magnetic and electric fields in matter)
• OPTICS AND WAVE PHENOMENA — 9% (such as wave properties, superposition, interference, diffraction, geometrical optics, polarization, Doppler effect)
• THERMODYNAMICS AND STATISTICAL MECHANICS — 10% (such as the laws of thermodynamics, thermodynamic processes, equations of state, ideal gases, kinetic theory, ensembles, statistical concepts and calculation of thermodynamic quantities, thermal expansion and heat transfer)
• QUANTUM MECHANICS — 12% (such as fundamental concepts, solutions of the Schrödinger equation (including square wells, harmonic oscillators, and hydrogenic atoms), spin, angular momentum, wave function symmetry, elementary perturbation theory)
• ATOMIC PHYSICS — 10% (such as properties of electrons, Bohr model, energy quantization, atomic structure, atomic spectra, selection rules, black-body radiation, x-rays, atoms in electric and magnetic fields)
• SPECIAL RELATIVITY — 6% (such as introductory concepts, time dilation, length contraction, simultaneity, energy and momentum, four-vectors and Lorentz transformation, velocity addition)
• LABORATORY METHODS — 6% (such as data and error analysis, electronics, instrumentation, radiation detection, counting statistics, interaction of charged particles with matter, lasers and optical interferometers, dimensional analysis, fundamental applications of probability and statistics)
• SPECIALIZED TOPICS — 9% Nuclear and Particle physics (e.g., nuclear properties, radioactive decay, fission and fusion, reactions, fundamental properties of elementary particles), Condensed Matter (e.g., crystal structure, x-ray diffraction, thermal properties, electron theory of metals, semiconductors, superconductors), Miscellaneous (e.g., astrophysics, mathematical methods, computer applications)

Note that some programs have been gradually phasing out GRE/PGRE requirements, but this is still a minority of programs and it is, in the vast majority of cases, better to take this exam if you have the ability. While there are ~5 publicly released PGRE exams with scoring guidelines, the general scoring formula depends from session to session and is propriety on behalf of ETS (and thus private). While there are other practice examinations on the internet, they do not have officially sanctioned scoring assignments. Hence, when studying for the PGRE, it is better to take the official exams only when you feel ready to get an accurate score estimate, because of the limited number available.

The current iteration of the PGRE does not penalize for wrong answers (which is not true of all of the practice exams), so it is in your advantage to fill out an answer on every question, even if it is a guess. It is not necessary at all to get all the questions right in order to get a good (or even perfect) score. It may feel at times like you are making barely educated guesses on most questions, but you should persevere, as this is a common feeling.

Registration and Study Tips

For both the physics GRE and the general GRE, you should register well in advance. For the physics GRE, for instance the deadline is typically 5 weeks from the test date or 4 weeks with a $25 late fee (though you should check the website of ETS , the company that makes the test). So registering a month and a half or even 2 or more months ahead of time is recommended.

The general GRE is offered year-round, so you can take it at any time. Just be sure to take it by October of the year before the year that you plan to enroll in grad school (assuming you enroll in the fall), to allow time for your grades to arrive at the university you're applying to. Also keep in mind you can only take it once in a 21-day period and 5 times within a year.

The physics GRE is offered 3 times in a year: once in April, once in September, and once in October. It is reported about a month after you take the test. Thus, it's a good idea to take the PGRE in April. That way, your grades for your exam will arrive soon enough for you to take a second test if you did poorly or not take a second test if you did well.

Some advice on preparation: for the general GRE it's pretty much the same as preparing for the SAT/ACT. One very helpful resource is the practice exams, 2 on-paper and 2 online, offered on the ETS website which you can order for free while registering for the exam. For the physics GRE, there's one practice exam on the ETS website, but there are other resources out there. One is this one from UW , and another example is the textbook Conquering the Physics GRE . I'm sure you can find many more examples by Googling, but this is a good starting point.

Letters of Recommendation

Most grad programs require three letters of recommendation. A letter of recommendation is a private statement made on behalf of somebody who knows you to an institution to which you are applying, stating your preparation for the program and their positive research/personal experiences with you. In order to optimize your chances of getting into a good graduate school, it is in your best interest to make as many of your three/four recommenders people with Ph.D's (professors, postdocs) who know you personally and have worked with you in a research context. In the event that this is not possible, you should ask for letters of recommendation from professors of classes in which you have done well, and who know you relatively well (e.g., from office hours, etc.). Do not get a letter of recommendation from somebody who does not like you.

In an optimal case, you should ask your recommenders ~1 month or more in advance for letters of recommendation, and it often pays to also provide excerpts of your statement of purpose. It is a good idea to share to them some kind of online spreadsheet of all places which require a letter of recommendation, complete with links to submit the letter of recommendation/email addresses to send them, etc. as well as deadlines, and clear indications of whether or not this task has been complete.

FERPA is a regulation in the United States giving you the right to see your letter of recommendation, and schools will typically ask you whether or not you would like to waive this right. You should always opt to waive your rights to see your letter of recommendation, as schools typically know whether or not you have done so. Letters for which you have not waived your FERPA right may treat your letter of recommendation with more skepticism, as they know that your letter writer may not feel comfortable to speak completely honestly about their experiences with you.

Applying for External Fellowships

External fellowships are sources of funding outside of the graduate school which you go to. It doesn't cost anything to apply to a fellowship; even though it may feel like a lot of work, it is generally worth it for a number of reasons:

• Your graduate stipend may be increased (this is not always the case)
• Because the tuition burden on the department you are going to is lessened, the department is more eager to attract you (you can even reverse a rejection decision from a school by telling them you have obtained a fellowship)
• Since you come into graduate school with your own funding, you are not prevented from working with certain professors who may not have funding, and will not be bound to work for projects you find uninteresting because some grant is contingent upon it
• You will not be made to TA in order to earn your stipend

Fellowships all have their individualized purposes, and you should write your statements for these fellowships bearing in mind what the fellowship is actually for. Below is a non-exhaustive list of fellowships that you should consider applying to:

• National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship (NSF-GRFP): Funded by the National Science Foundation, for students with demonstrable "intellectual merit" (research accomplishments) and "broader impact" (outreach). Applicants write a personal statement and a research proposal to which they are not bound (as the NSF-GRFP funds people mostly regardless of change in career plans).
• National Defense Science and Engineering Graduate Fellowship (NDSEG): Funded by the Department of Defense, and for projects which have some demonstrable significance, direct or indirect, to national defense
• Ford Foundation Fellowship: Aims to train future researchers devoted to education and diversity
• Computer Science Graduate Fellowship (CSGF): Funded by the Department of Energy, for researchers who plan to do computationally heavy work. Acceptance of this fellowship requires the school to agree not to require more than a certain number of TA semesters. It is also contingent upon the completion of a number of graduate courses in a number of fields for broad training.
• Hertz Foundation Fellowship: An extremely competitive private fellowship emphasizing creativity and patriotism, lengthy process involving an initial application followed by two in-person interviews selecting ~12 students per year in all fields.

If you have the fortune of obtaining multiple fellowships, you should take care of figuring out how the fellowships interact, and how they interact with the funding at your home institution. Whether or not you can accept certain fellowships may also depend on the institution to which you are applying, and also whether or not it is abroad. US government fellowships are not typically available to international students.

One thing to note is: these organizations, especially government ones, are pretty strict about lateness. This is not like in classes or even applications to present at conferences and occasionally even summer research applications, where sometimes if you're a little late you may be able to figure something out, depending on the people running it. Here, if you're just one minute late, it will be sent back without review, no questions asked. So be sure to finish those applications extra early.

Visiting and Choosing Graduate Schools

If you are accepted to a graduate school, typically the graduate school will fund a visit on your behalf to their school in an open house. In the event that you cannot make the time that they scheduled, they are generally willing to accommodate a separate time, and will often construct personalized itineraries just for you.

During this visit, a couple of things will generally happen:

• You will be scheduled with a large number of short meetings with many faculty, including the faculty that you specified you wanted to work with on your application
• You will spend a day or a couple of days within the department, meeting current graduate students and other relevant people
• You will be given a lot of very nice food and put in a very nice hotel, and people will act unnaturally nice to you for about a month

Some things you should keep in mind. You should feel free to talk about these points openly, since people are generally understanding that you are trying to make the best decision for yourself, and are trying to get as much information as possible:

• Do not go to a place where you have nobody you are excited to work for, and be hesitant to go to a place where there is only one such person (as the advising fit may go bad for any number of reasons).
• What is the general approach/philosophy to research within the department there? Schools have fields that they are strong in and fields that they just don't have people in, but it goes further than that. How do they incorporate each field within the department? Who do they work with? Primarily others in the same field? People from all fields? Industry? And, most importantly, can you see yourself enjoying work that goes according to that approach?
• Talk to graduate students, both current ones and those who have dropped out, if you can locate them. They tend to be extremely honest about their experiences, and will generally not hesitate to tell you red flags about a school or potential advisor. If a school or advisor seems to be discouraging you from talking to someone, that is a huge red flag.
• Do you actually see yourself living in the location of the school? This sounds like it wouldn't be that important, but it totally is, because this is where you're spending the next half decade of some of the best years of your life.
• Is your advisor of interest actually taking students? Can they commit to taking you?
• What is the funding situation like? Do students tend to have enough travel funds to go to conferences, etc.

Graduate visits are extremely exhausting since your schedule is often booked completely, so if you are accepted to many places, be honest about which schools you are actually considering. Graduate schools across the country have unanimously decided that April 15th is the deadline to accept or reject a graduate school decision, and you should not hold out later than this for any US grad school you are hoping will admit you off of a waitlist.

Graduate School Abroad

While graduate school abroad can often be very rewarding, there are a lot of significant differences between US grad schools and international grad schools. Some of the big points are below:

• Many fellowships (in particular, government fellowships) do not apply if you go to a school abroad
• In US grad schools, students apply directly to a Ph.D. program where they earn an ancillary masters degree. However, in programs abroad, these are typically two separate programs, with Ph.D. candidates doing a masters program before their doctorate
• Ph.D. programs abroad (especially in Europe) tend to be shorter (~3 years) and are sometimes regarded as being less comprehensive

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