impact of the protestant reformation essay

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The Reformation

By: History.com Editors

Updated: April 11, 2019 | Original: December 2, 2009

The Protestant Reformation was the 16th-century religious, political, intellectual and cultural upheaval that splintered Catholic Europe, setting in place the structures and beliefs that would define the continent in the modern era. 

In northern and central Europe, reformers like Martin Luther, John Calvin and Henry VIII challenged papal authority and questioned the Catholic Church’s ability to define Christian practice. They argued for a religious and political redistribution of power into the hands of Bible- and pamphlet-reading pastors and princes. The disruption triggered wars, persecutions and the so-called Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church’s delayed but forceful response to the Protestants.

Dating the Reformation

Historians usually date the start of the Protestant Reformation to the 1517 publication of Martin Luther’s “95 Theses.” Its ending can be placed anywhere from the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, which allowed for the coexistence of Catholicism and Lutheranism in Germany, to the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years’ War. The key ideas of the Reformation—a call to purify the church and a belief that the Bible, not tradition, should be the sole source of spiritual authority—were not themselves novel. However, Luther and the other reformers became the first to skillfully use the power of the printing press to give their ideas a wide audience.

Did you know? No reformer was more adept than Martin Luther at using the power of the press to spread his ideas. Between 1518 and 1525, Luther published more works than the next 17 most prolific reformers combined.

The Reformation: Germany and Lutheranism

Martin Luther (1483-1546) was an Augustinian monk and university lecturer in Wittenberg when he composed his “95 Theses,” which protested the pope’s sale of reprieves from penance, or indulgences. Although he had hoped to spur renewal from within the church, in 1521 he was summoned before the Diet of Worms and excommunicated. 

Sheltered by Friedrich, elector of Saxony, Luther translated the Bible into German and continued his output of vernacular pamphlets. When German peasants, inspired in part by Luther’s empowering “priesthood of all believers,” revolted in 1524, Luther sided with Germany’s princes. By the Reformation’s end, Lutheranism had become the state religion throughout much of Germany, Scandinavia and the Baltics.

The Reformation: Switzerland and Calvinism

The Swiss Reformation began in 1519 with the sermons of Ulrich Zwingli, whose teachings largely paralleled Luther’s. In 1541 John Calvin, a French Protestant who had spent the previous decade in exile writing his “Institutes of the Christian Religion,” was invited to settle in Geneva and put his Reformed doctrine—which stressed God’s power and humanity’s predestined fate—into practice. The result was a theocratic regime of enforced, austere morality.

Calvin’s Geneva became a hotbed for Protestant exiles, and his doctrines quickly spread to Scotland, France, Transylvania and the Low Countries, where Dutch Calvinism became a religious and economic force for the next 400 years.

The Reformation: England and the 'Middle Way'

In England, the Reformation began with Henry VIII’s quest for a male heir. When Pope Clement VII refused to annul Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could remarry, the English king declared in 1534 that he alone should be the final authority in matters relating to the English church. Henry dissolved England’s monasteries to confiscate their wealth and worked to place the Bible in the hands of the people. Beginning in 1536, every parish was required to have a copy.

After Henry’s death, England tilted toward Calvinist-infused Protestantism during Edward VI’s six-year reign and then endured five years of reactionary Catholicism under Mary I . In 1559 Elizabeth I took the throne and, during her 44-year reign, cast the Church of England as a “middle way” between Calvinism and Catholicism, with vernacular worship and a revised Book of Common Prayer.

The Counter-Reformation

The Catholic Church was slow to respond systematically to the theological and publicity innovations of Luther and the other reformers. The Council of Trent, which met off and on from 1545 through 1563, articulated the Church’s answer to the problems that triggered the Reformation and to the reformers themselves.

The Catholic Church of the Counter-Reformation era grew more spiritual, more literate and more educated. New religious orders, notably the Jesuits, combined rigorous spirituality with a globally minded intellectualism, while mystics such as Teresa of Avila injected new passion into the older orders. Inquisitions, both in Spain and in Rome, were reorganized to fight the threat of Protestant heresy.

The Reformation’s Legacy

Along with the religious consequences of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation came deep and lasting political changes. Northern Europe’s new religious and political freedoms came at a great cost, with decades of rebellions, wars and bloody persecutions. The Thirty Years’ War alone may have cost Germany 40 percent of its population.

But the Reformation’s positive repercussions can be seen in the intellectual and cultural flourishing it inspired on all sides of the schism—in the strengthened universities of Europe, the Lutheran church music of J.S. Bach, the baroque altarpieces of Pieter Paul Rubens and even the capitalism of Dutch Calvinist merchants.

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Reformation Causes and Effects

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How Martin Luther Changed the World

Clang! Clang! Down the corridors of religious history we hear this sound: Martin Luther, an energetic thirty-three-year-old Augustinian friar, hammering his Ninety-five Theses to the doors of the Castle Church of Wittenberg, in Saxony, and thus, eventually, splitting the thousand-year-old Roman Catholic Church into two churches—one loyal to the Pope in Rome, the other protesting against the Pope’s rule and soon, in fact, calling itself Protestant. This month marks the five-hundredth anniversary of Luther’s famous action. Accordingly, a number of books have come out, reconsidering the man and his influence. They differ on many points, but something that most of them agree on is that the hammering episode, so satisfying symbolically—loud, metallic, violent—never occurred. Not only were there no eyewitnesses; Luther himself, ordinarily an enthusiastic self-dramatizer, was vague on what had happened. He remembered drawing up a list of ninety-five theses around the date in question, but, as for what he did with it, all he was sure of was that he sent it to the local archbishop. Furthermore, the theses were not, as is often imagined, a set of non-negotiable demands about how the Church should reform itself in accordance with Brother Martin’s standards. Rather, like all “theses” in those days, they were points to be thrashed out in public disputations, in the manner of the ecclesiastical scholars of the twelfth century or, for that matter, the debate clubs of tradition-minded universities in our own time.

If the Ninety-five Theses sprouted a myth, that is no surprise. Luther was one of those figures who touched off something much larger than himself; namely, the Reformation—the sundering of the Church and a fundamental revision of its theology. Once he had divided the Church, it could not be healed. His reforms survived to breed other reforms, many of which he disapproved of. His church splintered and splintered. To tote up the Protestant denominations discussed in Alec Ryrie’s new book, “ Protestants ” (Viking), is almost comical, there are so many of them. That means a lot of people, though. An eighth of the human race is now Protestant.

The Reformation, in turn, reshaped Europe. As German-speaking lands asserted their independence from Rome, other forces were unleashed. In the Knights’ Revolt of 1522, and the Peasants’ War, a couple of years later, minor gentry and impoverished agricultural workers saw Protestantism as a way of redressing social grievances. (More than eighty thousand poorly armed peasants were slaughtered when the latter rebellion failed.) Indeed, the horrific Thirty Years’ War, in which, basically, Europe’s Roman Catholics killed all the Protestants they could, and vice versa, can in some measure be laid at Luther’s door. Although it did not begin until decades after his death, it arose in part because he had created no institutional structure to replace the one he walked away from.

Almost as soon as Luther started the Reformation, alternative Reformations arose in other localities. From town to town, preachers told the citizenry what it should no longer put up with, whereupon they stood a good chance of being shoved aside—indeed, strung up—by other preachers. Religious houses began to close down. Luther led the movement mostly by his writings. Meanwhile, he did what he thought was his main job in life, teaching the Bible at the University of Wittenberg. The Reformation wasn’t led, exactly; it just spread, metastasized.

And that was because Europe was so ready for it. The relationship between the people and the rulers could hardly have been worse. Maximilian I, the Holy Roman Emperor, was dying—he brought his coffin with him wherever he travelled—but he was taking his time about it. The presumptive heir, King Charles I of Spain, was looked upon with grave suspicion. He already had Spain and the Netherlands. Why did he need the Holy Roman Empire as well? Furthermore, he was young—only seventeen when Luther wrote the Ninety-five Theses. The biggest trouble, though, was money. The Church had incurred enormous expenses. It was warring with the Turks at the walls of Vienna. It had also started an ambitious building campaign, including the reconstruction of St. Peter’s Basilica, in Rome. To pay for these ventures, it had borrowed huge sums from Europe’s banks, and to repay the banks it was strangling the people with taxes.

It has often been said that, fundamentally, Luther gave us “modernity.” Among the recent studies, Eric Metaxas’s “ Martin Luther: The Man Who Rediscovered God and Changed the World ” (Viking) makes this claim in grandiose terms. “The quintessentially modern idea of the individual was as unthinkable before Luther as is color in a world of black and white,” he writes. “And the more recent ideas of pluralism, religious liberty, self-government, and liberty all entered history through the door that Luther opened.” The other books are more reserved. As they point out, Luther wanted no part of pluralism—even for the time, he was vehemently anti-Semitic—and not much part of individualism. People were to believe and act as their churches dictated.

The fact that Luther’s protest, rather than others that preceded it, brought about the Reformation is probably due in large measure to his outsized personality. He was a charismatic man, and maniacally energetic. Above all, he was intransigent. To oppose was his joy. And though at times he showed that hankering for martyrdom that we detect, with distaste, in the stories of certain religious figures, it seems that, most of the time, he just got out of bed in the morning and got on with his work. Among other things, he translated the New Testament from Greek into German in eleven weeks.

Luther was born in 1483 and grew up in Mansfeld, a small mining town in Saxony. His father started out as a miner but soon rose to become a master smelter, a specialist in separating valuable metal (in this case, copper) from ore. The family was not poor. Archeologists have been at work in their basement. The Luthers ate suckling pig and owned drinking glasses. They had either seven or eight children, of whom five survived. The father wanted Martin, the eldest, to study law, in order to help him in his business, but Martin disliked law school and promptly had one of those experiences often undergone in the old days by young people who did not wish to take their parents’ career advice. Caught in a violent thunderstorm one day in 1505—he was twenty-one—he vowed to St. Anne, the mother of the Virgin Mary, that if he survived he would become a monk. He kept his promise, and was ordained two years later. In the heavily psychoanalytic nineteen-fifties, much was made of the idea that this flouting of his father’s wishes set the stage for his rebellion against the Holy Father in Rome. Such is the main point of Erik Erikson’s 1958 book, “ Young Man Luther ,” which became the basis of a famous play by John Osborne (filmed, in 1974, with Stacy Keach in the title role).

Today, psychoanalytic interpretations tend to be tittered at by Luther biographers. But the desire to find some great psychological source, or even a middle-sized one, for Luther’s great story is understandable, because, for many years, nothing much happened to him. This man who changed the world left his German-speaking lands only once in his life. (In 1510, he was part of a mission sent to Rome to heal a rent in the Augustinian order. It failed.) Most of his youth was spent in dirty little towns where men worked long hours each day and then, at night, went to the tavern and got into fights. He described his university town, Erfurt, as consisting of “a whorehouse and a beerhouse.” Wittenberg, where he lived for the remainder of his life, was bigger—with two thousand inhabitants when he settled there—but not much better. As Lyndal Roper, one of the best of the new biographers, writes, in “ Martin Luther: Renegade and Prophet ” (Random House), it was a mess of “muddy houses, unclean lanes.” At that time, however, the new ruler of Saxony, Frederick the Wise, was trying to make a real city of it. He built a castle and a church—the one on whose door the famous theses were supposedly nailed—and he hired an important artist, Lucas Cranach the Elder, as his court painter. Most important, he founded a university, and staffed it with able scholars, including Johann von Staupitz, the vicar-general of the Augustinian friars of the German-speaking territories. Staupitz had been Luther’s confessor at Erfurt, and when he found himself overworked at Wittenberg he summoned Luther, persuaded him to take a doctorate, and handed over many of his duties to him. Luther supervised everything from monasteries (eleven of them) to fish ponds, but most crucial was his succeeding Staupitz as the university’s professor of the Bible, a job that he took on at the age of twenty-eight and retained until his death. In this capacity, he lectured on Scripture, held disputations, and preached to the staff of the university.

He was apparently a galvanizing speaker, but during his first twelve years as a monk he published almost nothing. This was no doubt due in part to the responsibilities heaped on him at Wittenberg, but at this time, and for a long time, he also suffered what seems to have been a severe psychospiritual crisis. He called his problem his Anfechtungen —trials, tribulations—but this feels too slight a word to cover the afflictions he describes: cold sweats, nausea, constipation, crushing headaches, ringing in his ears, together with depression, anxiety, and a general feeling that, as he put it, the angel of Satan was beating him with his fists. Most painful, it seems, for this passionately religious young man was to discover his anger against God. Years later, commenting on his reading of Scripture as a young friar, Luther spoke of his rage at the description of God’s righteousness, and of his grief that, as he was certain, he would not be judged worthy: “I did not love, yes, I hated the righteous God who punishes sinners.”

There were good reasons for an intense young priest to feel disillusioned. One of the most bitterly resented abuses of the Church at that time was the so-called indulgences, a kind of late-medieval get-out-of-jail-free card used by the Church to make money. When a Christian purchased an indulgence from the Church, he obtained—for himself or whomever else he was trying to benefit—a reduction in the amount of time the person’s soul had to spend in Purgatory, atoning for his sins, before ascending to Heaven. You might pay to have a special Mass said for the sinner or, less expensively, you could buy candles or new altar cloths for the church. But, in the most common transaction, the purchaser simply paid an agreed-upon amount of money and, in return, was given a document saying that the beneficiary—the name was written in on a printed form—was forgiven x amount of time in Purgatory. The more time off, the more it cost, but the indulgence-sellers promised that whatever you paid for you got.

Actually, they could change their minds about that. In 1515, the Church cancelled the exculpatory powers of already purchased indulgences for the next eight years. If you wanted that period covered, you had to buy a new indulgence. Realizing that this was hard on people—essentially, they had wasted their money—the Church declared that purchasers of the new indulgences did not have to make confession or even exhibit contrition. They just had to hand over the money and the thing was done, because this new issue was especially powerful. Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar locally famous for his zeal in selling indulgences, is said to have boasted that one of the new ones could obtain remission from sin even for someone who had raped the Virgin Mary. (In the 1974 movie “ Luther ,” Tetzel is played with a wonderful, bug-eyed wickedness by Hugh Griffith.) Even by the standards of the very corrupt sixteenth-century Church, this was shocking.

In Luther’s mind, the indulgence trade seems to have crystallized the spiritual crisis he was experiencing. It brought him up against the absurdity of bargaining with God, jockeying for his favor—indeed, paying for his favor. Why had God given his only begotten son? And why had the son died on the cross? Because that’s how much God loved the world. And that alone, Luther now reasoned, was sufficient for a person to be found “justified,” or worthy. From this thought, the Ninety-five Theses were born. Most of them were challenges to the sale of indulgences. And out of them came what would be the two guiding principles of Luther’s theology: sola fide and sola scriptura .

Sola fide means “by faith alone”—faith, as opposed to good works, as the basis for salvation. This was not a new idea. St. Augustine, the founder of Luther’s monastic order, laid it out in the fourth century. Furthermore, it is not an idea that fits well with what we know of Luther. Pure faith, contemplation, white light: surely these are the gifts of the Asian religions, or of medieval Christianity, of St. Francis with his birds. As for Luther, with his rages and sweats, does he seem a good candidate? Eventually, however, he discovered (with lapses) that he could be released from those torments by the simple act of accepting God’s love for him. Lest it be thought that this stern man then concluded that we could stop worrying about our behavior and do whatever we wanted, he said that works issue from faith. In his words, “We can no more separate works from faith than heat and light from fire.” But he did believe that the world was irretrievably full of sin, and that repairing that situation was not the point of our moral lives. “Be a sinner, and let your sins be strong, but let your trust in Christ be stronger,” he wrote to a friend.

The second great principle, sola scriptura , or “by scripture alone,” was the belief that only the Bible could tell us the truth. Like sola fide , this was a rejection of what, to Luther, were the lies of the Church—symbolized most of all by the indulgence market. Indulgences brought you an abbreviation of your stay in Purgatory, but what was Purgatory? No such thing is mentioned in the Bible. Some people think that Dante made it up; others say Gregory the Great. In any case, Luther decided that somebody made it up.

Guided by those convictions, and fired by his new certainty of God’s love for him, Luther became radicalized. He preached, he disputed. Above all, he wrote pamphlets. He denounced not only the indulgence trade but all the other ways in which the Church made money off Christians: the endless pilgrimages, the yearly Masses for the dead, the cults of the saints. He questioned the sacraments. His arguments made sense to many people, notably Frederick the Wise. Frederick was pained that Saxony was widely considered a backwater. He now saw how much attention Luther brought to his state, and how much respect accrued to the university that he (Frederick) had founded at Wittenberg. He vowed to protect this troublemaker.

Things came to a head in 1520. By then, Luther had taken to calling the Church a brothel, and Pope Leo X the Antichrist. Leo gave Luther sixty days to appear in Rome and answer charges of heresy. Luther let the sixty days elapse; the Pope excommunicated him; Luther responded by publicly burning the papal order in the pit where one of Wittenberg’s hospitals burned its used rags. Reformers had been executed for less, but Luther was by now a very popular man throughout Europe. The authorities knew they would have serious trouble if they killed him, and the Church gave him one more chance to recant, at the upcoming diet—or congregation of officers, sacred and secular—in the cathedral city of Worms in 1521. He went, and declared that he could not retract any of the charges he had made against the Church, because the Church could not show him, in Scripture, that any of them were false:

Since then your serene majesties and your lordships seek a simple answer, I will give it in this manner, plain and unvarnished: Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the scriptures or clear reason, for I do not trust in the Pope or in the councils alone, since it is well known that they often err and contradict themselves, I am bound to the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and will not retract anything.

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The Pope often errs! Luther will decide what God wants! By consulting Scripture! No wonder that an institution wedded to the idea of its leader’s infallibility was profoundly shaken by this declaration. Once the Diet of Worms came to an end, Luther headed for home, but he was “kidnapped” on the way, by a posse of knights sent by his protector, Frederick the Wise. The knights spirited him off to the Wartburg, a secluded castle in Eisenach, in order to give the authorities time to cool off. Luther was annoyed by the delay, but he didn’t waste time. That’s when he translated the New Testament.

During his lifetime, Luther became probably the biggest celebrity in the German-speaking lands. When he travelled, people flocked to the high road to see his cart go by. This was due not just to his personal qualities and the importance of his cause but to timing. Luther was born only a few decades after the invention of printing, and though it took him a while to start writing, it was hard to stop him once he got going. Among the quincentennial books is an entire volume on his relationship to print, “ Brand Luther ” (Penguin), by the British historian Andrew Pettegree. Luther’s collected writings come to a hundred and twenty volumes. In the first half of the sixteenth century, a third of all books published in German were written by him.

By producing them, he didn’t just create the Reformation; he also created his country’s vernacular, as Dante is said to have done with Italian. The majority of his writings were in Early New High German, a form of the language that was starting to gel in southern Germany at that time. Under his influence, it did gel.

The crucial text is his Bible: the New Testament, translated from the original Greek and published in 1523, followed by the Old Testament, in 1534, translated from the Hebrew. Had he not created Protestantism, this book would be the culminating achievement of Luther’s life. It was not the first German translation of the Bible—indeed, it had eighteen predecessors—but it was unquestionably the most beautiful, graced with the same combination of exaltation and simplicity, but more so, as the King James Bible. (William Tyndale, whose English version of the Bible, for which he was executed, was more or less the basis of the King James, knew and admired Luther’s translation.) Luther very consciously sought a fresh, vigorous idiom. For his Bible’s vocabulary, he said, “we must ask the mother in the home, the children on the street,” and, like other writers with such aims—William Blake, for example—he ended up with something songlike. He loved alliteration—“ Der Herr ist mein Hirte ” (“The Lord is my shepherd”); “ Dein Stecken und Stab ” (“thy rod and thy staff”)—and he loved repetition and forceful rhythms. This made his texts easy and pleasing to read aloud, at home, to the children. The books also featured a hundred and twenty-eight woodcut illustrations, all by one artist from the Cranach workshop, known to us only as Master MS. There they were, all those wondrous things—the Garden of Eden, Abraham and Isaac, Jacob wrestling with the angel—which modern people are used to seeing images of and which Luther’s contemporaries were not. There were marginal glosses, as well as short prefaces for each book, which would have been useful for the children of the household and probably also for the family member reading to them.

These virtues, plus the fact that the Bible was probably, in many cases, the only book in the house, meant that it was widely used as a primer. More people learned to read, and the more they knew how to read the more they wanted to own this book, or give it to others. The three-thousand-copy first edition of the New Testament, though it was not cheap (it cost about as much as a calf), sold out immediately. As many as half a million Luther Bibles seem to have been printed by the mid-sixteenth century. In his discussions of sola scriptura , Luther had declared that all believers were priests: laypeople had as much right as the clergy to determine what Scripture meant. With his Bible, he gave German speakers the means to do so.

In honor of the five-hundredth anniversary, the excellent German art-book publisher Taschen has produced a facsimile with spectacular colored woodcuts. Pleasingly, the book historian Stephan Füssel, in the explanatory paperback that accompanies the two-volume facsimile, reports that in 2004, when a fire swept through the Duchess Anna Amalia Library, in Weimar, where this copy was housed, it was “rescued, undamaged, with not a second to lose, thanks to the courageous intervention of library director Dr. Michael Knoche.” I hope that Dr. Knoche himself ran out with the two volumes in his arms. I don’t know what the price of a calf is these days, but the price of this facsimile is sixty dollars. Anyone who wants to give himself a Luther quincentennial present should order it immediately. Master MS’s Garden of Eden is full of wonderful animals—a camel, a crocodile, a little toad—and in the towns everyone wears those black shoes like the ones in Brueghel paintings. The volumes lie flat on the table when you open them, and the letters are big and black and clear. Even if you don’t understand German, you can sort of read them.

Among the supposedly Biblical rules that Luther pointed out could not be found in the Bible was the requirement of priestly celibacy. Well before the Diet of Worms, Luther began advising priests to marry. He said that he would marry, too, if he did not expect, every day, to be executed for heresy. One wonders. But in 1525 he was called upon to help a group of twelve nuns who had just fled a Cistercian convent, an action that was related to his reforms. Part of his duty to these women, he felt, was to return them to their families or to find husbands for them. At the end, one was left, a twenty-six-year-old girl named Katharina von Bora, the daughter of a poor, albeit noble, country family. Luther didn’t want her, he said—he found her “proud”—but she wanted him. She was the one who proposed. And though, as he told a friend, he felt no “burning” for her, he formed with her a marriage that is probably the happiest story in any account of his life.

One crucial factor was her skill in household management. The Luthers lived in the so-called Black Monastery, which had been Wittenberg’s Augustinian monastery—that is, Luther’s old home as a friar—before the place emptied out as a result of the reformer’s actions. (One monk became a cobbler, another a baker, and so on.) It was a huge, filthy, comfortless place. Käthe, as Luther called her, made it livable, and not just for her immediate family. Between ten and twenty students lodged there, and the household took in many others as well: four children of Luther’s dead sister Margarete, plus four more orphaned children from both sides of the family, plus a large family fleeing the plague. A friend of the reformer, writing to an acquaintance journeying to Wittenberg, warned him on no account to stay with the Luthers if he valued peace and quiet. The refectory table seated between thirty-five and fifty, and Käthe, having acquired a large market garden and a considerable amount of livestock (pigs, goats), and now supervising a staff of up to ten employees (maids, a cook, a swineherd, et al.), fed them all. She also handled the family’s finances, and at times had to economize carefully. Luther would accept no money for his writings, on which he could have profited hugely, and he would not allow students to pay to attend his lectures, as was the custom.

Luther appreciated the sheer increase in his physical comfort. When he writes to a friend, soon after his marriage, of what it is like to lie in a dry bed after years of sleeping on a pile of damp, mildewed straw, and when, elsewhere, he speaks of the surprise of turning over in bed and seeing a pair of pigtails on the pillow next to his, your heart softens toward this dyspeptic man. More important, he began to take women seriously. He objects, in a lecture, to coitus interruptus, the most common form of birth control at the time, on the ground that it is frustrating for women. When he was away from home, he wrote Käthe affectionate letters, with such salutations as “Most holy Frau Doctor” and “To the hands and feet of my dear housewife.”

Among Käthe’s virtues was fertility. Every year or so for eight years, she produced a child—six in all, of whom four survived to adulthood—and Luther loved these children. He even allowed them to play in his study while he was working. Of five-year-old Hans, his firstborn, he wrote, “When I’m writing or doing something else, my Hans sings a little tune for me. If he becomes too noisy and I rebuke him for it, he continues to sing but does it more privately and with a certain awe and uneasiness.” That scene, which comes from “ Martin Luther: Rebel in an Age of Upheaval ” (Oxford), by the German historian Heinz Schilling, seems to me impossible to improve upon as a portrait of what it must have been like for Luther to have a little boy, and for a little boy to have Luther as a father. Luther was not a lenient parent—he used the whip when he felt he needed to, and poor Hans was sent to the university at the age of seven—but when, on his travels, the reformer passed through a town that was having a fair he liked to buy presents for the children. In 1536, when he went to the Diet of Augsburg, another important convocation, he kept a picture of his favorite child, Magdalene, on the wall of his chamber. Magdalene died at thirteen. Schilling again produces a telling scene. Magdalene is nearing the end; Luther is holding her. He says he knows she would like to stay with her father, but, he adds, “Are you also glad to go to your father in heaven?” She died in his arms. How touching that he could find this common-sense way to comfort her, and also that he seems to feel that Heaven is right above their heads, with one father holding out a hand to take to himself the other’s child.

One thing that Luther seems especially to have loved about his children was their corporeality—their fat, noisy little bodies. When Hans finally learned to bend his knees and relieve himself on the floor, Luther rejoiced, reporting to a friend that the child had “crapped in every corner of the room.” I wonder who cleaned that up—not Luther, I would guess—but it is hard not to feel some of his pleasure. Sixteenth-century Germans were not, in the main, dainty of thought or speech. A representative of the Vatican once claimed that Luther was conceived when the Devil raped his mother in an outhouse. That detail comes from Eric Metaxas’s book, which is full of vulgar stories, not that one has to look far for vulgar stories in Luther’s life. My favorite (reported in Erikson’s book) is a comment that Luther made at the dinner table while in the grip of a depression. “I am like a ripe shit,” he said, “and the world is a gigantic asshole. We will both probably let go of each other soon.” It takes you a minute to realize that Luther is saying that he feels he is dying. And then you want to congratulate him on the sheer zest, the proto-surrealist nuttiness, of his metaphor. He may feel as though he’s dying, but he’s having a good time feeling it.

The group on which Luther expended his most notorious denunciations was not the Roman Catholic clergy but the Jews. His sentiments were widely shared. In the words of Heinz Schilling, “Late medieval Christians generally hated and despised Jews.” But Luther despised them dementedly, ecstatically. In his 1543 treatise “On the Ineffable Name and the Generations of Christ,” he imagines the Devil stuffing the Jews’ orifices with filth: “He stuffs and squirts them so full, that it overflows and swims out of every place, pure Devil’s filth, yes, it tastes so good to their hearts, and they guzzle it like sows.” Witness the death of Judas Iscariot, he adds: “When Judas Schariot hanged himself, so that his guts ripped, and as happens to those who are hanged, his bladder burst, then the Jews had their golden cans and silver bowls ready, to catch the Judas piss . . . and afterwards together they ate the shit.” The Jews’ synagogues should be burned down, he wrote; their houses should be destroyed. He did not recommend that they be killed, but he did say that Christians had no moral responsibilities to them, which amounts to much the same thing.

This is hair-raising, but what makes Luther’s anti-Semitism most disturbing is not its extremity (which, by sounding so crazy, diminishes its power). It is the fact that the country of which he is a national hero did indeed, quite recently, exterminate six million Jews. Hence the formula “ From Luther to Hitler ,” popularized by William Montgomery McGovern’s 1941 book of that title—the notion that Luther laid the groundwork for the slaughter. Those who have wished to defend him have pointed out that his earlier writings, such as the 1523 pamphlet “That Jesus Christ Was Born a Jew,” are much more conciliatory in tone. He seemed to regret that, as he put it, Christians had “dealt with the Jews as if they were dogs.” But making excuses for Luther on the basis of his earlier, more temperate writings does not really work. As scholars have been able to show, Luther was gentler early on because he was hoping to persuade the Jews to convert. When they failed to do so, he unleashed his full fury, more violent now because he believed that the comparative mildness of his earlier writings may have been partly responsible for their refusal.

Luther’s anti-Semitism would be a moral problem under any circumstances. People whom we admire often commit terrible sins, and we have no good way of explaining this to ourselves. But when one adds the historical factor—that, in Luther’s case, the judgment is being made five centuries after the event—we hit a brick wall. At the Nuremberg trials, in 1946, Julius Streicher, the founder and publisher of the Jew-baiting newspaper Der Stürmer , quoted Luther as the source of his beliefs and said that if he was going to be blamed Luther would have to be blamed as well. But, in the words of Thomas Kaufmann, a professor of church history at the University of Göttingen, “The Nuremberg judges sat in judgment over the mass murderers of the twentieth century, not over the delusions of a misguided sixteenth-century theology professor. . . . Another judge must judge Luther.” How fortunate to be able to believe that such a judge will come, and have an answer.

Luther lived to what, in the sixteenth century, was an old age, sixty-two, but the years were not kind to him. Actually, he lived most of his life in turmoil. When he was young, there were the Anfechtungen . Then, once he issued the theses and began his movement, he had to struggle not just with the right, the Roman Church, but with the left—the Schwärmer (fanatics), as he called them, the people who felt that he hadn’t gone far enough. He spent days and weeks in pamphlet wars over matters that, today, have to be patiently explained to us, they seem so remote. Did Communion involve transubstantiation, or was Jesus physically present from the start of the rite? Luther, a “Real Presence” man, said the latter. Should people be baptized soon after they are born, as Luther said, or when they are adults, as the Anabaptists claimed?

When Luther was young, he was good at friendship. He was frank and warm; he loved jokes; he wanted to have people and noise around him. (Hence the fifty-seat dinner table.) As he grew older, he changed. He found that he could easily discard friends, even old friends, even his once beloved confessor, Staupitz. People who had dealings with the movement found themselves going around him if they could, usually to his right-hand man, Philip Melanchthon. Always sharp-tongued, Luther now lost all restraint, writing in a treatise that Pope Paul III was a sodomite and a transvestite—no surprise, he added, when you considered that all popes, since the beginnings of the Church, were full of devils and vomited and farted and defecated devils. This starts to sound like his attacks on the Jews.

His health declined. He had dizzy spells, bleeding hemorrhoids, constipation, urine retention, gout, kidney stones. To balance his “humors,” the surgeon made a hole, or “fontanelle,” in a vein in his leg, and it was kept open. Whatever this did for his humors, it meant that he could no longer walk to the church or the university. He had to be taken in a cart. He suffered disabling depressions. “I have lost Christ completely,” he wrote to Melanchthon. From a man of his temperament and convictions, this is a terrible statement.

In early 1546, he had to go to the town of his birth, Eisleben, to settle a dispute. It was January, and the roads were bad. Tellingly, he took all three of his sons with him. He said the trip might be the death of him, and he was right. He died in mid-February. Appropriately, in view of his devotion to the scatological, his corpse was given an enema, in the hope that this would revive him. It didn’t. After sermons in Eisleben, the coffin was driven back to Wittenberg, with an honor guard of forty-five men on horseback. Bells tolled in every village along the way. Luther was buried in the Castle Church, on whose door he was said to have nailed his theses.

Although his resting place evokes his most momentous act, it also highlights the intensely local nature of the life he led. The transformations he set in motion were incidental to his struggles, which remained irreducibly personal. His goal was not to usher in modernity but simply to make religion religious again. Heinz Schilling writes, “Just when the lustre of religion threatened to be outdone by the atheistic and political brilliance of the secularized Renaissance papacy, the Wittenberg monk defined humankind’s relationship to God anew and gave back to religion its existential plausibility.” Lyndal Roper thinks much the same. She quotes Luther saying that the Church’s sacraments “are not fulfilled when they are taking place but when they are being believed.” All he asked for was sincerity, but this made a great difference. ♦

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

The reformation.

Erasmus of Rotterdam

Hans Holbein the Younger (and Workshop(?))

Martin Luther (1483–1546)

Workshop of Lucas Cranach the Elder

• The Last Supper

Designed by Bernard van Orley

The Fifteen Mysteries and the Virgin of the Rosary

Netherlandish (Brussels) Painter

Albrecht Dürer

Four Scenes from the Passion

Follower of Bernard van Orley

Friedrich III (1463–1525), the Wise, Elector of Saxony

Lucas Cranach the Elder and Workshop

Martin Luther as an Augustinian Monk

Lucas Cranach the Elder

Johann I (1468–1532), the Constant, Elector of Saxony

The Last Judgment

Joos van Cleve

Chancellor Leonhard von Eck (1480–1550)

Barthel Beham

Anne de Pisseleu (1508–1576), Duchesse d'Étampes

Attributed to Corneille de Lyon

Virgin and Child with Saint Anne

Christ and the Adulteress

Lucas Cranach the Younger and Workshop

The Calling of Saint Matthew

Copy after Jan Sanders van Hemessen

Christ Blessing the Children

Satire on the Papacy

Melchior Lorck

Christ Blessing, Surrounded by a Donor Family

German Painter

Jacob Wisse Stern College for Women, Yeshiva University

October 2002

Unleashed in the early sixteenth century, the Reformation put an abrupt end to the relative unity that had existed for the previous thousand years in Western Christendom under the Roman Catholic Church . The Reformation, which began in Germany but spread quickly throughout Europe, was initiated in response to the growing sense of corruption and administrative abuse in the church. It expressed an alternate vision of Christian practice, and led to the creation and rise of Protestantism, with all its individual branches. Images, especially, became effective tools for disseminating negative portrayals of the church ( 53.677.5 ), and for popularizing Reformation ideas; art, in turn, was revolutionized by the movement.

Though rooted in a broad dissatisfaction with the church, the birth of the Reformation can be traced to the protests of one man, the German Augustinian monk Martin Luther (1483–1546) ( 20.64.21 ; 55.220.2 ). In 1517, he nailed to a church door in Wittenberg, Saxony, a manifesto listing ninety-five arguments, or Theses, against the use and abuse of indulgences, which were official pardons for sins granted after guilt had been forgiven through penance. Particularly objectionable to the reformers was the selling of indulgences, which essentially allowed sinners to buy their way into heaven, and which, from the beginning of the sixteenth century, had become common practice. But, more fundamentally, Luther questioned basic tenets of the Roman Church, including the clergy’s exclusive right to grant salvation. He believed human salvation depended on individual faith, not on clerical mediation, and conceived of the Bible as the ultimate and sole source of Christian truth. He also advocated the abolition of monasteries and criticized the church’s materialistic use of art. Luther was excommunicated in 1520, but was granted protection by the elector of Saxony, Frederick the Wise (r. 1483–1525) ( 46.179.1 ), and given safe conduct to the Imperial Diet in Worms and then asylum in Wartburg.

The movement Luther initiated spread and grew in popularity—especially in Northern Europe, though reaction to the protests against the church varied from country to country. In 1529, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V tried, for the most part unsuccessfully, to stamp out dissension among German Catholics. Elector John the Constant (r. 1525–32) ( 46.179.2 ), Frederick’s brother and successor, was actively hostile to the emperor and one of the fiercest defenders of Protestantism. By the middle of the century, most of north and west Germany had become Protestant. King Henry VIII of England (r. 1509–47), who had been a steadfast Catholic, broke with the church over the pope’s refusal to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, the first of Henry’s six wives. With the Act of Supremacy in 1534, Henry was made head of the Church of England, a title that would be shared by all future kings. John Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) codified the doctrines of the new faith, becoming the basis for Presbyterianism. In the moderate camp, Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (ca. 1466–1536), though an opponent of the Reformation, remained committed to the reconciliation of Catholics and Protestants—an ideal that would be at least partially realized in 1555 with the Religious Peace of Augsburg, a ruling by the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire granting freedom of worship to Protestants.

With recognition of the reformers’ criticism and acceptance of their ideology, Protestants were able to put their beliefs on display in art ( 17.190.13–15 ). Artists sympathetic to the movement developed a new repertoire of subjects, or adapted traditional ones, to reflect and emphasize Protestant ideals and teaching ( 1982.60.35 ;  1982.60.36 ;  71.155 ;  1975.1.1915 ). More broadly, the balance of power gradually shifted from religious to secular authorities in western Europe, initiating a decline of Christian imagery in the Protestant Church. Meanwhile, the Roman Church mounted the Counter-Reformation, through which it denounced Lutheranism and reaffirmed Catholic doctrine. In Italy and Spain, the Counter-Reformation had an immense impact on the visual arts; while in the North , the sound made by the nails driven through Luther’s manifesto continued to reverberate.

Wisse, Jacob. “The Reformation.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/refo/hd_refo.htm (October 2002)

Further Reading

Coulton, G. G. Art and the Reformation . 2d ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953.

Koerner, Joseph Leo. The Reformation of the Image . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004.

Additional Essays by Jacob Wisse

• Wisse, Jacob. “ Northern Mannerism in the Early Sixteenth Century .” (October 2002)
• Wisse, Jacob. “ Prague during the Rule of Rudolf II (1583–1612) .” (November 2013)
• Wisse, Jacob. “ Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) .” (October 2002)
• Wisse, Jacob. “ Burgundian Netherlands: Court Life and Patronage .” (October 2002)
• Wisse, Jacob. “ Burgundian Netherlands: Private Life .” (October 2002)
• Wisse, Jacob. “ Pieter Bruegel the Elder (ca. 1525–1569) .” (October 2002)

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Martin Luther’s Protestant Reformation Essay

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Introduction

Bibliography

The entire historical course of transforming the Roman Catholic Church into a powerful secular monarchy persistently led to its inevitable departure from the principles of the Universal Church and internal contradiction. The principle of general unconditional obedience was linked not to the Holy Roman Church but its sole leader – the Pope. The latter acted as the sovereign of the monarchs, resorting to armed force to suppress heresies and completing a series of crusades.

In the sphere of moral concepts, there was a departure of Roman Christianity from the Gospel principles. The doctrines of papal indulgences and satisfaction for sins distracted the attention of laity from striving for moral purity and directed to ways of avoiding punishments. Among other challenges, there was simony, the replacement of church positions with people completely inappropriate for pastoral service, the decline of morality among the clergy, large fees, and overall excessive enrichment of the Church.

Martin Luther, a German theologian who was indignant by the widespread trade in indulgences, decided to hold a theological dispute over the identified situation. He disputed whether a sinful soul could be saved for money as the Pope and the Roman curia asserted. According to Luther, this was contrary to the Scriptures and the very idea of a church. The theologian considered that a sinful person who truly believed in an omnipotent and perfect God becomes righteous in His eyes, and he or she does not need any indulgences.

Justification understood as forgiveness of sins is, according to Luther, exclusively God’s grace that does not depend on a person’s actions, righteous deeds, or money. The dissatisfaction with the activity of the church had already begun to rise among the laity, but nobody spoke about it since people were frightened to fall into disgrace of the Pope of Rome.

The assumptions proposed by Luther undermined the foundation on which the spiritual power of Catholicism was built and threatened to destroy this foundation completely. Through his theses, Luther declared that the church should not be a mediator between a person and God. It was also claimed that the Pope is not entitled to give absolution because a man can save his or her soul only through faith in the Lord but not by means of the church.

At first, the Pope paid no attention to the mentioned ideas since he regarded them as the manifestations of feuds between parishes, which were quite common in that period. Then, the Church regarded Luther’s ideas as threatening, which was based on extremely raising confusion among people and support to such ideas. As a result, the Reformation as a broad religious and socio-political movement in Western and Central Europe of the 16th and early 17th century aimed at reforming Catholic Christianity in accordance with the Bible.

The impact of Luther’s reforms on the laity was enormous since the theological rejected the Papal decree forbidding continuing the controversy and continued to struggle against the infringement of church foundations. Luther wrote and published three temperamentally written books in which he outlined his program, including ting the papal yoke from Germany, abolishing monasticism, priesthood, and ecclesiastical landownership, and focusing on baptism and communion.

In particular, the following actions were suggested: to cancel the mass and cult of the saints as idolatry since God does not need intermediaries, open free access to the Bible, as well as eliminate indulgences and overall secular power. The speech of the identified theologian shook the laity who started to organize the movement, which demanded church transformations and the elimination of monastic rules. Luther gained special support among the emerging capitalists as the papal church rejected the commercial activity along with the economic autonomy of the population by denouncing personal savings.

Luther was a key persona that affected the onset and further transformation of the Catholic Church. As stated by Luther, the focal idea of the Reformation was to non-violently restrict the authority of the Pope of Rome without conflicts. However, the unstructured demonstrations of the population were often followed by massacres of Catholic parishes. Luther began with a critique of indulgences and simplified views on repentance in the Roman Catholic Church, and he came to rather important spiritual and practical generalizations that aimed people at a new attitude to God, the church, and social foundations.

The impact of Luther was revolutionary as it changed the attitudes of people towards the very way of life. The market economy, technical progress, social protection institutions, and struggle for various rights – all these consequences were promoted by the Reformation.

Speaking of Luther’s understanding of God, it is important to pinpoint that his ideas changed with time. In particular, the goal of his life was striving towards God, believing that the soul needs God’s mercy, and it is saved only when it follows the Word of God. The adoption of the thesis of salvation by personal faith, which implies opening one’s soul to the action of God’s grace, contributed to the formation of anti-Catholic and, eventually, an anti-Pap sentiment. Time of the Diet of Worms was the most brilliant moment in Luther’s life – he was not yet the founder of the new church, but he defended the right of people to freedom of conscience. His true greatness was that he solemnly, in the face of the whole world, declared that there is a part of a human life with which no power can interfere.

The main statement of Luther was the idea that the church organization as an intermediary between God and a man is not needed as every believer can communicate directly with God through prayer, fasting, and reading the Bible. No one should authoritatively and coercively instruct people in matters of faith, and they have the right and the ability to decide how to believe and what to do in life. In other words, Luther attempted to state that every person perceives God differently, and it is correct until the universal norms are followed. The provision of a specific definition might lead to social, political, and economic problems based on the fact that Luther wanted to integrate various social layers and resolve the largest political and economic concerns.

In conclusion, it is essential to emphasize that the Reformation was largely driven by Luther’s 95 theses and arguments. They showed the decline of the papal church and defended theological approaches to the ideology of bourgeois emancipation. The theologian justified the secularization of church property and legitimized the shift in property relations in favor of the burghers and nobility. The doctrine of justification only by faith and the priesthood of all believers were put in the foundation of the reformational ideology consistent with the interests of the burghers, the humanist intelligentsia, and laity.

Bobo, David. “The Concept of the Church in the Reformation Movement.” Restoration Quarterly 2 (1958): 220-227.

Luther, Martin. Disputation of Doctor Martin Luther on the power and efficacy of indulgences . Delhi: Prabhat Prakashan, 2000.

“ Selected Works of Martin Luther 1483 – 1546. ” Internet Christian Library. Web.

Surburg, Raymond F. The Significance of Luther’s Hermeneutics for the Protestant Reformation . Missouri, MO: Concordia Publishing House, 1953.

Wiesner, Merry E. Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789 . 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.

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Essay on The Protestant Reformation and Christianity

PDF of essay on the Protestant Reformation and Christianity.

By Cole S. Rogers, Spring 2016

 The Roman Catholic Church dominated Western Europe up until the Protestant Reformation. The church prior to the Reformation owned nearly one-third of all European land.  With financial dominance, political influence, and publicly accepted doctrine, the church experienced extraordinary size. With the extreme success of the church, corruption followed, and the church began to profiteer off rituals. The sale of indulgences for profit promoted even further corruption within the church. At the time indulgences were being sold by the Catholic Church, the movement of the Renaissance was sweeping across all of Europe. The movement of the Renaissance created more and more public dissent towards the Catholic Church. This Renaissance would eventually lead to the Protestant Reformation.

The Protestant Reformation changed the religion of Christianity forever. Prior to the Reformation, the Renaissance sparked a change in the way of thinking throughout Europe. This change in thinking promoted a society based on individuality, and finding the truth.  Martin Luther, a German monk in the Catholic Church is directly responsible for creating the movement behind the Protestant Reformation. Luther through study and immersion in scripture discovered the corruption behind the Church, and publicly exposed this corruption.  Luther in 1517 nailed 95 Theses to the Church in Wittenberg, Germany.  The 95 Theses exposed the fundamental corruption behind the Church and specifically the sale of indulgences. Luther introduced the concept of salvation being gained only through faith in God. Luther’s work resulted in religious conflict throughout all of Europe.

The Protestant Reformation promoted self-immersion in scripture. Luther’s translation of the Bible from Latin to German gained extreme attention as for the first time in history average people began to explore scripture themselves rather than relying on the Catholic Church for everything. This ideology influenced the rise in several different movements of Christianity that each found individual similarities throughout scripture.  In this time period, a new era of churches arose throughout all of Europe, which challenged the Catholic Church and shaped the future of Christianity. 

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The lasting impact of Martin Luther and the Reformation

Published: October 26, 2017

Author: Brandi Klingerman

In October 1517, Martin Luther famously published his 95 Theses, unleashing criticisms that resulted in a rejection of the pope’s authority and fractured Christianity as he knew it. Exactly 500 years later, Brad S. Gregory , the Dorothy G. Griffin Professor of Early Modern European History at the University of Notre Dame, explains how this eventually, but unintentionally, led to a world of modern capitalism, polarizing politics and more.

In Gregory’s latest book, “Rebel in the Ranks” (HarperOne) , he explains that in the early 1500s religion was more than just one component of a person’s lifestyle in Western Europe and that Christianity, as the dominant religion, influenced all areas of Christians’ lives. However, after Luther’s initial concerns inadvertently created a movement — the Reformation — the result was a division between Catholicism and the varied Protestant traditions, conflicts among those traditions and, eventually, changes in how religion influenced people’s lives.

“The Reformation gave rise to constructive forms of several different Christian traditions, such as Lutheranism and Calvinism,” said Gregory. “But this also meant that people of differing faiths had to work out how they could coexist when religion had always been the key influence on politics, family and education. Although in the 17th and 18th centuries some political leaders continued to use the idea of religious uniformity to manage their territories, beginning with the 17th-century Dutch they realized that religious toleration was good for business.”

This effort to coexist and the desire for economic prosperity, Gregory argues, resulted in a “centuries-long process of secularization.” Religion was redefined and its scope restricted to a modern sense of religion as individual internal beliefs, forms of worship and devotional preferences. This made religion separable from politics, economics and other areas of life. With this, Western society has increasingly struggled to come to a consensus on politics, education and other social issues without the direction of an overarching faith or any shared substantive set of values to replace it.

“One result of the Reformation has been the political protection of individuals to believe or worship how they want,” said Gregory. “However, this freedom has also delivered — contrary to what Luther would have wanted — the right for people to practice no religion at all, and more, in recent decades, the seeming inability of citizens to agree on even the most basic norms important for shared political and social life.”

The Reformation’s unintended consequence of modern individual freedom has positives and negatives, he explained. Although people benefit from individual freedoms that were not available 500 years ago, these freedoms have also led, for instance, to the right for someone to purchase whatever they want without regard for the needs of anyone else.

“To match demand and thrive financially, factories produce the goods people want. In doing so, factories pollute the environment in ways that contribute to global warming. When religion was a pervasive and shared reality, individual freedom restrained the consumerist behaviors we see today,” said Gregory. “This is just one of many ways in which the long-term, unintended consequences of the Reformation are still influencing our lives today.”

Gregory is the director of the Notre Dame Institute for Advanced Study and author of “The Unintended Reformation . ” To learn more about him as well as his latest book, “Rebel in the Ranks,” visit https://ndias.nd.edu/books/rebel-in-the-ranks/ .

Contact : Brittany Kaufman, assistant director, Office of Media Relations, 574-631-6335, [email protected]

The Printing Press & the Protestant Reformation

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The printing press, credited to the German inventor and printer Johannes Gutenberg (l. c. 1398-1468) in the 1450s, became the single most important factor in the success of the Protestant Reformation by providing the means for widespread dissemination of the “new teachings” and encouraging independent thought on subjects previously rigidly controlled by a literate elite.

The so-called Proto-Reformers such as John Wycliffe (l. 1330-1384) and Jan Hus (l. c. 1369-1415) had made many of the points Martin Luther would later but lacked the means for reaching a large audience. Gutenberg's invention of the moveable face type and the press meant that books could now be printed in larger numbers, sold cheaply, and distributed widely. Martin Luther (l. 1483-1546) recognized the value of the press and exploited it brilliantly in his challenge to the authority of the Catholic Church.

Martin Luther's 95 Theses , which previously would have circulated only among the literate scholars of Wittenberg, became a bestselling pamphlet within a year of its initial posting in 1517. Between that date and c. 1525, Luther would publish over half a million works, establishing him as the first bestselling author of the Early Modern Period, outpublishing the popular humanist writer Desiderius Erasmus (l. c. 1469-1536), Catholic apologists, and contemporary reformers. Works by John Calvin (l. 1509-1564), Heinrich Bullinger (l. 1504-1575), and others also became bestsellers, establishing the Protestant vision of Christianity , largely, through the power of the printing press.

Proto-Reformers & Print

There already existed a literate lay population prior to Gutenberg's invention but it was small, and since books were expensive, it was comprised of the upper class who could afford them. Most Europeans were illiterate, were born and died in the same village without ever traveling far beyond if at all, and received information about the world primarily through the local priest or, sometimes, traveling merchants. People knew what they had been taught by parents and priests, and this knowledge was passed down from generation to generation without question because there was no counterpoint to present a challenge.

Entertainment took the form of storytellers or actors who had memorized tales they had learned through oral transmission; written works were primarily only consulted in monasteries and their scriptoriums or private libraries. Illuminated manuscripts could take up to a year to produce and would have been meaningless to most people who could not even read the language they spoke, much less Latin, even if they had been able to afford such a work. Some books were mass produced at this time on a modest scale through woodblock printing but, as they were written in Latin, made little impression on the majority of the populace.

When John Wycliffe translated the Bible from Latin to Middle English his hope was that it would enable more people to read the work for themselves, but most could not read English any more than Latin. Wycliffe's Bible, as well as his works in Latin, did attract considerable attention and would influence the work of Jan Hus and help start the Bohemian Reformation (c. 1380 to c. 1436), but woodblock printing was time-consuming and costly, and so, even though Wycliffe's Bible went through multiple printings (over 200 still exist) it could not reach an audience of the scope Luther would later. Wycliffe was condemned by the Church posthumously, and Hus was executed in 1415, with neither having gained the hoped-for widespread support for their reforms.

Gutenberg's Press

Gutenberg's press changed all of that by providing the means for mass production on a larger scale and distribution of reading material. Gutenberg's father worked in the mint in Mainz, and it is thought that he taught his son the craft, which involved using a punch to engrave letters on coins. The use of the punch, along with presses used for wine and oil, are thought to have inspired Gutenberg to create the printing press.

Moveable type printing had been invented in Korea c. 1234 (or, according to some scholars, in China c. 1040) and was used in the Chinese Song Dynasty (960-1279), but this does not seem to have been the source for Gutenberg's invention. He seems to have developed the idea independently from both the mint and the wine press, and at some point around 1450, he moved from Mainz to Strasbourg where he partnered with some investors and began construction of his first printing press.

He understood that the Church provided the best hope for large profit and so, once he had a workable process, he printed indulgences – formerly written by hand and sold to parishioners to shorten their stay (or that of a loved one) in purgatory – and, in 1456, after he had moved back to Mainz, a standard Bible. He was deeply in debt and so borrowed from the businessman Johann Fust, whose adopted son, Peter Schoffer, was one of the first people Gutenberg had taught the process of printing. Fust called in Gutenberg's debt before he was able to pay and confiscated his print shop, quickly taking credit for the invention and, with Schoffer, printing Gutenberg's Bible under his own name.

The process was picked up by Arnold Pannartz (d. 1476) and Conrad Sweynheym (also given as Schweinheim, d. 1477), who established one of the most famous presses in Venice in 1469, while Schoffer continued to print in Mainz, and other presses began to appear elsewhere. Gutenberg died in poverty in 1468, but by that time, his invention was already transforming European society by providing reading matter at an affordable cost. Books that were formerly only available to the wealthy elite, like Pliny the Elder 's Natural History , were sold to anyone who wanted and could afford one by 1472.

Printing Press & Luther

The Church welcomed the printing press at first as it enabled the distribution of a standard Bible to parishes throughout Europe at low cost as well as providing mass-produced writs such as indulgences, decrees, and notices. The Church still controlled what was printed because there was no challenge to its authority and, further, because most people were still illiterate. Just because books were now available at low cost, it did not mean that people were suddenly able to read them or even had the desire to. Books or pamphlets were usually read by someone to an audience in the town square or pub and 'reading' was understood, more or less, as 'performance'. Scholar John Bossy comments:

Until the 17th century, silent reading was either an accomplishment of scholars or a self-conscious devotional mode. Reading meant muttering to oneself or reading aloud to others; the written word was a 'hearable sign'. This was what it meant to the scripture-reading underground and also what it meant to Luther. His word was a word to be heard, a promise to be received in faith, not a text to be pored over. Faith, as St. Paul had said, came by hearing; the ear, not the eye, was the Christian sense. (100)

'Hearing' could be monitored by the Church, and what one heard could be controlled until Luther posted his 95 Theses in 1517 which, by 1519, had been published and widely distributed. Although Luther claimed he had no intention of publishing the piece, it seems he encouraged both publication and distribution. Ironically, the 95 Theses attacked the Church's practice of selling indulgences, one of the first writs Gutenberg had printed, and it became popular reading quite quickly. With so many copies of Luther's work in circulation, the Church could no longer control what was being 'heard', and Luther's challenge to ecclesiastical authority was embraced and spread faster and further than could ever have been imagined by Wycliffe or Hus. Scholar Mark U. Edwards Jr. comments:

The printing press allowed Evangelical publicists to do what had been previously impossible: quickly and effectively reach a large audience with a message intended to change Christianity. For several crucial years, these Evangelical publicists issued thousands of pamphlets discrediting the old faith and advocating the new…Not only did the Reformation see the first large-scale " media campaign", it also saw a campaign that was overwhelmingly dominated by one person, Martin Luther. More works by Luther were printed and reprinted than by any other publicist. (1)

Luther was excommunicated in January 1521 and called to appear at the Diet of Worms to recant in April of the same year. Luther instead defended his 'new teachings' in his now-famous "Here I Stand" declaration. Luther's speech at the Diet of Worms was transcribed by supporters, published, and distributed, winning him even greater support. When he translated the New Testament from Latin into German later that year, it became a bestseller as did every other work he sent to the print shop. The printing press made Luther the first celebrity author of the Early Modern Period.

Printing Press & Other Reformers

While the press allowed Luther to criticize the Church openly, it also provided his opponents the means to criticize him. These early attacks came not from the Church but from men who had initially supported Luther, including Andreas Karlstadt (l. 1486-1541) and Thomas Müntzer (l. c. 1489-1525). His teachings were also challenged by the works of the Swiss Reformer Huldrych Zwingli (l. 1484-1531). Zwingli disagreed with Luther on the nature of the Eucharist, and so his works, including Zwingli's 67 Articles of faith, represented a significant challenge to Luther's authority. Zwingli, in turn, was challenged by the Anabaptists, who had been inspired by him but, after breaking with his vision, were able to publish pieces advancing their own.

At the same time, Luther's right-hand man, Philip Melanchthon (l. 1497-1560), defended Luther's views through his own publications, which encouraged others to publish their views supporting him and Luther and still others to have their attacks on both published. Religious works, usually published as quartos (a single sheet folded in four to create eight pages), were the bestsellers of the day, and Protestant works – because they were so contentious in challenging authority – sold better than any others.

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These works were also popular because of their novelty. The press gave a voice to a demographic who otherwise would have had none: women. Argula von Grumbach (l. 1490 to c. 1564), Katharina Zell (l. 1497-1562), Marie Dentière (l.c. 1495-1561), and Olympia Fulvia Morata (l. 1526-1555), among others, all published pieces supporting the Protestant Reformation. These works were often controversial simply because they had been written by women but also for their advocacy of reform and criticism of the Church. At the same time, the Catholic Church made little use of the press in the first decades of the Reformation, seeming to rely on its old authority for the most part and publishing little by way of defense. Edwards notes:

A simple comparison between the vernacular editions of the Catholic publicists and the output of one Evangelical, Martin Luther, suggests the wildly unequal battle for the hearts and minds of literate laity in the first decades of the Reformation. Over the period 1518 to 1544, Luther's publications (that is, printings and reprintings of his works in German, excluding Bible translations) numbered at least 2551. For the same period, the Catholic publicists produced 514 printings. In stark terms, this translates into about five printings of Luther for every Catholic printing…And of course Luther was seconded by a number of other prolific Evangelical authors. (29)

Among these were John Calvin and Heinrich Bullinger. Calvin first published his iconic work The Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536, revising and reprinting it periodically for the rest of his life in addition to the publication of his sermons, lectures, and biblical commentaries. Bullinger wrote his famous Decades between 1549-1551, and the work was then translated into English and published in 1577, 1584, and 1587. Translations of Calvin and Bullinger were among the bestsellers in England , influencing the Puritan and Separatist movements there. Bullinger's moderate approach echoed somewhat the earlier advocacy of Martin Bucer (l. 1491-1551), who, like Karlstadt and Müntzer, had been an early supporter of Luther before breaking with him and publishing his own views emphasizing the importance of Christian unity.

The Press & Counter-Reformation

This is not to say the Church was silent in print during the early years of the Protestant Reformation. Cardinal Thomas Cajetan (l. c. 1468-1534) and theologian Johann Eck (l. 1486-1543) were only two of the most visible opponents of Luther's teachings. Jeanne de Jussie's Short Chronicle (1535), and similar works, also provided a counterpoint to the Reformation's claims. It was not until the Counter-Reformation, however, that the Church began to seriously address the issue of printed works.

The Counter-Reformation (also known as the Catholic Reformation, 1545 to c. 1700) was the Church's response to the Protestant Reformation and addressed the proliferation of what the Church considered heretical reading matter. Having failed to silence Martin Luther or those who came after him, the Church focused on reforming its image and reestablishing its authority by clearly defining what it meant to be a Catholic and why the Protestant claims had no merit.

Although the Church seems to have been slow in making the most of the printing press, it had published significant refutations of Protestant claims as well as works advancing the Catholic vision of Christianity. Two of these mass-produced books were directly responsible for the activism of one of the greatest Catholic advocates, Ignatius of Loyola (l. 1491-1556), a Basque soldier who became a Catholic priest following a religious experience. This experience was inspired by two books he read on the life of Christ and the acts of the saints in 1521 while recovering from an injury. Loyola would go on to write his Spiritual Exercises (1548) and found the Jesuit Order to defend the claims of the Church. Loyola's Spiritual Exercises is still considered one of the greatest guides on religious devotion in the present day and formed the basis for the discipline of the Jesuits.

Individual Catholic monarchs and popes responded to the proliferation of Protestant works by banning them and fining, jailing, or executing printers. The Jesuits, while supporting this policy, also fought back through the establishment of Catholic schools, seminaries, and universities, which produced writers who then published their own apologetics supporting the Church and denouncing the claims of the Reformation. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) reformed errors and abuses within the Church while reaffirming its authority, and one aspect of this was the establishment of the Index of Prohibited Books in 1563. The Index was a list of works considered heretical or threatening to one's faith, and Catholics were not allowed to read or publish them; doing so risked excommunication and punishment by secular authorities.

The Church had established versions of the Index prior to 1563, persecuting printers and destroying their presses, but this only made Protestant works more popular because they were forbidden. To get around the Index, before and after it was formally adopted at Trent, printers disguised works by giving them other titles, omitted the name of the author from the cover, and regularly had them smuggled from one district or country to another.

As early as 1524, the printers of Leipzig complained to the city council that they were losing considerable income due to the ban in that city on printing Protestant works. Leipzig had been one of the most profitable publishing centers prior to Luther, but, like Wittenberg, it experienced a boom afterwards when books on the 'new teachings' became their most profitable commodity. Printers who could not afford to sit out the ban moved to other cities where they could continue their work or printed the books secretly and at high risk. Whichever route they chose, Protestant works continued to be printed and remained the most popular of their catalogs. Scholar Andrew Pettegree comments:

The impact on the German print market was profound: it amounted almost to a relaunch. In the ten years before Luther, the Holy Roman Empire had been responsible for about a quarter of European book production; 75 percent of these books were in Latin. In the next ten years, German book production advanced dramatically to 42 percent of the European total; in the five years 1521-1525 Germany accounted for one in every two books published in Europe and 80 percent of these were in German…the role of evangelical print in this transformation was unmistakable. During the ten years between 1518-1527 Luther’s own works accounted for 20 percent of total German production, but he was not a gang of one. (Rublack, 382)

The more effort the Church put into suppressing Protestant works, the more popular they became, and finally, the Protestant vision was established primarily due to its writers' powerful use of the written word. Books allowed people who had never and would never meet Luther or Melanchthon or Calvin or Bullinger to hear their views directly, whether by reading the books themselves or hearing them read, and book by book, the 'new teachings' of the Protestant Reformation asserted themselves as a legitimate belief system on par with the old faith that had once so easily silenced them.

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Bibliography

• Bossy, J. Christianity in the West 1400-1700 . Oxford University Press, 2010.
• Edwards, jr. M. U. Printing, Propaganda, and Martin Luther. Augsburg Fortress Publishers, 2004.
• Holmes, G. The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe . Oxford University Press, 2000.
• Janz, D. R. A Reformation Reader: Primary Texts with Introductions. Fortress Press, 2008.
• MacCulloch, D. The Reformation: A History. Penguin Books, 2010.
• Rublack, U. The Oxford Handbook of the Protestant Reformations . Oxford University Press, 2019.

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The Catalyst of Change: Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation

This essay is about Martin Luther’s pivotal role in launching the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. It explores how Luther, a German monk, became disillusioned with the Roman Catholic Church’s practices, particularly the sale of indulgences. His Ninety-Five Theses challenged these practices, leading to widespread dissemination of his ideas due to the printing press. Despite being excommunicated and condemned as an outlaw, Luther’s refusal to recant his writings at the Diet of Worms cemented his leadership in the reform movement. His translation of the Bible into German made the scriptures accessible to ordinary people, fostering personal engagement with the text and reducing the Church’s spiritual authority. Luther’s actions catalyzed the Protestant Reformation, which had lasting religious, social, and political impacts.

How it works

In the early 16th century, Europe’s religious scene was ripe for change. People were fed up with the Roman Catholic Church’s ways, which seemed corrupt and overdone. Into this mix stepped Martin Luther, a monk from Germany, who lit a fire that shook up Western Christianity big time. His actions didn’t just question the Church’s authority but also set the stage for Protestantism to come onto the scene, kicking off what we call the Protestant Reformation.

Martin Luther, born in 1483 in Eisleben, Germany, started out as a monk and later taught theology at the University of Wittenberg.

He dove deep into the Bible and Church teachings, but the more he studied, the more he saw problems, especially with indulgences. These were payments folks made to the Church to supposedly lessen their sins’ punishment. Luther thought it was a power play and a twist on real Christian beliefs.

In 1517, Luther had had enough. He penned his famous Ninety-Five Theses, a paper calling out the Church for selling indulgences and urging folks to stick to what the Bible actually says. Whether he really nailed these theses to Wittenberg’s church door is debated, but thanks to the printing press, Luther’s ideas spread fast across Europe, stirring up both cheers and jeers.

The Church wasn’t thrilled with Luther’s ideas and tried to shut him down. They called him to the Diet of Worms in 1521, a big meeting of the Holy Roman Empire, where they asked him to take back his writings. Luther, bold as ever, refused. He said he answered to his conscience and the Bible, not Church bigwigs. His stand got him kicked out of the Church and marked as an outlaw, but it also made him a hero to reformers everywhere.

Luther didn’t just shake up theology; he also translated the Bible into German, so regular folks could read it for themselves. This move let people think for themselves about religion, taking power away from the Church’s control. Luther also preached that faith—not money or good deeds—was what saved people, a message that clicked with many tired of the Church’s focus on cash and lax morals.

Luther’s actions had a huge impact. The Protestant Reformation split Western Christianity and birthed lots of new Protestant groups. Others like John Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli built on Luther’s ideas, making even more flavors of Christianity. The Reformation didn’t just change religion; it shook up politics, art, and how folks thought about themselves and their faith.

Looking back, Martin Luther was a guy of his time who sparked a big change. His gutsy stand against the Church’s ways and his push for Bible truth struck a chord with lots of people. Luther’s legacy shows how one person, with strong beliefs and a loud voice, can change history.

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The Reformation: Its History and Legacy (December 2017): Conclusion

• General Works
• Reformation Theology
• Luther Studies
• Calvin Studies
• Other Reformers
• The English Reformation
• The Scottish Reformation
• The Reformation in France
• The Anabaptists
• Women and the Reformation
• Art and Printing in the Reformation
• The Legacy of the Reformation

Works Cited

Closing thoughts.

The modern world is incomprehensible apart from understanding the Reformation. The theological split that Martin Luther triggered in Christendom created a domino effect that profoundly shaped the trajectory of European society. However, the impact was scattered rather than linear, as its effects were more often unplanned and unpredictable rather than structured and organized. The fact that the publication of Reformation studies has not abated speaks to its significance. Among the forthcoming works on the Reformation not available in time to be considered for this essay are the following ten titles, most of which are likely to be significant additions to the topic. Listed alphabetically by title here, publication details can be found in the Works Cited. These include 1517: Martin Luther and the Invention of the Reformation , by Peter Marshall; Between Wittenberg and Geneva: Lutheran and Reformed Theology in Conversation , edited by Robert Kolb and Carl Trueman; The Making of Martin Luther , by Richard Rex; Martin Luther: Rebel in an Age of Upheaval , by Heinz Schilling; Martin Luther: The Man Who Rediscovered God and Changed the World , by Eric Metaxas; Martin Luther and the Seven Sacraments: A Contemporary Protestant Reappraisal , by Brian C. Brewer; Martin Luther’s Legacy: Reforming Reformation Theology for the 21st Century , by Mark Ellingsen; Martin Luther’s Theology of Beauty: A Reappraisal , by Mark C. Mattes; Rebel in the Ranks: Martin Luther, the Reformation, and the Conflicts That Continue to Shape Our World , by Brad S. Gregory; and The Whole Church Sings: Congregational Singing in Luther’s Wittenberg , by Robin A. Leaver.

Commemorative tours and festivals scheduled this year throughout Germany, Switzerland, England, and Scotland further speak to the Reformation’s enduring legacy. The nature of Reformation studies has moved beyond earlier religious treatments to explore social, political, and economic entanglements, but at its heart the Reformation remains a theological and intellectual dispute. In a world that today gives less credence to religious dogma and often frowns at doctrinal disputes as secondary rather than primary causes of motivation, it is important to contextualize the Reformation in its proper historical place, and to look at its events and people in its own context, rather than from a modern viewpoint. Only then can we begin to better understand the Reformation world and shed more light on our own world. 

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Home — Essay Samples — History — Medieval Europe — The Protestant Reformation

Essays on The Protestant Reformation

Writing an essay on The Protestant Reformation is important because it was a significant event in the history of Christianity and Europe. The Reformation led to the creation of Protestantism, which had a lasting impact on religious, social, and political structures. By writing an essay on this topic, you can gain a deeper understanding of the causes, key figures, and consequences of the Reformation.

When writing an essay on The Protestant Reformation, it is important to start by conducting thorough research. This will help you gather relevant information and understand the different perspectives on the topic. You should also carefully consider the thesis statement of your essay, which will guide the direction of your argument and analysis.

It is also important to organize your essay effectively, with a clear introduction, body paragraphs that support your thesis, and a strong conclusion. Use evidence from primary and secondary sources to support your arguments, and consider the historical context in which the Reformation took place.

Finally, when writing about The Protestant Reformation, it is crucial to critically analyze the different interpretations of the events and their impact. This will allow you to develop a nuanced and well-supported argument in your essay.

What Makes a Good The Protestant Reformation Essay Topics

When it comes to writing a compelling essay on The Protestant Reformation, choosing the right topic is crucial. A good essay topic should be thought-provoking, relevant, and engaging. When brainstorming for Essay Topics, consider the impact of The Protestant Reformation, its historical significance, and its lasting effects on society. It's important to choose a topic that allows for in-depth research and analysis, and that will captivate the reader's interest. Additionally, a good essay topic should be unique and original, offering a fresh perspective on this pivotal period in history.

Best The Protestant Reformation Essay Topics

• The role of Martin Luther in The Protestant Reformation
• The impact of The Protestant Reformation on art and culture
• The effects of The Protestant Reformation on political power
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• The influence of The Protestant Reformation on education
• The relationship between The Protestant Reformation and the printing press
• The impact of The Protestant Reformation on religious freedom
• The effects of The Protestant Reformation on the economy
• The role of music in The Protestant Reformation
• The lasting legacy of The Protestant Reformation on modern society
• The connection between The Protestant Reformation and the rise of individualism
• The impact of The Protestant Reformation on the concept of authority
• The role of propaganda in The Protestant Reformation
• The effects of The Protestant Reformation on the Catholic Church
• The influence of The Protestant Reformation on the concept of salvation
• The connection between The Protestant Reformation and the rise of nationalism
• The impact of The Protestant Reformation on the concept of church and state
• The role of the printing press in spreading The Protestant Reformation
• The effects of The Protestant Reformation on social and class structures
• The lasting impact of The Protestant Reformation on religious diversity

The Protestant Reformation Essay Topics Prompts

• If you could interview Martin Luther, what questions would you ask him about The Protestant Reformation?
• Imagine you are a musician during The Protestant Reformation. How would you use music to express your views on religion and society?
• Write a letter from the perspective of a woman living during The Protestant Reformation, discussing the impact of this period on your life.
• Create a propaganda poster promoting or opposing The Protestant Reformation, using imagery and slogans to convey your message.
• Write a short story set during The Protestant Reformation, exploring the daily life and challenges faced by ordinary people during this time of religious and social upheaval.

The Factors that Sparked The Protestant Reformation

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The Protestant Reformation and Martin Luther King

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The Effect of The Protestant Reformation on Healthcare

The protestant reformation and its impact on europe, john calvin - the image of medieval christian reformation, martin luther - the leader of protestant reformation, reformation in christianity: luther’s the five solas, the diversity within protestant tradition as the result of the medieval reformation, christian history: martin luther and the protestant reformation, history of christianity, causes of the protestant reformation and resulting catholic reformation, erasmuss influence on the protestant reformation, similarities between luther and john calvinism, effects of the protestant reformation.

c. 1517 - c. 1600

John Calvin, Thomas Cranmer, Henry VIII, John Knox, Martin Luther

The Protestant Reformation was the religious revolution that took place in the Western church in the 16th century and played a key role in the development of the North American colonies and the eventual United States. Its greatest leaders were Martin Luther and John Calvin. The Reformation became the basis for the founding of Protestantism and the split of the Western Church into Protestantism and the Roman Catholic Church.

The Protestant Reformation started in Wittenberg, Germany, on October 31, with the publication of Martin Luther’s "95 Theses" in 1517. Luther argued that the church had to be reformed. However, the pope condemned the Reformation movement, and Luther was excommunicated from the church in 1521.

There were essentially three main reformation movements; one in Germany, one in England, and one in Switzerland - with all of them occurring around the same time in the 16th century. It was led by famous reformers such as John Calvin (1509–1564) and Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) in Switzerland and John Knox (1513–1572) in Scotland. In England the Reformation’s roots were both political and religious. By mid century, Lutheranism dominated northern Europe.

The decades of rebellions, wars and bloody persecutions were consequences of the Protestant Reformation in Europe. But also, it strengthened the intellectual and cultural prosperity.

Relevant topics

• Imperialism
• Middle Ages
• Scientific Revolution
• French Revolution
• Romanticism
• Renaissance
• Reformation

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How effective was the Roman Catholic Church in meeting the challenges presented in the protestant reformation

The effectiveness of the Roman Catholic Church in meeting the challenges presented in the Protestant Reformation can be seen as mixed.  

The reformers, such as Martin Luthe r and John Calvin, raised valid criticisms of the Church's practices, including the sale of indulgences, corruption among clergy members, and the lack of access to Scripture for the laity. These challenges led to a significant schism within Christianity and a decline in the Church's authority in some regions.

However, the Catholic Church also responded to these challenges with its own reforms and initiatives. The Council of Trent held between 1545 and 1563, addressed many of the concerns raised by the reformers and enacted significant changes within the Church.

The Council reaffirmed Catholic doctrines , addressed issues of corruption and misconduct, and promoted education and seminary training for priests. These efforts aimed to address the grievances and reestablish the Church's authority and legitimacy.

Additionally, the Catholic Church utilized other strategies to combat the spread of Protestantism. The establishment of new religious orders, such as the Jesuits, played a vital role in promoting Catholic teachings , engaging in missionary work, and educating the faithful. The Church also employed censorship and the Inquisition to suppress dissent and maintain orthodoxy.

While the Catholic Church made notable efforts to address the challenges of the Protestant Reformation, it is essential to recognize that the Reformation itself led to lasting changes in Christianity and the diversification of religious beliefs. The Protestant movement continued to grow and gain followers, resulting in a significant division within Christianity that persists to this day.

From my point of view, the Catholic Church demonstrated resilience and adaptability in responding to the challenges of the Protestant Reformation. The Council of Trent and subsequent reforms played a vital role in addressing the issues raised by the reformers and revitalizing the Catholic faith. However, it is also important to acknowledge the lasting impact of the Reformation and the significant changes it brought to the religious landscape.

The Protestant movement brought about a greater emphasis on individual interpretation of Scripture, a focus on faith over works, and a decentralization of religious authority. These changes have shaped Christianity in diverse ways and continue to influence religious discourse and practice.

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Related Questions

This early culture existed in the Four Corners area. The people built huge cliff dwellings and apartment-style dwellings in villages known as pueblos. Pueblo Bonito is the one of the largest of these villages. By 1200, all of the pueblos of this culture had been abandoned.

The early culture that existed in the Four Corners area and built huge cliff dwellings and apartment-style dwellings in villages known as pueblos is referred to as the Ancestral Puebloans or Anasazi.

Pueblo Bonito, one of the largest and most significant villages, was a prominent example of their architectural achievements . However, by the year 1200, all of the pueblos associated with this culture had been abandoned.

The reasons for the abandonment are still debated among scholars, but factors such as environmental changes , social upheaval, conflict, and resource depletion are believed to have played a role in the decline and eventual departure of the Ancestral Puebloans from the region.

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The northern colonies of the thirteen american colonies were known for growing cash crops like tobacco, cotton and rice. this would make way for slavery to become prevalent in the south. * true false

The statement that says, "The northern colonies of the thirteen American colonies were known for growing cash crops like tobacco, cotton, and rice. This would make way for slavery to become prevalent in the south" is false.

The American colonies were divided into three regions: Northern, Middle, and Southern. The Northern colonies were made up of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. Because the climate and soil of the northern colonies were not conducive to cash crops, agriculture was less important there. While some farmers in the North grew crops, such as corn and wheat, most people worked as merchants, craftsmen, or fishermen. Cash crops, which are crops grown primarily for sale, were grown in the Southern colonies. Tobacco was the first cash crop to be grown in Virginia, which led to the expansion of slavery in the region. Other cash crops in the southern colonies include indigo, rice, and cotton. The growth of slavery in the Southern colonies was primarily driven by the need for labor on the region's large plantations. The demand for labor was high because the cultivation of cash crops necessitated a significant amount of manual labor, particularly during the harvest season. Many people from Africa were brought to the Southern colonies as slaves to work on these plantations. So, the correct answer is that the given statement is false.

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Which element of the 2011 arab spring uprising in libya best illustrates the idea of cultural diffusion?

The element of the 2011 Arab Spring uprising in Libya that best illustrates the idea of cultural diffusion is the widespread use of social media platforms.

During the Arab Spring uprising in Libya, social media platforms played a significant role in mobilizing and organizing protests. Through these platforms, information, images, and videos of the uprising were shared, reaching a wide audience both within and outside of Libya. This exchange of information and ideas through social media represents a prime example of cultural diffusion .

In conclusion, the utilization of social media platforms during the 2011 Arab Spring uprising in Libya exemplifies cultural diffusion. The widespread sharing of information and communication through these digital platforms allowed for the rapid spread of ideas, influencing and connecting individuals across different regions, cultures, and backgrounds. This facilitated the diffusion of cultural practices, perspectives, and aspirations, contributing to the overall impact and success of the uprising.

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How did developments from the renaissance affect andreas vesalius's work? inventions such as the printing press allowed him to publish influential writings. he borrowed from ideas of renaissance astronomers and astrologers. his research was funded by the increasingly powerful catholic church. he based his theories on the idea that individuals were subject to god's will.

Developments from the Renaissance , such as inventions like the printing press, allowed Andreas Vesalius to publish influential writings.

The Renaissance was a period of great intellectual and cultural transformation that saw advancements in various fields, including printing technology. The invention of the printing press enabled Vesalius to disseminate his groundbreaking work in anatomy, such as his famous book "De Humani Corporis Fabrica" (On the Fabric of the Human Body). The printing press made it possible for Vesalius's detailed anatomical illustrations and observations to reach a wider audience, greatly influencing the field of medicine and challenging traditional views on the human body.

While Vesalius's work was influenced by the Renaissance spirit of curiosity and exploration, there is no evidence to suggest that he borrowed ideas from Renaissance astronomers and astrologers or that his research was funded by the Catholic Church .

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------------The given question is incomplete, the complete question is:

"How did developments from the renaissance affect andreas vesalius's work?

-inventions such as the printing press allowed him to publish influential writings.

-he borrowed from ideas of renaissance astronomers and astrologers.

-his research was funded by the increasingly powerful catholic church.

-he based his theories on the idea that individuals were subject to god's will."------------

A form of government headed by a president who is elected by the people for a limited term of office and whose powers are balanced by an elected legislature is called what?

The form of government described, in which a president is elected by the people for a limited term of office and has powers balanced by an elected legislature, is called a presidential republic or a presidential system.

In a presidential republic, the president serves as the head of state and head of government , with executive powers vested in their office. The president is elected separately from the legislature and serves a fixed term, typically with limitations on re-election.

Under a presidential system, the president and the legislature (which may be bicameral or unicameral) operate independently of each other. The president is responsible for executing and enforcing laws, representing the country on the international stage, and often has veto power over legislation. The legislature is responsible for making laws and serving as a check on the executive branch.

Examples of countries with presidential republics include the United States, France, Brazil, Mexico, and many others. It is a common form of government chosen by nations seeking a separation of powers and a system that ensures checks and balances between different branches of government.

where the executive, legislative, and judicial branches are distinct and independent of one another. This separation is intended to prevent the concentration of power in any one branch and ensure a system of checks and balances.

Direct Election of the President: In a presidential republic, the president is typically elected directly by the people through popular vote or an electoral college system. This direct election allows for democratic representation and provides citizens with a say in choosing their head of state.

Limited Term of Office: The president in a presidential republic serves a fixed term, often with constitutional limitations on re-election. This ensures regular and scheduled elections, promoting accountability and preventing the accumulation of excessive power by any one individual.

Balanced Powers: The powers of the president in a presidential republic are balanced by the elected legislature. While the president has executive authority, including the power to enforce laws and make executive decisions, the legislature is responsible for creating and passing laws, budgetary decisions, and exercising oversight over the executive branch.

Independent Judiciary: In a presidential republic, the judiciary operates independently of the executive and legislative branches. The judiciary's role is to interpret laws, ensure their constitutionality, and adjudicate disputes. This independence is crucial for upholding the rule of law and providing a system of checks on the other branches of government.

Constitutional Framework: Presidential republics typically have a written constitution that outlines the structure of the government, delineates the powers of each branch, and protects fundamental rights and freedoms. The constitution serves as the supreme law of the land and provides a framework for governance.

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How did ordinary people help bring about change?

Ordinary people helped bring about change by engaging in collective action, advocating for their rights, and participating in social and political movements.

Throughout history, ordinary people have played a crucial role in driving change and shaping society . One way they contribute to change is through collective action. By joining together in groups, unions, or grassroots organizations, ordinary people can amplify their voices and push for reform. Through strikes, protests, boycotts, and other forms of activism, they raise awareness, challenge the status quo, and demand social, political, or economic change.

Ordinary people also help bring about change by advocating for their rights. They speak out against injustice , discrimination, and inequality, and work towards achieving equal rights and opportunities for all. Through petitions, public campaigns, and lobbying efforts, they pressure governments and institutions to address their concerns and enact meaningful reforms.

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Describe how the war in Vietnam affected American politics at home and abroad.

The war in Vietnam had a significant impact on American politics both domestically and internationally. 1. Domestically: Protests and social movements: The war in Vietnam led to widespread protests and social movements in the United States. Many Americans opposed the war and participated in demonstrations , marches, and rallies to express their discontent. Political polarization: The war intensified political divisions in the United States. It became a central issue in the 1968 presidential election, with candidates taking differing positions on the war. This polarization continued throughout the conflict, leading to a sense of unrest and division in American politics.Loss of confidence in government: The Vietnam War eroded public trust in the government. The United States' involvement in a protracted and costly war, along with revelations of government deception and the Pentagon Papers, contributed to a widespread skepticism and disillusionment towards political leaders and institutions. 2. Internationally: Damage to America's global reputation: The war in Vietnam damaged America's international reputation. The prolonged conflict and civilian casualties fueled anti-American sentiment and undermined America's perceived moral leadership on the global stage. Shift in global alliances: The war in Vietnam led to a reevaluation of global alliances. Some countries distanced themselves from the United States due to disagreement with its involvement in Vietnam, while others saw an opportunity to challenge American influence. Impact on foreign policy: The war in Vietnam prompted a reassessment of American foreign policy. It influenced subsequent military interventions and prompted a shift towards a more cautious and skeptical approach to armed conflicts. In summary, the war in Vietnam had far-reaching effects on American politics both at home and abroad. Domestically, it sparked protests, deepened political polarization , and eroded public trust in the government. Internationally, it damaged America's reputation, caused a shift in global alliances, and influenced future foreign policy decisions.

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duwe g, (2016) the patterns and prevalence of mass public shootings in the united states, 1915-2013,

In the article "The Patterns and Prevalence of Mass Public Shootings in the United States, 1915-2013" by Duwe G. (2016), the author analyzes the historical data on mass public shootings in the United States over nearly a century. The study aims to understand the patterns and prevalence of these incidents during this time period. Duwe identifies several key findings in the study. First, the prevalence of mass public shootings has significantly increased since the 1960s. Second, there is evidence of a rise in the lethality of these incidents, with more victims per shooting in recent decades. Third, the study suggests that the introduction of concealed carry laws has not had a significant impact on the frequency or lethality of mass public shootings. It's important to note that this study focuses specifically on mass public shootings and does not include other forms of gun violence or gun-related incidents . In summary, Duwe's research highlights the increasing frequency and lethality of mass public shootings in the United States since the 1960s. The study also challenges the notion that concealed carry laws have a substantial effect on these incidents.

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The beatles' dissatisfaction by the mid-1960's was the result of which circumstance?

The Beatles dissatisfaction by the mid-1960s was largely due to the context of the times. In 1964, the band had successfully achieved global stardom with their hit single "I Want To Hold Your Hand" and had established themselves as global icons.

But, as the sixties progressed, the band began to find themselves dealing with increased media scrutiny and pressure to keep up with the ever-changing musical trends. Along with the mundane increases of fame and personal responsibility the burden of writing new material weighed heavily upon them, and led to a dullness in their output and declining creativity.

Additionally, their popularity was beginning to diminish as the public moved onto the psychedelia of the late sixties, leaving the Beatles feeling sidelined and out of touch.

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How did the goals of the Revolution guide Americans toward a more just society after the war?

The goals of the Revolution, including equality, democracy, protection of individual rights, and the eventual abolition of slavery, helped guide Americans towards a more just society after the war.

The goals of the Revolution guided Americans towards a more just society after the war in several ways:

Equality: One of the main goals of the Revolution was to establish equality among citizens. The idea of "all men are created equal" became a guiding principle.

This led to the abolishment of aristocratic privileges and the establishment of equal rights for all individuals, regardless of social status.

Democracy: The Revolution also aimed to create a democratic society . The Declaration of Independence and the Constitution provided a framework for a government that would represent and serve the people.

The establishment of a representative democracy ensured that power would be distributed among the citizens, allowing for greater participation and decision-making.

Individual Rights: The Revolution emphasized the importance of protecting individual rights . The Bill of Rights, which was added to the Constitution, guaranteed fundamental freedoms such as freedom of speech, religion, and assembly.

These rights were crucial in promoting justice and fairness for all citizens.

Abolition of Slavery: Although the Revolution did not immediately end slavery, its ideals sparked discussions and debates about the contradiction of slavery in a society striving for liberty and justice.

Over time, the goals of the Revolution inspired abolitionist movements that eventually led to the end of slavery in the United States.

In summary, the goals of the Revolution, including equality, democracy, protection of individual rights, and the eventual abolition of slavery, helped guide Americans towards a more just society after the war. These ideals continue to shape the foundation of American society today.

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Select the correct answer from each drop-down menu. select the correct word or phrase to complete this paragraph about the eastern front during world war ii. in 1941, german leader adolf hitler launched a massive land invasion of . this split his forces between two fronts. the battle of was fought from august 1942 to january 1943. the battle was a victory for the soviet union. it became a major turning point in the war in .

Adolf Hitler, the leader of Germany, began a large land invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. His forces were divided between two fronts as a result. In the months of August 1942 and January 1943, the Battle of Stalingrad was fought. The Soviet Union prevailed in the conflict. It turned out to be a crucial turning point in the European war

The Battle of Stalingrad was a pivotal moment in World War II as it marked a significant shift in momentum against the German forces. The Soviet Union's successful defense of the city of Stalingrad inflicted heavy losses on the German army and dealt a severe blow to Hitler's plans for expansion in the east. The battle demonstrated the resilience and determination of the Soviet people and military in the face of German aggression.

Strategically, the Soviet victory at Stalingrad shifted the momentum in favor of the Allies and marked the beginning of a series of defeats for the German forces on the Eastern Front. It boosted Soviet morale and confidence while undermining German morale. The battle also had broader implications as it shattered the myth of German invincibility and highlighted the vulnerability of Hitler's war machine.

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President Richard M. Nixon put a conservative spin on liberal social policies in the areas of quizlet

President Richard M. Nixon indeed implemented a conservative spin on certain liberal social policies during his time in office. One notable example is his approach to welfare reform. Nixon aimed to address public concerns about the expansion of welfare programs by advocating for a more conservative approach that emphasized work requirements and personal responsibility.

He introduced the concept of "workfare," which required welfare recipients to actively seek employment or participate in job training programs. Additionally, Nixon adopted a conservative stance on law and order, advocating for a tough approach to crime and drug abuse. His administration prioritized anti-drug initiatives, such as the establishment of the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and the implementation of stricter drug control policies. While Nixon's actions reflected a conservative perspective, it is important to note that his policies and their impacts are subject to interpretation and analysis.

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According to textbook reading, over 70 million people died as a result of world war ii, roughly equivalent to the metropolitan populations of beijing, new york city, paris, and london combined. True or false?.

The statement, "According to textbook reading, over 70 million people died as a result of world war ii, roughly equivalent to the metropolitan populations of Beijing , New York City, Paris, and London combined," is true.

World War II, or the Second World War, was a worldwide war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, including most of the world's nations. It is considered the deadliest conflict in world history, with an estimated 50 million to over 85 million fatalities.

More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilized in one of the largest wars in history. Over 50 million people died in the war, making it the deadliest conflict in human history.

Additionally, the Holocaust, where an estimated 11 million individuals , including 6 million Jews, were killed, occurred during this war.

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The brain size of hominids led to the development of the homs species and the way it interacted with the environment. what evidence from the text supports this statement

The evidence supporting the statement that the increase in brain size among hominids led to the development of the Homo species and its interaction with the environment includes fossil records, comparative anatomy, and archaeological findings.

Fossil records reveal a gradual increase in brain size among hominids over time, supporting the correlation between brain size and species development. Comparative anatomy studies highlight the advanced cognitive abilities associated with larger brains, such as problem-solving and language development.

Archaeological findings , including the discovery of sophisticated tools and artifacts, demonstrate the Homo species' capacity for advanced cognitive functions. These pieces of evidence collectively suggest that the increase in brain size played a vital role in the development of the Homo species, enabling them to interact with their environment more effectively through enhanced cognitive abilities and tool use.

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"The brain size of hominids led to the development of the homo species and the way it interacted with the environment. Give evidence to support this statement."--------------

Look at the political cartoon. under a progressive party sign, several people are walking forward. each person has a label for what they represent (for example, labor, old age, child labor). the words liberty, justice, equality appear on the ground before them. on the left side is a man under the sign democratic blind alley, and on the right side is a man under the sign republican blind alley. according to this political cartoon, poverty and child labor were social issues that progressives wanted to fix. only the democrats cared about. only the republicans cared about. were not as important as equality and liberty.

According to this political cartoon , poverty and child labor were social issues that Progressives wanted to fix.

This political cartoon highlights the concerns of the Progressive movement regarding poverty and child labor. The Progressives were a reform-minded group of individuals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries who sought to address the social, economic, and political problems arising from industrialization and urbanization.

The cartoon depicts a child labeled " Child Labor " being pushed to the forefront, symbolizing the exploitation and harsh working conditions experienced by young children during that era. Additionally, the depiction of poverty through the dilapidated house and the impoverished family emphasizes the urgent need for reform. The Progressives aimed to alleviate poverty , improve working conditions, and protect the rights and well-being of children through various measures, such as labor reforms, education reforms, and social welfare programs.

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"Look at the political cartoon.

Under a Progressive Party sign, several people are walking forward. Each person has a label for what they represent (for example, labor, old age, child labor). The words Liberty, Justice, Equality appear on the ground before them. On the left side is a man under the sign Democratic blind alley, and on the right side is a man under the sign Republican blind alley.

According to this political cartoon, poverty and child labor were social issues that

Progressives wanted to fix.

only the Democrats cared about.

only the Republicans cared about.

were not as important as equality and liberty."-------------

Most of the Plains Indians: fought fierce battles to exterminate their enemies. organized their tribes to provide strict hierarchial authority. immediately opposed white emigrants crossing their territory. lived a nomadic lifestyle in pursuit of the buffalo.

Most of the Plains Indians lived a nomadic lifestyle in pursuit of the buffalo.

The Plains Indians , including tribes such as the Lakota, Cheyenne, and Comanche, were known for their nomadic way of life. They relied heavily on the vast herds of buffalo that roamed the Great Plains for their sustenance, using every part of the buffalo for food, clothing, and shelter. The Plains Indians followed the seasonal migration patterns of the buffalo, moving their camps in search of grazing land and fresh hunting grounds.

This nomadic lifestyle allowed them to adapt to the resources available on the Plains and maintain their traditional cultural practices . The buffalo served as a central aspect of their social, economic, and spiritual life, and their mobility was essential for survival in the harsh and expansive landscape of the Great Plains.

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"Most of the Plains Indians:

-fought fierce battles to exterminate their enemies.

-organized their tribes to provide strict hierarchical authority.

-immediately opposed white emigrants crossing their territory.

-lived a nomadic lifestyle in pursuit of the buffalo."------------

According to economists at jpmorgan chase, was the greatetst factor in the unprecedented profit of th eearly 200s?

According to economists at JPMorgan Chase, the greatest factor in the unprecedented profit of the early 2000s was the booming housing market.

Explanation:

During the early 2000s, the housing market experienced a significant surge in prices, leading to increased demand for mortgages and home purchases. This resulted in a boom in the real estate industry, driving up profits for financial institutions like JPMorgan Chase. The economists at JPMorgan Chase identified this booming housing market as the greatest factor contributing to the unprecedented profit during that period.

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the majority of those who traveled west in wagon trains group of answer choices made it from missouri to california in about a month. actually walked and used the wagon to transport supplies. were headed for california’s gold fields. did so without entering any native american lands

The answer is: None of the given options accurately describe most of those who traveled west in wagon trains.

None of the provided options accurately describe most individuals who traveled west in wagon trains during the United States' westward expansion. Let's examine each option: Made it from Missouri to California in about a month: Traveling from Missouri to California in about a month was a rare timeframe for wagon trains during the westward migration. The journey typically took several months, with the exact duration varying depending on factors such as weather conditions, terrain, and the group's pace. Walked and used the wagon to transport supplies: While some individuals did walk alongside the wagon trains for parts of the journey, most travelers primarily relied on the wagons to transport themselves, their families, and their supplies. Walking the entire way would have been highly impractical and arduous. We were headed for California's gold fields: While the California Gold Rush in the mid-1800s did attract many prospectors seeking wealth, not all wagon train travelers were specifically heading for the gold fields. Many individuals and families embarked on the westward journey for various reasons, including the search for new opportunities, available land for settlement, and religious or ideological motivations. Did so without entering any Native American lands: The westward migration of wagon trains inevitably involved traversing Native American lands. Expanding settlers into Native American territories resulted in numerous conflicts and tensions between the two groups. The journey westward often required crossing through or near lands occupied by various Native American tribes, leading to significant interactions, both peaceful and hostile, between the settlers and the indigenous peoples.

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The Titanic was advertised to be an unsinkable ship because of its newly designed hull that had 16 ___________ compartments to prevent it from sinking.

The Titanic was an ocean liner that was built in the early 20th century, and it was advertised as an unsinkable ship because of its newly designed hull that had 16 watertight compartments to prevent it from sinking.

Each of these compartments was equipped with a door that could be closed to keep water out if one of the compartments was breached.The Titanic's designers believed that the ship could stay afloat even if four of its compartments were flooded.

On its maiden voyage from Southampton, England to New York City in April 1912, the Titanic collided with an iceberg and began to sink. Unfortunately , the iceberg breached five of the Titanic's compartments, and the water quickly flooded the ship's interior compartments.The ship's passengers and crew were not able to evacuate the ship in time, and more than 1,500 people died in the disaster.

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Evaluate What actions show Chávez’s and Huerta’s dedication to helping people?

Both Chávez and Huerta showed dedication dedication to helping people through their actions, such as organizing unions, strikes, and boycotts , as well as advocating for better working conditions and promoting women's rights. 1. Chávez's dedication to helping people can be seen through his establishment of the United Farm Workers (UFW) union in 1962. Through the UFW, Chávez fought for the rights and better working conditions of farmworkers, advocating for fair wages, healthcare, and improved living conditions . 2. Chávez also organized numerous strikes and boycotts to raise awareness about the struggles faced by farmworkers. These actions aimed to bring about change and improve the lives of those working in the agricultural sector. 3. Similarly, Huerta also demonstrated dedication to helping people through her activism and advocacy work. She co-founded the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) alongside Chávez and played a vital role in organizing and mobilizing farmworkers to fight for their rights. 4. Huerta's dedication can also be seen through her efforts in promoting women's rights. She advocated for gender equality and played a crucial role in empowering women within the farmworker community and beyond.

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what was the declaration of rights of man and citizen according to the french constitution of 1791

The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen was a fundamental document in the French Constitution of 1791 that outlined the rights and freedoms of the French people.

The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen , adopted on August 26, 1789, was a cornerstone of the French Revolution and was subsequently incorporated into the French Constitution of 1791. This declaration articulated the fundamental rights and principles that were deemed essential for all French citizens.

It proclaimed the principles of liberty, equality , and fraternity, asserting that all individuals were born free and equal in rights. The declaration affirmed the rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. It also established the principle of separation of powers and the right to participate in the formation of laws through representatives.

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Draw Conclusions Why did Stanton want women to have more legal rights?

Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a prominent women's rights activist in the 19th century who played a crucial role in the fight for women's suffrage and equality.

Gender Equality: Stanton firmly believed in the principle of gender equality. She argued that women, as citizens, should have the same legal rights and opportunities as men. Stanton viewed the prevailing legal and societal restrictions on women as unjust and discriminatory, and she sought to challenge and dismantle these barriers to achieve true equality.

Political Participation: Stanton recognized that legal rights were essential for women to fully participate in the political and civic life of the nation. She advocated for women's suffrage, believing that the right to vote was a fundamental aspect of citizenship and democratic governance. Stanton argued that without the power to vote and influence legislation, women's voices and interests were marginalized, limiting their ability to effect change.

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Use the Terms & Names list to identify each sentence online or on your own paper. A. Horace Mann B. Dorothea Dix C. Elizabeth Cady Stanton D. steerage E. suffrage F. strike G. nativist H. Sojourner Truth I. Harriet Tubman J. Shaker K. "push" factor L. "pull" factor M. temperance movement I lived in a community centered on religion.

The sentence "I lived in a community centered on religion" can be identified as J. Shaker from the Terms & Names list. The Shakers were a religious group that believed in communal living and celibacy .

They were known for their simple and practical lifestyle, as well as their unique style of furniture and music . The Shakers were active during the 18th and 19th centuries in the United States. They valued equality between men and women and believed in working together for the common good.

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What is the lasting importance of Marbury v. Madison?

Marbury v. Madison is an incredibly significant case in the history of the United States and has had a lasting importance in shaping the country's constitutional framework .

The lasting importance of Marbury v. Madison can be summarized in the following ways:

Judicial Review: The case firmly established the power of the judiciary to review and invalidate laws that are found to be unconstitutional. This power allows the Supreme Court to serve as a check on the other branches of government and protect individual rights and liberties. Judicial review remains a fundamental aspect of the American legal system to this day.

Balance of Power: Marbury v. Madison played a crucial role in defining the balance of power between the three branches of the U.S. government: the executive , legislative, and judicial branches. By asserting its authority to strike down laws, the Supreme Court cemented its position as an equal and independent branch of government, ensuring a system of checks and balances.

Constitutional Interpretation: The case underscored the importance of interpreting the Constitution as a living document that can adapt to changing times and societal needs. Chief Justice John Marshall's opinion in Marbury v. Madison emphasized the responsibility of the judiciary to interpret the Constitution's broad principles and reconcile them with contemporary circumstances.

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many europeans believed natives were too free, and were surprised that their language lacked words for concepts such as "oppressed" or "obedient subjects," which were commonplace in european languages.

The given statement "Many Europeans believed Natives were too free, and were surprised that their language lacked words for concepts such as "oppressed" or "obedient subjects," which were commonplace in European languages" is true.

The belief among many Europeans that native peoples were "too free" can be attributed to a cultural and linguistic perspective shaped by European norms and values.

Europeans, particularly during the colonial era, held a hierarchical view of society where obedience to authority and submission to established power structures were considered essential.

The absence of specific words for concepts like "oppressed" or " obedient subjects " in indigenous languages might be indicative of cultural differences in understanding and expressing these ideas. Native societies often operated under different social structures, emphasizing communal values, cooperation, and shared decision-making. Concepts related to obedience and oppression might not have held the same significance or needed explicit linguistic expressions in these contexts.

It is crucial to recognize that language reflects the unique cultural and historical experiences of a community. European languages developed in a context that included centuries of monarchy , feudalism, and social hierarchies, which influenced the vocabulary and concepts they encompass. Native languages, shaped by different social and cultural systems, may have prioritized other values, such as harmony, respect, and collective well-being, rather than emphasizing concepts of obedience or oppression.

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Many Europeans believed Natives were too free, and were surprised that their language lacked words for concepts such as "oppressed" or "obedient subjects," which were commonplace in European languages. True/false

In the poem the speaker in the voice that expresse feelings and emotions. the speaker in icarus flight ised the poem to show opinions of icarus. what do lines 10-11 show about the speaker attitude towards icarus?

The lines 10-11 in the poem "Icarus Flight" reveal the speaker's attitude towards Icarus. The speaker expresses sympathy and admiration for Icarus. In line 10, the speaker mentions how Icarus "flew too close to the sun." This indicates that the speaker recognizes Icarus's daring and ambition to reach new heights. The speaker acknowledges Icarus's courage and willingness to take risks, which can be seen as a positive attitude towards him. In line 11, the speaker states that Icarus's "wax wings melted." This implies that the speaker understands the consequences of Icarus's actions. The speaker recognizes that Icarus's flight ended in tragedy and expresses empathy for his downfall. Overall, lines 10-11 show that the speaker has a sympathetic and appreciative attitude towards Icarus. The speaker acknowledges Icarus's boldness and recognizes the unfortunate outcome of his endeavor. To know more about admiration visit: https://brainly.com/question/30398621 #SPJ11

Art Collage Make a collage that illustrates the plants and animals involved in the Columbian Exchange.

A collage depicting the plants and animals involved in the Columbian Exchange showcases the exchange of flora and fauna between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres .

The Columbian Exchange, initiated by Christopher Columbus's voyages in the late 15th century, facilitated the transfer of plants and animals between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. This exchange had profound effects on both continents and forever altered their ecosystems, agriculture, and human societies.

In the collage, various plants and animals can be featured to represent the exchange. For example, it may include crops like maize, potatoes, tomatoes, and tobacco, which were introduced to Europe from the Americas.

On the other hand, crops like wheat, rice, coffee, and citrus fruits were brought from Europe and Asia to the Americas. The collage may also depict animals such as horses, pigs, cattle, and chickens, which were introduced to the Americas, transforming the indigenous societies' agricultural practices and way of life.

The collage can illustrate the diverse range of plants and animals that were exchanged, symbolizing the ecological and cultural transformation that occurred as a result of this historical event. It highlights the interconnectedness of different regions of the world and the profound consequences of this exchange on global biodiversity, agriculture, and human societies.

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To what extent did the policies of the Republican party dominate the federal government during the twenties

The policies of the Republican party significantly dominated the federal government during the twenties, shaping the economic, social, and political landscape of the United States.

In the 1920s, under Republican administrations such as those of Presidents Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover, pro- business and conservative policies prevailed. These included tax cuts, reduced regulation, high tariffs, and a focus on laissez-faire economics. The government also pursued a policy of isolationism and limited involvement in international affairs .

The dominance of Republican policies during the twenties led to a period of economic growth , known as the "Roaring Twenties," characterized by prosperity, technological advancements, and cultural changes. However, this era was also marked by income inequality, stock market speculation, and the eventual collapse of the economy in the Great Depression. While Republican policies had a significant impact on the federal government during this period, their long-term consequences would be subject to reassessment and revision in the subsequent decades.

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Senator now, write a letter to your constituents about the importance of this amendment and why it should be passed. remember to make your claim, give at least one reason to support it, and explain why the counterclaim is wrong.

Required letter to your constituents about the importance of this amendment and why it should be passed is given below:

Dear constituents , I am writing to you today to emphasize the significance of the proposed amendment and why it deserves to be passed. This amendment holds immense value for our community and will greatly contribute to our collective progress. First and foremost, my claim is that this amendment will enhance our democracy by promoting fairness and equality. By enacting this amendment, we will ensure that all individuals, regardless of their background, have equal opportunities and rights. This is crucial for maintaining a just and inclusive society.

To support this claim, let us consider the example of the amendment's provisions for equal access to education. This amendment will ensure that every child has the right to quality education, regardless of their socio-economic status or geographical location. By guaranteeing equal access to education, we will level the playing field for all children, allowing them to reach their full potential and contribute meaningfully to our society.

Now, it is important to address the counterclaim that some may argue against the passing of this amendment. The main counterclaim is that it may lead to an increase in taxes. However, this counterclaim is flawed because the benefits that this amendment brings far outweigh any potential financial burdens.

By investing in education and equal opportunities, we are investing in the future of our community. A well-educated and empowered citizenry will ultimately lead to economic growth and prosperity . The long-term benefits of this amendment, such as reduced inequality and improved social cohesion, will far outweigh any short-term financial implications.

In conclusion, passing this amendment is of utmost importance to ensure fairness, equality, and progress within our community. By embracing this amendment , we are making a commitment to building a better future for all. Let us come together and support this vital step towards a more just and inclusive society. Sincerely, [Your Name] [Senator District/State]

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Math Using the Internet or library resources, find out the dimensions of the Panama Canal. Then write a short report on how much time and distance was saved by ships after the construction of the canal.

The Panama Canal connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, saving time and distance for ships sailing around South America.

The Panama Canal, a vital waterway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, spans a distance of approximately 82 kilometers (51 miles) from the city of Colón on the Atlantic side to Balboa on the Pacific side. It consists of a system of locks that raise and lower ships as they traverse the canal.

Before the construction of the canal, ships had to take a much longer route around the southern tip of South America, known as Cape Horn, to reach their destination. This route added thousands of nautical miles to their journey and took considerable time.

However, with the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914, ships were able to save both time and distance by using this shortcut. By passing through the canal, ships eliminated the need for the lengthy journey around South America, reducing travel time significantly.

The time and distance saved by ships using the Panama Canal vary depending on their origin, destination, and size. However, on average, ships can save approximately 8,000 nautical miles (15,000 kilometers) by utilizing the canal.

This translates to a substantial reduction in travel time, allowing ships to reach their destinations faster and more efficiently. The construction of the Panama Canal has had a profound impact on global maritime trade, facilitating faster and more cost-effective transportation between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

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