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Study designs: Part 2 – Descriptive studies

Rakesh aggarwal.

Department of Gastroenterology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

Priya Ranganathan

1 Department of Anaesthesiology, Tata Memorial Centre, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

One of the first steps in planning a research study is the choice of study design. The available study designs are divided broadly into two types – observational and interventional. Of the various observational study designs, the descriptive design is the simplest. It allows the researcher to study and describe the distribution of one or more variables, without regard to any causal or other hypotheses. This article discusses the subtypes of descriptive study design, and their strengths and limitations.

INTRODUCTION

In our previous article in this series,[ 1 ] we introduced the concept of “study designs”– as “the set of methods and procedures used to collect and analyze data on variables specified in a particular research question.” Study designs are primarily of two types – observational and interventional, with the former being loosely divided into “descriptive” and “analytical.” In this article, we discuss the descriptive study designs.

WHAT IS A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY?

A descriptive study is one that is designed to describe the distribution of one or more variables, without regard to any causal or other hypothesis.

TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES

Descriptive studies can be of several types, namely, case reports, case series, cross-sectional studies, and ecological studies. In the first three of these, data are collected on individuals, whereas the last one uses aggregated data for groups.

Case reports and case series

A case report refers to the description of a patient with an unusual disease or with simultaneous occurrence of more than one condition. A case series is similar, except that it is an aggregation of multiple (often only a few) similar cases. Many case reports and case series are anecdotal and of limited value. However, some of these bring to the fore a hitherto unrecognized disease and play an important role in advancing medical science. For instance, HIV/AIDS was first recognized through a case report of disseminated Kaposi's sarcoma in a young homosexual man,[ 2 ] and a case series of such men with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia.[ 3 ]

In other cases, description of a chance observation may open an entirely new line of investigation. Some examples include: fatal disseminated Bacillus Calmette–Guérin infection in a baby born to a mother taking infliximab for Crohn's disease suggesting that adminstration of infliximab may bring about reactivation of tuberculosis,[ 4 ] progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy following natalizumab treatment – describing a new adverse effect of drugs that target cell adhesion molecule α4-integrin,[ 5 ] and demonstration of a tumor caused by invasive transformed cancer cells from a colonizing tapeworm in an HIV-infected person.[ 6 ]

Cross-sectional studies

Studies with a cross-sectional study design involve the collection of information on the presence or level of one or more variables of interest (health-related characteristic), whether exposure (e.g., a risk factor) or outcome (e.g., a disease) as they exist in a defined population at one particular time. If these data are analyzed only to determine the distribution of one or more variables, these are “descriptive.” However, often, in a cross-sectional study, the investigator also assesses the relationship between the presence of an exposure and that of an outcome. Such cross-sectional studies are referred to as “analytical” and will be discussed in the next article in this series.

Cross-sectional studies can be thought of as providing a “snapshot” of the frequency and characteristics of a disease in a population at a particular point in time. These are very good for measuring the prevalence of a disease or of a risk factor in a population. Thus, these are very helpful in assessing the disease burden and healthcare needs.

Let us look at a study that was aimed to assess the prevalence of myopia among Indian children.[ 7 ] In this study, trained health workers visited schools in Delhi and tested visual acuity in all children studying in classes 1–9. Of the 9884 children screened, 1297 (13.1%) had myopia (defined as spherical refractive error of −0.50 diopters (D) or worse in either or both eyes), and the mean myopic error was −1.86 ± 1.4 D. Furthermore, overall, 322 (3.3%), 247 (2.5%) and 3 children had mild, moderate, and severe visual impairment, respectively. These parts of the study looked at the prevalence and degree of myopia or of visual impairment, and did not assess the relationship of one variable with another or test a causative hypothesis – these qualify as a descriptive cross-sectional study. These data would be helpful to a health planner to assess the need for a school eye health program, and to know the proportion of children in her jurisdiction who would need corrective glasses.

The authors did, subsequently in the paper, look at the relationship of myopia (an outcome) with children's age, gender, socioeconomic status, type of school, mother's education, etc. (each of which qualifies as an exposure). Those parts of the paper look at the relationship between different variables and thus qualify as having “analytical” cross-sectional design.

Sometimes, cross-sectional studies are repeated after a time interval in the same population (using the same subjects as were included in the initial study, or a fresh sample) to identify temporal trends in the occurrence of one or more variables, and to determine the incidence of a disease (i.e., number of new cases) or its natural history. Indeed, the investigators in the myopia study above visited the same children and reassessed them a year later. This separate follow-up study[ 8 ] showed that “new” myopia had developed in 3.4% of children (incidence rate), with a mean change of −1.09 ± 0.55 D. Among those with myopia at the time of the initial survey, 49.2% showed progression of myopia with a mean change of −0.27 ± 0.42 D.

Cross-sectional studies are usually simple to do and inexpensive. Furthermore, these usually do not pose much of a challenge from an ethics viewpoint.

However, this design does carry a risk of bias, i.e., the results of the study may not represent the true situation in the population. This could arise from either selection bias or measurement bias. The former relates to differences between the population and the sample studied. The myopia study included only those children who attended school, and the prevalence of myopia could have been different in those did not attend school (e.g., those with severe myopia may not be able to see the blackboard and hence may have been more likely to drop out of school). The measurement bias in this study would relate to the accuracy of measurement and the cutoff used. If the investigators had used a cutoff of −0.25 D (instead of −0.50 D) to define myopia, the prevalence would have been higher. Furthermore, if the measurements were not done accurately, some cases with myopia could have been missed, or vice versa, affecting the study results.

Ecological studies

Ecological (also sometimes called as correlational) study design involves looking for association between an exposure and an outcome across populations rather than in individuals. For instance, a study in the United States found a relation between household firearm ownership in various states and the firearm death rates during the period 2007–2010.[ 9 ] Thus, in this study, the unit of assessment was a state and not an individual.

These studies are convenient to do since the data have often already been collected and are available from a reliable source. This design is particularly useful when the differences in exposure between individuals within a group are much smaller than the differences in exposure between groups. For instance, the intake of particular food items is likely to vary less between people in a particular group but can vary widely across groups, for example, people living in different countries.

However, the ecological study design has some important limitations.First, an association between exposure and outcome at the group level may not be true at the individual level (a phenomenon also referred to as “ecological fallacy”).[ 10 ] Second, the association may be related to a third factor which in turn is related to both the exposure and the outcome, the so-called “confounding”. For instance, an ecological association between higher income level and greater cardiovascular mortality across countries may be related to a higher prevalence of obesity. Third, migration of people between regions with different exposure levels may also introduce an error. A fourth consideration may be the use of differing definitions for exposure, outcome or both in different populations.

Descriptive studies, irrespective of the subtype, are often very easy to conduct. For case reports, case series, and ecological studies, the data are already available. For cross-sectional studies, these can be easily collected (usually in one encounter). Thus, these study designs are often inexpensive, quick and do not need too much effort. Furthermore, these studies often do not face serious ethics scrutiny, except if the information sought to be collected is of confidential nature (e.g., sexual practices, substance use, etc.).

Descriptive studies are useful for estimating the burden of disease (e.g., prevalence or incidence) in a population. This information is useful for resource planning. For instance, information on prevalence of cataract in a city may help the government decide on the appropriate number of ophthalmologic facilities. Data from descriptive studies done in different populations or done at different times in the same population may help identify geographic variation and temporal change in the frequency of disease. This may help generate hypotheses regarding the cause of the disease, which can then be verified using another, more complex design.

DISADVANTAGES

As with other study designs, descriptive studies have their own pitfalls. Case reports and case-series refer to a solitary patient or to only a few cases, who may represent a chance occurrence. Hence, conclusions based on these run the risk of being non-representative, and hence unreliable. In cross-sectional studies, the validity of results is highly dependent on whether the study sample is well representative of the population proposed to be studied, and whether all the individual measurements were made using an accurate and identical tool, or not. If the information on a variable cannot be obtained accurately, for instance in a study where the participants are asked about socially unacceptable (e.g., promiscuity) or illegal (e.g., substance use) behavior, the results are unlikely to be reliable.

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Descriptive Research and Qualitative Research

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• Eunsook T. Koh 2 &
• Willis L. Owen 2  

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Descriptive research is a study of status and is widely used in education, nutrition, epidemiology, and the behavioral sciences. Its value is based on the premise that problems can be solved and practices improved through observation, analysis, and description. The most common descriptive research method is the survey, which includes questionnaires, personal interviews, phone surveys, and normative surveys. Developmental research is also descriptive. Through cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, researchers investigate the interaction of diet (e.g., fat and its sources, fiber and its sources, etc.) and life styles (e.g., smoking, alcohol drinking, etc.) and of disease (e.g., cancer, coronary heart disease) development. Observational research and correlational studies constitute other forms of descriptive research. Correlational studies determine and analyze relationships between variables as well as generate predictions. Descriptive research generates data, both qualitative and quantitative, that define the state of nature at a point in time. This chapter discusses some characteristics and basic procedures of the various types of descriptive research.

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Koh, E.T., Owen, W.L. (2000). Descriptive Research and Qualitative Research. In: Introduction to Nutrition and Health Research. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1401-5_12

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Methodology

• Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Published on May 15, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what , where , when and how   questions , but not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods  to investigate one or more variables . Unlike in experimental research , the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.

Table of contents

When to use a descriptive research design, descriptive research methods, other interesting articles.

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.

It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when and where it happens.

Descriptive research question examples

• How has the Amsterdam housing market changed over the past 20 years?
• Do customers of company X prefer product X or product Y?
• What are the main genetic, behavioural and morphological differences between European wildcats and domestic cats?
• What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
• How prevalent is disease A in population B?

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Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research , though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable .

Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for frequencies, averages and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:

• Describing the demographics of a country or region
• Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
• Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organization’s services

Observations

Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.

Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses , models or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case studies

A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event or organization). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.

Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem .

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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Title : An Introduction on Descriptive Analysis; Its advantages and disadvantages

Research is a crucial tool for leading man towards achieving progress, findings new facts, new concepts and discovering truths which leads to better ways of doing things. In the other words, “research is a diligent search, studious inquiry, investigation, experiment or collection of information, interpretation of facts, revision of existing theories and laws aimed at discovery of new facts and findings” (Adams al.,2007,P.20). Research Begins when researchers discover real world problems and try to answer those problems with the required mechanisms, tools and methods. Therefore, research methods have gained acceptance in all branches of science and disciplines which seek to find the answer for research questions in scientific manner (Ibid). It is believed, if a research does not follow any methodology, it may produce false results. There are different types of research for different disciplines and each discipline is associated with the particular scientific tools. Social sciences are one of those branches of sciences that follow its own research methods, methodologies and tools. Research method in social sciences is a vast topic. This is due to the fact that Social sciences include a great number of disciplines namely; Political Science, International Relations, Sociology, Economics, Anthropology, Social Capital, Education, Management, History, Psychology and so forth. Within each discipline researchers apply different methods and methodologies. The most frequently used methods are laboratory experiments, comparative politics, inferential analysis, descriptive analysis, exploratory research, Analytical Research and Predictive Research. Despite differences in disciplines and methods used in research, most disciplines in social sciences share same features and use same language for interpretation and reporting of their results (Walliman, 2011). It also happens that researchers use different methodologies for the similar type of problem of a discipline, it is as a result of limiting factors such as; cost, time, availability of tools, literature, access to publications and a country’s own peculiarities and circumstances (Adams et al.,2007). Descriptive research is one of the most commonly used type of researches in social sciences. A descriptive research aims to describe a phenomena the ways it is, for example, describing social systems or relationships between events (Adams et al., 2007). This paper attempts to introduce descriptive analysis; its advantages, disadvantages an example of Descriptive Analysis and conclusion. The next section introduces Descriptive Analysis.

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The study sought to establish the influence of governance on corruption levels in the Public Service in Kenya. One of the study objectives was to: assess the influence of stakeholder participation on corruption levels in the Public Service. A review of literature was done anchored on Stakeholder Theory. Further, the empirical review, critique of reviewed literature, a summary and the research gaps were presented. The study adopted both the correlational and descriptive research designs. A study population of 265 institutions (as at 2015) provided a target sample size of 157 institutions where 133 were positive. The target respondents (unit of observation) in the sampled institutions were public officers who had undergone training on the following disciplines: leadership, integrity, values and principles of the public service and management during the study period (2010-2015). These purposely selected respondents were subjected to questionnaire as a primary tool of data collection. To augment data from the questionnaires, 23 key informant interviews were conducted targeting senior officers in the public service, non-state actors and experts. Data collected was analyzed by descriptive and inferential statistics. Data was presented in form of pie charts, graphs, tables and equations. The overall correlation analysis results showed that there was a significant but negative relationship between stakeholder participation and corruption levels as supported by correlation coefficient of -.741. The regression analysis results showed the coefficient of determination R square is 0.548 and R is 0.720 at 0.05 significance level. The coefficient of determination indicates that 54.8% of the variation on corruption level is influenced by stakeholder participation. The findings from the study are to benefit the policy makers, public service, citizens of Kenya and other stakeholders. It also fills the knowledge gap owed to previous little research on the influence of stakeholder participation on corruption levels. The study recommended that the public service should be keen to design policies and implement programs targeted on addressing the specific stakeholder sub constructs (stakeholder voice, openness, and partnership) so as to address the run-away corruption in the public service.

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Risk is a fact of life in procurement but in spite of this, majority of manufacturing companies give this topic much less attention than it deserves. However, little or no research has been published that specifically addresses the procurement risk and mitigation strategies within the manufacturing sector in Africa land more so in the I Kenyan I manufacturing I firms that is central to delivery of goods and services to its customers. The main purpose of the study was to assess the influence of risk reduction on procurement performance. The study was guided by risk compensation theory. Explanatory research design was adopted. The target population was employees from four manufacturing firms and a sample of 127 respondents were selected using Yamane’s formula from an accessible population of 187. Data was collected through structured questionnaires and was summarized, edited, coded, entered and analyzed using statistical package for social scientists (SPSS). Inferential statistics involved regression analysis. The result was as follows: Based on risk reduction strategy, the correlation result was 0.583 and β = 0.051 at P<0.05. The study concluded that risk reduction was statistically significant and had a positive influence on procurement performance. The study findings rejected the null hypothesis that there is no statistically significant influence of risk reduction strategy on procurement performance. The study recommended policy makers to embrace other risk reduction strategies tools like diversification, underwriting and hedges. The study suggests that a further study be done on specific risk reduction strategies suitable for the manufacturing sector and a further study be done that focuses on specific procurement risks affecting the manufacturing sector and their effect on procurement performance.

International Journal of Strategic Management and Procurement

Performance of microfinance institutions is indicated by contributions to social welfare, job creation, general economic empowerment and improvement of lives of the poor. Despite the interest in the sector and the subsidies that have flowed into some of the mission-oriented MFIs, it seems that most MFIs struggle with the challenge of remaining viable over the long-term. Sensing capabilities could offer a solution to this dilemma through providing a customer management system which incorporates all functional areas of the organization. Thus, the main purpose of the study was to determine effect of sensing capability on performance of micro finance institutions in Eldoret town. This study was guided by resource-based view theory. Explanatory research design was used in this study. The target population for this study comprised of 584 employees drawn from 14 MFIs within Eldoret town. Stratified and simple random sampling technique was used in this study to select a sample of 162 employees. Primary data was obtained from the respondents using questionnaire. This study used questionnaires and interview schedules to collect data from respondents. Quantitative data collected from questionnaires were analysed using descriptive statistical techniques which were the frequencies, mean, standard deviation. Qualitative data collected from interview schedules of senior managers were analysed thematically. The researcher also used inferential statistics of Pearson Product Moment Correlation to show the relationships that exist between the variables and multiple regressions and correlation analysis, the significance of each independent variable was tested at a confidence level of 95%. Analysed data was presented in form of tables, figures and percentages. From the study finding, sensing capability has a significant effect on performance of micro finance institutions in Eldoret town with a beta coefficient of 0.127 and significance of (p<0.05). The study concluded that sensing capabilities about environment is a coping capability mechanism that enables the organization to be competitive.

Danial Zemchal Media Development in Tigray

Danial Zemchal

This paper comprises an ongoing MA Thesis research project titled “Assessment of Media Development in Tigray”. The main focus of this investigation concentrates on measuring the media development based on the UNESCO’s Media Development Measures. The pillars of the assessment are the system of regulation and practice in relation to freedom of expression, transparency of media ownership and concentration, diversity and plurality of the media, media as a platform of public discourse, professional capacity building as well as capacity of media infrastructure including its inclusive access to the marginalized society. It also examines the relationship among the media development measures through statistical Measure, SPSS. The research project which spotlight in examining the media development context in Tigray began in October 2018 and lasts in July 2019. A combination of quantitative questionnaire survey, qualitative; in-depth personal interview and focus group discussion are employed. Professionals in media firms in Tigray, higher education journalism and communication schools, democratic institutions; human right office, ombudsman office, civic and civil societies, Tigray, Kunama and Irob ethnicity communities are subjects of the research. The research project is currently progressed the quantitative and qualitative data collection process and analysis and presentation will be followed.

Assessment of Media Development in Tigray

International Journal of Scientific and Technological Research

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18 Descriptive Research Examples

Dave Cornell (PhD)

Dr. Cornell has worked in education for more than 20 years. His work has involved designing teacher certification for Trinity College in London and in-service training for state governments in the United States. He has trained kindergarten teachers in 8 countries and helped businessmen and women open baby centers and kindergartens in 3 countries.

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Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

Descriptive research involves gathering data to provide a detailed account or depiction of a phenomenon without manipulating variables or conducting experiments.

A scholarly definition is:

“Descriptive research is defined as a research approach that describes the characteristics of the population, sample or phenomenon studied. This method focuses more on the “what” rather than the “why” of the research subject.” (Matanda, 2022, p. 63)

The key feature of descriptive research is that it merely describes phenomena and does not attempt to manipulate variables nor determine cause and effect .

To determine cause and effect , a researcher would need to use an alternate methodology, such as experimental research design .

Common approaches to descriptive research include:

• Cross-sectional research : A cross-sectional study gathers data on a population at a specific time to get descriptive data that could include categories (e.g. age or income brackets) to get a better understanding of the makeup of a population.
• Longitudinal research : Longitudinal studies return to a population to collect data at several different points in time, allowing for description of changes in categories over time. However, as it’s descriptive, it cannot infer cause and effect (Erickson, 2017).

Methods that could be used include:

• Surveys: For example, sending out a census survey to be completed at the exact same date and time by everyone in a population.
• Case Study : For example, an in-depth description of a specific person or group of people to gain in-depth qualitative information that can describe a phenomenon but cannot be generalized to other cases.
• Observational Method : For example, a researcher taking field notes in an ethnographic study. (Siedlecki, 2020)

Descriptive Research Examples

1. Understanding Autism Spectrum Disorder (Psychology): Researchers analyze various behavior patterns, cognitive skills, and social interaction abilities specific to children with Autism Spectrum Disorder to comprehensively describe the disorder’s symptom spectrum. This detailed description classifies it as descriptive research, rather than analytical or experimental, as it merely records what is observed without altering any variables or trying to establish causality.

2. Consumer Purchase Decision Process in E-commerce Marketplaces (Marketing): By documenting and describing all the factors that influence consumer decisions on online marketplaces, researchers don’t attempt to predict future behavior or establish causes—just describe observed behavior—making it descriptive research.

3. Impacts of Climate Change on Agricultural Practices (Environmental Studies): Descriptive research is seen as scientists outline how climate changes influence various agricultural practices by observing and then meticulously categorizing the impacts on crop variability, farming seasons, and pest infestations without manipulating any variables in real-time.

4. Work Environment and Employee Performance (Human Resources Management): A study of this nature, describing the correlation between various workplace elements and employee performance, falls under descriptive research as it merely narrates the observed patterns without altering any conditions or testing hypotheses.

5. Factors Influencing Student Performance (Education): Researchers describe various factors affecting students’ academic performance, such as studying techniques, parental involvement, and peer influence. The study is categorized as descriptive research because its principal aim is to depict facts as they stand without trying to infer causal relationships.

6. Technological Advances in Healthcare (Healthcare): This research describes and categorizes different technological advances (such as telemedicine, AI-enabled tools, digital collaboration) in healthcare without testing or modifying any parameters, making it an example of descriptive research.

7. Urbanization and Biodiversity Loss (Ecology): By describing the impact of rapid urban expansion on biodiversity loss, this study serves as a descriptive research example. It observes the ongoing situation without manipulating it, offering a comprehensive depiction of the existing scenario rather than investigating the cause-effect relationship.

8. Architectural Styles across Centuries (Art History): A study documenting and describing various architectural styles throughout centuries essentially represents descriptive research. It aims to narrate and categorize facts without exploring the underlying reasons or predicting future trends.

9. Media Usage Patterns among Teenagers (Sociology): When researchers document and describe the media consumption habits among teenagers, they are performing a descriptive research study. Their main intention is to observe and report the prevailing trends rather than establish causes or predict future behaviors.

10. Dietary Habits and Lifestyle Diseases (Nutrition Science): By describing the dietary patterns of different population groups and correlating them with the prevalence of lifestyle diseases, researchers perform descriptive research. They merely describe observed connections without altering any diet plans or lifestyles.

11. Shifts in Global Energy Consumption (Environmental Economics): When researchers describe the global patterns of energy consumption and how they’ve shifted over the years, they conduct descriptive research. The focus is on recording and portraying the current state without attempting to infer causes or predict the future.

12. Literacy and Employment Rates in Rural Areas (Sociology): A study aims at describing the literacy rates in rural areas and correlating it with employment levels. It falls under descriptive research because it maps the scenario without manipulating parameters or proving a hypothesis.

13. Women Representation in Tech Industry (Gender Studies): A detailed description of the presence and roles of women across various sectors of the tech industry is a typical case of descriptive research. It merely observes and records the status quo without establishing causality or making predictions.

14. Impact of Urban Green Spaces on Mental Health (Environmental Psychology): When researchers document and describe the influence of green urban spaces on residents’ mental health, they are undertaking descriptive research. They seek purely to understand the current state rather than exploring cause-effect relationships.

15. Trends in Smartphone usage among Elderly (Gerontology): Research describing how the elderly population utilizes smartphones, including popular features and challenges encountered, serves as descriptive research. Researcher’s aim is merely to capture what is happening without manipulating variables or posing predictions.

16. Shifts in Voter Preferences (Political Science): A study describing the shift in voter preferences during a particular electoral cycle is descriptive research. It simply records the preferences revealed without drawing causal inferences or suggesting future voting patterns.

17. Understanding Trust in Autonomous Vehicles (Transportation Psychology): This comprises research describing public attitudes and trust levels when it comes to autonomous vehicles. By merely depicting observed sentiments, without engineering any situations or offering predictions, it’s considered descriptive research.

18. The Impact of Social Media on Body Image (Psychology): Descriptive research to outline the experiences and perceptions of individuals relating to body image in the era of social media. Observing these elements without altering any variables qualifies it as descriptive research.

Descriptive vs Experimental Research

Descriptive research merely observes, records, and presents the actual state of affairs without manipulating any variables, while experimental research involves deliberately changing one or more variables to determine their effect on a particular outcome.

De Vaus (2001) succinctly explains that descriptive studies find out what is going on , but experimental research finds out why it’s going on /

Simple definitions are below:

• Descriptive research is primarily about describing the characteristics or behaviors in a population, often through surveys or observational methods. It provides rich detail about a specific phenomenon but does not allow for conclusive causal statements; however, it can offer essential leads or ideas for further experimental research (Ivey, 2016).
• Experimental research , often conducted in controlled environments, aims to establish causal relationships by manipulating one or more independent variables and observing the effects on dependent variables (Devi, 2017; Mukherjee, 2019).

Experimental designs often involve a control group and random assignment . While it can provide compelling evidence for cause and effect, its artificial setting might not perfectly mirror real-worldly conditions, potentially affecting the generalizability of its findings.

These two types of research are complementary, with descriptive studies often leading to hypotheses that are then tested experimentally (Devi, 2017; Zhao et al., 2021).

Benefits and Limitations of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research offers several benefits: it allows researchers to gather a vast amount of data and present a complete picture of the situation or phenomenon under study, even within large groups or over long time periods.

It’s also flexible in terms of the variety of methods used, such as surveys, observations, and case studies, and it can be instrumental in identifying patterns or trends and generating hypotheses (Erickson, 2017).

However, it also has its limitations.

The primary drawback is that it can’t establish cause-effect relationships, as no variables are manipulated. This lack of control over variables also opens up possibilities for bias, as researchers might inadvertently influence responses during data collection (De Vaus, 2001).

Additionally, the findings of descriptive research are often not generalizable since they are heavily reliant on the chosen sample’s characteristics.

See More Types of Research Design Here

De Vaus, D. A. (2001). Research Design in Social Research . SAGE Publications.

Devi, P. S. (2017). Research Methodology: A Handbook for Beginners . Notion Press.

Erickson, G. S. (2017). Descriptive research design. In  New Methods of Market Research and Analysis  (pp. 51-77). Edward Elgar Publishing.

Gresham, B. B. (2016). Concepts of Evidence-based Practice for the Physical Therapist Assistant . F.A. Davis Company.

Ivey, J. (2016). Is descriptive research worth doing?.  Pediatric nursing ,  42 (4), 189. ( Source )

Krishnaswamy, K. N., Sivakumar, A. I., & Mathirajan, M. (2009). Management Research Methodology: Integration of Principles, Methods and Techniques . Pearson Education.

Matanda, E. (2022). Research Methods and Statistics for Cross-Cutting Research: Handbook for Multidisciplinary Research . Langaa RPCIG.

Monsen, E. R., & Van Horn, L. (2007). Research: Successful Approaches . American Dietetic Association.

Mukherjee, S. P. (2019). A Guide to Research Methodology: An Overview of Research Problems, Tasks and Methods . CRC Press.

Siedlecki, S. L. (2020). Understanding descriptive research designs and methods.  Clinical Nurse Specialist ,  34 (1), 8-12. ( Source )

Zhao, P., Ross, K., Li, P., & Dennis, B. (2021). Making Sense of Social Research Methodology: A Student and Practitioner Centered Approach . SAGE Publications.

• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 23 Achieved Status Examples
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 25 Defense Mechanisms Examples
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 15 Theory of Planned Behavior Examples
• Dave Cornell (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/dave-cornell-phd/ 18 Adaptive Behavior Examples

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 23 Achieved Status Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 15 Ableism Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 25 Defense Mechanisms Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 15 Theory of Planned Behavior Examples

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• COVID-19’s impact on food environment in the Indian states of Telangana, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Punjab: a descriptive qualitative study to build further research in India’s food environment resilience building
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• http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8041-9968 Jørgen Torgerstuen Johnsen 1 , 2 ,
• Marjorie Rafaela Lima do Vale 1 ,
• Rekha Bhangaonkar 3 ,
• http://orcid.org/0009-0005-4014-2518 Wanja Nyaga 1 ,
• Sally Ayyad 1 and
• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3295-168X Sumantra Ray 1 , 2 , 4
• 1 NNEdPro Global Institute for Food Nutrition and Health , Cambridge , UK
• 2 School of Biomedical Sciences , Ulster University , Coleraine , UK
• 3 Department of Land Economy , University of Cambridge , Cambridge , UK
• 4 School of the Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Cambridge , Cambridge , UK
• Correspondence to Jørgen Torgerstuen Johnsen; j.johnsen{at}nnedpro.org.uk ; Professor Sumantra Ray; s.ray{at}nnedpro.org.uk

Background and aim Globally, COVID-19 has had a profound impact on food and nutrition security. This paper aims to gather the perspective from Transforming India’s Green Revolution by Research and Empowerment for Sustainable food Supplies (TIGR2ESS) Flagship Project 6 (FP-6) team on the impact of COVID-19 on the food systems in India. The responses collected will be used for further research projects after TIGR2ESS ends in March 2022.

Method Members of the TIGR2ESS FP-6 team in India were invited to complete an online open-ended questionnaire with 21 questions exploring the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on food systems and environments in India. The questionnaire and data analysis were guided by the food environment framework developed by Turner et al and the adaptations proposed by the United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition. Discussions and organisation of codes under the respective themes and subthemes were held online using the virtual platform Miro. 35 individual codes and 65 subcodes were agreed on. Responses were collated and analysed using the template with support from NVivo software and synthesised the relevant themes under Turner et al ’s framework.

Results The organisation representatives from TIGR2ESS FP-6 (n=16) captured the perceived impact of the COVID-19 on food systems and the environment from the Indian states of Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Telangana and West Bengal. Negative disruptions were caused by the COVID-19 restrictions across all the themes affecting food actors and consumers. Myths and misconception on dietary intake were reported across the state affecting especially the consumption of poultry. Positive aspects such as home cooking and awareness around healthy food emerged.

Conclusion Potential research areas were identified and involve the effects of supply chain resilience buidling, farmers selling their produce directly to consumer and the revival of local and traditional food’s impact on diets, understanding the harm for consumers by implementing restrictions, how indigenous and local food may impact peoples’ diets, how to build on the encouragement of healthy home cooking during the pandemic, investigate the negative and positive effects of digital environments during the pandemic and dispelling myths and misconception while advocating for healthy diets.

• Malnutrition

Data availability statement

Data are available on reasonable request. Please contact the main author to request the data material.

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See:  http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjnph-2023-000844

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WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ON THIS TOPIC

COVID-19 and its measures to contain its spread have profoundly impacted food and nutrition security worldwide.

WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS

Key insights and break down of COVID-19 impact on food system mechanisms in the Indian states of Telangana, Maharashtra, West Begal, Tamil Nadu and Punjab.

HOW THIS STUDY MIGHT AFFECT RESEARCH, PRACTICE OR POLICY

Future potential action-research areas were identified within supply chain resilience, interstate collaboration for emergency response, price stabilisation strategies, market dynamics, and consumer engagement for future food systems resilience building.

This study provides key insights into the similarities and differences in the impact of major shocks to food systems across five diverse Indian states spanning different ago-ecological zones.

The global spread of COVID-19 since early 2020 has profoundly impacted food and nutrition security. 1 Measures to contain its spread led to disruptions in food systems worldwide, affecting various stages from production to distribution. This affected the agricultural workforce, packers, farmers and vendors, with many having to close or limit their operations. Additionally, global trade disruptions, physical distancing and restrictions in grocery stores resulted in consequences like empty shelves, panic buying and long queues. 2–5 The COVID-19 preventive policies on suspending important social protection programmes were profound and disproportionately affected the poor and marginalised regions and communities. 1 6

In India, COVID-19 restrictions disrupted agricultural production and supply. 7 Strict mobility limits led to labour shortages, impacting production and food distribution. 8 Many agricultural workers were compelled to return to their home villages in some states, intensifying strains on local food systems. 9 The discontinuity in transportation led to dumping of food produce with an estimated 10%–20% drop in fruit and vegetable availability. 7 Reduced market hours have reportedly further exacerbated food waste. Misinformation, largely from social media, claiming that poultry carried COVID-19 was reported to be widespread by the media. 10 The restrictions also impacted the economic activity of consumers 2 considering a widespread loss of jobs and incomes, 11 especially for informal workers, the poor, 2 12 women 13 and smallholder farmers, which constitute around 86% of India’s agricultural sector. 14 Changes in food prices further restricted food affordability for consumers. Changes in food prices hindered affordability, with declines for some crops but increases for items like lentils, vegetables, fish and meat. 2 7 There were reports of consumers prioritising essential products followed by a focus on healthy products. 11 The Indian government responded to the COVID-19 pandemic with relief packages, including food and cash transfers. 2

It is essential for countries to monitor the situation closely, gather lessons learnt and data to avert the worst outcomes with respect to food security and malnutrition and protect the human right to food. The former United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition (UNSCN), now United Nations (UN) Nutrition, argued that there was a need to understand better the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on both external and personal domains of food environments. The external domain includes aspects related to food availability, prices and vendors—while the personal dimension includes geographical access, affordability, convenience and desirability. 15

Using the UN Nutrition framework, this paper aims to gather the perspective from Transforming India’s Green Revolution by Research and Empowerment for Sustainable food Supplies (TIGR2ESS) Flagship Project 6 (FP-6) team on the impact of the COVID-19 on the food systems in India. The responses collected will be used for further research projects after TIGR2ESS ends in March 2022.

An open-ended structured online survey was conducted to gather information on the perception of relevant stakeholders on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on food systems and environments in their respective Indian states. The data were collected once by the respective organisations between May and September 2020 using Qualtrics, an online survey software hosted by the University of Cambridge. The survey was designed to capture the current situation in the respective states.

Sample of key stakeholders

Relevant information on the potential impact of COVID-19 on food systems and environments was collected through individuals engaged in the TIGR2ESS project. TIGR2ESS is organised around six FPs. The FP-6: Impacting Well-being in Rural and Urban Communities consists of a multidisciplinary group of social scientists, land economists, basic scientists and a nutrition think tank, 16 thus hosting vast knowledge of Indian food systems and environments. Table 1 presents more detailed characteristics of TIGR2ESS and its FP-6 study participant organisations.

• View inline

Description of participant organisations from TIGR2ESS FP-6

Food environments in the COVID-19 pandemic framework

The research team designed a 21-question open-ended questionnaire to explore the potential disruption in food systems and environments in the TIGR2ESS FP-6 operated states and regions (see online supplemental material 1 for more details). The open-ended structured questionnaire was informed by the food environment framework developed by Turner et al 17 and the adaptations proposed by the UNSCN to describe potential COVID-19’s impact on food systems and environments. 15 This framework divides the food environment into external and personal domains. The external domain considers aspects such as availability, food prices, vendors, markets and regulation while the personal domain considers affordability, accessibility, convenience and desirability. The questions enclosed the potential impact of COVID-19 on food production, availability, access and waste in the respective organisation’s region/state. The responses could be informed by existing published materials or personal experiences of the respective team. The questions enclosed the background information about the members of the respective team and COVID-19 impact on food production, food availability, food access and consumer behaviours. The questionnaire was reviewed by volunteers from the NNEdPro virtual core, consisting of over 70 individuals globally with scientific experiences across the nutrition field.

Supplemental material

Data collection.

Initial discussions to participate were held with all FP-6 stakeholders. Five organisations agreed to partake in the study and formed respective teams to answer the questionnaire. The following organisations participated: the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) (Telangana) (n=5), Indian Institute of Technology (IIT-Bombay) (Maharashtra) (n=3), MS Swaminathan Research Foundation (Tamil Nadu) (n=3), NNEdPro-Kolkata office (West Bengal) (n=3) and Panjab University (Punjab) (n=2) (see table 1 ). Team leaders within the respective organisations were asked to compile responses from their respective teams, which could be achieved by holding a workshop, interviews or capturing the perceptions of all its members. While IIT-Bombay, MMSRF, NNEdPro-Kolkata office and Panjab University relied on published materials and personal experiences of their respective teams, the ICRISAT team chose to undertake a telephonic survey to understand the different perspectives of the COVID-19 crisis. They used a translated version of the questionnaire and phoned 40 randomly selected households between July and August 2020 in the urban, periurban, tribal and rural locations of Telangana. The households were recruited as respondents from previous surveys and 10 households from urban, periurban, tribal and rural location, respectively, within Telangana were randomly selected. Two women and 38 men responded to the telephone survey. ICRISAT then synthesised the responses among the team and summarised the respective answers for the authors to analyse.

Data analysis

Data were analysed using template analysis. 18 All five transcripts provided by the team leaders of the respective organisations were initially coded by one researcher (RB) using a deductive approach with predefined codes based on the framework developed by Turner et al . 17 Another researcher (MRLdV) used an inductive approach introducing further codes. The two (RB and MRLdV) researchers met with the lead author (JTJ) to compare the codes and agree on the codes that should be applied to subsequent transcripts. Discussions and organisation of codes under the respective themes (availability and consumer accessibility; food prices and consumer affordability; vendors, markets, regulations and consumer convenience; and consumer desirability) were held online using the virtual platform Miro. 19 35 individual codes and 64 subcodes were agreed on. Various examples of the codes were product shelf-life, food waste, food ration, online shopping/delivery services and gardening behaviour while examples of subcodes were fast food, waiting time, production and trade restrictions (see online supplemental material 2 for more details). The agreed template was then applied to all transcripts by three researchers (MRLdV, WN and SA) using NVivo and further verified by the lead author (JTJ). The template created was used to descriptively summarise the information provided by participants. The senior researcher (SR) discussed the summaries and way forward with the lead author (JTJ). The present the results, the researchers decided to synthesise the relevant themes under the Turner et al 17 framework.

The perceived impact of COVID-19 on food systems and environments in India was captured and presented by the following categories under Turner et al 17 framework: availability and consumer accessibility; food prices and consumer affordability; vendors, markets, regulations and consumer convenience and consumer desirability. Negative disruptions were caused by the COVID-19 restrictions across all the themes affecting food actors and consumers. Myths and misconceptions on dietary intake were reported across the states, affecting especially the consumption of poultry. However, some positive aspects emerged, such as home cooking and awareness of healthy food. The representation from TIGR2ESS FP-6 participants (n=16) captured perspectives from the states of Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Telangana and West Bengal. The respective organisation quotations were given individual numbers at random to keep the anonymity of the participants.

Availability and consumer accessibility

During the COVID-19 lockdown, the organisations noted a marked shortage of fresh produce, especially vegetables, poultry and fish. Despite this, local vendors managed to maintain limited supplies in certain areas. The agricultural sector faced labour shortages, leading to crops standing unharvested. Transportation breakdowns inflated costs and hindered market access. Early on, panic buying led to shortages of staple foods at the beginning of the COVID-19 implemented restrictions.

For consumers, fish and fruits were hardest hit, with limited access to vegetables, animal products and pulses. While high-income groups leaned towards fresh produce, the less affluent turned to cereal-based diets. One organisation also reported consumers had limited access to markets and an increased consumption of local and indigenous products. Efforts to address food scarcity included local kitchens and government-supported meal schemes, but manpower constraints due to movement restrictions were a major bottleneck in implementation and posed challenges.

Social protection programmes (such as the mid-day meal programme and community kitchens) initially struggled but quickly adapted, providing dry rations and doorstep delivery of mid-day meals. Financial aid, fuel support and free food kits were established. Youth club volunteers and institutions were crucial in providing for vulnerable populations. Essential items were distributed through the public distribution system. These combined efforts, though facing initial challenges, played a vital role in alleviating food scarcity during the pandemic.

Free food kit (rice, oil, sugar and pulses) was distributed to the BPL (below the poverty line) household through ration card along with Rs.1000 for other necessities. In many places, local formal and informal institutions including panchayat, youth clubs and other volunteers join together to meet the food needs of older people as well as the people who reside at the roadside. Organisation 4

The organisations described curfew affecting individuals’ accessibility to markets by restricting mobility to access diverse foods. These restrictions were reported to influence diets across socioeconomic categories differently, yet one of the organisations reported no apparent changes in individuals’ dietary intake.

Digital food ordering increased among high-income groups, and the pandemic encouraged more people to shop online. Reportedly, only a small section of society procured food through mobile-based applications.

… the pandemic is causing more people to shop for groceries online. The demand for local products, digital commerce and omnichannel services such a home delivery, chat features and virtual consultations is surging, and is likely to endure beyond this crisis. Organisation 2

Food prices and consumers’ affordability

Participants universally reported increased food prices nationwide, particularly for vegetables, fruits, greens, meat and seafood. In some states, there was an initial surge in vegetable and fruit prices at the start of the pandemic, followed by a return to prepandemic levels. Interestingly, despite farmers selling their products at lower rates, consumers often paid higher prices at the point of purchase. Price disparities were also observed based on the place of purchase, with wholesalers offering lower prices than retailers.

The uptick in food prices coupled with reduced income and earning opportunities had varying impacts on different socioeconomic groups. Those reliant on the informal sector were hit hardest, experiencing job loss and significant income reduction, pushing them into debt and food insecurity. Consumers generally bought smaller quantities and shifted towards predominantly consuming cereals and coarse grains. Notably, the rise in food prices, along with limited food accessibility, prompted a resurgence in locally produced and traditional foods.

Vendors, markets, regulations and consumer convenience

The organisations detailed how shortages of fruits and vegetables, stemming from harvest and supply chain restrictions, significantly impacted vendors and markets. With road and rail closures due to movement restrictions, producers faced challenges in reaching markets. Interstate transportation disruptions particularly affected vendors reliant on supplies from other states, affecting a range of products, including vegetables, fruits, poultry and marine items, leading to losses for poultry and milk farmers.

As it was the harvesting period, there were delays in harvesting due to shortage of labour and transportation to market. Also, the traders who were involved in the value chain were missed out during the crisis. Farmers fetched low prices for their grain crops. In case of perishables (fruits and vegetables) they incurred heavy losses as they couldn't find proper markets to sell their produce. There were serious implications on the export market as the fresh products such as fruits and sea food could not timely have marketed due to COVID restrictions. Organisation 1.

Food shortages and high prices, alongside movement restrictions, resulted in reduced customer turnout, prompting vendors and markets to shorten business hours or close altogether. Some organisations reported the emergence of small farmer groups directly trading with consumers. Grocers and supermarkets implemented purchasing limits on select products.

All organisations noted a surge in food loss and waste as closures left vendors unable to sell perishable items, resulting in significant losses of crops, poultry, meat and seafood. Two of the organisations reported losses of poultry, meat and seafood, which had to be thrown.

Vegetables, fruits, and greens diversity as well as animal and seafood had decreased hugely, which mainly due to lack of financial capability among middle/low-income/BPL populations, thereby reducing the demand for these produces overall. Along with this, the factor of availability and price also matters a lot here. Organisation 3.

Consumer experiences were marked by long queues, especially at local supermarkets, necessitating multiple visits for a single item. However, those shopping at local groceries or neighbourhood shops encountered shorter queues.

Most organisations reported an uptick in home cooking due to food outlet closures. While there was a positive shift towards healthier options like nuts, salads and fruits, some states observed an increased burden on women for household cooking responsibilities. A positive trend emerged with family members sharing cooking duties. One organisation noted an emphasis on more hygienic food preparation methods, including vegetable washing in salt or turmeric solution before cooking and storing.

Consumer desirability

The organisations noted a surge in demand for local produce, seasonal items and hot meals in their respective states. Two organisations mentioned a shift away from ready-made and fast foods, with a reluctance towards roadside and mobile kitchens. One organisation highlighted increased efforts to bolster local food systems, leading to a rise in terrace and home gardening. Another organisation reported increased consumption of fruits, vegetables, poultry, eggs and spices among urban consumers, as they perceived them as protective foods. The consumers preferred locally produced produce in these cases.

More of poultry and meat were consumed as protein-rich foods were advocated through the social media, and newspapers by the local government. There was an increase in the consumption of fruits and vegetables and also spices. Outside food was completely avoided. Organisation 1

Consumers were observed to prefer locally produced fruits, vegetables, poultry, eggs and spices, perceiving them as protective foods. However, myths and misconceptions play a role in purchasing decisions. For instance, misinformation about COVID-19 spreading through poultry significantly impacted consumption in one state, while in another, consumers believed poultry, meat and eggs to boost immunity.

Further misconceptions included a belief that non-vegetarian foods lowered immunity and increased susceptibility to COVID-19. Some consumers viewed ginger, garlic, turmeric and fruits as immunity boosters. Additionally, there was an increase in the consumption of warm water, lemon, spices, herbal teas and citrus fruits. Boiling and cooling portable water was considered necessary to ensure sterilisation from the COVID-19 virus.

In this study, five organisations across five state in India reported profound COVID-19 disruption in the food systems in their respective states in four ways: (1) disruption in market-open hours and access to vendors and markets, (2) reduction in consumer affordability due to increased food prices, (3) the constraints on availability and consumer accessibility of food and (4) change in consumer desirability. In this section, we will discuss the effects of each theme and consider further research which can be done by the respective organisations post-TIGR2ESS FP-6. A clear cascade effect from food actors influencing consumers and vice versa could be seen in the results as many statements overlap the respective themes.

The observations in this study reinforce previous assumptions that vendors and markets were heavily affected by regulations, resulting in disruption in food supply chains. Movement restrictions between states particularly affected vendors relying on produce from other states. This dependency on interstate trade and centralised production poses challenges for future food system resilience. 20–23 Exploring strategies to mitigate such dependencies is crucial for ensuring access to essential and nutritious produce during emergencies. Further research in this area is imperative for building robust systems resilient to future disruptions.

Access restrictions due to COVID-19 resulted in long queues for the consumers, a phenomenon observed globally. 1 Interestingly, participants noted instances where consumers turned to local shops, experiencing shorter wait times. A study from Italy also highlighted a similar shift towards local and local agri-food. 24 A seeming natural shift due to the restrictions in market access was described as smallholder farmers self-organised to trade directly with consumers. This shift prompted smallholder farmers to trade independently with consumers. Future investigations on the factors behind varying customer traffic in different shops could provide insights for supporting short-chain suppliers and promoting decentralised food access.

While studies have shown a shift during COVID-19 in consumer waste patterns leading to a reduction of food waste at the household level, 25 one concern raised in our study was the waste generated by marketplaces that were unable to sell their perishable products. This points to the lack of measures in place to effectively use perishable products and should be brought to future attention in future resilience building. Further research and mitigations can be built on existing studies and guidance like the six priority areas for action report by the Global Panel on Agriculture and Food Systems for Nutrition. 26

Understanding the health implications, particularly among socioeconomic groups, requires further exploration. The reported shift towards less diverse, cereal-dominant diets, rather than nutritionally balanced options is of concern. A study from Gujarat and Maharashtra, India, also observed a similar trend towards more unhealthy food choices. 27 While many factors are in play for this change, one organisation notably reported an initial increase in fruit and vegetable prices at the onset of the pandemic, which later returned to prepandemic levels. Another study from the early stages of the pandemic noted rising vegetable prices but highlighted a reduction in poultry and egg prices due to misinformation surrounding COVID-19 and these food groups, 28 of which could serve as important food groups against malnutrition.

Our study acknowledges the increased reliance on food aid yet does not delve into its operational details or impact on dietary patterns. This indicates a need for further research into the role of food banks and distribution centres in promoting and sustaining a healthy diet within the Indian context. One avenue to explore is the development of evidence-based nutrition standards for food distribution, 29 applicable at both national and local levels. The approach outlined in the study by Macaninch et al 30 could serve as a valuable guide for conducting such assessments. Additionally, a crucial preventative measure lies in school/mid-day meal programmes. Social programmes like school/mid-day meals play a vital role for vulnerable populations, particularly during a pandemic. Another study clearly demonstrates the negative impact of these disruptions on decades of efforts to combat malnutrition. 31

Consumers reportedly shifted to online shopping, and a small section of the society used mobile-based applications to order food. However, this was mainly observed in high-income groups in our findings. This is not unique to India as multiple observations have been reported elsewhere, 32 especially for food delivery from restaurants. 33 There is a need for a better understanding of this shift in diets for Indians and to prevent unhealthy food marketing. For example, the shift to digital environments promoted unhealthy food consumption in Brazil. 34 Digital food environment can positively and negatively impact peoples’ diets, 35 especially for children and adolescents. 36 Research on the diet impact of increased utilisation of the digital food environment is needed in an Indian context.

Interestingly, the organisations in this study described some positive trends in consumer desirability that occurred and should be further explored. The increase in home cooking, with proper knowledge and ingredients, can positively impact peoples’ diets. 37 38 However, as pointed out in this study, there is a risk of shifting these types of household responsibilities to women, burdening them with more responsibilities. Proper education and encouragement to share these responsibilities are important to lessen further burdens on women during emergencies.

The findings underscore how myths and misconceptions can significantly impact perceptions of certain food products. Items believed to be linked to diseases, like poultry, tend to suffer from negative consumer sentiment. This not only affects the income of vendors and farmers but also leads to a reduction in the consumption of nutritious foods, especially among groups that rely on them. The sudden exclusion of certain food groups can result in a drop in essential nutrients in people’s diets. Interestingly, there was an uptick in vegetable consumption as they were believed to boost the immune system. However, health-promoting products like herbal teas and ginger can be wrongly marketed as preventive or curative foods for diseases. Myth-busting is an essential preventative measure. The Indian Government, media and the WHO promptly took action to debunk such myths, which either affected the sales of nutritious produce or led to unnecessary product sales. 10 39 However, a more in-depth understanding of how to swiftly identify and counter instances of myths and misconceptions would be invaluable for prompt action in the face of disruptive misinformation.

Strengths, limitations and assumptions

This analysis is limited in scope. It draws from key stakeholders within the TIGR2ESS FP-6 group, with additional input from ICRSIAT providing household-level data summaries. The findings reflect a specific group’s experiences and perspectives. While the strengths lie in participants’ expertise in nutrition and food systems, their insights are often secondhand, which can lead to potential misinterpretation. Additionally, recall bias may influence their reflections. The study’s primary objective is not to discuss the nutritional impact of COVID-19-related food system shocks but to gather insights for future research on food environment disruption and resilience-building projects.

The COVID-19 pandemic has illustrated the vulnerabilities of food systems and environments in India. This descriptive analysis highlights several critical themes for future exploration and research by FP-6 stakeholders after the conclusion of the TIGR2ESS project.

For actors in food and nutrition security, potential action-research areas include supply chain resilience, interstate collaboration for emergency response, price stabilisation strategies and a more nuanced understanding of market and vendor policies, particularly for indigenous communities. Examining direct farmer-to-consumer sales and the resurgence of local and traditional foods on dietary patterns, as well as understanding how local decentralised shops can enhance consumer access, are key topics for further investigation.

From the consumer perspective, potential research areas encompass understanding the impact of restrictions on consumers, safeguarding and operating social security programmes during emergencies, assessing the influence of indigenous and local foods on dietary habits, leveraging the promotion of healthy home cooking during the pandemic, exploring both positive and negative effects of digital environments and addressing myths and misconceptions while advocating for nutritious diets.

These insights extend beyond the COVID-19 context, contributing to the ongoing pursuit of building robust food systems capable of withstanding future disruption.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Not applicable.

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Supplementary materials

Supplementary data.

This web only file has been produced by the BMJ Publishing Group from an electronic file supplied by the author(s) and has not been edited for content.

• Data supplement 1
• Data supplement 2

Contributors JTJ is the guarantor. Significant inputs, draft and comments was provided by all authors. Additional data analysis and coding were provided by MRLdV, RB, WN and SA.

Funding This research was supported by TIGR2ESS through the Global Challenges Reserach Fund, UK

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Supplemental material This content has been supplied by the author(s). It has not been vetted by BMJ Publishing Group Limited (BMJ) and may not have been peer-reviewed. Any opinions or recommendations discussed are solely those of the author(s) and are not endorsed by BMJ. BMJ disclaims all liability and responsibility arising from any reliance placed on the content. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise.

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