best biography charles darwin

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Early life and education

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What is Charles Darwin famous for?

What is evolution, as charles darwin understood it, what was charles darwin’s educational background, what was charles darwin’s family life like, what were the social impacts of charles darwin’s work.

Charles Darwin

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Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection is the foundation upon which modern evolutionary theory is built. The theory was outlined in Darwin’s seminal work On the Origin of Species , published in 1859. Although Victorian England (and the rest of the world) was slow to embrace natural selection as the mechanism that drives evolution, the concept of evolution itself gained widespread traction by the end of Darwin’s life.

Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution had three main components: that variation occurred randomly among members of a species; that an individual’s traits could be inherited by its progeny; and that the struggle for existence would allow only those with favorable traits to survive. Although many of his ideas have been borne out by modern science, Darwin didn’t get everything right: traces of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck ’s outdated theory of evolution remained in Darwin’s own. He was also unable to correctly establish how traits were inherited, which wasn’t clarified until the rediscovery of Gregor Mendel ’s work with peas.

Growing up, Charles Darwin was always attracted to the sciences. In 1825 his father sent him to the University of Edinburgh to study medicine. There he was exposed to many of the dissenting ideas of the time, including those of Robert Edmond Grant, a former student of the French evolutionist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck . He transferred to Christ’s College, Cambridge, in 1828, where his mentors mostly endorsed the idea of providential design. A botany professor suggested he join a voyage on the HMS Beagle —a trip that would provide him with much of his evidence for the theory of evolution by natural selection .

Charles Darwin was born in England to a well-to-do family in 1809. His father was a doctor, and his mother—who died when he was only eight years old—was the daughter of a successful 18th-century industrialist. Darwin was not the first of his family to gravitate toward naturalism: his father’s father, Erasmus Darwin , was a physician, inventor, and poet who had developed his own theories on the evolution of species. Darwin later married his first cousin on his mother’s side, Emma Wedgwood. Together they had 10 children, 3 of whom died at a young age.

Charles Darwin’s theories hugely impacted scientific thought. But his ideas also affected the realms of politics, economics, and literature. More insidious were the ways that Darwin’s ideas were used to support theories such as social Darwinism and eugenics , which used biological determinism to advocate for the elimination of people deemed socially unfit. Although Darwin himself was an abolitionist, the social Darwinist ideas inspired by his work contributed to some of the most racist and classist social programs of the last 150 years.

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Charles Darwin (born February 12, 1809, Shrewsbury, Shropshire , England—died April 19, 1882, Downe, Kent) was an English naturalist whose scientific theory of evolution by natural selection became the foundation of modern evolutionary studies. An affable country gentleman, Darwin at first shocked religious Victorian society by suggesting that animals and humans shared a common ancestry. However, his nonreligious biology appealed to the rising class of professional scientists, and by the time of his death evolutionary imagery had spread through all of science , literature, and politics. Darwin, himself an agnostic , was accorded the ultimate British accolade of burial in Westminster Abbey , London.

Darwin formulated his bold theory in private in 1837–39, after returning from a voyage around the world aboard HMS Beagle , but it was not until two decades later that he finally gave it full public expression in On the Origin of Species (1859), a book that has deeply influenced modern Western society and thought.

Darwin was the second son of society doctor Robert Waring Darwin and of Susannah Wedgwood, daughter of the Unitarian pottery industrialist Josiah Wedgwood . Darwin’s other grandfather, Erasmus Darwin , a freethinking physician and poet fashionable before the French Revolution , was author of Zoonomia; or the Laws of Organic Life (1794–96). Darwin’s mother died when he was eight, and he was cared for by his three elder sisters. The boy stood in awe of his overbearing father, whose astute medical observations taught him much about human psychology. But he hated the rote learning of Classics at the traditional Anglican Shrewsbury School, where he studied between 1818 and 1825. Science was then considered dehumanizing in English public schools, and for dabbling in chemistry Darwin was condemned by his headmaster (and nicknamed “Gas” by his schoolmates).

His father, considering the 16-year-old a wastrel interested only in game shooting, sent him to study medicine at Edinburgh University in 1825. Later in life, Darwin gave the impression that he had learned little during his two years at Edinburgh . In fact, it was a formative experience. There was no better science education in a British university. He was taught to understand the chemistry of cooling rocks on the primitive Earth and how to classify plants by the modern “natural system.” At the Edinburgh Museum he was taught to stuff birds by John Edmonstone, a freed South American slave , and to identify the rock strata and colonial flora and fauna.

More crucially, the university’s radical students exposed the teenager to the latest Continental sciences. Edinburgh attracted English Dissenters who were barred from graduating at the Anglican universities of Oxford and Cambridge , and at student societies Darwin heard freethinkers deny the Divine design of human facial anatomy and argue that animals shared all the human mental faculties. One talk, on the mind as the product of a material brain , was officially censored, for such materialism was considered subversive in the conservative decades after the French Revolution. Darwin was witnessing the social penalties of holding deviant views. As he collected sea slugs and sea pens on nearby shores, he was accompanied by Robert Edmond Grant, a radical evolutionist and disciple of the French biologist Jean-Baptiste Lamarck . An expert on sponges , Grant became Darwin’s mentor, teaching him about the growth and relationships of primitive marine invertebrates , which Grant believed held the key to unlocking the mysteries surrounding the origin of more-complex creatures. Darwin, encouraged to tackle the larger questions of life through a study of invertebrate zoology , made his own observations on the larval sea mat ( Flustra ) and announced his findings at the student societies.

The young Darwin learned much in Edinburgh’s rich intellectual environment , but not medicine: he loathed anatomy , and (pre- chloroform ) surgery sickened him. His freethinking father, shrewdly realizing that the church was a better calling for an aimless naturalist, switched him to Christ’s College, Cambridge, in 1828. In a complete change of environment, Darwin was now educated as an Anglican gentleman. He took his horse , indulged his drinking, shooting, and beetle-collecting passions with other squires’ sons, and managed 10th place in the Bachelor of Arts degree in 1831. Here he was shown the conservative side of botany by a young professor, the Reverend John Stevens Henslow , while that doyen of Providential design in the animal world, the Reverend Adam Sedgwick , took Darwin to Wales in 1831 on a geologic field trip.

Fired by Alexander von Humboldt ’s account of the South American jungles in his Personal Narrative of Travels , Darwin jumped at Henslow’s suggestion of a voyage to Tierra del Fuego , at the southern tip of South America , aboard a rebuilt brig , HMS Beagle . Darwin would not sail as a lowly surgeon-naturalist but as a self-financed gentleman companion to the 26-year-old captain, Robert Fitzroy , an aristocrat who feared the loneliness of command. Fitzroy’s was to be an imperial-evangelical voyage: he planned to survey coastal Patagonia to facilitate British trade and return three “savages” previously brought to England from Tierra del Fuego and Christianized. Darwin equipped himself with weapons, books (Fitzroy gave him the first volume of Principles of Geology , by Charles Lyell ), and advice on preserving carcasses from London Zoo ’s experts. The Beagle sailed from England on December 27, 1831.

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Charles Darwin: History’s most famous biologist

Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882) transformed the way we understand the natural world with ideas that, in his day, were nothing short of revolutionary.

He and his fellow pioneers in the field of biology gave us insight into the fantastic diversity of life on Earth and its origins, including our own as a species.

Photograph of Charles Robert Darwin taken at his home, Down House, in 1881.

Charles Darwin is celebrated as one of the greatest British scientists who ever lived, but in his time his radical theories brought him into conflict with members of the Church of England.

Young Charles Darwin

Born in 1809 in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, Darwin was fascinated by the natural world from a young age. Growing up he was an avid reader of nature books and devoted his spare time to exploring the fields and woodlands around his home, collecting plants and insects.

In 1825 Darwin enrolled in medical school at the University of Edinburgh, where he witnessed surgery on a child. Surgeries at the time would have been carried out without the use of anaesthetic or antiseptics, and fatalities were common.

Watching this procedure left Darwin so traumatised that he gave up his studies without completing the course.

During his time in Edinburgh, Darwin also paid for lessons in taxidermy from John Edmonstone , a former enslaved man from Guyana. The skills Edmonstone taught Darwin became crucial just a few years further into his career.

After his time in Scotland, Darwin went to Cambridge University to study theology.

The voyage of HMS Beagle

In no rush to take holy orders, in 1831 Darwin accepted an offer to embark on a five-year voyage aboard HMS Beagle. 

Drawing of H.M.S. Beagle from A Naturalist’s Voyage Round the World by Charles Darwin.

He was recommended by one of his Cambridge professors for the role as naturalist and companion to the ship’s captain, Robert FitzRoy.

The journey would change both his life and the trajectory of Western scientific thinking.

Darwin explored remote regions and marvelled at a world so different from the one he knew. He encountered birds with bright blue feet, sharks with T-shaped heads and giant tortoises.

On his travels Darwin collected plants, animals and fossils, and took copious field notes. These collections and records provided the evidence he needed to develop his remarkable theory.

The shells in this specimen drawer were collected by Charles Darwin during the voyage of the HMS Beagle.

Darwin returned to England in 1836. A highly methodical scholar, constantly collecting and observing, he spent many years comparing and analysing specimens before finally declaring that evolution occurs by a process of natural selection.

What is the theory of natural selection?

To this day the theory of evolution by natural selection is accepted by the scientific community as the best evidence-based explanation for the diversity and complexity of life on Earth.

The theory proposes that the ‘fittest’ individual organisms - those with the characteristics best suited to their environment - are more likely to survive and reproduce. They pass on these desirable characteristics to their offspring.

Gradually these features may become more common in a population, so species change over time. If the changes are great enough, they could produce a new species altogether.

On his travels Darwin had collected finches from many of the Galápagos Islands - off the coast of Ecuador - which helped him to formulate his idea.

Cactus finch Geospiza scandens from Charles Darwin’s Zoology of the Voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle.

Some of these finches had stout beaks for eating seeds, others were insect specialists. But Darwin realised that they were all descendants of a single ancestor. As they dispersed to different islands, the birds had adapted to eat the various foods available. Natural selection had produced 13 different species of finch.

Darwin’s pigeons

From his travels on HMS Beagle, Darwin suspected that the environment might naturally manipulate species, causing them to change over time - but he couldn’t find a means to explore this effectively in the wild. 

Experimenting with artificial selection in pigeons gave him a way to study how far a species could change.

By artificially selecting features - crossing birds with particular characteristics to generate different offspring - he gathered valuable evidence for evolution by natural selection.

To illustrate his theory, Darwin bred the birds to have exaggerated features.

Original line drawing of an English Pouter pigeon from the book Variation in Animals and Plants under Domestication by Charles Darwin.

The similarity between artificial selection and natural selection is at the heart of his explanation of evolution in his revolutionary book On the Origin of Species. 

After completing his experiments, he gave all 120 of his pigeon specimens to the Museum. They are currently part of our bird collections  kept at Tring , Hertfordshire. 

Fancy breeds of rock dove  Columbia livia  donated to our collections by Charles Darwin in 1867.

A shared discovery

Darwin knew his radical ideas would be met with stiff opposition. Even after 20 years of research, he worried about how his theory of evolution would be received as it challenged widely held religious beliefs of the time. 

He delayed publishing on the topic for a great number of years while he assembled a mountain of evidence. When he learned that the young naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace had developed similar ideas, Darwin volunteered to send Wallace's ideas to a journal for immediate publication.

Letter sent to Charles Darwin by Alfred Russel Wallace.

On advice from friends, the two scientists organised a joint announcement. Their theory of evolution by natural selection was presented at the Linnean Society in London.

Both had studied the natural world extensively and made a number of observations that were critical to the development of the theory.

The following year, Darwin published the contentious but now-celebrated book, ‘On the Origin of Species’.

On the Origin of Species

Published in 1859, On the Origin of Species provoked outrage from some members of the Church of England as it implicitly contradicted the belief in divine creation.

Despite accusations of blasphemy, the book quickly became a bestseller.

Foreign language first editions of some works by Charles Darwin.

The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex - which Darwin published in 1871 - fuelled even greater debate as it suggested that humans descended from apes.

The Bishop of Oxford famously asked Thomas Huxley, one of Darwin’s most enthusiastic supporters, whether it was through his grandfather or grandmother that he claimed descent from a monkey.

Despite the attacks, Darwin’s conviction in the scientific explanation that best fit the available evidence remained unshaken.

He was keen for his ideas to reach as many people as possible and for his books to be read in many different languages. Part of his success has been attributed to his conversational and approachable writing style.

On the Origin of Species was so influential that within a year it had been published in German. In Darwin's lifetime, his book was translated into German, Danish, Dutch, French, Hungarian, Italian, Polish, Russian, Serbian, Spanish and Swedish. 

Our Library has 478 editions of On the Origin of Species in 38 languages and in Braille.

Japanese translation of On the Origin of Species, Shu No Kigen, published in 1914 as a five-volume, pocket-sized edition.

Darwin and the tree of life

Charles Darwin used the concept of a tree of life in the context of the theory of evolution to illustrate that all species on Earth are related and evolved from a common ancestor.

Darwin’s first sketch of the tree of life, found in one of his notebooks from 1837. Image reproduced with kind permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library . 

The tips of the branches show the species that are still alive today. The tree also shows those that are now extinct. Darwin explained:

‘From the first growth of the tree, many a limb and branch has decayed and dropped off; and these fallen branches of various sizes may represent those whole orders, families, and genera which have now no living representatives, and which are known to us only in a fossil state.’

Orders, families and genera are all groups that can be used to classify organisms.

The lines on the tree show evolutionary relationships between species. For example, a recent version of the tree of life would show a line between some types of dinosaurs and the earliest birds, as scientists reason that birds evolved from a particular lineage of dinosaurs.

This means that species that are closely related are found close together stemming from the same branch.

For example, humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans are all great apes, so they all belong to the same branch of the tree of life.

Darwin’s legacy

Although Darwin’s theory of evolution has been modified over time, it remains fundamental to the study of the natural world. Darwin changed not only the way we see all organisms, but also the way we see ourselves.

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The Museum Library contains the worlds largest collection of works by and about Charles Darwin. 

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From giant fossil mammals to mysterious moths, uncover the colourful stories behind some of our most fascinating specimens.

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ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Charles darwin.

Charles Darwin and his observations while aboard the HMS Beagle , changed the understanding of evolution on Earth.

Biology, Earth Science, Geography, Physical Geography

Historic photograph of Charles Darwin in profile.

Photograph by Chronical/Alamy Stock Photo

Charles Darwin was born in 1809 in Shrewsbury, England. His father, a doctor, had high hopes that his son would earn a medical degree at Edinburgh University in Scotland, where he enrolled at the age of sixteen. It turned out that Darwin was more interested in natural history than medicine—it was said that the sight of blood made him sick to his stomach. While he continued his studies in theology at Cambridge, it was his focus on natural history that became his passion.

In 1831, Darwin embarked on a voyage aboard a ship of the British Royal Navy, the HMS Beagle, employed as a naturalist . The main purpose of the trip was to survey the coastline of South America and chart its harbors to make better maps of the region. The work that Darwin did was just an added bonus.

Darwin spent much of the trip on land collecting samples of plants, animals, rocks, and fossils . He explored regions in Brazil, Argentina, Chile, and remote islands such as the Galápagos. He packed all of his specimens into crates and sent them back to England aboard other vessels.

Upon his return to England in 1836, Darwin’s work continued. Studies of his samples and notes from the trip led to groundbreaking scientific discoveries. Fossils he collected were shared with paleontologists and geologists, leading to advances in the understanding of the processes that shape the Earth’s surface. Darwin’s analysis of the plants and animals he gathered led him to question how species form and change over time. This work convinced him of the insight that he is most famous for— natural selection . The theory of natural selection says that individuals of a species are more likely to survive in their environment and pass on their genes to the next generation when they inherit traits from their parents that are best suited for that specific environment. In this way, such traits become more widespread in the species and can lead eventually to the development of a new species .

In 1859, Darwin published his thoughts about evolution and natural selection in On the Origin of Species . It was as popular as it was controversial. The book convinced many people that species change over time—a lot of time—suggesting that the planet was much older than what was commonly believed at the time: six thousand years.

Charles Darwin died in 1882 at the age of seventy-three. He is buried in Westminster Abbey in London, England.

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Charles Darwin: Biography, Theories, Contributions

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Biography of Charles Darwin

• Best Known For

Natural Selection and Evolution

• Controversies
• Research on Emotions
• Views on Women
• Contributions

Charles Darwin was a renowned British naturalist and biologist best known for his theory of evolution through natural selection. His theory that all life evolved from a common ancestor is now a cornerstone of modern science, making Darwin one of the most influential individuals in history. It is difficult to overstate the monumental influence his work has had on our scientific understanding of the world.

This article discusses Charles Darwin's life and work, including his famous theory of natural selection as well as some of his lesser-known research on human emotion.

Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England, on February 12, 1809. His father was a wealthy doctor, and his grandfather on his mother's side was the noted potter Josiah Wedgwood. After his mother’s death when he was eight, Darwin began attending boarding school with his older brother. 

Darwin originally began his studies at the University of Edinburgh Medical School, but later developed an interest in ministry and botany, eventually receiving his degree from Cambridge in 1831.

His famed voyage to the Galapagos Islands led to the observations that served as the basis for Darwin's groundbreaking theory of natural selection.

In 1839, Darwin married his cousin Emma Wedgwood. They had 10 children together, with seven surviving to adulthood. In 1859, he published his observations and ideas in his book "On the Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selection."

Darwin's ideas were heavily debated in his own time and continue to spark controversy today. In contrast to this, Darwin himself lived a secluded life at his home in England, where he continued to work as a highly regarded scientist.

Darwin died on April 19, 1882, and is buried at Westminster Abbey in London, England.

Darwin's Illness

For much of his adult life, Darwin had an undiagnosed chronic illness that limited his activities. Symptoms included physical complaints such as stomach pain and dizziness, as well as signs of panic attacks such as shortness of breath and heart palpitations.

One theory suggests that he may have had panic disorder with agoraphobia . This diagnosis would also explain his secluded lifestyle, difficulty with public speaking, and struggles when meeting with colleagues.

Other proposed diagnoses include mercury poisoning, allergies, Crohn's disease, and irritable bowel syndrome. However, many researchers now believe that he had an adult-onset mitochondrial disorder.

What Was Charles Darwin Most Famous For?

Charles Darwin is most famous for his theory of evolution through the process of natural selection. Since introducing his ideas in “On the Origin of the Species,” his work has revolutionized the scientific understanding of how species evolve over time. This helped lay the foundation for modern biological sciences .

His Studies on the Galapagos Islands

During a voyage on a ship called the HMS Beagle, Darwin traveled to the Galapagos Islands, a journey that had a profound influence on his thinking and ideas. During this trip, he noticed interesting variations in the different species of finches that lived on the islands.

The beaks of these birds appeared to vary depending on the native food sources where the birds lived. Darwin hypothesized that the variations he observed resulted from natural selection that favored birds with beaks suited to the local food sources.  

There are 14 species of finches found on the Galapagos Islands, which are now collectively referred to as "Darwin's finches."

In “On the Origin of the Species,” Darwin suggested that all species on Earth, including humans, evolved from common ancestors. The diversity found in all species, he explained, results from changes that occur gradually over very long periods of time, a process he referred to as “descent with modification.” This happens through natural selection, where certain traits that benefit an organism's survival are more likely to be passed down. 

Because these organisms are more likely to survive and reproduce, those beneficial traits are more likely to be handed down. This leads to the adaptation and evolution of species.

Charles Darwin's concept of evolution through natural selection suggested that species change slowly over time as a response to their environment. This theory changed our scientific understanding of the diversity of life on Earth and laid the groundwork for the development of modern biology.

How Does Natural Selection Work?

According to Darwin, the individuals within a population possess variations, some of which are better suited to the environment in which they live. As a result, those with these adaptations are more likely to survive, reproduce, and thus pass these advantageous characteristics down to their offspring.

Over time, this process gradually leads the adaptive traits to become more prominent and can eventually lead to the emergence of new species.

The Five Principles of Natural Selection

The five principles of natural selection described by Charles Darwin can be remembered using the acronym VISTA, standing for variation, inheritance, selection, time, and adaptation.

• Variation : In all populations of any species, there are individual variations in different traits. The species' members can vary in appearance, size, abilities, immunity, and numerous other characteristics. Many of these variations result from genetic inheritance but can also occur due to random mutations.
• Inheritance : The various traits organisms possess can be inherited through genetic inheritance. In other words, when members of a species reproduce, their offspring are more likely to also possess those same traits.
• Selection : Environmental resources are limited, so organisms with advantageous characteristics that make it easier for them to survive are more likely to thrive in their environment and reproduce. This increased chance of reproduction means that their children are more likely to have the same traits that helped their ancestors survive.
• Time : As time passes, each generation continues to produce more offspring with advantageous characteristics. With the passage of time, the beneficial traits continue to accumulate, resulting in significant changes in the characteristics of the entire population.
• Adaptation : Such traits eventually become more common in the population, making the entire species better suited to survive in their environment.

What Does ‘Survival of the Fittest’ Mean?

An important part of natural selection is the idea of ‘survival of the fittest.’ The phrase was first introduced in 1854 by Herbert Spencer in his book "The Principles of Biology."

The idea suggests that when it comes to each organism's struggle to survive and reproduce, those with traits that make them the best suited to their environment are the most likely to survive and pass down their genes to the next generation.

In this context, "fitness" refers to an organism's ability to survive in its environment and reproduce. It is the traits that help the individual survive that are considered most advantageous. 

Fitness does not refer to physical strength. Instead, it means the individual has traits that make them better suited for life in a specific environment. For example, an organism with coloring that camouflages it from predators would be considered a better fit, from an evolutionary perspective, than coloring that makes it more susceptible to becoming prey.

Fitness can refer to a wide variety of characteristics. This might include physical attributes such as camouflage, speed, strength, or agility. It might also refer to behavioral adaptations that confer a greater chance of survival. Migration, hibernation, and courtship behaviors are a few examples of behavioral adaptations influenced by evolution.

Controversies Surrounding Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

Darwin's theory was considered shocking and controversial after its introduction. While the theory is accepted by nearly all scientists today, Darwin's ideas are still disputed or rejected by some people.

Darwin and his work have remained controversial in the more than 140 years since his death. One survey found that a third of U.S. adults reject the idea that humans evolved through natural selection, views that correspond with rates of religious belief.

One critic during Darwin's time was the English comparative anatomist and paleontologist Richard Owen. While Owen agreed that evolution occurred, he was a vocal critic of Darwin's idea of natural selection. Instead, he proposed the existence of predetermined "archetypes" that guide the evolutionary changes that species experience. 

During Darwin's time, some critics suggested that the lack of transitional fossils (demonstrating the gradual progression of a species over time) was evidence that Darwin’s evolutionary theory was wrong. In the subsequent years, however, many of these so-called "missing links" have been added to the fossil record, providing paleontological support for these evolutionary transitions.

Other critics focus on their belief that all life results from divine creation. However, it is important to note that Darwin's theory of evolution does not focus on how life originated. Instead, Darwin's theory of natural selection explains how life evolved over time and how this explains the diversity of life on Earth.

While there have been debates and criticisms from various sources, it is important to note that Darwin was highly regarded in his own time. Support from the scientific community continued to build over the years, and more evidence supporting Darwin's theory accumulated from various fields.

Charles Darwin’s Research on Human Emotions

While Darwin is best known for his theory of evolution, he also studied and wrote about a wide range of topics, from plants to sea life. Beyond his work as a naturalist, he also conducted one lesser-known experiment on the study of human emotions , making him one of the earliest experimental psychology researchers. 

In archival research looking at Darwin's letters and other writings, researchers found references to a small experiment that Darwin had conducted at home. Darwin had corresponded with the French physician Guillaume Duchenne de Boulogne, who had used electrical impulses to stimulate facial muscles into specific expressions, which were then recorded on photographic plates. Using this method, Duchenne suggested that the human face is capable of expressing at least 60 distinct emotions.

Darwin disagreed. Using Duchenne's plates, Darwin devised his own experiment, a single-blind study in which he randomized the order of the plates and then presented them to over 20 participants (i.e., Darwin's guests). He then asked his guests to identify the emotions represented in the photographic slides. 

In studying Darwin's notes, researchers discovered that the participants agreed when it came to the basic emotions , such as happiness , surprise, and fear. For more ambiguous photographs, responses were much more mixed.

In Darwin's view, only those emotions that were readily identifiable and agreed upon by observers represented universal emotions.

Darwin's observations and conclusions in this and other studies he conducted helped inform his 1872 book "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals." In this book, Darwin emphasized the importance of emotional expression in both humans and animals, suggesting that:

• Some emotional expressions are universal
• Some emotions have a biological, evolutionary basis
• These universal expressions evolved through natural selection because they aid in survival, reproduction, and communication
• Humans and animals display similar emotions, suggesting they have a common evolutionary origin

Darwin's work offered insights into the importance of emotions, their evolutionary roots, and their universality across cultures and species . His observations also helped lay the groundwork for future research on the psychology of human emotions.

However, Darwin's ideas about emotion were eclipsed by his more famous theory of natural selection. It wasn't until the 1960s that psychologist Paul Ekman returned to Darwin's findings and, using methods similar to those originally pioneered by Darwin, found additional evidence for the existence of basic, universal human emotions.

Try the emotion experiment yourself!

The Darwin Correspondence Project allows viewers to see the original photographic plates Duchenne and Darwin used this in their experiments. You can also give your own response and see how your interpretation compares to those of Darwin's guests.

What Were Charles Darwin’s Views on Women?

While Darwin revolutionized the field of science, his views on women were far from progressive. His attitudes reflected the prevailing sexist, misogynistic ideas of his time. In his published writings, he echoed the societal and cultural beliefs that women were inferior to men, viewing them as less intelligent.

In his book "The Descent of Man," Darwin wrote, "Woman seems to differ from man in her mental disposition, chiefly in her greater tenderness and less selfishness."

Darwin suggested that the purported superiority of men stemmed from sexual selection, a mode of natural selection in which men compete for mates, leading to the evolution of characteristics that improve their reproductive fitness, including intelligence, physical strength, and competitiveness.

He believed that women's roles were primarily as domestic caretakers and nurturers, which, in his view, did not require strong intellectual capabilities.

There is evidence that Darwin's ideas changed somewhat over time, often influenced by the women in his life, including his wife, daughters, and women intellectuals. While he could not be regarded as a feminist thinker, research on his private correspondence suggests that his views on women were more complex than what appears in his published writing.

Who Did Charles Darwin Influence?

In addition to his profound influence on the biological sciences, Darwin inspired a number of other scientists and researchers in their own work.

Some of these thinkers included:

• Alfred Russel Wallace : A contemporary of Darwin, Wallace was an English naturalist and explorer who independently introduced the idea of evolution through natural selection. His own ideas were published in 1858 along with some of Darwin's earlier writings, prompting Darwin to publish "On the Origin of the Species" the next year.
• William James : The founder of the functionalist school of thought in psychology was heavily influenced by the work of Charles Darwin. This school of thought suggests that the functions of the mind exist because they serve a purpose in survival and adaptation. This idea has its roots in Darwin's theory of natural selection. James was also heavily influenced by Darwin's writings on the topic of emotions. According to the James-Lange theory of emotions , emotions stems from the physiological reactions people experience in response to environmental stimuli.
• Ronald A. Fisher : A British mathematician and biologist, Fisher is considered a founder of modern statistical science. He also played an important role in what is known as modern synthesis, which involved integrating Darwin's natural selection with Mendelian genetics in order to explain how genetic variations within a group can be affected by natural selection.

How Does Charles Darwin’s Work Affect Modern Science Today?

It is difficult to overstate the enormous impact of Darwin's work on modern science. Some of the ways that science continues to be impacted by Darwin's theory of evolution include:

• Evolutionary sciences : The theory of evolution plays an essential role in biology as well as other fields that explain how life has adapted and changed over time, including genetics and evolutionary psychology .
• Medicine : Researchers continue to use their understanding of evolutionary science to study how diseases originate, spread, and mutate.
• Scientific education : While Darwin's ideas remain controversial for some, his work has helped advance scientific literacy and understanding among the general public.

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American Museum of Natural History. How does natural selection work ?

Offer J. From ‘natural selection’ to ‘survival of the fittest’: On the significance of Spencer’s refashioning of Darwin in the 1860s . Journal of Classical Sociology . 2014;14(2):156-177. doi:10.1177/1468795X13491646

Lampe DJ, Kantorski B, Pollock JA. Charles Darwin Synthetic Interview: A 19th century scientist speaks in the 21st century . J STEM Outreach . 2018;1(1):10.15695/jstem/v1i1.1. doi:10.15695/jstem/v1i1.1

Johnson CN. Charles Darwin, Richard Owen, and natural selection: A question of priority . J Hist Biol . 2019;52(1):45-85. doi:10.1007/s10739-018-9514-2

Snyder PJ, Kaufman R, Harrison J, Maruff P. Charles Darwin's emotional expression "experiment" and his contribution to modern neuropharmacology . J Hist Neurosci . 2010;19(2):158-170. doi:10.1080/09647040903506679

Reynolds EH, Broussolle E. Allbutt of Leeds and Duchenne de Boulogne: Newly discovered insights on Duchenne by a British neuropsychiatrist . Rev Neurol (Paris) . 2018;174(5):308-312. doi:10.1016/j.neurol.2017.07.012

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Darwin, C. R. 1871. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex . London: John Murray. Volume 1. 1st edition.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Famous Scientists

Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin is often cited as the greatest biologist in history. His most famous work, On the Origin of Species , explains the theory of evolution by natural selection, providing numerous supporting examples. Darwin believed that all of life on earth had descended from a common ancestor, whose offspring could vary slightly from the previous generation. Successive generations of life took part in a struggle for existence in which the best adapted variations survived to seed new generations. Less well adapted variations became extinct.

Charles Robert Darwin was born into a wealthy family on February 12, 1809 in the town of Shrewsbury, England, UK. He was the fifth child of six.

Charles Darwin, aged 7

His father, Robert Darwin, was a physician. Robert Darwin had grown rich by shrewdly investing money earned from his medical practice.

Charles’s mother was Susannah Wedgewood, from the famous pottery family. She died when Charles was eight years old. He then started attending an elementary school

School At the age of nine, Charles was sent to Shrewsbury School, about a mile from his family home. He boarded there, often briefly returning home to keep up with family goings-on.

His boarding school followed a traditional classical curriculum revolving around Ancient Greek and Latin, which Charles loathed. He was not considered to be particularly smart. His foreign language skills were poor.

His schoolwork usually involved learning by heart for the next day lines of Roman or Greek literature. Although he disliked doing this, he was happy to work hard. He learned his lines thoroughly, then promptly forgot them all again as soon as class was over.

He enjoyed hunting and going for long walks, observing and collecting things from the natural world. At one point he became so obsessive about hunting that his father declared:

Despite his father’s uncharacteristic outburst, the young Charles Darwin was very enthusiastic about science. He was taught geometry by a private tutor, which he enjoyed, and he also enjoyed learning how complex things worked. He was captivated by a book Wonders of the World , which planted a seed in him to travel. The seed would later bloom into his famous voyage on HMS Beagle.

His brother built a chemistry laboratory in the garden tool-house, and Charles helped with experiments, often late into the night. Chemistry became his favorite subject. Unfortunately, it was not part of his school’s curriculum. In fact he was reprimanded his headmaster for ‘wasting his time’ on chemistry!

Edinburgh and Medical School In 1825, aged 16, Charles became a medical student at the University of Edinburgh, as his father had done 42 years earlier. His father had pleasant memories of Edinburgh, where he was taught by the great chemist Joseph Black, who discovered magnesium, carbon dioxide, and latent heat.

Unlike his father, however, Charles did not enjoy medical school.

He found that dissecting human bodies disgusted him, being present during surgical operations horrified him, and visiting hospital wards distressed him. Moreover, attending lectures bored him:

Confident his father would give him enough money to live in comfort, he decided not to worry about passing his exams.

In his second year at Edinburgh, Charles became interested in zoology, and he collected and dissected marine creatures. He also attended geology lectures, but found them incredibly boring.

His exasperated father decided to halt Charles’s medical studies. He withdrew his son from Edinburgh and sent him to the University of Cambridge with the idea that his idle son would eventually become a Church of England clergyman.

Cambridge and an Easy Degree Early in 1828, just before his twentieth birthday, Charles Darwin enrolled at the University of Cambridge to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree.

After three easy years he received his B.A. degree with marks placing him near the top of the class. He had spent much of his time hunting, dining, drinking, and playing cards – all of which he enjoyed heartily.

Ironically, given Darwin’s later work, his favorite book at university was Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity . Its author, William Paley, used the example of a watch and a watchmaker in support of his argument that the natural world had been designed by God. Each species of life is much more complex than a watch, Paley said, therefore clearly these species must have been designed by someone – and that someone was God.

The Natural World During his time in Cambridge, Darwin continued to pursue his scientific interests, particularly in botany and zoology: his greatest interest by far was in collecting different species of beetle.

Reading Alexander von Humboldt’s book Personal Narrative of travels 1799-1804 and John Herschel’s Introduction to the Study of Natural Philosophy energized Darwin. He thirsted for overseas adventures and scientific discoveries.

After finishing at Cambridge, he began taking a serious interest in geology, studying rocks near his hometown of Shrewsbury and going on a two week expedition to Wales mapping rock strata.

Charles Darwin’s Contributions to Science

The voyage of the beagle 1831 – 1836.

Darwin spent nearly five years traveling around the world on the Beagle.

Near the end of summer 1831, after completing his degree, Darwin was offered a position as a naturalist on HMS Beagle, one of the British Royal Navy’s survey ships. The position had previously been offered to John Henslow, a geologist and naturalist at Cambridge, but he had turned it down and recommended Darwin.

The Beagle was scheduled to make a long expedition to the South Seas. Darwin would have to pay for his place on the ship, but would be at liberty to collect specimens and send them back to the United Kingdom for his own use or profit.

It was a wonderful opportunity to emulate his hero Alexander von Humboldt. Darwin was determined to grab it with both hands. His father, with some reluctance, agreed to pay for his son’s voyage.

The voyage, much like the fictitious Starship Enterprise’s, was a five year mission. It followed the route shown on the map above. The conditions on the small ship were much less comfortable than those enjoyed by the Starship Enterprise’s crew!

Plan of HMS Beagle

The Beagle – A cramped home for a five year voyage

The Voyage While sailing southward from the British Isles, the Beagle’s first stop was at the volcanic Cape Verde Islands, west of Africa. Darwin found seashells high up in cliffs there. The Beagle’s captain, who had a great interest in the natural world, helped Darwin explain the observation, giving him a copy of Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology .

Principles of Geology explained uniformitarian ideas in geology – the theory of gradualism, first proposed late in the previous century by James Hutton . A few years later the book’s author, Charles Lyell, would become one of Darwin’s greatest friends and supporters.

The expedition continued, with Darwin writing about his experiences in each new place he visited, collecting samples of flora, fauna, and fossils, and observing rock formations.

He saw a variety of unusual, unique species on the Galapagos Islands. Each separate island seemed to have its own distinct varieties of wildlife. Observations like these provoked him to write late in the voyage:

Back Home Again Darwin arrived back in England in October 1836. He had kept in touch with John Henslow, sending him notes regularly about his geological work on the expedition. Henslow put these notes together into a 31 page pamphlet, which he distributed to Cambridge’s scientific community and beyond.

Henslow also showed paleontologists fossils Darwin sent him, which caused more excitement.

Although Darwin embarked on the voyage as an unknown recent graduate, he returned as a respected, well-known scientist. Also, he assembled a large, exciting collection of specimens that naturalists were queuing up to study and catalog.

His father was relieved his prediction that Charles would disgrace the family had been proven wrong. Charles Darwin was now admired in the world of natural science, and his father agreed to continue funding his work. In fact, other people also recognized the value of Darwin’s work, and he now received a large grant from the British government to write up his observations from the Beagle’s expedition.

Scientific Results from Darwin’s Voyage

Darwin established that the South American continent is gradually rising from the ocean. Charles Lyell, whose geology book influenced Darwin on the voyage, arranged for Darwin to present this work to the Geological Society of London at the beginning of 1837.

At the same meeting Darwin presented specimens of birds he had collected from the Galapagos Islands. Within a week, the ornithologist John Gould examined the specimens and declared the birds belonged to an entirely new group of finches. Darwin had discovered 12 new finch species and a new group of finches.

Evolution by Natural Selection

On his long voyage, at times mesmerized by nature’s abundance, Darwin’s thoughts had increasingly turned to the question of how different species had formed.

Earlier Ideas about Evolution

The concept of evolution had been hatched thousands of years before Darwin’s time .

His grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, had made some striking contributions to evolutionary theory, including the idea that all life has a common origin .

Darwin’s Theory

In July 1837 Darwin began keeping a notebook of his thoughts and theories about the variation of plants and animals.

By this time, he had completely accepted that species could evolve (or, to use Darwin’s language, transmute ).

He decided he would make his investigation according to the principles of Francis Bacon – he would assemble facts before producing a theory.

In October 1838 he read Thomas Malthus’s work on population, showing that populations increase until food runs out, then crash. There is a struggle for existence. Darwin said that having read Malthus:

By December 1838 Darwin was mulling over how breeders improve domestic animals by selecting the animals with the best qualities. In the natural world the selection is carried out by the environment. The lifeforms best adapted to the environment survive and breed. This is natural selection.

In 1842 he wrote his first paper on what came to be known as evolution by natural selection, but only for his own use.

In 1845 he published thoughts, formed much earlier, about the new species of finches he discovered in the Galapagos Islands, saying he could imagine that one original species had been modified into all the different species.

Darwin decided that the different species of finches on the Galapagos Islands were all descended from a single finch ancestor.

If Darwin had been an ambitious scientist, he could have published a theory of evolution by natural selection in 1839, but he didn’t. He continued:

• gathering and weighing evidence and assessing specimens from his voyage
• breeding animals and plants to determine how species could be modified by artificial selection
• writing books and papers about a variety of topics including geology

Darwin’s Hand is Forced

On 18 June 1858, aged 49, Darwin opened his mail and got a terrible shock. He had been corresponding with Alfred Russel Wallace , a young, self-trained naturalist who was on an expedition in the East Indies.

Wallace now asked for Darwin’s opinion of a paper he had written. The paper described the theory of evolution by natural selection – the theory Darwin had spent decades gathering evidence for, but had never published. Darwin wrote back, offering his opinion that Wallace’s paper could be published in any journal of Wallace’s choosing.

Darwin also showed Wallace’s paper to his scientific friends Charles Lyell (Wallace had requested this) and Joseph Dalton Hooker.

Darwin was in crisis at this time because his young son had been terribly sick, eventually dying of scarlet fever on June 28.

His friends were aware that Darwin actually arrived at the theory first. They decided the joint theories of Darwin and Wallace should be read to the Linnean Society on July 1. Darwin did not attend the reading. His place was at his son’s funeral.

In the event, the reading of the Darwin-Wallace paper provoked little interest.

The Origin of Species

Darwin’s game-changing book On the Origin of Species – often called the most important book in the history of biology – became available to the public on November 24, 1859; booksellers immediately sold all 1250 copies.

Trying to avoid controversy, Darwin avoided making any claims for the origin a particular species, such as Homo sapiens . He did however, in agreement with his grandfather’s much earlier theory, write:

Over the following years Darwin updated the book regularly. He eventually authored six significantly different editions.

Some of the most familiar ideas of ‘Darwinism’ did not appear until the later editions: the famous phrase “survival of the fittest” appeared for the first time in the 1869 fifth edition. Remarkably, the word evolution made its first appearance in the sixth edition in 1872.

In support of his theory of common ancestry, Darwin was particularly taken by the similarity of the embryos of different species.

Further Work

In 1868 Darwin wrote The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication . Feeling the need to offer a mechanism for heredity, and unaware that Gregor Mendel had already provided it, Darwin incorrectly proposed heredity resulted from a process called pangenesis .

Many people believed that Darwin’s proposed descent of humans from apes was an attack on society’s moral foundations.

During Darwin’s lifetime, there was fierce opposition to his theory.

The great German pathologist Rudolf Virchow , for example, opposed Darwin from the beginning and never relented in his opposition.

In fact, in 1877, Virchow said the idea that man had descended from apes was an attack on society’s moral foundations. He voiced his opinion that teaching the theory of evolution should not be permitted in Germany’s public schools.

In 1872 Darwin looked at the evolution of human psychology in his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals , showing there are similarities in human and animal psychology.

The idea that species evolve had become accepted by most mainstream scientists by about the time the sixth edition of The Origin of Species came out in 1872.

The concept of natural selection, however, was less accepted. In considering the rate at which natural selection pushed evolutionary change, Darwin was heavily influenced by his friend Charles Lyell’s championing of gradualism.

It was only much later, after publication of the 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection by Ronald Fisher , that evolution by natural selection became widely accepted by mainstream scientists. Fisher unified the theory of natural selection with the heredity laws of Gregor Mendel

Some Personal Details and the End

Darwin’s wife Emma two years after their marriage.

The couple had ten children; three died in childhood.

Three of their sons, George, Francis, and Horace, became notable scientists and were elected fellows of the Royal Society. George became an astronomer, Francis a botanist, and Horace an engineer.

Another son, Leonard, financially supported the publication of Ronald Fisher’s earliest work.

In 1837, as he began to work hard on a multi-volume book of observations from the Beagle expedition, and simultaneously began seriously researching the transmutation of species, Darwin fell ill. He would be plagued by ill-health for the rest of his life.

In 1842 he moved with his family to a country house outside London, away from the smoke and dirt. He lived a quiet life, not socializing much, concentrating on family life and writing books and scientific papers.

In 1864 Darwin was awarded the Copley Medal, then the greatest honor in science. The award was for:

“his important researches in geology, zoology, and botanical physiology.”

Previous winners included Benjamin Franklin , Alessandro Volta , Hans Christian Oersted , Michael Faraday , Alexander von Humboldt, Charles Lyell, and Robert Bunsen .

Charles Darwin died aged 73 on April 19, 1882, of heart failure at his country house. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, London, next to John Herschel whose work had inspired him at university, and near his best friend Charles Lyell, whose work had influenced him greatly. Other scientists buried in Darwin’s vicinity at Westminster Abbey include Isaac Newton, Ernest Rutherford, J. J. Thomson, and Lord Kelvin.

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Further Reading Charles Darwin Journal of researches into the natural history and geology of the countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world, 2nd Edition John Murray, 1845

Charles Darwin The Autobiography of Charles Darwin John Murray, 1887

Phillip Sloan The Concept of Evolution to 1872 The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)

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Charles Darwin

SCIENTISTS (1809–1882); SHREWSBURY

When Charles Darwin's book, On the Origin of Species , came out in 1859, it completely changed the way people view life itself. For some, it was enlightening; for others, it was blasphemous. And now, more than 160 years later, his theory of evolution through natural selection is still a hotly debated subject. Read on for facts, quotes, and more on Charles Darwin.

1. Charles Darwin was a scientist and naturalist who was pretty bad at math.

Charles Darwin, born in Shrewsbury, England in 1809, was a biologist and naturalist best known for his theory of evolution through natural selection, which is the idea that organisms change over time through heritable traits that better allow them to adapt to environmental challenges. Those that don't, die off, which is why it has subsequently been dubbed "survival of the fittest."

Unfortunately, Darwin's connection to the world of science didn't lend itself to a love of math. After struggling with the subject in college, Darwin was forced to hire a tutor in 1828. But when he continued to lag behind, he fired the tutor after just a few weeks. To Darwin, algebra was a "repugnant" subject, but as he got older, he regretted his impatience with math.

2. Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution through Natural Selection (or Darwinism) came about at the same time as Alfred Russel Wallace's.

Charles Darwin began studying what would become known as natural selection  in the 1830s , but, concerned about the public reaction, he sat on his new theory for decades. By the mid-1850s, British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace had begun independently working on his own ideas of natural selection and knew Darwin had been involved in similar research. Wallace even sent Darwin a paper he had written on the subject to peer review it, and the two later collaborated on a new paper on the subject in 1858.

Then, in 1859, Darwin finally went public with his theory with On The Origin of Species . No longer shackled to the niche scientific community, Darwin's book presented these world-shaking ideas to the masses, forever linking the scientist to this famed theory. Wallace, on the other hand, often goes overlooked.

3. Charles Darwin's Voyage on the H.M.S. Beagle led to many of his breakthroughs.

On December 27, 1831, Darwin set sail aboard the H.M.S. Beagle on a five-year voyage to the Pacific Islands, the Galápagos Islands, and South America. It was on this journey that a 22-year-old Darwin would visit several continents, ship more than 1500 species back home to study, and fill notebook after notebook with his discoveries. While on the Galápagos , finches were particularly vital to Darwin as he was forming his theory of natural selection. He observed the variations in the shape of their beaks ( some had longer, pointier beaks, while others were short and stout) from island to island, further confirming that the unique challenges in each environment led finches with specific traits to become dominant.

4. Charles Darwin’s Book On The Origin of Species took 25 years to write.

Darwin devoted his life to science and had a few published works, but On The Origin of Species is his most well-known book. It illustrates his theory of evolution and process of natural selection and was published on November 24, 1859. But a work of such significance isn't easy: On the Origin of Species took Charles Darwin 25 years to write.

5. Charles Darwin had 10 Children with his first cousin.

Charles Darwin married his first cousin, Emma Wedgwood, on January 29, 1839. The two shared the same grandfather, Josiah Wedgwood. Together, the couple had 10 children:

• Elizabeth Darwin: 1847–1929
• George Darwin: 1845–1912
• Henrietta Darwin: 1843­–1927
• Mary Darwin: 1842
• Anne Darwin: 1841­­–1851
• William Darwin: 1839–1949
• Francis Darwin: 1848–1925
• Leonard Darwin: 1850–1943
• Horace Darwin: 1851–1928
• Charles Darwin: 1856–1858

Charles Darwin was a botanist and experimented with breeding plants in his greenhouse. He found that cross-fertilization produced much healthier plants than self-fertilization, and it’s said he worried whether his children would have health issues due to their parents being so closely related.

Two of his other children didn’t make it into adulthood. And three that did survive and marry were never able to have any children of their own.

6. Charles Darwin was a foodie before that was a thing.

While studying at Cambridge, Darwin became a member of the Glutton Club . This was basically a group of friends who would meet up once a week to eat "birds and beasts, which were before unknown to human palate." This led to a wide variety of peculiar meals, such as iguanas, armadillos, and plenty of rodents. The club apparently disbanded after a particularly hideous taste of a brown owl, which Darwin said was "indescribable."

Books written by Charles Darwin.

Other than On the Origin of Species , Charles Darwin's other books include:

• The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom
• The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
• The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex
• The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species
• The Formation of Vegetable Mould, Through the Action of Worms
• The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication
• On the Various Contrivances by Which British and Foreign Orchids Are Fertilised by Insects.

Famous quotes from Charles Darwin.

• “A man who dares to waste one hour of time has not discovered the value of life.”
• “If I had my life to live over again , I would have made a rule to read some poetry and listen to some music at least once every week.”
• "Man selects only for his own good ; Nature only for that of the being which she tends."
• “Ignorance more frequently begets confidence than does knowledge: it is those who know little, not those who know much, who so positively assert that this or that problem will never be solved by science.”

Biography Online

Charles Darwin Biography

Charles Darwin was born on 12 February 1809 in Shrewsbury, Shropshire. He was born into a wealthy and influential family. His grandfathers included – China manufacturer Josiah Wedgwood, and Erasmus Darwin, one of the leading intellectuals of 18th century England.

Darwin planned to study medicine at Edinburgh University, but later, at the instigation of his father, changed to studying Divinity at Christ’s College, Cambridge University. Darwin was not a great student, preferring to spend time in outdoor pursuits; he spent a lot of time examining natural science and beetle collecting. After gaining a passionate interest in natural science, Darwin was offered a place on the HMS Beagle to act as a natural scientist on a voyage to the coast of South America.

At the time, religion was a powerful force in society, and most people took the Bible as the infallible, literal word of God. This included the belief that God created the world in seven days, and the world was only a few thousand years old. However, on the voyage, Darwin increasingly began to see evidence of life being much older. In particular Lyell’s ‘Principles of Geology’ suggested that fossils were evidence of animals living hundreds of thousands of years ago.

On the voyage, Darwin made copious notes about specimens he found on his voyages. In particular, at the Galapagos Islands 500 miles west of South America, Darwin was struck by how the Finch was different on each individual island. He noticed that the Finch had somehow adapted to the various aspects of the particular island.

Over the next 20 years, Darwin worked on the dilemma of how species evolve and can end up being quite different on different islands. Influenced by the work of Thomas Malthus, Darwin came up with a theory of natural selection and gradual evolution over time.

“In the struggle for survival, the fittest win out at the expense of their rivals because they succeed in adapting themselves best to their environment.”

– Charles Darwin

Darwin continued to refine his theory, and would intensively breed plants to work on his theories. However, realising how controversial his ideas were, Darwin delayed publishing them. It was not until learning that another naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace had developed similar ideas, that Darwin was galvanised into publishing his own book.

In 1859, the ground-breaking ‘ On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection ‘ was published. It immediately gained widespread interest and attention, leading to intense debate about the contention that man – by implication was descended from animals like the ape.

“Owing to this struggle for life, any variation, however slight and from whatever cause proceeding, if it be in any degree profitable to an individual of any species, in its infinitely complex relationship to other organic beings and to external nature, will tend to the preservation of that individual, and will generally be inherited by its offspring.”

– Charles Darwin, Origin of Species (1859)

However, by the time he died on 19 April 1882, his ideas had increasingly become accepted – at least by the scientific and non-religious society. He was given a state burial at Westminster Abbey.

Darwin’s Religious Beliefs

Darwin was brought up in the Church of England, and at one point was being trained to be an Anglican priest. Like many of his generation, he took the Bible as the literal word of God and often quoted it as a source of moral authority. However, after his epic voyage to South America, he became doubtful of the Bible as a source of history; he also felt no reason why all religions couldn’t be true.

From 1849, he stopped going to church, though he never considered himself to be an atheist. He felt that ‘agnostic’ suited his beliefs more closely. He wrote in his autobiography that he eventually gave up Christianity as he disagreed with the conclusion that all non-believers spend eternity in hell.

“I can indeed hardly see how anyone ought to wish Christianity to be true; for if so the plain language of the text seems to show that the men who do not believe, and this would include my Father, Brother and almost all my best friends, will be everlastingly punished.”

He was politically liberal, being an opponent of slavery. He experienced the brutality of how people treated their slaves in a Spanish colony.

“I have watched how steadily the general feeling, as shown at elections, has been rising against Slavery. What a proud thing for England if she is the first European nation which utterly abolishes it!”

Letter to J. S. Henslow (March 1834)

Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan. “ Biography of Charles Darwin ”, Oxford, UK.  www.biographyonline.net – 4th Sept. 2012. Updated 21st February 2018.

The Origin of Species: Charles Darwin

The Origin of Species: Charles Darwin at Amazon

About Charles Darwin

Who was Charles Darwin? at Amazon

Facts about Charles Darwin

• He was the grandson of Josiah Wedgwood the famous furniture manufacturer.
• He studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh but found lectures dull.
• He learned taxidermy from John Edmonstone, a freed black slave.
• Darwin became an enthusiastic Beetle collector – which was a craze at the time.
• His father sent him to Christ’s College, Cambridge with the intention of training him as an Anglican parson. He later gave up Christianity.
• His five-year voyage on HMS Beagle established him as an eminent geologist and popular writer. His observations would be used to develop his theory of evolution.
• He sometimes questioned his own scientific discoveries. ‘I feel most deeply that this whole question of creation is too profound for human intellect.’
• In modified form, Darwin’s theory of evolution is now seen as the unifying theory of the life sciences.
• On the new Galápagos Islands Darwin saw many samples of animals which showed relations to animals in other parts of the world, e.g. Mockingbirds in Chile.
• During the Beagle expedition, Darwin shipped home a total of 1,529 species preserved in spirit and 3,907 labelled dried specimens.
• Darwin and Wallace’s theories on evolution were both presented on the same day in 1858 to the Linnean Society of London.
• Darwin took 22 years from the end of the voyage to publish his findings – he was worried about the reaction of people. It is said the thought of Wallace publishing first, galvanised him into action
• The full title of Origin of Species is On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life .
• Darwin did not coin the phrase ‘survival of the fittest’. It was added to the fifth edition of Origin of Species. The phrase came from economist Herbert Spencer.
• Darwin has appeared on more UK stamps than anyone outside the Royal Family.
• Seven months after the publication of ‘Origin of Species’ the famous 1860 Oxford evolution debate occurred between Thomas Henry Huxley and Bishop Samuel Wilberforce. The debate is considered to be a great moment in natural history – and a key moment in the acceptance of evolution.

Related pages

• Quotes by Charles Darwin

Very Nice Introduction of Charles Darwin.

• March 08, 2018 5:29 AM
• By Pogiako69

Charles Darwin is the best guy ever

• October 17, 2017 3:14 PM

The Daily Science

Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin, born on February 12, 1809, in Shrewsbury, England, was a pivotal figure in the field of biology, renowned for his groundbreaking work on evolution and natural selection. His life’s journey, marked by curiosity and scientific inquiry, led to the development of the theory of evolution that revolutionized our understanding of life on Earth.

Darwin hailed from a prominent and intellectually inclined family. His father, Robert Darwin, was a successful physician, while his grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, was a respected naturalist and poet. Growing up in this intellectually stimulating environment, Charles exhibited an early interest in nature and the world around him.

In 1825, Darwin enrolled at the University of Edinburgh to study medicine, as his father wished. However, he found the medical curriculum uninspiring and distasteful. Instead, his passion for the natural world led him to pursue a different path, transferring to the University of Cambridge to study theology. During his time at Cambridge, Darwin befriended John Henslow, a botany professor, who played a crucial role in shaping Darwin’s scientific pursuits.

Upon completing his studies, Darwin embarked on a transformative voyage on the HMS Beagle in 1831. This five-year expedition took him to various locations, including South America, the Galápagos Islands, Australia, and Africa. Throughout the journey, Darwin meticulously collected specimens and made detailed observations of the diverse flora and fauna. It was during this voyage that he began to develop his ideas about the processes driving the diversity of life.

Darwin’s experiences in the Galápagos Islands were particularly influential. He noticed variations in species from one island to another, inspiring his thoughts on adaptation and natural selection. The seeds of the theory of evolution were planted during this voyage, as Darwin questioned the fixity of species and pondered the forces driving their modifications over time.

Upon returning to England in 1836, Darwin dedicated himself to analyzing his extensive collection of specimens and refining his thoughts on evolution. He also corresponded with fellow naturalists, sharing ideas and seeking feedback. In 1838, he began drafting an essay on natural selection, but it wasn’t until 1858 that he faced the urgency to publish his groundbreaking work.

In 1858, Alfred Russel Wallace, another naturalist, independently arrived at a theory of natural selection. This prompted Darwin to publish a joint paper with Wallace, and the following year, in 1859, Darwin released his seminal work, “On the Origin of Species.” This revolutionary book presented the theory of evolution by natural selection, proposing that species evolve over time through the differential survival and reproduction of organisms with advantageous traits.

The publication of “On the Origin of Species” stirred both scientific and public interest, sparking debates and discussions that continue to influence scientific thought and societal perspectives on evolution. Darwin’s theory challenged prevailing religious and scientific beliefs, as it suggested that the diversity of life could be explained through natural processes without the need for divine intervention.

Despite the controversy, Darwin’s work gained widespread acceptance within the scientific community. He continued to explore various aspects of natural history, publishing works on topics such as human evolution, sexual selection, and the role of earthworms in soil formation.

Darwin’s later years were marked by his dedication to scientific inquiry and continued writing. His health, however, began to decline, likely exacerbated by the numerous illnesses he had suffered throughout his life. Charles Darwin passed away on April 19, 1882, leaving behind a lasting legacy that transcends the boundaries of biology.

The impact of Darwin’s ideas extends far beyond his lifetime. Evolution by natural selection became a unifying concept in biology, explaining the diversity of life and providing a framework for understanding the relationships between different species. His work laid the foundation for modern evolutionary biology, genetics, and paleontology, shaping the way we perceive the natural world.

Charles Darwin’s life and contributions exemplify the power of curiosity, observation, and rigorous scientific inquiry. His journey from a young naturalist on the HMS Beagle to the author of “On the Origin of Species” reflects a profound commitment to understanding the complexities of life and nature. Darwin’s legacy endures as a testament to the transformative impact of one individual’s exploration and intellectual courage on the course of scientific history.

Darwin’s influence extended beyond the scientific realm, permeating societal attitudes and challenging traditional perspectives. His theory of evolution had profound implications for religious beliefs, as it questioned the literal interpretation of creation stories. The clash between evolutionary theory and religious doctrines sparked debates that continue to shape discussions about the relationship between science and faith.

Despite the controversies surrounding his work, Darwin’s legacy endured and expanded as subsequent generations of scientists built upon his foundation. The synthesis of Darwinian evolution with Mendelian genetics in the early 20th century formed the basis for the modern understanding of how traits are inherited and populations evolve.

Darwin’s impact on anthropology was also significant. His exploration of human evolution, detailed in works like “The Descent of Man,” proposed that humans share a common ancestry with other primates. This notion challenged prevailing beliefs about human uniqueness and raised questions about the nature of our species.

Beyond his scientific pursuits, Darwin’s personal life was marked by familial connections. In 1839, he married his cousin, Emma Wedgwood, and they had ten children together. His observations of domestic breeding, particularly in pigeons, influenced his understanding of artificial selection, a concept parallel to natural selection.

Darwin’s health struggles were notable throughout his life. Various ailments, possibly exacerbated by his continuous dedication to research, affected him. Despite these challenges, he persevered in his scientific endeavors, contributing to fields beyond evolutionary biology, including geology, botany, and paleontology.

In recognition of his contributions, Darwin received numerous honors and awards. He was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society in 1839, and his work continues to be celebrated with events like Darwin Day, commemorated annually to promote science education and the principles of evolutionary theory.

The impact of Darwin’s ideas reached far beyond the scientific community. They influenced literature, philosophy, and social thought. Writers and thinkers such as Thomas Henry Huxley, known as “Darwin’s Bulldog,” ardently defended and popularized Darwinian ideas. The concept of the “struggle for existence” and “survival of the fittest” permeated not only biology but also societal discussions about competition and progress.

In the realm of education, Darwin’s theories have become fundamental to biology curricula worldwide. The study of evolution provides a framework for understanding the interconnectedness of life on Earth, shaping the perspectives of generations of students and scientists alike.

While Darwin’s ideas have become foundational to biology, they continue to evolve with ongoing scientific discoveries. Advances in molecular biology, genetics, and paleontology have provided additional layers of complexity to the understanding of evolutionary processes. The modern synthesis of evolutionary theory incorporates these developments, offering a more comprehensive view of how life has diversified and changed over time.

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The Life and Times of Charles Darwin

Darwin's theories were heavily influenced by the political, religious, and economic debates of his times.

# Religion and Science in Darwin’s Family

“Man is But a Worm,” a cartoon published at the end of 1881 in the Punch almanac for 1882 ( image source ).

No one is more closely associated with evolution than Charles Darwin, yet many people today lack an accurate picture of his life and beliefs. Many do not know that he staunchly opposed slavery, that he never regarded himself as an atheist, that he probably believed in God the Creator when the earliest versions of  The Origin of Species  were written. Few realize that he sought to make biology more scientific, reflecting more clearly the law-bound sciences of physics and astronomy, that his theory of evolution was partly based on the free-market economics of Adam Smith, or that he himself left open the door for a new type of natural theology that cannot be refuted by evolution. This series explores topics such as these, concluding with a brief look at some important objections to his theory raised by a very thoughtful critic who reviewed his book at length a few years after it was published.

I begin by sketching Darwin’s family background.

A Tale of Two Families: The Darwins and the Wedgwoods

Charles Darwin  was born on 12 February 1809—exactly the same day as   Abraham Lincoln . I cannot think of a more august historical coincidence. For two white boys from England and America at that time, it’s hard to imagine family circumstances more different. Literally born in a   one-room log cabin  in rural Kentucky, Lincoln grew up in Baptist family of very modest means, had almost no formal education, and worked very hard to earn a meager living before receiving a license to practice law in his twenty-eight year. Darwin, on the other hand, was born (as the English say) with   a silver spoon in his mouth . The son of a highly successful country surgeon who had also married into wealth, Darwin received a first-class education and never had to work a day in his life.

What they had in common was far more important: brilliance, the ability to write well, and racist views by modern standards coupled with a deep hatred of slavery. Lincoln’s family belonged to an anti-slavery church in Indiana, he witnessed slavery for himself on a flatboat trip to New Orleans at age twenty-two, and battled politically first to limit its spread and then to end it. Darwin’s grandfathers opposed slavery and helped fund the efforts of   William Wilberforce  to prohibit British ships from carrying slaves, and he saw slavery with his own eyes in Brazil in his early twenties.

The great painter   Joseph Wright of Derby  made two lovely portraits of Erasmus Darwin, this one (ca. 1770) when the subject was about 38 years old.  Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery ( image source ).

Charles’ grandfather   Erasmus Darwin , born two months before George Washington, was a physician, author, and philanderer. His other grandfather was the highly successful industrialist   Josiah Wedgwood , whose daughter married Erasmus’ son   Robert Waring Darwin . Both families were free-market capitalists and religious liberals, the Darwins unrepentant deists and the Wedgwoods Unitarians. Charles’ wife, Emma Wedgwood (Josiah’s granddaughter), was a pious women who revered the Bible but did not believe in the divinity of Jesus.

Significantly, Erasmus was an early advocate of transmutation—what we now call evolution. In one of his many books,   Zoönomia  (1794), he mentioned both extinction and transmutation: “If this gradual production of the species and genera of animals be assented to, a contrary circumstance may be supposed to have occurred, namely, that some kinds by the great changes of the elements may have been destroyed” (Vol. 1, p. 399).

Thus, evolution was already in the family when Charles Darwin was born. We mustn’t trivialize the originality of Charles’ own version of it, but it wasn’t created from nothing. It evolved from pre-existing forms.

# Charles Darwin Goes to College

A tale of two schools: edinburgh.

Edinburgh is a beautiful city, though sometimes very cold, even in mid-summer.  I still remember a July afternoon nearly thirty years ago, when a bitter wind blew me off the streets and into the woolen shops for for something to fortify me against the icy blast.  Charles Darwin went there in 1825 at age 16, sent by  his father  to study medicine at the University of Edinburgh, where he had studied himself. It didn’t work out. He was revolted by operations in the surgical theatre—who wouldn’t be, at a time before the invention of anesthesia?  As he recalled decades later , he “saw two very bad operations, one on a child, but I rushed away before they were completed. Nor did I ever attend again, for hardly any inducement would have been strong enough to make me do so; this being long before the blessed days of chloroform. The two cases fairly haunted me for many a long year.”

On the other hand, he very much liked learning about natural history, especially from  Robert Grant , an Edinburgh native twice Darwin’s age who was the leading invertebrate zoologist in Great Britain. Having studied in Paris with  Cuvier  and  Geoffroy St Hilaire , Grant brought French evolutionary ideas to Scotland and began to proclaim them while Darwin was there. An atheist, anti-clerical materialist, and perhaps a homosexual, Grant was a genuine radical. He was also a prominent member of two important organizations of naturalists, the  Plinian Society  and the  Wernerian Society . Grant took Darwin and some other students to the meetings of those societies and on field trips to collect specimens of marine life in the rich ecosystem of the  Firth of Forth . He was especially fond of sponges and sea-slugs.

Although they soon had a falling out, when Darwin felt that Grant had not properly credited him for certain discoveries that Grant published, he was initially enthralled by Grant and thrived under his tutelage. He was not yet an evolutionist himself, but as Peter Bowler says, “the programme of research begun in Edinburgh would be revived on the  Beagle  voyage,” and Darwin would move ever closer to Grant’s view that the animal and vegetable kingdoms were linked historically (quoting Bowler, cited below, p. 40).

Darwin also sat through  Robert Jameson’s  lectures on geology. (I talked about  Jameson in connection with Benjamin Silliman  last year.) He found Jameson “incredibly dull,” adding that “The sole effect they produced on me was the determination never as long as I lived to read a book on Geology, or in any way to study the science.” How little he really knew about himself, it seems. It’s no secret that Darwin wasn’t the most studious person on campus, so we mustn’t judge Jameson solely on this basis.

Since a medical career was clearly not in the offing, Darwin’s father suggested that he consider becoming a clergyman in the Church of England. Coming from a “freethinker” like Robert Darwin, that may seem a bit surprising, but he loved his son, accepted his son’s religious faith, and knew that it would make for a respectable career, with a guaranteed income and plenty of time for doing natural history. Charles wasn’t sure that he fully accepted the  39 Articles of the Church of England  (their statement of faith, formulated during the Reformation), but he took his father’s advice. He left Edinburgh and enrolled at Christ’s College, Cambridge.

A Tale of Two Schools: Cambridge

Portrait of John Henslow by  Thomas Herbert Maguire  (1849), about two decades after Darwin knew him at Cambridge. ( Image source )

At Cambridge, Darwin studied classics, divinity, and mathematics—not biology, at least not officially within the curriculum. Cambridge was only just getting up to speed in many of the sciences, so students weren’t examined on them yet, but they could opt to hear lectures and take part in various scientific activities. Darwin particularly enjoyed hearing the lectures and going on field trips with botany professor  John Henslow , an ordained minister, to whom Darwin was introduced by his cousin, the future clergyman  W. Darwin Fox , who also taught him how to collect insects. He became a frequent dinner guest at Henslow’s home, and Henslow encouraged him to become a “naturalist,” someone who studied widely in geology, botany, zoology, and natural history. Darwin was interested in all of those areas.

Geologist  Adam Sedgwick  was also at Cambridge then, but Darwin did not attend his lectures—recall his experience with Jameson’s geology lectures at Edinburgh. In his final year, however, he did go on field trips with Sedgwick and became fascinated with learning how to interpret rock strata, just at that time in the history of geology when interpreting rock strata was the biggest game in town.

Overall, however, Darwin was not a particularly good student; he’d much rather go “shooting” (hunting for birds and small game) and he was not very good at mathematics, though he did better in divinity classes. One topic that did catch his attention was the natural theology of  William Paley . As many readers know, Paley brought the centuries’ old English tradition of writing natural theological works to a height. Although he had few original thoughts of his own, he was unusually gifted at capturing the essence of well-known arguments from others and composing very persuasive prose in which to present it. Paley stressed how creatures were exquisitely adapted to specific environments, and their inter-relatedness in what was commonly known as the “economy of nature”, a concept and term  originating with the great naturalist Linnaeus  that Darwin would fully embrace, even to the extent of using that exact term himself. The crucial difference would be that Darwin later turned Paley on his head, explaining the whole economy of nature in terms of common ancestry driven by natural selection, a concept he took from  Thomas Malthus’  work on the “economy of man.”

Darwin’s encounter with Paley at Cambridge was shared by students on both sides of the Atlantic at that time. For example, seniors at Yale in the 1830s had tutorials spread over three terms, as shown in the Catalogue of the Officers and Students in Yale College, 1838-39. Note the presence of three books by Paley, the same three books which Darwin had studied at Cambridge just a few years earlier. Photograph by Edward B. Davis.

When Darwin finished his degree in the spring of 1831, he was more interested in science than the ministry. Consequently, when a major opportunity to pursue scientific research came his way a few months later, thanks to Henslow, he jumped at it.

# Charles Darwin and the Voyage of the Beagle

Having surveyed Darwin’s university days, we now present an account of his experience on a life-changing voyage around the world.  Although he wasn’t an evolutionist during the voyage, what he saw and learned would soon lead him to adopt an evolutionary view of natural history.  

This famous image of HMS Beagle being greeted by natives at Tierra del Fuego was painted by Conrad Martens, who served briefly the ship’s “Draughtsman” in 1834 ( source) .

The Education of a Naturalist

A few months after Darwin completed his studies at Cambridge, in August 1831, he received an eventful letter from  John Henslow , the botany professor who had so graciously taken Darwin under his wing and into his home.  Indeed as Peter Bowler says, “it was Henslow who encouraged Darwin to become a full-time naturalist” (cited below, p. 43).   Henslow told Darwin  that he was positioned “to recommend [to the British Admiralty] a naturalist as companion to Capt Fitzroy employed by Government to survey the S[outhern]. extremity of America.”  He was frank: “I consider you to be the best qualified person I know of who is likely to undertake such a situation— I state this not on the supposition of yr. being a finished Naturalist, but as amply qualified for collecting, observing, & noting any thing worthy to be noted in Natural History.”   Robert FitzRoy , the young captain of  HMS Beagle , “wants a man (I understand) more as a companion than a mere collector & would not take any one however good a Naturalist who was not recommended to him likewise as a gentleman.”

Lithograph of Robert Fitzroy from 1835, one year before the Beagle returned to England. Wellcome Library, London. Copyrighted work available under Creative Commons Attribution only licence CC BY 4.0.

If you’ve  seen the film,  Master and Commander , or read  the novel  by  Patrick O’Brian —whose books are admired by naval historians for their highly accurate pictures of seafaring life in the age of Napoleon—then you’ve already had a glimpse of what FitzRoy wanted.  Did you notice that the British captain (played in the film by Russell Crowe) forms a close friendship with the ship’s surgeon (played by Paul Bettany)?  That’s realistic to the period, a time when most sailors were uneducated, even illiterate young men, some of them just adolescent boys.  Like O’Brian’s captain Aubrey, Captain FitzRoy needed to bond with “a gentleman,” that is, a man of education and refinement, with whom he could share personal thoughts and adventures on shore.  Furthermore, the captain of a ship was under great psychological stress.  Not only was he held responsible for keeping his ship clear of shoals and storms, as far as possible, but the very lives and health of his crew were ultimately in his hands.  On top of that, he had to ensure that every single man on board—and they were all male in those days—was prepared to obey any lawful order without hesitation, even an order that put him directly in harm’s way.  Disobedient sailors must literally be whipped into obedience.  The strict discipline that a successful captain had to administer necessarily kept him emotionally distant from his crew: in short, it could be a very lonely job, and madness was a known occupational hazard.  FitzRoy sought to share his table with an educated civilian—someone not under his authority in the same way, someone who might add his expertise to the scientific purpose of the voyage while providing interesting conversation and offering a release valve for the pressure-cooker that was the lot of the sea captain.

FitzRoy had never met Darwin before Henslow all but offered Darwin the job, but he knew he didn’t want to go it alone on this expedition.  The  Beagle  had already made a voyage to South America, and FitzRoy had served as an officer on the flagship of the flotilla.  It ended badly.  The captain of the  Beagle ,  Pringle Stokes , worn down by violent gales, mountainous seas, and a long list of chronically ill seamen, became so depressed at Tierra del Fuego that he shot himself in the head, lingering for twelve days before gangrene ended his life.

Replica (dated 15 February 1984) of the cross marking the grave of Captain Pringle Stokes in the “English Cemetery” near  Port Famine , on  the Straight of Magellan .  Photograph taken by  John Woram  in February 2004 ( image source ), used with permission.  Mr. Woram is also the source of the information about the marker.

The twenty-three-year-old FitzRoy, a type-A personality from a family of distinguished public servants, rather unexpectedly was appointed to Stokes’ role for the duration of the voyage and occupied the same cabin—a development that he must have viewed with great anxiety.  Six years earlier  his mother’s brother , leader of the House of Commons, had slit his own throat with a razor—an event that left a powerful impression on the young FitzRoy, who would do exactly the same thing himself many years later.  

For the time being, however, he wanted civilian companionship to keep the demons at bay.  A very capable surveyor and meteorologist, he was also a very conservative Christian, strongly committed to mission work but he did not share the staunch opposition to slavery that was so deeply rooted in Darwin’s family history.  Darwin himself would detest slavery when he saw it up close in Brazil.  As Janet Browne points out, although the aristocratic FitzRoy “did not by any means endorse slavery, he saw nothing wrong with paternalism and its associated systems of tied and virtually unwaged labour.”  It was difficult for someone of his patrician background “to equate  wage slavery ,” in which his family was immersed, “with  chattel slavery ” (cited below, p. 198).  Darwin and FitzRoy would have some bitter arguments, including a major one about slavery, but also some great adventures together on shore.  

First, however, Darwin had to convince his father to consent—and to pay for his food and scientific supplies.  The job didn’t come with a paycheck.  Today we’d call it an unpaid internship, but it lasted almost five years (three years longer than planned).  However, after his uncle  Josiah Wedgewood  enthusiastically endorsed the idea, his father caved in and provided the necessary financial support.

Prior to the voyage, Darwin later said, “the sagacious Henslow … advised me to get and study the first volume of the ‘Principles,’ which had then just been published, but on no account to accept the views therein advocated” ( Autobiography ).  Darwin was referring to  Charles Lyell’s  great work,  Principles of Geology    (1830-33), which advocated a non-progressive interpretation of earth history that Henslow did not accept.  FitzRoy kindly gave Darwin a copy; the second and third volumes arrived by mail, at ports in South America, during the voyage.

He quickly became “ a zealous disciple of Mr Lyell’s views ,” he told his cousin,  W. Darwin Fox , in August 1835.  Observations of the after-effects of an earthquake in Chile, especially at Concepción, where the cathedral was destroyed, reinforced  Lyell’s view  that the land rose and fell, relative to the sea.  FitzRoy recorded that the nearby island of Santa Maria was lifted several feet.  Darwin later used the same idea as the basis for  his own theory of coral reefs —his first really important piece of science.

A newly discovered watercolor cartoon  by  Augustus Earle ,  Quarter Deck of a Man of War on Diskivery [ sic ] or interesting Scenes on an Interesting Voyage , depicts Charles Darwin in top hat and tails as specimens are being loaded onto the  Beagle .  Photograph by Sotheby’s ( image source ).

The Galapagos Islands: What Really Happened?

According to the traditional story—which we now know is wrong—Darwin had an epiphany at the  Galapagos Islands , where the  Beagle  landed in Sept 1835.  Supposedly, it was there that Darwin noticed how the birds and tortoises differed markedly from one island to the next—especially the finches.  Right then and there, the story goes, Darwin started to become an evolutionist; he started to question the traditional view of the separate creation of fixed and permanent species.

In fact, Darwin did not realize how important this was while he was there.  The specimens of birds he had taken from the various islands were scrambled together, and he did not fully sort out which ones had come from which islands until he got back to London and got help from ornithologist  John Gould .  Indeed, Darwin himself contributed to the misunderstanding: when he revised his popular book about the voyage,  Journal of Researches , for a second edition, conclusions he reached  only later on   were used to shape the interpretation of his experiences and observations  at the time .  To be fair, he did say that for some time he had failed to realize how important this was.  

The truth of the matter, as psychologist and historian  Frank Sulloway  has shown, is that Darwin’s major interest during the voyage was geology, not biology.  Indeed, his first publications after he returned were geological, such as his work on the elevation of the Andes Mountains and the formation of coral atolls in the Pacific.  According to Sulloway, the chief benefit of the voyage for his later work was the confidence it gave him in his own scientific abilities—which enabled him to tackle evolution.

# Darwin, Free Market Economics, and Evolution by Natural Selection

Engraving of economist and clergyman Thomas Robert Malthus, probably by  Amable Nicolas Fournier  ( image source ). Darwin’s notion of natural selection was crucially inspired by Malthus’ work on human population.

So far we’ve examined Darwin’s family background and university education, leading up to his long internship on  HMS Beagle . Now we get to the meat of the matter: his theory of evolution by natural selection, which was to a significant degree an idea shaped by ideas put forth by Thomas Malthus and Adam Smith, two giants of British economics. Basically, Darwin took ideas from the “economy of man” and applied them to the “economy of nature.” This is why some historians like to say that only a nineteenth-century Englishman could have come up with evolution by natural selection.

The Mystery of Mysteries

When the  Beagle  arrived back in England in Oct 1836, Darwin was not yet an evolutionist. Soon he moved to London, where he became involved in the  Geological Society of London  (the most active scientific group at the time) and befriended geologist  Charles Lyell , the doyen of British natural history whose ideas about the great age of the Earth and  the very gradual pace of geological change  had been, and would remain, so influential on him.

At just this point, Darwin started compiling  several notebooks devoted to the species question : how are species related to one another in time? What factors must be explained? We get a sense of his quandary from a line in a notebook devoted to transmutation (the word then used to mean what we now call “evolution”): “Herschel calls the appearance of new species the mystery of mysteries.”  John Herschel , son of the great astronomer  William Herschel , was a prominent philosopher, scientist, and mathematician. Darwin had visited him when the  Beagle  stopped at the Cape of Good Hope en route back to England. Just a few months earlier,  Herschel had written to Lyell , in appreciation for Lyell’s  Principles of Geology . He also commended Lyell’s boldness for addressing “that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others.” Lyell had not accepted transmutation at that point, but he had put the question prominently on the table. Herschel went on to endorse a Creator who “operates through a series of intermediate causes,” adding that if we were ever to understand the production of new species, it “would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process.”

Herschel’s view was about to become Darwin’s view, and the connection was not lost on Darwin.  As he put it later , reflecting on his experience in the Galapagos, “Hence, both in space and time, we seem to be brought somewhat near to that great fact—that mystery of mysteries— the first appearance of new beings on this earth.” The same phrase  appeared once again in the second sentence  of the introduction to  On the Origin of Species .

At some point in 1837, Darwin became convinced that transmutation had taken place on a wide scale. Partly, this resulted from the influence of Lyell’s  gradualism : sudden changes, such as special creation, just would not do for scientific explanations. However, Darwin lacked a plausible mechanism for transmutation—how did it work? He did not find  Lamarck’s idea —that traits acquired by an organism during its lifetime could be inherited by its offspring—very convincing.

Some of Darwin’s notebooks, such as this one, known as “Notebook B” from 1837-38, had long, narrow pages on which the user could write either across or down the page. Blank bound books of various types had been in use by scientists and many others for a long time;  Robert Boyle had used them in the 1680s . Most Darwin manuscripts are now in the Cambridge University Library ( image source ).

Enter the Reverend Thomas Malthus: the Struggle to Survive

Darwin found the answer in the autumn of 1838, when he read  Essay on the Principle of Population  (1798 and seq.), by clergyman and political economist  Thomas Robert Malthus . Near the end of his life, Darwin recalled reading Malthus simply “for amusement,” but we now know that it was actually part of a focused study he was then doing of the implications of evolution for human beings (quoting his  Autobiography , p. 120). The problem that concerned Malthus was overpopulation. As he saw it, without applying artificial checks, rapidly increasing human population would inevitably outstrip slow advances in our ability to produce food, leading to widespread starvation. Furthermore, an increasing labor force would depress wages. His solution? Marry later in life, so that fewer children would be born. (It’s ironic that Darwin was reading that particular advice just as he was contemplating his own, relatively late, marriage to his first cousin  Emma Wedgwood !)

The survival of Darwin’s notebooks puts historians like me in the anteroom of heaven: we get to see the ideas precisely as Darwin saw them, as they developed in his mind. In this case,  here is what he wrote  on 28 September 1838, in a commonplace book known by the glamorous name of “Notebook D”:

“The final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, and adapt it to change.—to do that for form, which Malthus shows is the final effect by means however of volition of this populousness on the energy of man. One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying [to] force every kind of adapted structure into the gaps in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones.”

In the space of two sentences, Darwin took Malthus’ view of a grim struggle in the economy of man and read it into what he himself called “the economy of nature.” In the process, he obliterated  William Paley’s  benign natural theological vision of the wonderful “contrivances” of living things co-existing in a divinely created world. Indeed, he turned it upside down. Where Paley saw harmonious balance, extending even to predation, Darwin saw “a force like a hundred thousand wedges,” all trying to force their way into the same ecological niches, “by thrusting out weaker ones.”

Over the next six years, Darwin developed his theory enough to write it out at some length, first in a 35-page “Sketch” on natural selection (1842) and then in a much longer “Essay” of 230 pages (1844) that he wasn’t yet ready to publish. This was the situation when, in June 1858, he received an unpublished paper from  Alfred Russel Wallace , an English naturalist living in the Maylay Islands who had independently hit upon the same idea of evolution by natural selection—also after reading Malthus. It was a remarkable coincidence, though not unique in the history of science.

Alfred Russel Wallace in the decade before he corresponded with Darwin about natural selection. Platinotype copy of a daguerreotype by unknown photographer (ca. 1842 or 1848), National Portrait Gallery, London, NPG x5108, given by the sitter’s children, W.G. and Violet Wallace, 1916.  Image  used under license from  creative commons .

What was Darwin to do? He was crushed,  telling Lyell  that “all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed.” It was decided that Darwin would quickly write a paper of his own, and that both papers would be read at an upcoming scientific meeting, along with a letter Darwin had recently written to Harvard botanist Asa Gray in which he discussed his theory—as a way of proving that he hadn’t stolen the central idea from Wallace.

Immediately Darwin got busy finishing the long-postponed book. Publisher John Murray printed just 1,250 copies that were all purchased by bookshops on the very same day of publication, 24 Nov 1859. There would be five more editions, the last (1872) quite different from the first. The title of the third chapter, “Struggle for Existence,” emphasizes the over-fecundity of living creatures in the face of limited resources. This results in a competition to survive and to produce progeny. As Darwin stated, this is “the doctrine of Malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms; for in this case there can be no artificial increase of food, and no prudential restraint from marriage” (p. 63f). The next chapter, called “Natural Selection,” argues that  useful  variations,  advantageous  variations, tend to survive. “This preservation of favourable variations and the rejection of injurious variations, I call Natural Selection” (p. 81).

Enter Adam Smith: the Benefits of Competition

In addition to the influence of Malthus, which Darwin publicly acknowledged, there was also an important, unacknowledged influence from another British economist, the great  Adam Smith , author of  An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations   (1776). Darwin read Smith during that crucial period from 1837 to 1838, when he seemingly read everything he could get his hands on and evolution was percolating in his mind. Although he didn’t spell out the connection explicitly, as he did with Malthus, it’s still unmistakably present—not only as found in Smith’s book itself, but also in the general worldview of a nineteenth-century English gentleman from an upwardly mobile family.

A leading expert on the history of evolution,  Edward J. Larson , deftly connects the dots as follows:

“Darwinism represented simply one among many logical developments of an increasingly pervasive Western mindset that accepted competition among people or groups of people as socially beneficial. During the late 1700s, Adam Smith argued that economic progress depended on individual competition. His faith in the natural harmony of human interactions gave him hope that all people would benefit from  laissez-faire  capitalism. Embracing  laissez-faire , Thomas Malthus soon observed that some individuals must gain and others lose in any social competition due to limited resources. Referring to the process as a ‘struggle for existence’ (at least in the context of primitive human societies), Malthus wrote of the ‘goad of necessity’ bringing out the best in people. … With  Origin of Species , Darwin pushed this line of reasoning a critical step further by presenting competition as producing fitter varieties, races, and ultimately species.” ( Evolution , p. 185)

Ed Larson, shown here taking notes on the back of a Galapagos tortoise, is a highly accomplished historian and legal scholar. His book about the Scopes trial,  Summer for the Gods  (1997), won the Pulitzer Prize for History.  Before becoming an academic, Larson worked for the US Congress and wrote the  Equal Access Act , a significant piece of legislation upholding religious liberty. Photograph by evolutionary biologist  Rodney Honeycutt , courtesy of Edward J. Larson.

Furthermore, as  Stephen Jay Gould  insightfully pointed out, the parallel between Darwin’s natural selection and Smith’s “ invisible hand ” is remarkable. “The theory of natural selection is uncannily similar to the chief doctrine of laissez-faire economics” (cited below, p. 14). In both instances, there is no regulation from on high to govern the individual transactions; neither natural selection nor the invisible hand actually exists as a tangible entity, but each works to benefit the whole system.

In other words, just as Smith saw competition leading inevitably to specialization and diversification that enrich the economy of man, so Darwin saw competition leading inevitably to specialization and diversification that enrich the economy of nature.

Looking Ahead: Natural Selection, Politics, and Creationism Today

Whatever one may think of the evidence for common ancestry, the basic mechanism of natural selection was not very controversial then and is not very controversial now. Even young-earth creationists accept it. Why else would Ken Ham proclaim that “ Natural Selection is Not Evolution !”? Writing about the antibiotic resistance of bacteria, Answers in Genesis biologist  Georgia Purdom   freely admits  that, “the process of natural selection will occur, favoring the survival and reproduction of the mutant bacteria.” She even goes so far as to call this phenomenon “a testimony to the wonderful design God gave bacteria, master adapters and survivors in a sin-cursed world.” Creationists draw the line, however, at any effort to equate natural selection with evolution: adaptation governed by natural selection, in their view, operates only  within , not  across , the genetic boundaries of the original created “kinds,” whatever they were. I can almost hear Darwin laughing, since for him natural selection was inseparable from evolution.

Those Christians who have come to terms with Darwin, including myself, continue to struggle with the struggle Darwin saw in nature. How can a good God and a “very good” creation be reconciled with evolution by natural selection? There are no easy answers here, but I offered  some pointers toward possible answers  in another series. If nature does indeed have  a cruciform shape , then perhaps this is not really quite so surprising.

Of the many authoritative biographies of Charles Darwin, one of the most accessible is  Peter J. Bowler ,  Charles Darwin: The Man and his Influence  (1996), which I highly recommend. Readers who want many more details than Bowler provides should consult  Janet Browne ,  Charles Darwin. Voyaging  (1995), the first part of her two-volume biography, and  Adrian Desmond  &  James Moore ,  Darwin  (1991), both of which are especially good for information about Robert Grant. 

Peter Nichols ,  Evolution’s Captain  (2003), is a readable account of the life and adventures of Robert FitzRoy, but not entirely reliable.  Among other problems, the author seems wholly unaware of the fact that historians no longer believe in the grand narrative of “warfare” between science and religion that dominates parts of the book.  Leading Christian scientists and clergy had already come to terms with the vastness of geological time before Darwin even entered the picture, but you’d never know it from reading Nichols.  Frank Sulloway has written extensively about what really happened in the Galapagos.  A popular version of his work is “ The Evolution of Charles Darwin ,”  Smithsonian  (December 2005): 58-69.  For more details, see “ Darwin and His Finches: The Evolution of a Legend ,”  Journal of the History of Biology  15 (1982): 1-53, and “Tantalizing Tortoises and the Darwin-Galápagos Legend,”  Journal of the History of Biology  42   (2009): 3-31.

For a concise treatment of the striking parallels between Darwin’s theory of natural selection and Adam Smith’s views on the competitive marketplace, see Stephen Jay Gould, “Darwin and Paley meet the Invisible Hand,”  Natural History  99 (November 1990): 8-16, an essay later incorporated into his book,  Eight Little Piggies  (1993).

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Charles Darwin: A Biography, Vol. 1 - Voyaging Paperback – April 1, 1996

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Books by Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was an English naturalist whose best-known book, On the Origin of Species (1859) underpins much of modern thought on how life on Earth developed into the variety of species we have today. Rather than a divine designer, Darwin argued that it was evolution by natural selection that created creatures so seemingly well-adapted to their environment. According to evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne, On the Origin of Species is a book “you have to have read if you want to be considered an educated person.” However, Charles Darwin wrote more than 50 books and some of his others have also been recommended on Five Books :

(NB An excellent biography of Darwin has also been highlighted on Five Books ).

Voyage of the Beagle

By charles darwin.

Read expert recommendations

“It’s a fun read about a young man on an expedition finding things out. It’s as much about the journey as it is about evolution, but you can hear the idea gestating, the beginnings of the most amazing idea ever…this is about the process of science, about him using his brain, the creative imaginative bit of science where he’s wondering why these fossils are here on top of the Andes. He sees Valparaiso destroyed by an earthquake erupting and is horrified by the brutality of nature – it’s as much a travelogue as anything else, but you can see how his mind is beginning to work. I wish I’d read it when I was younger – I’d have gone off a similar journey if I had…It’s full of anecdotes and humour. I mean, he’s aware that he is an academic, and there are long passages about shale beds and geological formations that a travel writer might have left out, but he describes the meals he ate and the people he meets. You really get a feeling of his enthusiasm. It rips along.” Read more...

The best books on Being Inspired by Science

Tom Clarke , Journalist

On the Origin of Species

By charles darwin & james costa.

🏆  A Five Books Most Recommended Book

“An educated person is someone who knows at least a little bit about the major disciplines in human endeavour. And in biology, this is what you need to know – not only historically but also contemporaneously, because Darwin was right, and still is right, about so many things.” Read more...

The best books on Evolution

Jerry Coyne , Biologist

The Descent of Man

“I like The Descent of Man better than The Origin of Species because Darwin is prepared to be much bolder in The Descent of Man . In The Origin of Species he was still a little bit timid. He presents the idea of how species develop, and that is what we now refer to as evolution. But he didn’t apply it to humans. He really didn’t dare to say that we humans developed from other apes just as horses, for example, developed from early proto-horses. He didn’t use the term ‘evolution’ anywhere in the original editions of The Origin of Species . He does use it in later editions, but that’s around the time when The Descent of Man is published.” Read more...

The Best Nineteenth-Century Philosophy Books

Peter Singer , Philosopher

Evolutionary Writings: Including the Autobiographies

Charles Darwin wrote his autobiography in a matter of months, and it was published after his death in 1887. This edition from Oxford World Classics also includes nice selections from his other writings, as well as responses to his work from around the world.

The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals

“The sense of continuity between people and other animals underlies everything that Darwin ever wrote. He doesn’t address it explicitly in On the Origin of Species but it’s the focus of the The Descent of Man . The Expressions of Emotion in Man and Animals addresses the set of human characteristics that are most likely to be fixed on by people who wish to emphasise the distinction between people and other animals…Darwin’s books sold very well… The Expressions of Emotion in Man and Animals is shorter and has pictures of people and animals expressing different emotional states.” Read more...

The best books on The History of Human Interaction With Animals

Harriet Ritvo , Historian

The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms with Observations on their Habits

“It’s a wonderful Victorian title. Of course his most famous book is On The Origin of Species and that is actually rather hard work because he was desperately trying to persuade people of his thesis and he collected an absolute mountain of data and you had to wade through this stuff. But he was actually rather a good writer if he was able to let his hair down. His account of the Voyage of the Beagle is lovely. It is a sort of travel book full of derring-do and wonderful adventures. But I love this book about earthworms, which wasn’t published until 1896, because it just shows what a lovely naturalist he was. Let me read you one paragraph from page 26 on the observations and habits of worms: ‘Worms do not posses any sense of hearing. They took not the least notice of the shrill of a metal whistle which was repeatedly sounded near them. Nor did they hear the deepest and loudest tones of a bassoon. They were indifferent to shouts if care was taken that the breath did not strike them. When placed on a table near a piano which was played as loudly as possible they remained perfectly quiet.’ But he goes on to say that if you put them on the piano they jumped like mad because they could feel the vibrations.” Read more...

The best books on Popular Science

Adam Hart-Davis , Broadcaster

Interviews where books by Charles Darwin were recommended

The best books on popular science , recommended by adam hart-davis, micrographia: the complete facsimile of the first printing of 1665 by robert hooke, stonehenge decoded by gerald s hawkins, a brief history of time by stephen hawking, the double helix by james watson, the formation of vegetable mould through the action of worms with observations on their habits by charles darwin.

Adam Hart-Davis says clear simple writing is the key to an accessible science book. Selects the five books he believes offer the best introduction to Popular Science. Includes works from Darwin, Watson and Hawking

The best books on The History of Human Interaction With Animals , recommended by Harriet Ritvo

The expression of emotions in man and animals by charles darwin, primate visions: gender, race, and nature in the world of modern science by donna j haraway, savages and beasts: the birth of the modern zoo by nigel rothfels, dolly mixtures: the remaking of genealogy by sarah franklin, beastly natures: animals, humans, and the study of history by dorothee brantz.

Animals have played a significant role in human history, and the manner by which we interpret their behaviour says a lot about our own culture and social mores. Harriet Ritvo, professor of history at MIT, selects five of the best books from the field of animal history.

The Best Nineteenth-Century Philosophy Books , recommended by Peter Singer

Phenomenology of spirit by a. v. miller & g. w. f. hegel, the communist manifesto by friedrich engels & karl marx, on liberty by john stuart mill, the descent of man by charles darwin, the methods of ethics by henry sidgwick.

The nineteenth century saw not only a widespread interest in philosophical ideas but also philosophy’s development as a more rigorous discipline. Australian philosopher Peter Singer introduces us to the highlights of a century of philosophy books.

The Best Books for Growing up in the Anthropocene , recommended by Caspar Henderson

Natural history by pliny the elder, the deep: the extraordinary creatures of the abyss by claire nouvian, storms of my grandchildren by james hanson, the techno-human condition by braden allenby and daniel sarewitz.

Welcome to life in the Anthropocene, a new epoch in the history of life where the impact of humanity on the Earth system is so great, we need a new term for it. Author and journalist Caspar Henderson offers a rich reading list to help ourselves and our children grow up in the Anthropocene.

The best books on Evolution , recommended by Jerry Coyne

On the origin of species by charles darwin & james costa, charles darwin: voyaging by janet browne, the blind watchmaker by richard dawkins, the mismeasure of man by stephen jay gould, evolution: what the fossils say and why it matters by donald prothero.

Evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne tells us why Darwin is still essential reading and sifts the vast amount of more recent writing on evolution for books that are both inspiring to scientists and accessible to general readers. He picks the best books on evolution.

Favourite Science Books , recommended by Mark Kurlansky

On human nature by edward o. wilson, the whale by philip hoare, the sound of a wild snail eating by elisabeth tova bailey, the elegant universe by brian greene.

The bestselling author of Cod and Salt tells us about five science books he loves—from whales and snails to evolution and string theory—all of which make difficult subjects accessible

The best books on Prehistory , recommended by Tim White

Voyage of the beagle by charles darwin, the journals of lewis and clark by bernard devoto (editor), the first human by ann gibbons, missing links by john reader.

Paleoanthropologist Tim White tells us about his work investigating the origins of homo sapiens and explains what a 4.4 million-year-old skeleton he found in Africa tells us about our common past.

The best books on Earth History , recommended by Adam Maloof

The sheltering desert by henno martin, cosmicomics by italo calvino, rare earth by peter ward and don brownlee, chaos by james gleick.

Just as no one can study political science without a basic understanding of human history, or study a modern animal without a basic understanding of evolution, so no one can understand climate change without understanding the Earth’s history, argues the Princeton geology professor.

The best books on Ideas that Matter , recommended by A C Grayling

The nicomachean ethics by aristotle, critique of pure reason by immanuel kant, pride and prejudice (book) by jane austen, table-talk, essays on men and manners by william hazlit.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, intellectuals engaged in the ‘great conversation,’ a debate about ideas, politics, and beliefs, says British philosopher A C Grayling, author of Ideas That Matter . He picks out five books on ideas about how we live our lives and how we view the world, from Aristotle to Charles Darwin.

The best books on Being Inspired by Science , recommended by Tom Clarke

The making of the atomic bomb by richard rhodes, the log from the sea of cortez by john steinbeck.

The Science Correspondent for the Uk’s Channel 4 discusses the magical allure of science. He chooses five great books on subjects ranging from genetics to natural history and astro-physics

Evolutionary Writings: Including the Autobiographies by Charles Darwin

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This site has an archive of more than one thousand seven hundred interviews, or eight thousand book recommendations. We publish at least two new interviews per week.

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Charles Darwin: 5 Facts About the Father of Evolution

Here are five little-known facts about one of the most influential thinkers of our time:

The father of evolution began life as a creationist

Raised as a Christian in Victorian England, Darwin enrolled at Cambridge University as a divinity student. “I did not then in the least doubt the strict and literal truth of every word in the Bible,” he wrote. While studying at Cambridge, a tutor recommended he take a biology research trip around the world on the HMS Beagle – a voyage that would prompt Darwin to question his Christian worldview.

He possessed a unique hunger for knowledge

During his five-year voyage around the world, Darwin famously collected and cataloged countless plants and animals. But sailors on the Beagle noted that Darwin was happy to eat many of the exotic animals he collected, including turtles, iguanas, pumas (which he said tasted like veal) and armadillos (which he said tasted like duck). An eccentric foodie, Darwin was a member of Cambridge University’s Glutton Club, a weekly group whose mission was to seek out and eat “strange flesh.”

He delayed the publication of his theory of natural selection for 20 years

Darwin began formulating his theory in the late 1830s but kept it under wraps for two decades. His grandfather Erasmus Darwin had published early work in evolution only to be criticized by the church. Darwin, therefore, wanted to build up a surplus of evidence before going public with his ideas.

Contrary to popular belief, Darwin didn’t have a Eureka moment in the Galapagos Islands. Rather, his ideas evolved over time and were based on rudimentary theories about evolution that had been around for decades. The word “evolution,” in fact, doesn’t appear in his book, The Origin of Species , until its sixth edition.

Darwin almost got scooped

During the 20 years developing his theories, Darwin worked closely with Alfred Russel Wallace. Inspired by Darwin, Wallace also explored wildlife in South America and supplied Darwin with wildlife for his own research. In 1858, Wallace asked Darwin to review a manuscript that included his own ideas about natural selection. Shocked that Wallace’s ideas were nearly identical to his own – and having written roughly a quarter of a million words on the subject – Darwin decided to go public, publishing The Origin of Species in 1859.

Darwin married his cousin

After methodically drawing up a list of pros and cons, Darwin decided to marry his cousin Emma Wedgwood. Although the two were happily married (and enjoyed nightly games of backgammon), a shadow of tragedy fell upon their offspring. Of their 10 children, three died in childhood – losses that haunted Darwin throughout his life. Recognizing that plants that self-fertilized tended to be less healthy, Darwin worried inbreeding may have brought on the tragedy.

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10 Things You May Not Know About Charles Darwin

By: Christopher Klein

Updated: May 31, 2023 | Original: February 12, 2014

1. Darwin was born on the same day as Abraham Lincoln.

Both Darwin and Lincoln were born on February 12, 1809, but in much different settings. While America’s 16th president was born in a rude log cabin in the Kentucky wilderness, Darwin was born in a grand Georgian house on an estate overlooking the River Severn and the medieval market town of Shrewsbury, England.

2. He waited more than 20 years to publish his groundbreaking theory on evolution.

Darwin’s five-year voyage around the world on HMS Beagle, which ended in 1836, provided him with invaluable research that contributed to the development of his theory of evolution and natural selection. Concerned, however, about the public and ecclesiastical acceptance of his deeply radical idea, he did not present his theory on evolution until 1858 when he made a joint announcement with British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, who was about to go public with a similar concept to Darwin’s. The next year, Darwin published his seminal work, “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life."

3. Darwin suffered from chronic illnesses.

After returning from his trip around the world, Darwin began to suffer from exhaustion, eczema and chronic bouts of nausea, headaches and heart palpitations that would persist for the rest of his life. Some speculate that during his travels Darwin may have contracted a parasitic illness called Chagas disease that can eventually result in cardiac damage, which ultimately caused Darwin’s death.

Timothy Dickinson tells us about Charles Darwin and the depth of the human past.

4. He composed a pro/con list to decide on whether to marry.

Displaying a logical inclination even in matters of the heart, Darwin in 1838 composed a list with two columns delineating the upsides and downsides of marriage. In the “Marry” column: “children,” “constant companion (and friend in old age)…better than a dog anyhow” and “someone to take care of house.” In the “Not Marry” ledger: “freedom to go where one liked,” “conversation of clever men at clubs” and “loss of time.” Not on Darwin’s list, however, were family ties for he married his first cousin Emma Wedgwood in 1839.

5. He dropped out of medical school.

Darwin’s father was a successful doctor who groomed his son to follow in his footsteps. After spending the summer of 1825 serving as an apprentice in his father’s practice, he entered one of Britain’s top medical schools at the University of Edinburgh. Darwin, however, hated the sight of blood and was bored with the lectures. He left medical school and dashed his father’s dreams.

6. Darwin was a divinity student.

After leaving the University of Edinburgh, the man who would challenge the established religious dogma of creationism enrolled at Cambridge to study theology. “I did not then in the least doubt the strict and literal truth of every word in the Bible,” he later wrote. However, Darwin’s faith began to waver after encountering the evils of slavery on his trip around the world and following the deaths of three of his children. Darwin, though, never characterized himself as an atheist. He instead referred to himself as an agnostic.

7. He dined on exotic animals.

Darwin not only studied an eclectic menagerie of animals from around the globe, he ate them as well. As a student at Cambridge, he formed the Gourmet Club, also known as the Glutton Club, for the purpose of dining on “birds and beasts, which were before unknown to human palate.” Darwin ate hawk and bittern but couldn’t choke down a brown owl that was served. While circumnavigating the globe on HMS Beagle, Darwin continued his adventurous eating by snacking on armadillo, ostrich and puma (“remarkably like veal in its taste,” he described).

8. He didn’t coin the phrase “survival of the fittest.”

Although associated with Darwin’s theory of natural selection, the phrase “survival of the fittest” was actually first used by English philosopher Herbert Spencer in his 1864 “Principles of Biology” to connect his economic and sociological theories with Darwin’s biological concepts. Darwin first adopted the phrase in his fifth edition of “The Origin of Species,” published in 1869, by writing of natural selection that “the expression often used by Mr. Herbert Spencer of the survival of the fittest is more accurate, and is sometimes equally convenient.”

9. Darwin is buried inside Westminster Abbey.

After Darwin passed away on April 19, 1882, his family began preparations to bury him in the village where he had spent the last 40 years of his life. However, Darwin’s friends and colleagues began a lobbying campaign to give him the high honor of burial inside London’s Westminster Abbey. After newspapers and the public joined the chorus, the Dean of Westminster gave his approval. A week after his death, Darwin was laid to rest in England’s most revered church near fellow scientists John Herschel and Isaac Newton.

10. Darwin appeared on the 10-pound note for 18 years.

Beginning in 2000, a portrait of a bearded Darwin appeared on the back of the British 10-pound note along with an image of HMS Beagle, a magnifying lens and flora and fauna seen on his travels. The Bank of England discontinued his £10 note in 2018, however.

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Charles Darwin

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Charles Darwin is one of the most famous scientists who ever lived, whose ideas changed history. But he didn't always seem destined for greatness.

Charles Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, England in 1809. His family was wealthy. His father was a respected doctor, and his mother was a member of Wedgewood family — famous for making pottery. But she died when Charles was just eight and he was cared for by his sisters.

Charles didn't do that well at school. He didn't like learning the classics and preferred to dabble in chemistry which was not a respectable subject for a gentleman earning him the nickname, "Gas".

His father worried that he was aimless and sent him to study medicine at Edinburgh University. There, he learned a lot. How to identify the age of rocks, how to classify plants and stuff animals and radical ideas about evolution — the change of living things over time.

He didn't learn much medicine. In fact, surgery made him sick, so he swapped universities and prepared for life as an Anglican gentleman.

But his life changed when he decided to take a trip on the HMS Beagle. It was setting out to chart the coast of Patagonia and Charles came on board to keep the captain company and do his own exploring.

He was wrapped.

He saw jungles that left his mind in a "Chaos of delight", collected amazing creatures and ancient fossils and watched as geological forces shaped the earth. He marvelled at the beauty and the cruelty of nature and of human beings. And all of it made him wonder about time, and life and change.

By the time the Beagle had sailed home, via Tahiti, New Zealand and Australia, Darwin was full of questions.

Why did ancient animals become extinct? Why did they share traits with living creatures? Why did creatures differ from place to place? He began to think perhaps all these things were connected.

Charles published the diaries of his trip and spent the next few years starting a family, breeding pigeons and studying barnacles all the while, exploring his theory of Natural Selection.

Another naturalist named Alfred Russel Wallace had come up with a similar theory on his own travels, and he wrote to Darwin. In 1858 the two men published what's seen as one of the most important scientific papers ever written. One year later, Darwin published his book, On the Origin of Species. It was controversial, because it flew in the face of what a lot of people had been taught — that the world was created by God as it is. But it was also a huge success.

Darwin spent the rest of his life testing his theory and in the years since, it's become the foundation of modern biology, forever changing our understanding of the world and our place in it.

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Charles Darwin (February 12, 1809–April 19, 1882) was a naturalist who originated the theory of evolution through the process of natural selection. Darwin holds a unique place in history as the foremost proponent of this theory. While he lived a relatively quiet and studious life, his writings were controversial in their day and still routinely spark controversy.

As an educated young man, he embarked on an astounding voyage of discovery aboard a Royal Navy ship. Strange animals and plants he saw in remote places inspired his deep thinking about how life might have developed. And when he published his masterpiece, " On the Origin of Species ," he profoundly shook up the scientific world. Darwin's influence on modern science is impossible to overstate.

Fast Facts: Charles Darwin

• Known For : Originating the theory of evolution through natural selection
• Born : February 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England
• Parents : Robert Waring Darwin and Susannah Wedgwood
• Died : April 19, 1882 in Downe, Kent, England
• Education : Edinburgh University, Scotland, Cambridge University, England
• Published Works : On the Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selection
• Awards and Honors : Royal Medal, Wallaston Medal, Copley Medal (all for outstanding achievements in the sciences)
• Spouse : Emma Wedgwood
• Children : William Erasmus Darwin, Anne Elizabeth Darwin, Mary Eleanor Darwin, Henrietta Emma Darwin, George Howard Darwin, Elizabeth Darwin, Francis Darwin, Leonard Darwin, Horace Darwin, Charles Waring Darwin
• Notable Quote : “In the struggle for survival, the fittest win out at the expense of their rivals because they succeed in adapting themselves best to their environment.”

Charles Darwin was born on February 12, 1809, in Shrewsbury, England. His father was a medical doctor, and his mother was the daughter of the famous potter Josiah Wedgwood. Darwin’s mother died when he was 8, and he was essentially raised by his older sisters. He was not a brilliant student as a child, but he went on to study at the University of Edinburgh Medical School in Scotland , at first intending to become a doctor.

Darwin took a strong dislike to medical education and eventually studied at Cambridge . He planned to become an Anglican minister before becoming intensely interested in botany. He received a degree in 1831.

Voyage of the Beagle

On the recommendation of a college professor, Darwin was accepted to travel on the second voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle . The ship was embarking on a scientific expedition to South America and islands of the South Pacific, leaving in late December 1831. The Beagle returned to England nearly five years later, in October 1836.

Darwin's position on the ship was peculiar. A former captain of the vessel had become despondent during a long scientific voyage because, it was assumed, he had no intelligent person to converse with while at sea. The British Admiralty thought sending an intelligent young gentleman along on a voyage would serve a combined purpose: he could study and make records of discoveries while also providing intelligent companionship for the captain. Darwin was chosen to go aboard.

Darwin spent more than 500 days at sea and about 1,200 days on land during the trip. He studied plants, animals, fossils, and geological formations and wrote his observations in a series of notebooks. During long periods at sea, he organized his notes.

In the Galapagos

The Beagle spent about five weeks in the Galapagos Islands . During that time, Darwin made a series of observations that had a significant impact on his new theories about natural selection. He was particularly intrigued by his discovery of major differences between species on different islands. He wrote:

The distribution of tenants of this archipelago would not be nearly so wonderful if, for instance, one island has a mocking-thrush and a second island some other quite distinct species... But it is the circumstance that several of the islands possess their own species of tortoise, mocking-thrush, finches, and numerous plants, these species having the same general habits, occupying analogous situations, and obviously filling the same place in the natural economy of this archipelago, that strikes me with wonder.

Darwin visited four of the Galapagos Islands, including Chatham Island (now San Cristobal), Charles (now Floreana), Albemarle, and James (now Santiago). He spent much of his time sketching, collecting specimens, and observing animals and their behavior. His discoveries would change the scientific world and rock the foundations of Western religion.

Early Writings

Three years after returning to England, Darwin published the "Journal of Researches," an account of his observations during the expedition aboard the Beagle. The book was an entertaining account of Darwin's scientific travels and was popular enough to be published in successive editions.

Darwin also edited five volumes titled "Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle," which contained contributions by other scientists. Darwin himself wrote sections dealing with the distribution of animal species and geological notes on fossils he had seen.

Development of Darwin's Thinking

The voyage on the Beagle was, of course, a highly significant event in Darwin’s life, but his observations on the expedition were hardly the only influence on the development of his theory of natural selection. He was also greatly influenced by what he was reading.

In 1838 Darwin read an "Essay on the Principle of Population," which the British philosopher Thomas Malthus had written 40 years earlier. The ideas of Malthus helped Darwin refine his own notion of “survival of the fittest.”

Darwin's Ideas of Natural Selection

Malthus had been writing about overpopulation and discussed how some members of society were able to survive difficult living conditions. After reading Malthus, Darwin kept collecting scientific samples and data, eventually spending 20 years refining his own thoughts on natural selection.

Darwin married Emma Wedgwood in 1839. Illness prompted him to move from London to the country in 1842. His scientific studies continued, and he spent years studying various lifeforms to better understand their evolutionary processes.

Publication of His Masterpiece

Darwin’s reputation as a naturalist and geologist had grown throughout the 1840s and 1850s, yet he had not revealed his ideas about natural selection widely. Friends urged him to publish them in the late 1850s; it was the publication of an essay by Alfred Russell Wallace expressing similar thoughts that encouraged Darwin to write a book setting out his own ideas.

In July 1858, Darwin and Wallace appeared together at the Linnean Society of London. And in November 1859, Darwin published the book that secured his place in history: "On the Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selection."

"On the Origin of Species" was published in several editions, with Darwin periodically editing and updating material in the book. And while society debated Darwin's work, he lived a quiet life in the English countryside, content to conduct botanical experiments. He was highly respected, regarded as a grand old man of science. He died on April 19, 1882, and was honored by being buried at Westminster Abbey in London .

Charles Darwin was not the first person to propose that plants and animals adapt to circumstances and evolve over eons of time. But Darwin's book put forth his hypothesis in an accessible format and led to controversy. Darwin's theories had an almost immediate impact on religion, science, and society at large.

• “ Charles Darwin: Gentleman Naturalist .” Darwin Online.
• Desmond, Adrian J. “ Charles Darwin .” Encyclopedia Britannica , 8 Feb. 2019.
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The mystery of the beginning of all things is insoluble by us; and I for one must be content to remain an agnostic.

- By Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin and his theories

Charles Darwin was a naturalist who was a prolific at describing his findings in papers and published works. The basis of his works was a theory of evolution that itself evolved over the course of his career and studies. Darwin pieced together information from his earliest studies to continuously expand upon his theory called "natural selection." The root of Darwin's theory can be traced back to his time at Edinburgh university where he first became interested in invertebrates and the possibility that other creatures evolved from more simple organisms like them. After his father sent transferred him to Christ's College in Cambridge, Darwin began to amass knowledge about botany and geology that would also help inform his evolutionary theory. Though Darwin began his life as a somewhat religious person, with ties to both the Unitarian and Anglican church, several concepts like the argument that nature was a process of "divine design" did not seem to align with his rapidly increasing understanding of nature and geology. When the opportunity to contribute to scientific study as a naturalist on the HMS Beagle presented itself, Darwin was excited to undertake that role. Though the voyage lasted many years and was tremendously arduous, it provided the basis of knowledge that Darwin would built upon to write his description of natural selection. Darwin's time aboard the HMS Beagle and his time spent off the ship during its voyage in South America was one of observation and collection. His journal excerpts and findings were periodically sent back to Cambridge and he created a vast collection of specimens from fossils to small invertebrates. All were carefully maintained for proper appraisal at the end of the expedition. Along with these creatures, Darwin explored the rise and fall of the land and grasped the massive time span of the earth and the changes it as an environment has experienced during its time span. Upon his return as Darwin worked for years to compile the first edition of his theory of natural selection in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species. The framework of this theory is defined by Merriam-Webster's dictionary as "the process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring." Darwin assembled his theory from years of studies of creatures from small invertebrates, to plankton, to insects and then the collection of large extinct mammal fossils. It was paired with a knowledge of geology and how the earth has evolved as an environment upon which every living thing has existed upon. The final piece to make the theory complete was the relation of the natural world Darwin had studied and categorized mixed with an accessible theory on mankind. Essay on the Principle of Population, by Thomas Malthus', was his primary influence in this area that changed the entire trajectory of his natural selection theory. The premise of the Malthus article was that there would never be enough food supply to go around no matter how much was created, that populations increase too rapidly while food supplies increase arithmetically. This ruled charity to the poor as useless and the Whig party of England had grasped onto this concept. A malthusian Poor Act was passed that attempted to stop poor men and women from breeding. Darwin was having dinner with Harriet Martineau, who had created the propaganda for the Wig parties Poor Act, when he realized that an explosion in the size of population was imminent. Similar to in the natural world, the large population would create more competition for shared resources and the battles created for those resources would weed out those that didn't succeed and thus deserve a place in the population. By combining his discoveries with his new Malthusian formula Darwin felt he had created the foundation of his natural selection theory. Despite society becoming ever so slowly radicalized and embracing some agnosticism, it was unnerving for Darwin to be creating a theory that he knew would challenge the ingrained Anglican belief system in the United Kingdom. He had constant inner turmoil about his own belief in God and how he would be judged or possibly persecuted by publicly promoting a theory that disproved religious law. It took a long time after the initial sketch of his theory until Darwin felt confident publishing it, especially after his wife's reaction which was one of shock. He suggested to his wife that if he died she should benefit from the theory by paying to publish it posthumously. He moved to the countryside with the family and kept the theory secret from nearly everyone until the 1850s. During his period of seclusion Darwin continued working on his studies, focusing on work about pollination, barnacles and South American coral reefs and geology. He created a series of four monographs on an obscure hermaphroditic barnacle and became a world authority on the subject. With the awarding of the Royal Society's Medal in 1853 Darwin now had the clout and the confidence to release his theory on natural selection. His decision to finally come out of his intellectual secrecy was buoyed by the support of biologist Thomas Henry Huxley, a freethinker who insisted that the social climate was ready now to listen to Darwin's theories. This coincided with Darwin's decision to include a labor and competition analogy to describe how genes are divided among evolutionary branches when overcrowded. He tested natural selection by keeping pigeons and testing their chicks for similarities to ancestral relations. He was testing and perfecting the analogy of his theory and readying to present it to the population. Darwin at first ambitiously set out to publish a three volume series and worked through the birth of his tenth child. When he received a letter from Alfred Russel Wallace, who was well respected and working collecting specimens on the Malay Archipelago, his noticed many similarities between the theories that Wallace described. He decided he needed to abridge the three volumes and make the theory into a presentation that could be completed faster. In 1859 Darwin's explanation of natural selection theory was published and entitled "On the Origin of Species." In following years Darwin would publish updated versions of the text as his knowledge and research on this theory was his life's work. Darwin is best known for his natural selection theory, but also explored a few others in his life. Up until his death he did not stop exploring new ideas, and in 1871 published The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. This book applied his theory of evolution to his theory on sexual selection. It may be observed that Darwin wished to elaborate on his theory of evolution as it related to humanity. He observed many facets of humanity that troubled him during his quest with the HMS Beagle and must have searched for many years for an avenue in which to discuss his theory as relating to society, sex, and the human race. Darwin wrote prolifically but his theories all surrounded the base of his magnum opus, natural selection. He was a groundbreaking intellectual force that insisted on nothing but his own greatest work being thoroughly tested before he made it his own official theorem.