types of research questions political science

• View sidebar

A Political Science Guide

For students, researchers, and others interested in doing the work of political science, the research question.

One of the most important stages in the research process is formulating a research question. Both the type of question, and its significance, are important factors

It is usually a good idea to discuss your ideas for research questions with your research advisor or class instructor.

Ask questions, and consider asking  analytical   questions

Formulating your topic as a research question , rather than merely a statement can be a very useful step towards focusing the research project in general. It is common to begin with a broad topic, for instance:

“The international community’s response to piracy off the coast of Somalia.”

You could rephrase this as a descriptive question (This discussion is partly influenced by Benjamin Bloom’s 1956 Taxonomy of educational objectives. ):

“What has been the international community’s response to piracy off the coast of Somalia?”

However, while descriptive questions are important, they are limited in how much they help us understand social phenomena. More interesting questions might include:

“Why is the international community responding to piracy off the coast of Somalia? What are some of the factors impacting their choice of response?”

These are examples of analytical questions, which requires you to identify causes, reasons, and motives for action. Other interesting questions could be questions that require a creative solution to the problem. A policy question would prescribe a response to a particular situation.  For instance:

“How should the international community respond to piracy off the coast of Somalia?”

Yet other questions may require you to evaluate or make a judgment about a situation based on a set of criteria. For instance:

“Has the international community’s response to Somali piracy been effective?”

Focusing the research question

You can easily see how selecting a research question can be useful in determining the direction and scope of a project. Stating a research question can help us clarfiy exactly what will be researched.  We know that we are interested in piracy near Somalia in the questions mentioned above. We also know that we are interested in understanding the role of the international community. One decision we might make is to narrow the focus even further.  After all, the “international community” can be quite broad, consisting of international organizations, such as the United Nations, various country governments, major shipping companies that ship goods through the region, and insurance companies that insure those goods. So we might want to clarify our question even further.  The last question could be:

“Has the United States’ response to Somali piracy been effective?”

This is a clear, focused question that could form the basis of a student research paper. Which is not to say that it will be an easy question to answer. For one thing, this type of question requires us to define “effective”. Defining and measuring such core concepts is a the topic of a later section in this website. See “Concepts and Measurement”.

What makes a good question?

The types of questions that might be valuable have been the subject of some debate and discussion amongst political scientists.  King, Keohane and Verba’s 1994 book, cited below, suggests possible criteria to use in deciding on a topic and question (See especially their discussion that begins on page 14). That criteria includes two general approaches:

1. Choose a question that is important right now in the world; or

2. Choose a question that is important to the scholarly literature.

These are not mutually exclusive categories. A great question can often accomplish both. But consider carefully who you want your audience to be, and how you can make your project important to that audience.

The Quick Guide

• King, Gary, Robert Owen Keohane, and Sidney Verba. 1994. Designing social inquiry: scientific inference in qualitative research . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Almond, Gabriel A., and Stephen J. Genco. 1977. “Clouds, Clocks, and the Study of Politics.” World Politics 29(4): 489-522.
• Indiana University Libraries: “Narrowing a Topic and Developing a Research Question”

Updated January 18, 2024

Share this:

• Already have a WordPress.com account? Log in now.
• Subscribe Subscribed
• Copy shortlink
• Report this content
• View post in Reader
• Manage subscriptions
• Collapse this bar

MERRIMACK COLLEGE MCQUADE LIBRARY

Political science.

• Open Educational Resources (OER)
• Get Started
• Reference Sources

What is a Research Question?

Developing a research question (northern kentucky university), developing a research question (indiana university).

• Books / E-books / DVDs
• Find Articles
• Find Images & Art
• Find Video / Film
• Database Search Strategies
• Types of Resources
• Literature Review
• Evaluate Sources
• Cite Sources
• Annotated Bibliography
• POL Websites
• POL Organizations
• Government Resources

Contact a Librarian

A research question is a statement that defines what is to be studied. It is the core of the research project, study, or literature review. Your research question  focuses the study, determines the methodology, and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting.

Your research question should...

• Be focused 
• Identify the problem you're writing about
• Establish significance 

• << Previous: Reference Sources
• Next: Keywords >>
• Last Updated: Apr 9, 2024 12:15 PM
• URL: https://libguides.merrimack.edu/political_science

• Help and information
• Comparative Politics
• Environmental Politics
• European Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Human Rights and Politics
• International Political Economy
• International Relations
• Introduction to Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Political Methodology
• Political Philosophy
• Political Theory
• Politics of Development
• Security Studies
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Share This Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

Political Research: Methods and Practical Skills (3rd edn)

• Guided Tour of the Online Resources
• 1. Political Research
• 2. Forms of Knowledge: Laws, Explanation, and Interpretation in the Study of the Social World
• 3. Objectivity and Values
• 4. Asking Questions: How to Find and Formulate Research Questions
• 5. Finding Answers: Theories and How to Apply Them
• 6. Research Design
• 7. What is Data?
• 8. Experimental Research
• 9. Comparative Research
• 10. Historical Research
• 11. Surveys
• 12. Interviewing and Focus Groups
• 13. Ethnography and Participant Observation
• 14. Textual Analysis*
• 15. Quantitative Analysis: Description and Inference
• 16. Patterns of Association: Bivariate Analysis
• 17. A Guide to Multivariate Analysis
• Finding and Citing Sources for Political Research

p. 93 4. Asking Questions: How to Find and Formulate Research Questions

• Sandra Halperin Sandra Halperin Professor of International Relations, Royal Holloway, University of London
•  and  Oliver Heath Oliver Heath Professor of Politics, Royal Holloway, University of London
• https://doi.org/10.1093/hepl/9780198820628.003.0004
• Published in print: 17 April 2020
• Published online: August 2020

This chapter deals with the first step of the research process: the formulation of a well-crafted research question. It explains why political research should begin with a research question and how a research question structures the research process. It discusses the difference between a topic or general question, on the one hand, and a focused research question, on the other. It also considers the question of where to find and how to formulate research questions, the various types of questions scholars ask, and the role of the ‘literature review’ as a source and rationale for research questions. Finally, it describes a tool called the ‘research vase’ that provides a visualization of the research process, along with different types of questions: descriptive, explanatory, predictive, prescriptive, and normative.

• research process
• research question
• political research
• literature review
• research vase
• descriptive question
• explanatory question
• predictive question
• prescriptive question
• normative question

You do not currently have access to this chapter

Please sign in to access the full content.

Access to the full content requires a subscription

Printed from Oxford Politics Trove. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice).

date: 13 May 2024

• Cookie Policy
• Privacy Policy
• Legal Notice
• Accessibility
• [66.249.64.20|185.80.150.64]
• 185.80.150.64

Characters remaining 500 /500

• Skip to search box
• Skip to main content

Princeton University Library

Politics research guide, survey the literature, sources for paper ideas, get statistical help, pol course guides.

• Find Books & Articles
• American Politics
• Conflict & Security
• Demographic & Socioeconomic
• Economic & Financial
• Elections & Voting
• Identities (Ethnicity, Gender, Religion, etc.)
• Media & Political Communication
• Migration and Refugees
• Political & Governance Indicators
• Surveys & Public Opinion
• Collect and Cite Your Sources
• POL Dept. Orientation Resources

Politics Librarian

Topical Reviews

• Oxford Bibliographies: Political Science This link opens in a new window Hundreds of annotated guides to recent scholarship in topics across all subfields of political science and international relations.
• Oxford Research Encyclopedia: Politics Provides up-to-date, peer-reviewed surveys of major topics, theories, and research questions across all areas of political science.
• Oxford Research Encyclopedia: International Studies These peer-reviewed articles cover major topics, theories, and research questions across many subfields of international studies/international relations, like conflict, security, human rights, diplomacy, etc. This is the follow-up to the International Studies Association's International Studies Encyclopedia Online .
• Oxford Handbooks Online These handbooks provide a great source for authoritative reviews of research across political science, political theory, and related disciplines. Most of these we also have in print.
• Routledge Handbooks Online This link opens in a new window These handbooks provide overviews current research and future trends in the social sciences and humanities, with a strong collection in politics, particularly international relations and area studies.
• Annual Review of Political Science This link opens in a new window Comprehensive review of the literature in political science. Can help students identify major tends in the field as well as find general overviews of research in specific subject areas of politics.
• Elgar Research Handbooks Online Large collection of handbooks on topics across political science and public policy.

Political Theory Sources

• Cambridge Collections Online This link opens in a new window Searchable full text access to the complete Cambridge Companions to literature, philosophy, religion, and classics.
• Philosophy Compass This link opens in a new window Peer-reviewed survey articles on contemporary work in philosophy.
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Authoritative source of full-text articles with current bibliographies on many topics of philosophy.
• Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Provides full-text articles with current bibliographies on virtually every aspect of philosophy.
• Encyclopedia of Political Theory - Mark Bevir, ed. Thorough discussions of a diverse range of political theories and concepts.
• Past Masters This link opens in a new window Searchable full-text works in several languages from major philosophers and theologians.

Major Encyclopedias Covering the Whole Discipline

• SAGE Handbook of Political Science Published in 2020, this handbook provides a thorough overview of the discipline. Each of the 92 chapters gives a comprehensive overview of major topics within each subfield. Thematic sections include, Political Theory, Methods, Political Sociology, Comparative Politics, Public Policies and Administration, International Relations, and Major Challenges for Politics and Political Science in the 21st Century.
• International Encyclopedia of Political Science (2011) Covers all aspects of politics, from political theory and methodology to political sociology, comparative politics, public policies, and international relations.
• The Encyclopedia of Political Science Covers all areas of political science and provides medium-length entries with short bibliographies for further reading. Created under the direction of the American Political Science Association. Also in print at JA61 .E513 2011 (Trustee Reading Room Reference).
• International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.) This link opens in a new window Covering 26 volumes in print, this major encyclopedia aims to capture the "state of the art" of the social and behavioral sciences, expanding its focus to include related biological fields, such as evolutionary science, genetics, cognitive neuroscience, psychiatry, and health. Topics include anthropology, archaeology, demography, economics, education, geography, history, law, linguistics, philosophy, political science, psychiatry, psychology, and sociology.
• CQ Researcher This link opens in a new window Offers reports and analysis on a variety of current policy issues. Includes background information, pro/con debates, and a chronology, plus resources for additional research.
• Facts On File Issues and Controversies This link opens in a new window Explore current issues and events with in-depth articles made to inspire thought-provoking debates. Topic pages feature the latest related news coverage from Reuters® as well as a variety of helpful background information, from the key pro/con arguments to chronologies of related events to primary documents. Updated weekly. 1995–present.
• World News Digest (Facts on File) This link opens in a new window Digest of major news stories around the world. 1940+

Need statistical help?

Firestone Library's Data & Statistical Services section has 2 full-time consultants and a group of advanced graduate students who can help you! See the DSS website to make an appointment with one of the consultants or find the schedule for their virtual drop-in hours.

If you're in the social sciences, the Politics Department's Program for Quantitative and Analytical Political Science also provides a Consulting Service to advise on research design, statistics, formal theory, and computational questions arising from your research.

The library also provides numerous training workshops on R, Stata, visualization tools, and GIS software.

• POL 324: Congressional Politics by Jeremy Darrington Last Updated Dec 5, 2023 18 views this year
• Next: Find Books & Articles >>
• Last Updated: Mar 7, 2024 3:53 PM
• URL: https://libguides.princeton.edu/politics

• Get Involved
• Editorial Division
• Research Division
• Academic Division
• Marketing Division

Vernon Yian

February 19th, 2021, gv249: how to identify a research question.

Estimated reading time: 5 minutes

Mashal Ijaz, BSc. Politics and International Relations ’21

Why conduct political science research?

It is important to start by asking the fundamental: why conduct political science research? If your passion is quantitative political science research, that may not be a very important question. However, it is always worthwhile to put in perspective the rationale behind wanting to conduct ‘good’ political science research and, more importantly, what makes political science research ‘good’. The most obvious reason to learn how to conduct political science research is so that you know what to look for in the works of other researchers. This means you will be able to pick apart, dissect and analyse for yourself whether studies hold up to scrutiny once you apply your research knowledge. Obviously, this can be helpful in course readings for other modules, but it can also be very useful when others try to convince you of a specific viewpoint using research. You will know exactly what to look for when trying to gauge the quality of their research.

Identifying a question

According to Popper (1968), “there is no such thing as a logical method of having new ideas”. That is, if you are trying to develop a research question, there is no step-by-step process to follow which will result in inspiration for a great idea. However, instead of waiting for inspiration to strike randomly, we can begin by reading the literature around a specific topic we might be interested in. In so doing, we attempt to locate the gap or hole in the literature that we can then try to fill by conducting research. This ‘gap’ need not be a revolutionary idea which changes the field. It can be an identification of a new outcome variable for a specific phenomenon, or even simply a new conceptualisation, description or measurement of it. It could also be a new explanatory variable which has an effect on a known outcome. It can be a new moderator or mediator i.e. you find that there may be a different mechanism through which the explanatory variable affects the outcome variable (these will be discussed in more detail in future articles). Another approach could be transporting a study conducted in a specific region to a different area with the logic being that it will bring to light some new insight about a specific phenomenon.

Research questions can be descriptive – they ask ‘what’ questions, such as exploring the particular features of a political institution, idea etc. Research questions can also be causal. These are, arguably, the more interesting ones but also more difficult to conduct. They involve analysing the effect or mechanism behind two variables – the ‘why’ questions. When asking causal questions, it is usually best to avoid trying to find all the reasons behind a specific phenomenon. For example, if you ask, “Why did Clinton lose the 2016 election”, this will inevitably cause you some trouble since it is seemingly impossible to try and identify and measure all the explanatory variables for a specific outcome. Instead, we can ask “What was the effect of misogynistic remarks on political candidates in the 2016 US general election?” In this way, we are identifying and separating a specific explanatory variable and trying to measure its effect on the outcome.

These are a few helpful ways of thinking about how to begin formulating your own research question. However, at the end of the day, as Geddes (2003) points out, you need to have a certain level of genuine curiosity about the political and social world.

From theory to operationalism

Political science is not just about the facts. Since the political world is constantly changing, we need to understand how we move from causal theories to scientific knowledge. Political scientists develop and test theories; once developed, we can restate them into testable hypotheses. As we move from causal theory to hypothesis, we move from general statements about how we think the world works to a more specific statement about the expected relationship in the real world. Therefore, the next logical step after we have identified a political science question is to conceptualise and operationalise our variables. A great way to understand this is using Sartori’s (1970) ladder of abstraction. This framework attempts to understand concept formation through a logic of appropriate comparison. A concept is made less abstract and more specific when we add qualifications. For example, ‘political ideology’ is a ‘high level’ category which is more concretely conceptualised as an example of a political ideology, such as ‘nationalism’. This can be made more specific by the addition of attributes, for example, ‘alt-right white nationalism’. In this way, we can conceptualise broad theoretical concepts into more concrete variables which we might have a way of measuring. Therefore, a question such as “what is the effect of the internet on politics” is not a ‘good’ research question because of the abstract concepts involved. It is better to conceptualise ‘internet’ and ‘politics’ and try to be more specific in the hopes that we can measure these variables.

Key definitions:

• Variable: an entity that takes on different values (not a constant)
• Outcome variable, Y: (dependent) variable that you are trying to measure
• Explanatory variable, X: (independent) variable that is being manipulated to observe the effect on the outcome variable
• Mechanism: a causal explanation for a relationship
• Operationalisation: means by which a concept can be verified and measured.
• Inductive reasoning: deriving theories from observing empirical reality
• Deductive reasoning: develop theories and test them against empirical reality
• Positivism: there are objective facts that are observable and verifiable in the same way by different individuals
• Constructivism: facts are socially embedded and constructed. Reality is subjective, and we cannot claim to objectively observe reality.
• Normative: asks what ought to happen and why
• Empirical: asks what happened, happens or will happen, and why

Image credit: Runner Up – 2007 Science Idol Cartoon Contest. Springer Creative. https://www.springercreative.com/?cartoon=44&search=men

Share this:

• Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window)

About the author

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Notify me of follow-up comments by email.

Notify me of new posts by email.

Related Posts

PH203: Introduction to the Philosophy of Social Science; Guala and Mitchell

April 7th, 2021.

Methodology and Research Design: An Introduction to GV249 and PH203

January 29th, 2021, top posts & pages.

• Orientalism: in review
• Is Mill’s principle of Liberty compatible with his Utilitarianism? 
• The Creeping Ascent of the Far-Right in Mainstream European Politics and How to Stop it
• Globalisation and State Sovereignty: A Mixed Bag

Political Science Research Questions : Uncovering insightful and relevant inquiries

• political science

Political science research questions seek to analyze political phenomena and institutions in society. This involves examining power structures, public policies, and government behavior to understand and explain political processes.

Political science research questions cover a wide range of topics, including comparative politics, international relations, and public administration. Researchers explore questions related to governance, political ideologies, and the impact of political decisions on society. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for informing public policy, promoting democratic participation, and enhancing the functioning of political systems.

By delving into these questions, scholars contribute to deeper insights, informed debates, and evidence-based decision-making in the political arena. This research also helps to advance our understanding of the complexities and nuances inherent in political phenomena, offering valuable perspectives for addressing societal challenges.

Credit: www.reuters.com

Understanding The Importance

When delving into the realm of political science research, understanding the importance of research questions is crucial for unlocking insightful discoveries. Research questions serve as the backbone of any empirical study, shaping the direction of the investigation and guiding the researcher towards valuable insights. By establishing clear and focused research questions, political scientists can effectively navigate the complexity of political phenomena, contributing to the advancement of knowledge within the field.

Significance Of Research Questions In Political Science

Research questions play a pivotal role in shaping the trajectory of political science research. This is primarily because clearly formulated research questions act as a guidepost for researchers, ensuring that their inquiries are precise and targeted . By honing in on specific aspects of political phenomena, researchers can avoid ambiguity and obtain focused insights that contribute meaningfully to the expansion of political science knowledge .

Establishing The Link Between Research Questions And Insightful Discoveries

The link between research questions and insightful discoveries lies in the focus and specificity of the inquiries. When research questions are carefully crafted , they serve as critical tools for delving deep into the intricacies of political phenomena. In doing so, researchers can uncover nuanced patterns, relationships, and causality that underlie the complex landscape of politics. Through this process, the insightful discoveries stemming from well-formulated research questions bolster the evidence base of political science, enriching the discipline with robust and meaningful findings .

Formulating Effective Research Questions

Research questions are crucial in guiding the process of political science studies. Formulating effective research questions ensures that the research is focused, relevant, and impactful. By asking the right questions, political scientists can delve into complex societal issues and contribute to a deeper understanding of political dynamics.

Attributes Of Effective Political Science Research Questions

• Specific and Focused: Effective research questions are specific and focused on a particular aspect of political science . They avoid being too broad or vague, allowing for in-depth analysis.
• Clear and Concise: Research questions should be articulated in a clear and concise manner to ensure understanding and avoid ambiguity.
• Empirical and Testable: Political science research questions should be framed in a way that allows for empirical investigation and testing, enabling the collection of concrete data and evidence.
• Relevance to Political Context: Questions must be relevant to the current political landscape, addressing issues that have practical and real-world significance.

Utilizing Contextual Relevance To Frame Research Questions

Crafting research questions that are contextually relevant involves understanding the societal, historical, and cultural context in which the political phenomena under investigation occur. By aligning research questions with the relevant political context , scholars can ensure that their inquiries address actual challenges and developments, leading to insightful and applicable findings.

Types Of Political Science Research Questions

In political science research, various types of research questions are explored to analyze and understand various aspects of political behavior, institutions, and processes. Each type of research question serves a specific purpose and contributes to the depth of knowledge within the field. Understanding the different types of political science research questions is crucial for developing effective research methodologies and addressing complex political phenomena.

Descriptive Research Questions In Political Science

Descriptive research questions in political science focus on identifying and describing the characteristics, patterns, and behaviors within political systems. These questions seek to provide a comprehensive overview of a particular political phenomenon or event, often using qualitative or quantitative methods to analyze and present the data. Examples of descriptive research questions include:

• What are the voting patterns among different demographic groups within a specific constituency?
• How has public opinion on immigration policies evolved over the past decade?

Explanatory Research Questions In Political Science

Explanatory research questions aim to uncover the reasons or causes behind political phenomena or events. These questions delve deeper into understanding the relationships between different variables, exploring underlying mechanisms, and explaining the factors that influence political outcomes. Explanatory research questions often involve hypothesis testing and statistical analysis. Examples of explanatory research questions include:

• What are the factors that contribute to the rise of populist movements in democratic societies?
• How does the distribution of power within a political system impact policy decision-making?

Predictive Research Questions In Political Science

Predictive research questions in political science seek to anticipate future political developments or outcomes based on current trends, patterns, and dynamics. These questions utilize historical data, forecasting models, and scenario analysis to project potential political scenarios and their likely consequences. Examples of predictive research questions include:

• What are the potential implications of a trade war between major global economies on international relations?
• How might demographic shifts influence the electoral landscape in the upcoming national elections?

Examples Of Insightful Political Science Research Questions

Exploring the impact of globalization on political stability.

Globalization has significantly transformed the dynamics of international relations, potentially influencing political stability in various regions. A research question could be:

• How has globalization contributed to the rise of transnational political movements?
• What are the implications of economic interdependence on state sovereignty and political stability?
• How does the flow of information and cultural exchange due to globalization impact political stability in different societies?

Analyzing The Role Of Social Media In Shaping Political Discourse

Social media platforms have become integral to political communication and public opinion formation. Researchers can investigate the following questions:

• What is the influence of social media on the formation and dissemination of political narratives?
• How does social media contribute to polarization or consensus-building in political discourse?
• What role does social media play in amplifying or attenuating the impact of misinformation and propaganda in political campaigns?

Best Practices For Uncovering Relevant Inquiries

When conducting political science research, formulating relevant and impactful research questions is crucial for success. Understanding the best practices for uncovering relevant inquiries is essential for yielding meaningful insights and driving the field forward. Below, we explore key strategies for shaping research questions in political science.

Leveraging Interdisciplinary Perspectives In Shaping Research Questions

One of the best practices for uncovering relevant inquiries in political science research is to leverage interdisciplinary perspectives when formulating research questions. Political science is a complex field that intersects with various disciplines, including sociology, economics, history, and law. By integrating insights from these diverse fields, researchers can gain a more comprehensive understanding of political dynamics and societal structures.

Incorporating Ethical Considerations In Political Science Research Question Formulation

Another essential aspect of shaping research questions in political science is the incorporation of ethical considerations into the question formulation process. Political science research often delves into sensitive topics related to governance, power, and social justice. Thus, it is imperative for researchers to carefully consider the ethical implications of their inquiries, ensuring that their work adheres to ethical standards and respects the dignity and rights of individuals and communities.

Frequently Asked Questions Of Political Science Research Questions

What are some popular political science research questions.

Political science research questions often focus on topics like political behavior, governance, comparative politics, and international relations. Some popular questions include: “How do political institutions influence citizens’ behavior? ” And “What factors contribute to the stability of political systems? “

How Can I Develop A Unique Political Science Research Question?

To develop a unique political science research question, consider current events, gaps in existing literature, and areas of personal interest. Addressing underexplored topics or frameworks can lead to innovative research questions that contribute to the field’s knowledge base.

Why Is It Important To Refine Political Science Research Questions?

Refining research questions in political science is crucial as it helps focus the study, enhances clarity, and guides the research process. Well-defined questions enable researchers to effectively gather and analyze data, leading to more precise and impactful findings.

The political science research questions discussed highlight the significance of understanding and analyzing the complexities of modern political systems. By delving into these inquiries, researchers can develop valuable insights that contribute to our understanding of politics and its impact on society.

These questions serve as a foundation for future research and enriching our knowledge of the political landscape.

Related Post

University of houston political science: a pathway to political success, what are norms sociology: understanding the social forces, a day to remember lead singer: the voice behind the band, sociology of organizations: exploring organizational structures, leave a reply cancel reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Recent Post

Should felons be allowed to vote debunking the myths, who got voted off of dancing with the stars tonight: shocking elimination revealed, what is a roll call vote unlocking the significance and impact, qué enfermedad es cuando votas sangre por la boca: descúbrelo aquí, who got voted off of dwts tonight: shocking elimination unveiled, can felons vote in texas discover the power of restored voting rights.

Our passion lies in making the complex and fascinating world of political science accessible to learners of all levels, fostering a deep understanding of political dynamics, governance, and global affairs.

© 2023 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED​ BY - PoliticalScienceGuru

By joining our mailing list, you’re not just subscribing to a newsletter; you’re becoming part of the PoliticalScienceGuru.com family.

POSC 325: Political Analysis: Research Question Development

Research question development.

• Literature Review Tips
• Article Searching
• Book Searching
• Citation Style

Literature Review Assignment

Formulating a Research Question:

• Who:   think in terms of demographics (gender, age, ethnicity, religious preference, special interest groups, etc)
• What:   think about concepts/aspects, sociological and political factors, relevant hot-topic issues, statistics, etc.  
• Where:   compare/contrast a location
• Why/How/So What!:  consider the topic's significance in relation to the reviewed literature, and weigh advantages vs. disadvantages

Keep in mind that research questions can also evolve and change as you review the literature. 

Crafting Good Research Questions

• Draw on  background knowledge
• Begin from  empirical  questions. Good questions are usually about the outcomes (what explains y?) rather than about the causes (what effects does x have?)
• Utilize  "reporter questions"  to go beyond basic facts (who, what, when, where, why, how)
• Do not have a  single correct answer

Empirical Research

What Is Empirical Research? Empirical research applies observation and experience as the main modes of gathering data. Characteristics include:

• Content being based on actual and objective observation or experimentation
• Findings published in scholarly or academic journals
• Introduction, including literature review
• Methodology
• Presentation of the results
• Discussion and/or conclusion

Quantitative Research

What Is Quantitative Research? This type of research emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques. The ultimate goal is to determine the relationship between one thing [an independent variable] and another [a dependent variable] within a population. Characteristics include:

• Data usually gathered using structured research instruments
• Results based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population
• Research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability
• Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought
• Data are in the form of numbers and statistics
• Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal relationships
• << Previous: Home
• Next: Literature Review Tips >>
• Last Updated: Aug 24, 2023 1:02 PM
• URL: https://libguides.manchester.edu/posc325

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons
• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

Introduction to Political Science Research Methods (Franco et al.)

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 76154

• Josue Franco
• Cuyamaca College

\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)

\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)

\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)

\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)

Introduction to Political Science Research Methods is an Open Education Resource Textbook that surveys the research methods employed in political science. The textbook includes chapters that cover: history and development of the empirical study of politics; the scientific method; theories, hypotheses, variables, and units; conceptualization, operationalization and measurement of political concepts; elements of research design including the logic of sampling; qualitative and quantitative research methods and means of analysis; and research ethics.

• ProgramPage
• Table of Contents

• 1.1: Welcome
• 1.2: The Social Network of Political Science
• 1.3: Organization of the Book
• 1.4: Analyzing Journal Articles
• 1.5: Research Paper Project Management
• 1.6: Key Terms/Glossary
• 1.7: Summary
• 1.8: Review Questions
• 1.9: Suggestions for Further Study

• 2.1: Brief History of Empirical Study of Politics
• 2.2: The Institutional Wave
• 2.3: The Behavioral Wave
• 2.4: Currents- Qualitative versus Quantitative
• 2.5: Currents- Politics- Normative and Positive Views
• 2.6: Emerging Wave- Experimental Political Science
• 2.7: Emerging Wave- Big Data and Machine Learning
• 2.8: Key Terms/Glossary
• 2.9: Summary
• 2.10: Review Questions
• 2.11: Critical Thinking Questions
• 2.12: Suggestions for Further Study

• 3.1: Philosophy of Science
• 3.2: Whats is the Scientific Method?
• 3.3: Applying the Scientific Method to Political Phenomena
• 3.4: Key Terms/Glossary
• 3.5: Summary
• 3.6: Review Questions
• 3.7: Critical Thinking Questions
• 3.8: Suggestions for Further Reading/Study

• 4.1: Correlation and Causation
• 4.2: Theory Constrution
• 4.3: Generating Hypotheses from Theories
• 4.4: Exploring Variables
• 4.5: Units of Observation and Units of Analysis
• 4.6: Casual Modeling
• 4.7: Key Terms/Glossary
• 4.8: Critical Thinking Problems
• 4.9: Review Questions
• 4.10: Critical Thinking Questions
• 4.11: Critical Thinking Questions

• 5.1: Conceptualization in Political Science
• 5.2: Operationalization
• 5.3: Measurement
• 5.4: Key Terms/Glossary
• 5.5: Summary
• 5.6: Review Questions
• 5.7: Critical Thinking Questions
• 5.8: Suggestions for Further Study

• 6.1: Introduction- Building with a Blueprint
• 6.2: Types of Design- Experimental and Nonexperimental Designs
• 6.3: Components of Design- Sampling
• 6.4: Components of Design- Observations
• 6.5: Key Terms/Glossary
• 6.6: Summary
• 6.7: Review Questions
• 6.8: Critical Thinking Questions
• 6.9: Suggestions for Further Study

• 7.1: What are Qualitative Methods?
• 7.2: Interviews
• 7.3: Exploring Documentary Sources
• 7.4: Ethnographic Research
• 7.5: Case Studies
• 7.6: Key Terms/Glossary
• 7.7: Summary
• 7.8: Review Questions
• 7.9: Critical Thinking Questions
• 7.10: Suggestions for Further Study

• 8.1: What are Quantitative Methods
• 8.2: Making Sense of Data
• 8.3: Introduction to Statistical Inference and Hypothesis Testing
• 8.4: Interpreting Statistical Tables in Political Science Articles
• 8.6: Summary
• 8.7: Review Questions
• 8.8: Critical Thinking Questions
• 8.9: Suggestions for Further Study
• 8.5: Key Terms

• 9.1: Ethics in Political Research
• 9.2: Research Ethics
• 9.3: Navigating Qualitative Data Collection
• 9.4: Research Ethics in Quantitative Research
• 9.5: Ethically Analyzing and Sharing Co-generated Knowledge
• 9.6: Key Terms/Glossary
• 9.7: Summary
• 9.8: Review Questions
• 9.9: Critical Thinking Questions
• 9.10: Suggestions for Further Study

• 10.1: Congratulations!
• 10.2: The Path Forward
• 10.3: Frontiers of Political Science Research Methods
• 10.4: How to Contribute to this OER

• Detailed Licensing

Thumbnail: Main Reading Room of the Library of Congress in the Thomas Jefferson Building. (Public Domain;  Carol M. Highsmith  via Wikipedia )

• Research & Collections
• Borrow & Request
• Computing & Technology

Political Science: Research Methods & Design

• Using Ebooks guide This link opens in a new window
• Reference Works
• Open Educational Resources
• Search Strategies
• Advanced Searching, Evidence Synthesis, and Systematic Reviews
• Reports, Documents, & Policy
• News guide This link opens in a new window
• International & Comparative Statistics
• California Statistics
• San Diego Statistics
• Elections guide This link opens in a new window
• Public Opinion, Social Attitudes and Values
• Finding Data & Statistics guide This link opens in a new window
• GIS & Geospatial Technologies guide
• Law guide This link opens in a new window
• (Historic) Primary Sources guide This link opens in a new window
• Researching Congress + Data
• Congressional Elections + Data
• Congressional Documents (US Gov Info guide)
• Researching the Executive Branch + Data
• Presidential elections + Data
• Executive Branch Documents (US Gov Info guide) This link opens in a new window
• Researching the Judicial Branch + Data
• Finding Case Law
• Interest Groups + Data
• US Government Information guide This link opens in a new window
• State Comparative Politics
• State and Local elections + Data
• California Govt guide This link opens in a new window
• San Diego Govt guide This link opens in a new window
• Constitution Day guide
• Foreign Policy
• Conflict, Military & Security
• Foreign Govts
• Elections around the world
• Lijphart Elections Archive
• International Govt Info guide This link opens in a new window
• Global Policy & Strategy Research guide This link opens in a new window
• Chinese Studies guides This link opens in a new window
• European Studies guide This link opens in a new window
• Japanese Studies guide This link opens in a new window
• Jewish Studies guide This link opens in a new window
• Korean Studies guide This link opens in a new window
• Latin American Studies guide This link opens in a new window
• Pacific Island Studies guide This link opens in a new window
• South Asian Studies guide This link opens in a new window

Research Methods guides

• APIs for Scholarly Resources
• Corpora for Text Analysis
• How to Cite guide This link opens in a new window
• Open Access & Scholarly Communications guide This link opens in a new window
• Creating Scholarly Posters in PowerPoint guide This link opens in a new window
• Course Guides This link opens in a new window
• AI and Academic Integrity
• Additional Resources on Teaching and AI

• Writing in Political Science - Duke University Writing Studio 4 page introduction to the basics of political science scholarly communication.
• Research Methods Knowledge Base The Research Methods Knowledge Base is a comprehensive web-based textbook that addresses all of the topics in a typical introductory undergraduate or graduate course in social research methods. It covers the entire research process including: formulating research questions; sampling (probability and nonprobability); measurement (surveys, scaling, qualitative, unobtrusive); research design (experimental and quasi-experimental); data analysis; and, writing the research paper. It also addresses the major theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of research including: the idea of validity in research; reliability of measures; and ethics.
• Choosing a Research Design - PHDStudent.com
• Research Basics - Explorable.com (previously www.experiment-resources.com) Includes sections on: -Research Methods: Formulating questions, collecting data, testing hypotheses -Experimental Research: Setting up experiments -Research Designs: Different types of designs used in research -Statistics in Research: A guide to statistics in research.
• The Theory and Practice of Field Experiments: An Introduction from the EGAP Learning Days Since 2015, EGAP has conducted week-long workshops on experimental research methods for scholars and evaluation professionals based in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. In these workshops — known as Learning Days — EGAP members from around the world travel to the workshop location to instruct on core topics in causal inference and experimental design, and to work closely one-on-one with participants to develop their research designs. In an effort to create a resource that EGAP members, workshop alumni, and others can use to organize their own workshops or refresh their training, Jake Bowers, Maarten Voors, and Nahomi Ichino have produced an online book. The book is organized around modules on the usual Learning Days topics as well as some new topics. At the heart of each module are slides that workshop facilitators can use directly or adapt for specific audiences. more... less... Authors: Jake Bowers, Maarten Voors, and Nahomi Ichino
• UC Library Search Search tip: Use these subject headings and keyword searches to find the latest books, ebooks, etc.
• Political Science Research Methodology books and ebooks
• Social Sciences Research Methodology books and ebooks
• Big Data books and ebooks
• Data Mining books and ebooks
• Qualitative Research books and ebooks
• Quantitative Research books and ebooks
• Questionnaires books and ebooks
• Social Problems Research books and ebooks
• Social Sciences Methodology books and ebooks
• Social Sciences Network Analysis books and ebooks
• Social Sciences Research Data Processing books and ebooks
• Social Sciences Statistical Methods books and ebooks
• Social Surveys Methodology books and ebooks
• << Previous: Elections guide
• Next: APIs for Scholarly Resources >>
• Last Updated: May 10, 2024 3:57 PM
• URL: https://ucsd.libguides.com/politicalscience

Research Topics & Ideas: Politics

100+ Politics-Related Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

Finding and choosing a strong research topic is the critical first step when it comes to crafting a high-quality dissertation or thesis. If you’ve landed on this post, chances are you’re looking for a politics-related research topic , but aren’t sure where to start. Here, we’ll explore a variety of politically-related research ideas across a range of disciplines, including political theory and philosophy, comparative politics, international relations, public administration and policy.

NB – This is just the start…

The topic ideation and evaluation process has multiple steps . In this post, we’ll kickstart the process by sharing some research topic ideas. This is the starting point, but to develop a well-defined research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , along with a well-justified plan of action to fill that gap.

If you’re new to the oftentimes perplexing world of research, or if this is your first time undertaking a formal academic research project, be sure to check out our free dissertation mini-course. Also, be sure to sign up for our free webinar that explores how to find a high-quality research topic from scratch.

Overview: Politics-Related Topics

• Political theory and philosophy
• Comparative politics
• International relations
• Public administration
• Public policy
• Examples of politics-related dissertations

Topics & Ideas: Political Theory

• An analysis of the impact of feminism on political theory and the concept of citizenship in Saudi Arabia in the context of Vision 2030
• A comparative study of the political philosophies of Marxism and liberalism and their influence on modern politics
• An examination of how the Covid-19 pandemic affected the relationship between individual freedom and collective responsibility in political philosophy
• A study of the impact of race and ethnicity on French political philosophy and the concept of justice
• An exploration of the role of religion in political theory and its impact on secular democracy in the Middle East
• A Review of Social contract theory, comparative analysis of the political philosophies of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau
• A study of the concept of the common good in political philosophy and its relevance to the ongoing refugee crisis in Europe
• An examination of the relationship between political power and the rule of law in developing African countries
• A study of the impact of postmodernism on political theory and the concept of truth, a case study of the US
• An exploration of the role of virtue in political philosophy and its impact on the assessment of moral character in political leaders

Topics & Ideas: Comparative Politics

• A comparative study of different models of federalism and their impact on democratic governance: A case Study of South American federalist states
• The impact of ethnic and religious diversity on political stability and democracy in developing countries, a review of literature from Africa
• An analysis of the role of civil society in promoting democratic change in autocratic regimes: A case study in Sweden
• A comparative examination of the impact of globalization on political institutions and processes in South America and Africa.
• A study of the factors that contribute to successful democratization in authoritarian regimes, a review of the role of Elite-driven democratization
• A comparison of the political and economic systems of China and India and their impact on social development
• The impact of corruption on political institutions and democracy in South East Asia, a critical review
• A comparative examination of the impact of majoritarian representation (winner-take-all) vs proportional representation on political representation and governance
• An exploration of Multi-party systems in democratic countries and their impact on minority representation and policy-making.
• A study of the factors that contribute to successful decentralization and regional autonomy, a case study of Spain

Topics & Ideas: International Relations

• A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of diplomacy and military force in resolving international conflicts in Central Africa.
• The impact of globalization on the sovereignty of nation-states and the changing nature of international politics, a review of the role of Multinational Corporations
• An examination of the role of international aid organizations in promoting peace, security, and development in the Middle East.
• A study of the impact of economic interdependence on the likelihood of conflict in international relations: A critical review of weaponized interdependence
• A comparative analysis of the foreign policies of the EU and the US and their impact on international stability in Africa
• An exploration of the relationship between international human rights and national sovereignty during the Covid 19 pandemic
• A study of the role of decentralized autonomous organizations (DAO)s in international politics and their impact on state behaviour
• A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of international regimes in addressing global challenges such as climate change, arms control, and terrorism in Brazil
• An examination of the impact of the rise of BRICS on the international system and global governance
• A study of the role of ideology in shaping the foreign policies of states and the dynamics of international relations in the US

Tops & Ideas: Public Administration

• An analysis of the impact of digital technology on public administration and the delivery of public services in Estonia
• A review of models of public-private partnerships and their impact on the delivery of public services in Ghana
• An examination of the role of civil society organizations in monitoring and accountability of public administration in Papua New Guinea
• A study of the impact of environmentalism as a political ideology on public administration and policy implementation in Germany
• An exploration of the relationship between public administration and citizen engagement in the policy-making process, an exploration of gender identity concerns in schools
• A comparative analysis of the efficiency and effectiveness of public administration, decentralisation and pay and employment reform in developing countries
• A study of the role of collaborative leadership in public administration and its impact on organizational performance
• A systematic review of the challenges and opportunities related to diversity and inclusion in police services
• A study of the impact of corrupt public administration on economic development and regional growth in Eastern Europe
• An exploration of the relationship between public administration and civil rights and liberties, including issues related to privacy and surveillance, a case study in South Korea

Topics & Ideas: Public Policy

• An analysis of the impacts of public policy on income inequality and poverty reduction in South Sudan
• A comparative study of the effectiveness of legal and regulatory, economic and financial, and social and cultural instruments for addressing climate change in South Korea
• An examination of the role of interest groups in shaping public policy and the policy-making process regarding land-use claims
• A study of the impact of globalization on the development of public policies and programs for mitigating climate change in Singapore
• An exploration of the relationship between public policy and social justice in tertiary education in the UAE
• A comparative analysis of the impact of health policies for the management of diabetes on access to healthcare and health outcomes in developing countries
• Exploring the role of evidence-based policymaking in the design and implementation of public policies for the management of invasive invertebrates in Australia
• An examination of the challenges and opportunities of implementing educational dietary public policies in developing multicultural countries
• A study of the impact of public policies on urbanization and urban development in rural Indonesia
• An exploration of the role of media and public opinion in shaping public policy and the policy-making process in the transport industry of Malaysia

Examples: Politics Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a politics-related research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses to see how this all comes together.

Below, we’ve included a selection of research projects from various politics-related degree programs to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• We, the Righteous Few: Immoral Actions of Fellow Partisans are Judged as Less Possible (Varnam, 2020)
• Civilizing the State: Civil Society and the Politics of Primary Public Health Care Provision in Urban Brazil (Gibson, 2012)
• Political regimes and minority language policies: evidence from Taiwan and southeast Asia (Wu, 2021)
• The Feminist Third Wave: Social Reproduction, Feminism as Class Struggle, and Contemporary Women’s Movements (Angulo, 2019)
• The Politics of Immigration under Authoritarianism (Joo, 2019)
• The politics of digital platforms: Sour Dictionary, activist subjectivities, and contemporary cultures of resistance (Okten, 2019)
• Vote choice and support for diverse candidates on the Boston City Council At-Large (Dolcimascolo, 2022)
• The city agenda: local governance and national influence in the policy agenda, 1900-2020 (Shannon, 2022)
• Turf wars: who supported measures to criminalize homelessness in Austin, Texas? (Bompiedi, 2021)
• Do BITs Cause Opposition Between Investor Rights and Environmental Protection? (Xiong, 2022)
• Revealed corruption and electoral accountability in Brazil: How politicians anticipate voting behavior (Diaz, 2021)
• Intersectional Solidarity: The Political Consequences of a Consciousness of Race, Gender and Sexuality (Crowder, 2020)
• The Congressional Hispanic Caucus and the Coalitional Representation of Latinxs in the U.S. House of Representatives (Munoz, 2019)

Looking at these titles, you can probably pick up that the research topics here are quite specific and narrowly-focused , compared to the generic ones presented earlier. In other words, to create a top-notch research topic, you must be precise and target a specific context with specific variables of interest . In other words, you need to identify a clear, well-justified research gap.

Get 1:1 Help

If you’re still feeling a bit unsure about how to find a research topic for your dissertation or research project, check out our Topic Kickstarter service below.

You Might Also Like:

Interesting thesis.

I really appreciate your work which will greatly help me rethink on my topic

Please how can I get the full thesis?

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

• Print Friendly

Introduction to Political Science Research Methods - 1st Edition

(4 reviews)

Josh Franco, Rancho San Diego, CA

Charlotte Lee, Berkeley, CA

Kau Vue, Fresno, CA

Publisher: Academic Senate for California Community Colleges

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Eliot Dickinson, Professor, Western Oregon University on 4/5/24

I can compare it to a major research methods textbook that I used for years. That book has 15 chapters, while this one has ten, which is actually more conducive to the 11-week quarter system still found on the West Coast. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

I can compare it to a major research methods textbook that I used for years. That book has 15 chapters, while this one has ten, which is actually more conducive to the 11-week quarter system still found on the West Coast.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The book is factually accurate, free of significant errors, and objective in its analysis.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

This text can be used for years, as the examples and cases are relevant for our times.

Clarity rating: 5

The text is written in a way that the average college freshman will be able to understand.

Consistency rating: 5

The text is consistent from chapter to chapter, from beginning to end, with a glossary of key terms at the end of each chapter.

Modularity rating: 5

The text is broken up into very readable chapters that are not overwhelming. Students will appreciate this aspect of the text, since it is succinct and offers units of reasonable length.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

It is organized like most other research methods textbooks. It includes opening chapters on the history and development of political science, so that it can also be used in a "Scope and Methods of PS" course.

Interface rating: 5

The text is easy to navigate with both a brief table of contents and a detailed table of contents, and the images and charts are clear throughout.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

It reads well although there there is a typo in the first paragraph of the first page and another typo on the third page. It would be helpful to correct these in future editions.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The text is culturally and politically correct. It's perfectly accessible to everyone.

This is a valuable contribution to higher education and, being an open resource, is helpful to students.

Reviewed by Hakseon Lee, Professor, James Madison University on 3/23/24

Most materials that are supposed to be taught at an introductory political science research methods are covered. Quantitative analysis section is relatively short, but considering it is an "intro" textbook, it's understandable. BTW Including Ch. 9... read more

Most materials that are supposed to be taught at an introductory political science research methods are covered. Quantitative analysis section is relatively short, but considering it is an "intro" textbook, it's understandable. BTW Including Ch. 9 Research Ethics is very helpful for students understand research on “human subjects” more in depth.

Overall, explanations of abstract and complex concepts are well presented. The concepts and definitions provided in the glossary are accurate as well.

The textbook is written for undergraduate political science major students, and the level of complexity is quite relevant to them. Research methods materials are not fast changing subject and the textbook’s contents have longevity.

The textbook is written very clearly and easy to understand. After each chapter, summary of each subsection in chapters are provided in a very succinct and clear way, and I believe the summary sections are beneficial to students

Even though the textbook is written by several authors, they followed the same format of each chapter: providing clear learning objectives, summary, review questions, critical thinking questions, suggestions for further study, and references. Students will not be confused at all reading chapter by chapter.

Having total of 10 chapters, the textbook can be easily used module by module structure. Each chapter has subsections which have clear learning objectives, and this will be helpful for instructors who plan to use the textbook sequentially.

Overall organization and structure follow conventional existing textbooks’ organization/structure. Majority of undergraduate research methods class are taught from history and development of research methods to quantitative analysis step by step, and the textbook follows the usual organization/structure.

The book is very much reader friendly. Table of contents are very well organized and readers can have an easy overlook of the textbook.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

I have not found significant or consistent grammatical errors at all.

Introducing diverse coauthors with cartoon images at the beginning of the textbook is helpful for students to learn about diverse authors. Also, examples used have diverse backgrounds.

Reviewed by Huei-Jyun Ye, Assistant Professor, Wabash College on 10/23/23

This textbook covers the scientific method of studying politics, theory and hypothesis building, conceptualization and operationalization, elements of research design, qualitative methods, quantitative methods, and research ethics. For the very... read more

This textbook covers the scientific method of studying politics, theory and hypothesis building, conceptualization and operationalization, elements of research design, qualitative methods, quantitative methods, and research ethics. For the very intro level (for freshmen or sophomores), this textbook will serve well. For advanced undergraduate courses, this textbook lacks an introduction to specific research methods like surveys, experiments, case comparisons, etc. This textbook touches a little bit on qualitative and quantitative approaches but does not explain the methods political scientists use. I feel this is a tradeoff for an introduction textbook. Instructors who are seeking materials explaining methods will need to find other supplements. Other than that, I would recommend using this book to explain the process of doing political science research.

The explanations of political science research methods are spot-on and comprehensible. I do not find big mistakes in the chapters.

I believe we can use this textbook for a long time as most of the concepts are standards of the field. Some examples address timely concerns that political scientists have been working on. The studies referred to in the textbook are also not obsolete.

The textbook is overall clear and easy to read. The authors make good efforts to explain the jargon in plain language. For example, when introducing conceptualization and operationalization, the author asks questions as if they were students and provides answers to explain the ideas. Different from throwing all the jargon and definitions to readers’ faces, students may find this conversation style more accessible.

The authors do a good job of setting a tone for this textbook, even though it is written by multiple authors. Each chapter starts with an outline, followed by content, glossary, summary, review questions, and suggestions for further study. Readers can expect all these elements in every chapter.

The chapters can be easily turned into sequential modules. What is even better is that the authors provide learning objectives for each section, not just for chapters. This design makes it easier for instructors to break down each chapter into smaller tasks. Students can know what to expect or take away from the subsections in each module. The summary and review questions at the end of each chapter also serve as a good wrap-up for individual modules.

The organization of the chapters is logical and straightforward. The subsections within each chapter are well-connected. Students would not have any problem building up their understanding of the research inquiry process when they read over the textbook.

The Introduction to Political Science Research Methods is reader-friendly. I have no difficulty in following the sections, and the formatting, including figures and tables, does not go off the place. Also, the PDF keeps the bookmarks so that readers can clearly see the structure on the sidebar and jump to different sections easily.

I do not notice major grammatical errors.

This book uses studies on various topics and has broad cultural implications. I appreciate that the examples and studies that the authors choose to demonstrate how to do political science research cover diversity and equity in society. The authors also present different schools of view without imposing a specific paradigm on the readers.

I recommend this book.

Reviewed by Lindsay Benstead, Professor of Politics & Global Affairs, Portland State University on 8/12/23

This textbook covers topics in a comprehensive overview of methodology used in Political Science. It is suitable for an introductory course (e.g., 100-200 level), in that it covers the 'History and Development of the Empirical Study of Politics,"... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This textbook covers topics in a comprehensive overview of methodology used in Political Science. It is suitable for an introductory course (e.g., 100-200 level), in that it covers the 'History and Development of the Empirical Study of Politics," which includes basic facts about the history of the field of Politics. It then covers topics in quantitative and qualitative analysis. Importantly, it includes a section on ethics.

In my review of the textbook and use in designing a new course, I found the information presented in the textbook to be accurate.

Since this textbook covers foundational topics in research methods, it is likely to remain relevant for a decade or more.

This textbook is written in a clear way that will be understood by students in introductory political science methods courses (e.g., 100-200 level). This is not to say that more advanced students would not benefit from reading this textbook, but only if they are undergraduate or graduate students just beginning their study of research methods in the field.

This book is internally consistent. In addition to content in each chapter, it includes m/c questions, open-ended questions, and resources for further study. These are presented at the end of each chapter in such a way that they can consistently be assigned to students on a weekly basis and used in the preparation of exams and quizzes.

Each chapter is broken up into multiple sections, making it easy for instructors to present the material in modular and easily digestible ways.

The book is well organized, proceeding in a logical way from introductory material through quantitative topics, followed by qualitative methods and research ethics.

The pdf interface is easily navigated.

There are not grammatical errors in the book that I noted.

The textbook has several authors. The authors provide cartoon images of themselves. The group of authors come from diverse backgrounds, making the book more likely to help students from diverse backgrounds know that Political Science is their field of study.

Table of Contents

• About the Authors
• History of this OER
• Table of Tables
• Table of Figures
• Chapter 1- Introduction
• Chapter 2- History and Development of the Empirical Study of Politics
• Chapter 3- The Scientific Method
• Chapter 4- Theories, Hypotheses, Variables, and Units
• Chapter 5- Conceptualization, Operationalization, Measurement
• Chapter 6- Elements of Research Design
• Chapter 7- Qualitative Methods
• Chapter 8- Quantitative Research Methods and Means of Analysis 
• Chapter 9- Research Ethics
• Chapter 10- Conclusion

Ancillary Material

• Academic Senate for California Community Colleges

About the Book

Welcome to the official website for  Introduction to Political Science Research Methods  and  Polimetrics: A Stata Companion to Introduction to Political Science Research Methods  workbook!

Introduction to Political Science Research Methods,  authored by Dr. Josh Franco, Dr. Charlotte Lee, Kau Vue, Dr. Dino Bozonelos, Dr. Masahiro Omae, and Dr. Steven Cauchon, is an Open Education Resource textbook licensed CC BY-NC that surveys the research methods employed in political science. The textbook includes chapters that cover: history and development of the empirical study of politics; the scientific method; theories, hypotheses, variables, and units; conceptualization, operationalization and measurement of political concepts; elements of research design including the logic of sampling; qualitative and quantitative research methods and means of analysis; and research ethics.

Polimetrics: A Stata Companion,  authored by Dr. Josh Franco, is an Open Education Resource workbook licensed CC BY-NC and designed as a Stata companion to  Introduction to Political Science Research Methods . This workbook provides a tour of the Stata software, an introduction to cross-sectional, time series, and panel data, and an introduction to a variety of models. I review models where the outcome is linear, binary, ordinal, categorical, and count. Additionally, I have an interpretation chapter on survival models.

About the Contributors

Dr. Josh Franco, Cuyamaca College, Political Science: Josh Franco is a full-time, tenure-track Assistant Professor at Cuyamaca College in east San Diego County, California. He holds a Ph.D. and M.A. in Political Science, B.A. in public policy, and A.A. in economics and political science. Dr. Franco has five years of experience working in the California State Government and U.S. House of Representatives. Additionally, he was recently published in the peer-reviewed Journal of Political Science Education.

Dr. Charlotte Lee, Berkeley City College, Political Science: Charlotte Lee is full-time faculty at Berkeley City College. She teaches courses in political science and global studies. She has conducted fieldwork in Eastern Europe and China, culminating in several peer-reviewed publications in comparative politics, and will draw on that research in writing OER materials on qualitative research methods. Dr. Lee has participated in several Peralta district wide OER workshops. In February 2019, she co-facilitated an ASCCC OER Task Force webinar on resources in political science. Her Ph.D. is in political science from Stanford University.

Kau Vue, M.A. M.P.A., Fresno City College, Political Science: Kau Vue is an instructor of political science at Fresno City College in Fresno, California. She holds an M.A. in political science, a Master’s in Public Administration (M.P.A.) and a B.A. in political science and economics.

Contribute to this Page

Areas of Research

American Politics

The field of American Politics at Stanford includes the study of Congress, the bureaucracy, interest groups, the Presidency, voting, public opinion and participation, race and ethnicity; includes, among other perspectives, rational choice, historical, and behavioral perspectives; and encompasses, among other methods, quantitative analysis of aggregate data, qualitative fieldwork, survey research and randomized experiments. 

See list of American Politics faculty

Comparative Politics

The field of Comparative Politics at Stanford includes area studies, comparative political economy, the study of ethnic conflict, and institutions. Our faculty are experts in Western and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America. 

See list of Comparative Politics faculty

International Relations

International Relations at Stanford comprises the study of all manner of global and regional political problems, including armed conflict in its various manifestations; the politics of international trade, finance, and the environment; nuclear weapons, WMD proliferation, and the threat of terrorism; and the design and functioning of international institutions and international law. Methods of analysis are diverse, tailored to the problem and empirical opportunities. 

See list of International Relations faculty

Political Methodology

The field of Political Methodology includes training in statistics, econometrics and formal theory; reviewing and developing new methods for the scientific study of politics; has particular emphases in Bayesian statistical inference, causal inference, computationally-intensive approaches to statistical inference, the design and analysis of experiments, game theory, the graphical display of quantitative information, sampling for survey-based research, the analysis of spatial data, the statistical analysis of text. 

See list of Political Methodology faculty

Political Theory

Political Theory at Stanford approaches the study of justice, legitimacy, and power by conjoining normative theory (reflection on political values), positive theory (study of how values can be achieved by institutions), and the intellectual history of political thought (from Plato to Rawls). Among the topics with which our faculty and students are concerned are democracy, equality, rule of law, global justice, international relations, realism and idealism, education, deliberation, institutional innovation, and the organization of knowledge. 

See list of Political Theory faculty

Browse Course Material

Course info.

• Prof. Chappell Lawson

Departments

• Political Science

As Taught In

Learning resource types, political science scope and methods.

[S] = Shively, W. Phillips. The Craft of Political Research . 6th edition. Routledge, 2004. ISBN: 9780131174405.

You are leaving MIT OpenCourseWare

5 Analytic Methods for Political Science Research

Analytical research is an integral part of any political science research. Knowing the different methods through which political researchers are able to analyze their research is crucial for anyone looking to develop new insight. 

For hundreds of years, political theorists, judges, lawyers, and legal scholars, have all worked to create new theories and means for understanding the ever-developing institutions that govern us.. Political science research influences real-world decision-making - from this year’s military spending budget, down to the amount of fees the post office is allowed to charge to send a letter.

There are a variety of unique tools and methodologies employed by researchers trying to tackle problems in the real-world. Today we will go over the essentials of political research, and highlight the many unique ways researchers can gather and analyze data.

What is Political Science?

Political science research is typically concerned with the theory and practice of governing, lawmaking, and politicking. Political scientists, like researchers in other disciplines, utilize a number of different methods and tools to conduct experiments, and gather new insights about a particular issue or phenomenon.

Five Methods of Political Science Research

Quantitative data analysis, qualitative data analysis, game theory models, historical analysis.

Quantitative data analysis is concerned with measuring the raw figures and numbers. This form of data analysis uses statistical models and math, to develop new theories about the world around us. 

Quantitative analysis is a form of descriptive statistics; meaning they are used to quantify the most basic features of a data set. Quantitative data can either be discrete (having to do with a particular set of numbers) or continuous - meaning that any numeric value could have a potential fit.  

Examples of quantitative data collection most commonly involve some kind of surveying or polling, and is concerned with gathering information such as:

• Test Scores
• Population Size
• Iterations of an Event
• Errors Made

These are all characteristics that can be easily picked apart and quantified using numerical data. They tell us how much of something there is in any given topic - allowing us to perform necessary calculations during our analysis. 

Conversely, qualitative data analysis is concerned with identifying and exploring those types of qualities that cannot be easily defined by numbers and figures. Qualitative data is most often composed of observations: descriptions of behaviors and phenomenon that cannot be quantified by numbers. Qualitative data analysis can be thought of as looking at the “how” or “why” of a particular issue, whereas quantitative data captures the “what”. These observations are invaluable to researchers, as they assign reason and motivation behind an action. Knowing what motivates someone to make a particular action is what drives the majority of political research projects today.

Qualitative data can be broken down into three distinct types:

• Ordinal Data
• Binary Data
• Nominal Data

Ordinal data exists on a ranging scale, and is one of the most prevalent types of questions found in a traditional survey. Questions that ask participants to share answers based on a sliding scale (such as “very unlikely” to “very likely”) are a common form of ordinal data collection.

Binary data is represented numerically, and is most often used in the creation of statistical models. These models can be used to track the likelihood of an individual to make a certain choice, among other things. 

Nominal data is used to label a subject without the use of numerical figures. These include multiple-choice survey responses, or cases where subjects are allowed to self-sort into a particular group.

Game Theory is a model for studying the decision-making process that goes on behind nearly every social interaction. Strategy, cost-benefit analysis, and optimal decision-making are all integral parts of the game theory model.

Researchers often use game theory models in order to better understand how individual actors come to a decision when faced with competition or consequence. The Prisoner’s Dilemma - where two convicts are tasked with choosing whether or not to inform on the other, therefore risking jail time, is a classic example of game theory in action. 

Historical analysis is a hugely important tool for political science researchers, as it enables them to present history as more than just a series of events that happened in succession. Overcoming this traditional and simplistic way of stating history - like the way you might see it described in a children’s textbook - is crucial for researchers looking to derive new insights from their political analysis. 

Researchers can draw upon historical inferences from a number of sources including historical texts, films, as well as first and second-hand accounts of events. Researchers will often build off of the works of prior authors in order to develop their own theories and outlooks.

  Historical analysis is a common and very effective model for deriving new insights from history. For example, judges often make determinations on matters of law by using historical and legal precedence to inform their decision-making.

Scenarios are a flexible tool that can be used to develop models; models that can be used to drive everything from policy making down to law enforcement. 

Scenarios can be as vast and unspecific - or as calculated and precise - as you need them to be. Social scientists often develop broad scenarios centered around a specific issue or problem they want to explore. These theoretical scenarios are then used to answer key questions like:

• How would (X) change if (Y) were to happen?
• What other factors could have influenced this outcome?
• Who are the key players in this scenario?
• What could we have done differently to prevent this?
• What variables exist outside of our control?

Theoretical scenarios are a cost-effective way for researchers to predict and forecast changing phenomena. They can also be used to argue for or against a particular course of action; enabling researchers to build up support for their conclusions, turning them into real-world action. 

Key Takeaways

For more information on the steps of the research process and data analysis, please visit our Helpfull research guide .

About Author

Send Your First Survey Today!

Set up and begin receiving results within minutes. Sign up for free, no contract required.

Helpfull is the easiest way to get feedback from thousands of people in minutes. Our online focus group platform provides a pool of qualified panelists to give you their real detailed opinions helping you make better, more informed decisions.

• Skip to main content
• Skip to primary sidebar

Political Science Research

iResearchNet

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

For decades, there has been a raging debate among scholars regarding the differences between and advantages of qualitative and quantitative methods. In fact, this has probably been one of the largest and longest methodological debates in all of social science research. Perhaps it can be briefly summarized by the following two famous and opposing quotations: Donald Campbell says, “All research ultimately has a qualitative grounding”; and Fred Kerlinger says, “There’s no such thing as qualitative data. Everything is either 1 or 0” (in Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 40). Although it is not necessarily critical to determine which—if either—of these approaches can be described as the better one, it is imperative to have a thorough understanding of these methods in order to be able to conduct sound political science research. After all, for a study to be of value to scholars and other individuals interested in the topic, it is necessary for one to choose the correct research approach, ask suitable questions, use appropriate research methods and statistical analyses, correctly deduce or induce inferences, and have suitable general goals driving the research.

The questions under consideration and the answers obtained by any particular study will depend on whether the study uses quantitative or qualitative approaches. The purpose of this article is to differentiate between these two types of research. First, the literature available on this topic is briefly summarized, focusing specifically on how qualitative and quantitative research is defined, as well as the different assumptions on which these types of research are based. Next, a summary of the similarities and differences in each stage of the research process is provided. Then, the different methods that these two types of approaches use are discussed. Next, since this is a book examining political science in the 21st century, current and future research directions are examined. In particular, the use of what are called mixed methods approaches is discussed. The article ends with a brief summary and conclusion of the information that has been presented. Finally, suggested books and articles for further reading are provided, including some material for individuals interested in conducting advanced statistical studies, which are beyond the scope of this article.

Definition of Quantitative Research

Assumptions of quantitative research, definition of qualitative research, assumptions of qualitative research, the research question, research design, data collection, data analysis, reporting of results, limitations of quantitative methods, limitations of qualitative methods, future directions, quantitative and qualitative research.

The following section introduces the definitions and assumptions of quantitative and qualitative research. First, however, it is worth briefly discussing two types of political analysis in order to understand the origins of quantitative and qualitative methods. Political scientists distinguish between empirical analysis—obtaining and dealing with knowledge and information—and normative analysis— determining how to use that knowledge. Normative analysis relies on the development of subjective goals and values to apply what has been learned to reality. Empirical analysis, however, focuses on using common terms to explain and describe political reality and can be either quantitative or qualitative in nature. If something is empirical, it is verifiable through observations or experiments. Empirical analysis is the focus of this article.

As a first step, it is necessary to define these two methods of research and examine their goals. Quantitative research can be defined as a process of inquiry examining an identified problem that is based on testing a theory measured by numbers and analyzed with statistical techniques. Thus, quantitative research involves the analysis of numerical data. A more technical definition is provided by Brady and Collier (2004), who define mainstream quantitative methods as “an approach to methodology strongly oriented toward regression analysis, econometric refinements on regression, and the search for statistical alternatives to regression models in contexts where specific regression assumptions are not met” (p. 294). The econometric refinements and statistical alternatives referred to by the authors are beyond the scope of this article but include logit and probit models, time-series analysis, and a variety of techniques to circumvent problems that can occur in regression analysis, such as heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation. Essentially, quantitative methods have played a major role in improving on commonly used research tools within the structure of regression models that are frequently used in the field of political science.

The goal of quantitative research is to examine particular instances or aspects of phenomena to determine if predictive generalizations of a theory hold true or to test causal hypotheses. As a result, there are several key assumptions underlying quantitative research methods, which are briefly outlined here. These include the following:

• Reality can be studied objectively.
• Research must remain independent of the researcher through the use of experiments, questionnaires, machines, or inventories.
• Research is value free, and the researcher does not become a part of or interfere with the research.
• Theories and hypotheses are tested in a cause effect order with research based primarily on deductive forms of logic identified a priori by the researcher.
• The purpose of research is to develop generalizations that contribute to theory and allow the researcher to predict, explain, and understand a particular phenomenon.

Qualitative research can be defined as a process of inquiry that builds a complex and holistic picture of a particular phenomenon of interest by using a natural setting. Thus, qualitative research involves the analysis of words, pictures, videos, or objects in the context in which they occur.

The goal of qualitative research is to understand social issues from multiple perspectives to have a comprehensive understanding of a particular event, person, or group. As with quantitative research, there are several key assumptions underlying qualitative research methods:

• Reality is socially constructed, and there are multiple realities.
• The researcher interacts and often works closely with the individuals or groups under study and serves as the primary instrument for data collection and analysis.
• The research is value laden, and the researchers become a part of the research, attempting to understand the lives and experiences of the people they study.
• Research is context bound and based on inductive forms of logic that emerge as a study progresses.
• The purpose of research is to find theories that help explain a particular phenomenon.

Comparing and Contrasting Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods

The following section examines how quantitative and qualitative methods are similar to and different from each other throughout the research process, beginning with the creation of a research question and up to the reporting of the results. Although examining quantitative and qualitative methods as two separate categories is necessary for the sake of clarification throughout this section, it is important to realize that these two methods are not mutually exclusive, a topic that will be discussed in more detail shortly. As Manheim, Rich, Willnat, and Brians (2007) note, when examining the differences between quantitative and qualitative methods, “The distinctions discussed are generally more matters of degree than absolutes. The two types of methods often require only different forms of work, but are working toward similar objectives” (p. 323). This is important to keep in mind while reading this article.

The first step in conducting sound political science research is selecting a research question. An appropriate research question should fulfill either a scientific need or a societal need by helping to provide an answer to an important problem. Both quantitative and qualitative forms of research begin by creating a research question that is intended to produce knowledge of the empirical world. In terms of the research questions, the main difference between quantitative and qualitative methods typically exists in the type of questions that are being posed.

A theory is a potential explanation for events and is composed of a set of logically related propositions and assumptions. Theorizing is the actual process of stating these conceptual explanations for events that take place in the real world by proclaiming relationships among the concepts. Theories are created to help people understand phenomena. There are several characteristics that make a theory particularly useful in explaining observations. Theories should be (a) testable, (b) logically sound, (c) communicable, (d) general, and (e) parsimonious.

Theorizing is a critical phase of the research process for quantitative and qualitative researchers. However, quantitative researchers are more likely than qualitative researchers to focus on testing performed theories. Quantitative researchers base their studies on a theory that relates to their subject in an attempt to develop generalizations that contribute to theory. Thus, in quantitative research, theorizing occurs prior to the collection of data. Qualitative researchers, on the other hand, are more likely than quantitative researchers to elaborate on theories while making observations of a particular phenomenon. Many qualitative researchers argue that, as a result of this, their theories are far more grounded in reality than are those of quantitative researchers. However, quantitative researchers argue that the formulation of theory during the observation-making process can easily lead to the creation of a theory designed around those specific observations. As a result, these theories would be polluted and not testable. Furthermore, if a theory is based on observation of one particular group, the usefulness of the theory is quite limited.

Simply defined, a research design is the plan of a study. It organizes observations in a manner that establishes a logical basis for causal inference. Essentially, the research design can be viewed as the blueprint for a study. There are three main types of research designs in political science: exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory. Exploratory research attempts to discover which factors should be included when theorizing about and researching a particular subject. Descriptive research attempts to measure some aspect of reality for its own sake and not for the purpose of developing or testing some theory. Explanatory research uses observations of reality to test hypotheses and help develop an understanding of patterns of behavior in the context of a specific theory.

Regardless of the purpose of a study, every research design should have the same basic elements, which are outlined by Manheim et al. (2007): (a) a statement outlining the purpose of the research; (b) a review of the theory and any hypotheses that are going to be tested, if applicable; (c) a statement explaining the variables that will be used; (d) an explanation of the operationalization and measurement of the variables; (e) a statement of how observations will be organized, as well as conducted; and (f) a discussion of how the data that are collected will be analyzed.

Although both quantitative and qualitative researchers produce research designs for their studies, quantitative researchers are much more likely than their counterparts to base their designs on the logic of experiments. For instance, quantitative researchers often emphasize control groups, pretests, and other elements that provide them with the opportunity to hold some factor(s) constant in their attempt to make causal inferences. Qualitative research designs, on the other hand, typically focus more on who or what is being observed, where the observation will take place, how observations will be conducted, and how the data will be recorded. For qualitative researchers, more emphasis is placed on viewing people and events as they naturally occur, while for quantitative researchers there is a greater focus on establishing cause-and-effect relationships.

A sample is a small group of cases drawn from and used to represent a larger population under consideration. A representative sample is a sample in which each major attribute of the larger population occurs in approximately the same proportion or frequency as in the larger population. “In other words, a truly representative sample is a microcosm—a smaller, but accurate model—of the larger population from which it is taken” (Manheim et al., 2007, p. 119). When a sample is representative, the conclusions drawn from it are generalizable to the entire population.

In quantitative studies, sampling is based on the logic of probability to produce statistical representativeness. Additionally, in quantitative research, sampling is done before the data are collected. Qualitative researchers, on the other hand, usually create their sample once their study is already in progress. After observing, learning about, and gaining understanding from an initial case, qualitative researchers are then able to determine what they will observe next. Additionally, whereas generalizability is a chief concern for quantitative researchers, this is not the case for qualitative researchers, who are far more concerned with finding the specific information that they are looking for from their sample. Since this method is very time-consuming, qualitative findings are often based on fewer cases than quantitative findings.

Data are observations or information about reality that represent attributes of variables and result from the research process. Although data collection is an integral part of both types of research methods, data are composed of words in qualitative research and numbers in quantitative research, which results in a data collection process that differs significantly for quantitative and qualitative research. Furthermore, the data collection process is different: Although quantitative researchers have the ability to administer a previously prepared questionnaire or watch an experiment unfold behind blind glass, qualitative researchers are engaged—sometimes for long periods of time—with the people or groups under study.

As can likely be seen by now, quantitative researchers frequently have a detailed plan of action that is thought out prior to the beginning of a study’s taking place. Qualitative researchers, on the other hand, tend to take a more fluid approach to their studies. This holds true for the analysis of data, as well. Whereas in quantitative studies, the data analysis methods are planned out in advance and then occur after the data are collected, data analysis typically takes place at the same time as data collection in qualitative studies. To make appropriate future observations, analyses must often begin after studying one to several initial cases. As a result, quantitative researchers are not usually afforded the opportunity to modify their methods of data collection during a project, while qualitative researchers can do so at any point in a project after conducting the initial data analysis.

Additionally, although qualitative data are more subjective and sometimes difficult to interpret, quantitative data are easily coded into numerical formats. As a result, it is much easier to enter quantitative data into computer programs, such as Excel and SPSS, than it is to enter qualitative data. Furthermore, there are a number of programs that analyze the statistical data, such as SPSS and Stata. Although programs do exist for the interpretation of qualitative data, they are not used nearly as extensively as those used for quantitative data analysis.

Finally, whereas quantitative researchers have a variety of means to test the statistical significance and validity of the data that they are analyzing, this is not the case for qualitative researchers. Instead, qualitative researchers must do their best to present a clear, accurate, and convincing analysis of their data. As a result, a topic of much debate between quantitative and qualitative researchers is the validity and reliability of findings produced in studies. Validity is the extent to which measures correspond to the concepts they are intended to reflect. Reliability is the consistency with which a measuring instrument allows assignment of values to cases when repeated over time. Although a measure can be reliable without being valid, it cannot be valid without being reliable.

Additionally, since one of the main points of conducting quantitative research is to study causal relationships, part of the process involves manipulating various factors that could potentially influence a phenomenon of interest while at the same time controlling for other variables that could affect the outcome. For instance, if a researcher were examining if gender played a role in whether a person received a job, it would be important to control for other variables, such as education or previous work experience, since these factors may also determine why an individual would receive an employment offer. In quantitative analysis, empirical relationships and associations are typically examined by using general linear models, nonlinear models, or factor analysis to understand important information about the relationship between variables, such as the direction of a relationship. However, despite the results that may be produced by these models, it is important to note that a major tenet of quantitative research is that correlation does not imply causation. In other words, a spurious relationship is always a possible result of the data analysis.

When presenting the results of a study, qualitative researchers often have an arduous task in front of them. Since their reports typically rely on the interpretation of observations, it is necessary for them to be very careful in the selection of what stories, quotations, pictures, and so on, they will share in order to avoid bias. The reports produced by quantitative researchers tend to be more straightforward since they rely mostly on the interpretation of statistics. But here, too, it is important to make sure that bias was avoided in the sample and that appropriate data analysis methods were used in order to avoid bias in quantitative analysis.

To sum up, there are a lot of similarities among quantitative and qualitative research methods. Irrespective of which method is used, it is still necessary to create an appropriate research question, understand the theory behind what will be observed, create a research design, collect and analyze data, and create a report of the results. However, there are several key differences between quantitative and qualitative research methods. These methods differ in (a) the types of questions that they pose, (b) their analytical objectives, (c) the amount of flexibility allowed in the research design, (d) the data collection instruments that are used, and (e) the type of data that are ultimately produced. According to Mack, Woodsong, MacQueen, Guest, and Namey (2005), the fifth difference is the biggest. The authors argue that quantitative methods are generally inflexible since categories are typically closed-ended or fixed, while qualitative methods are more flexible, with a large amount of spontaneity and adaptation occurring during interaction with other people, especially in the form of open-ended questions.

To decide which research approach should be used, several things should be taken into account, including the problem of interest, the resources available, the skills and training of the researcher(s), and the audience for the research. Since there are considerable differences in the assumptions that underlie these two research approaches, as well as the collection and analysis of data, these considerations are important. The following sections provide a more detailed examination of the various types of quantitative and qualitative research methods, as well as the limitations of these methods in general.

Quantitative Methods in Political Science

Quantitative methods are essentially a variety of research techniques that are used to gather quantitative data. There are a variety of different types of quantitative methods, which are briefly outlined in this section: experiments, quasi experiments, content analysis, and surveys. First, in experiments, participants are randomly assigned to experimental conditions, as well as experimental controls. The individuals who are assigned to experimental controls are testing the independent variable. The difference between experiments and quasi experiments is the way that subjects are selected. In quasi experiments, participants are assigned to experimental conditions in a nonrandom fashion.

Next, content analysis is a systematic means of counting and assessing information in order to interpret it. For instance, scholars may count the number of times that personal characteristics, such as dress or hairstyle, are mentioned in newspaper articles to determine whether media coverage of male and female candidates differs. Finally, surveys are used to estimate the characteristics of a population based on responses to questionnaires and interviews from a sample of the population. Surveys provide five types of information: (1) facts, (2) opinions, (3) perceptions, (4) attitudes, and (5) behavioral reports. Essentially, questionnaires and surveys can serve as a means for helping scholars understand why people feel or act the way that they do, as well as measure their attitudes and assess their behaviors.

There are three key criticisms of quantitative research that are discussed here. First, since quantitative research methods were adopted from the physical sciences, critics argue that all cases are treated as though they are alike. Complex concepts are turned into numbers, and their unique elements are dissipated as a result. Furthermore, people can easily attribute different meanings to something even when they are experiencing the same phenomena. Second, and related to the first criticism, some people argue that quantitative methods are inherently biased. Since they are adopted from the physical sciences, critics argue that quantitative methods fail to take into account the unique cultural roots and other critical aspects of marginalized groups of people. Thus, according to critics, when it comes to populations that have been politically excluded, the usage of quantitative methods may not be appropriate, according to critics. Third, critics argue that quantitative research methods result in taking individuals out of their natural settings to examine very limited aspects of what a person thinks or believes. To these critics, context is very important, and by taking actions out of context, it is impossible to understand the true meaning of events or responses.

Qualitative Methods in Political Science

Just as quantitative research methods have a variety of research techniques that are used to gather data, there are also a variety of qualitative methods. This section focuses on several of these: ethnographic studies, phenomenological studies, case studies, focus groups, and intense interviews. First, in ethnographic studies, researchers examine cultural groups in their natural setting. Examples of cultural groups can include students in a dormitory, women in a crisis center, or people from a village in Asia. This type of study can provide rich, detailed information about the individuals in various groups, since it involves first-hand observation.

Second, in phenomenological studies, a small group of people is studied intensively over a long period to understand the life experience of the individuals being studied. Phenomenological studies can involve direct or indirect observation. Additionally, depending on the study, the individuals being observed may or may not know the purpose of the study or what exactly is being observed. Sometimes the researcher relies on building a trusting relationship with the subjects so the subjects act as naturally as possible even though they are being observed. As a result of this closeness, the researcher can often tell when a person is modifying his or her behavior. However, it is not always possible to establish this kind of relationship. As a result, some researchers conceal the purpose of their studies from those being observed to avoid the modifying of behavior by the subject. This process of behavior modification by the respondent is called reactivity and can greatly affect the results of a study.

Third, in a case study, a case is studied by a researcher, and detailed information about the entity or phenomenon is recorded. Sometimes information that is found in a case study can lend itself to the content analytical techniques discussed in the previous quantitative research section. Other times, newspapers, books, interviews, or other sources may be used. In content analysis, researchers are looking for specific words, phrases, or general ideas that are relevant to their study. The researchers will then count the instances of these items to learn more about a particular subject. For instance, some political scientists are interested in learning about gender bias in the media. By examining how often a female versus a male candidate is mentioned in an article or the type of coverage the candidate receives, these scholars are able to draw conclusions about gender bias in the media.

Finally, there are two other ways to collect and analyze qualitative data that are of relevance in this section—focus groups and intense interviewing. Focus groups are in-depth studies composed of small groups of people who have guided discussions. For instance, a focus group may be shown a political advertisement that a political campaign hopes to air on television. After watching the advertisement, members of the group are asked questions, and a discussion is prompted in which they can discuss their feelings about the ad, such as what they liked and did not like, as well as whether they were swayed by the ad and found it to be credible. These responses allow the advertisement’s producers to make changes that make the ad more effective.

Intense interviews are similar to survey questionnaires in that the interviewer generally has some thoughts in mind about what the respondent will be asked. However, although survey questions are planned out in their entirety in advance, this is often not the case in intense interviews where the interviewee has the ability to ask follow-up questions or a variety of other questions related to an answer provided by the respondent. Additionally, whereas survey questionnaire responses tend to be closed-ended (a particular response can be chosen from those available), intense interview responses are typically open-ended (no response categories) and can be very detailed. Thus, researchers have more flexibility when conducting an intense interview than they would if they were administering a questionnaire; however, their results are typically not quantifiable.

Just as quantitative methods have their detractors, so too do qualitative methods. Some of the biggest criticisms of qualitative methods are outlined in this section. First, some critics argue that qualitative methods focus too much on particular individuals, sometimes at the expense of seeing the bigger picture, and they fail to make their results generalizable to a larger population. Second, critics note that the quality of the results and analysis that are produced are highly dependent on the skill of the researcher. It is necessary for the researcher to have remained unbiased and provide a clear assessment of the subjects under study, or the results are essentially meaningless. Third, it is very time-consuming to conduct qualitative research studies. The amount of time spent conducting interviews and making observations is just the beginning. After these take place, the researchers still have to figure out a way to analyze the vast amounts of information that they have collected to produce results.

As can be seen from the information provided throughout this article, there has been a raging decades-long debate as to whether qualitative or quantitative research is better. Many scholars focus on qualitative versus quantitative techniques, automatically framing these methods and approaches in opposition to each other. Although it may appear that qualitative and quantitative data exist in opposition to each other, this is not necessarily the case. As King, Keohane, and Verba (1994) argue, “The two traditions appear quite different; indeed they sometimes seem to be at war. Our view is that these differences are mainly ones of style and specific technique. The same underlying logic provides the framework for each research approach” (p. 3). As a result, research does not typically fit into one particular category or another.

Additionally, King et al. (1994) note that we live in a world that changes rapidly, and to fully understand the changes that occur around us, it is necessary to be able to take into account information that can be quantified, as well as information that cannot. Furthermore, since social science requires comparison, it is important to examine both quantitative differences (such as which phenomena are more or less alike in degree) and qualitative differences (such as which phenomena are more or less alike in kind).

In recent years, scholars have been focusing a lot more on triangulation. Triangulation is essentially the idea that more than one research technique can be used to examine a research question to further verify the findings. Triangulation can help improve confidence about the results produced from a study. Quantitative and qualitative research can frequently be integrated, creating mixed-methods research that can depict a clearer picture of a social science phenomenon than one single method on its own.

Another way that quantitative and qualitative methods can exist together is by coding qualitative data into quantitative data. Just about any type of qualitative data can be assigned meaningful numerical values that can be manipulated to help condense the information and gain a different and more generalizable understanding of the data. One frequently used example is open-ended questions. Although more detailed insight is gained from an open-ended question than a categorical question, open-ended questions can typically be broken down into simple numerical categories allowing for a quantitative analysis of the data.

The Research Network on Gender Politics and the State (RNGS) serves as another good example. The researchers in RNGS had been conducting a crossnational, longitudinal, qualitative research project that explored changes in public policy processes dating back to the 1960s. Starting in 2000, however, the researchers began to code their vast qualitative data into a large quantitative data file. By using quantitative coding, additional useful information may be garnered, and a new form of data analysis is possible. As can be seen here, sometimes the line between quantitative and qualitative analysis may not be so clear after all.

On the other hand, quantitative data is inherently based on qualitative judgment because it is impossible to interpret numbers without understanding the assumptions underlying the numbers. When a person provides a numerical response to a survey question, for instance, many assumptions and judgments are present. For instance, if a person, when asked, “How satisfied are you with your life?” responds, “Very satisfied” (denoted by a value of 1), a variety of other questions could be asked. What does satisfaction mean to this respondent? Was he or she thinking only of the economic climate? Job? Family? Relationships? How does he or she define satisfaction, and how does this differ from how the next person defines satisfaction? Did the respondent even pay attention to or think about the question, or was he or she just offering quick responses? When and in what context was this question presented? The list goes on. As can be seen from this brief example, what appeared to be a simple numerical piece of information actually involved numerous judgments about the meaning of each response.

Quantitative and qualitative analysis are two general approaches to the analysis of data. Both seek to explain trends but have different means of doing this. Additionally, quantitative and qualitative research methods are each based on a basic set of assumptions. Both forms of research carefully follow each step in the research process, from formulating a research question to reporting the results of the data analysis. However, the order and ways in which this process is completed differ between quantitative and qualitative methods because of the different goals that researchers using these methods have for their studies. Essentially, though, at some level, quantitative and qualitative data are inseparable and do not exist in complete opposition to each other. Thus, it is almost self-defeating to claim that one method is better than the other. There are times when one is more appropriate to use in a given situation than another, but often, they can both be used together, whether at the same time or in different stages. As research progresses through the 21st century, it is highly probable that more scholars will use mixed-methods approaches.

References:

• Achen, C. H. (1982). Interpreting and using regression. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
• Adcock, R., & Collier, D. (2001). Measurement validity: A shared standard for qualitative and quantitative research. American Political Science Review, 95, 529-546.
• Agresti, A., & Finlay, B. (1997). Statistical methods for the social sciences (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Berg, B. L. (2003). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
• Box Steffensmeier, J.M., Brady, H. E., & Collier, D. (Eds.). (2008). The Oxford handbook of political methodology. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Brady, H., & Collier, D. (Eds.). (2004). Rethinking social inquiry: Diverse tools, shared standards. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
• Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. (2005). The SAGE handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Fink, A. (2005). How to conduct surveys: A step by step guide (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Frankfort Nachmias, C., & Nachmias, D. (1999). Research methods in the social sciences (6th ed.). New York: St. Martin’s.
• Frey, J. H., & Oishi, S. M. (2004). How to conduct interviews by telephone and in person. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Gerring, J. (2001). Social science methodology: A critical frame work. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Goodin, R. E., & Klingemann, H. D. (Eds.). (1996). A new hand book of political science. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Greene, J. C., Caracelli, V. J., & Graham, W. F. (1989). Towards a conceptual framework for mixed method evaluation designs. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 11, 255-274.
• Gujarati, D. N. (2002). Basic econometrics (4th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
• Hewson, C., Yule, P., Laurent, D., & Vogel, C. (2002). Internet research methods: A practical guide for the social and behavioural sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Hoover, K., & Donovan, T. (2004). The elements of social scientific thinking (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
• Isaak, A. C. (1975). Scope and methods of political science: An introduction to the methodology of political inquiry. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.
• Johnson, J. B., Reynolds, H. T., & Mycoff, J. D. (2007). Political science research methods (6th ed.). Washington, DC: CQ Press.
• Kinder, D. R., & Palfrey, T. R. (1993). Experimental foundations of political science. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
• King, G., Keohane, R. O., & Verba, S. (1994). Designing social inquiry: Scientific inference in qualitative research. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Leege, D. C., & Francis, W. L. (1974). Political research: Design, measurement, and analysis. New York: Basic Books.
• Levy, P. S., & Lemeshow, S. (2003). Sampling of populations: Methods and applications (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley.
• Lohr, S. L. (1998). Sampling: Design and analysis. Pacific Grove, CA: Duxbury Press.
• Mack, N., Woodsong, C., MacQueen, K. M., Guest, G., & Namey, E. (2005). Qualitative research methods: A data collector’s field guide. Research Triangle Park, NC: Family Health International.
• Manheim, J. B., Rich, R. C., Willnat, L., & Brians, C. L. (2007). Empirical political analysis: Quantitative and qualitative research methods (7th ed.). Essex, UK: Longman.
• Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (1999). Designing qualitative research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• McNabb, D. E. (2009). Research methods for political science: Quantitative and qualitative methods (2nd ed.). Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.
• Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Miller, D. C., & Salkind, N. J. (2002). Handbook of research design and social measurement (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Ott, L. R., & Longnecker, M. T. (2001). An introduction to statistical methods and data analysis. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
• Pollock, P., III. (2008). The essentials of political analysis. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
• Salmon, W. (1998). Causality and explanation. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Shiveley, W. P. (1990). The craft of political research. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Silverman, D. (2001). Interpreting qualitative data: Methods for analyzing talk, text, and interaction (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Singleton, R. A., Jr., & Straits, B. C. (2004). Approaches to social research. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Weisberg, H. F., Krosnick, J. A., & Bowen, B. D. (1996). An introduction to survey research, polling, and data analysis (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Reader Interactions

+91 9848321284

Political Marketing

Political Research: The Different Types of Political Research

Jun 16, 2020

Political research is a broad term that can encompass various activities and approaches. There are many different ways to conduct political research, each with advantages and disadvantages.

We will explore the different types of political research and discuss the pros and cons of each approach.

Politics is a complex and ever-changing field. For best decisions, it’s essential to understand the different types of political research.

We will outline the four main types of political research: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.

Each has merits and demerits, so knowing which type best suits your needs is essential.

Stay informed and make intelligent decisions with this overview of political research!

Political research classifies into historical, experimental, and descriptive.

Historical research uses past events to explain current political phenomena.

Experimental research uses to test hypotheses about the political world. Descriptive analysis aims to describe how political phenomena exist in the real world. Each type of research has its strengths and weaknesses.

Researchers need to understand the differences between these types of research so they can choose the best method for their particular project.

Political research gathers and analyzes political data to understand trends and make informed decisions. There are different types of political analysis, each with advantages and disadvantages.

We will explore the different types of political research and discuss the benefits and drawbacks of each approach. You can choose the best method for your needs by understanding the different kinds of political analysis.

Political research is an essential tool for both academics and politicians.

It helps us understand the political world’s dynamics and can provide valuable information on improving policies and making better decisions.

We will explore the different types of political research that use commonly.

What is Political Research, and what are its purposes?

Political research is investigating and gathering information about political issues and actors. Its purpose is to shed light on the inner workings of government and politics and to help that outside of government understand and influence the political process.

Political research is gathering and analyzing data systematically to learn about and understand political phenomena. Its purposes include informing policymakers, enhancing our understanding of the political world, and empowering citizens.

Political research studies governments, public policies, and political processes. Its goals include understanding the effects of government policies on citizens and identifying ways to improve the effectiveness of those policies.

Political research is the study of politics and policymaking. It tracks social and economic trends, understands people’s political beliefs and behaviors, and assesses government policies’ impact.

How do researchers analyze data to understand Political Phenomena?

Researchers use data to understand political phenomena. However, analyzing data can be complicated. Different researchers may use other methods to analyze data. Some standard techniques include using statistics, coding data, and conducting interviews.

One way researchers analyze data is by breaking it down into categories. They can examine demographics, voting patterns, economic indicators, and more. By doing this, they can start to see trends and understand how different factors play a role in political phenomena.

Many times, political phenomena can be difficult to understand. However, data analysis allows researchers to analyze information and better understand it.

To analyze data, researchers must first collect it from various sources. Once they have enough data, they can look for patterns and trends. This process can be time-consuming, but it is essential to understand political phenomena.

The different types of Political Research

Many types of Political Research include public opinion polling, campaign finance analysis, election studies, and policy analysis. Every kind of political research has its unique methodologies and techniques.

Public opinion polling is one type of political research. It involves surveying a sample of people about their opinions on various political issues. Campaign finance analysis is another type of political research. It consists in analyzing how campaigns raise and spend money.

Election studies are another type of political research. It involves studying how people vote in elections. Policy analysis is another type of political research. It consists in analyzing the effects of policies on various groups of people.

Research falls into several different categories.

• Descriptive research attempts to paint a picture of how things are.
• Evaluative research seeks to assess the worth or value of something.
• Normative research establishes standards or guidelines.
• Comparative research investigates two or more themes side by side.
• Exploratory research uses when little is known about a problem or topic and is directed toward discovery.]Political analysis can be divided into a few different types.
• One type of political research is called desk research.
• This involves looking at secondary sources like newspapers, magazines, websites, and books.
• Another field of research involves speaking to people directly through interviews or surveys.
• Finally, there is experimental research, which uses controlled studies to test hypotheses.
• Each type of political research has its strengths and weaknesses, so choosing the right one for the situation is essential.

Regarding political research, people tend to use a few different types. Most common include polls, surveys, focus groups, interviews, and observational studies.

Polls and surveys are perhaps the most well-known type of political research. They involve collecting data from a large group of people to get an idea of public opinion.

Focus groups are another common type of political research. They involve smaller groups of people who discuss a particular issue or topic. It is an excellent way to get more in-depth information than you would from a poll or survey.

Interviews are also a common type of political research. They involve talking to experts or lawmakers to get their insights on various issues.

Observational studies are another type of research that uses in politics. It involves observing how people interact with each other and with their environment.

What does a Political Research Analyst do?

A political research analyst researches political issues and analyzes data to support or refute various points of view. They often work with government officials, think tanks, and lobbyists to provide the necessary information to make informed decisions.

A political research analyst is responsible for researching and analyzing data to help inform and shape public policy. They may work for governments, think tanks, or NGOs, involving everything from local community issues to national and international affairs.

Political research analysts play an essential role in helping policymakers make informed decisions, and their work can profoundly impact the world around us.

They research, collect data, and analyze information about political issues and candidates. They use this information to develop recommendations or take action on behalf of their employer or client.

A political research analyst may conduct polls or surveys and analyze voting patterns, campaign expenditures, and legislative issues. They also may track media coverage and public opinion. All of this information helps the analyst make informed decisions and recommendations.

The limitations of Political Research

• The research process is often biased and incomplete
• The available data is often unreliable or inaccurate
• There are many different ways to interpret the data, which can lead to disagreements among researchers
• It can be challenging to get accurate information from government officials
• Political research can be expensive and time-consuming
• The results of the political study can be challenging to communicate to the public
• It isn’t easy to get an accurate representation of public opinion
• Political research can be biased
• It can be expensive to conduct political research
• The results of political research can be hard to interpret
• The lack of empirical evidence in political research
• The use of qualitative research methods
• The reliance on case studies
• The use of surveys to collect data
• The use of focus groups to collect data
• The research process is often biased and predetermined
• It can be challenging to obtain accurate information due to the nature of politics
• The research process can be time-consuming and expensive
• Political research is usually conducted in secret, making it difficult to verify the findings
• The impossibility of conducting randomized controlled trials in the field of political science
• The reliance on surveys and interviews as sources of data
• The difficulty in measuring political phenomena
• The subjectivity of interpretation in the field of political science
• A lack of information often hinders the research process
• Political research is often biased and subjective
• It can be challenging to obtain accurate data due to politics.
• The conclusions drawn from political research are often open to interpretation.
• There is a danger of researcher bias influencing the results of political research.
• A lack of resources often hinders the research process
• Political research is often biased and incomplete
• It can be challenging to find accurate information on the internet
• The political landscape is constantly changing, making it hard to keep up with current events
• There is a lot of misinformation circulating online and in the media
• It can be challenging to get people to participate in political research studies
• Most political research conducts by academics who are not always accessible or relatable to the general public
• The difficulty of obtaining accurate information
• The bias of research results
• The impact of political ideology on research findings
• The use of statistics in political research
• The effect of the researcher’s personal preferences on their research findings

The benefits of conducting Political Research

• Learn about your political beliefs and the beliefs of others
• Gain a better understanding of the political process
• Educate yourself on the history of politics
• Discover how to get involved in politics
• Analyze data and research to make informed decisions
• Understand the effects of politics on society
• Develop critical thinking skills
• It can help you understand the political landscape of your country
• It can help you develop a better understanding of how the government works
• It can help you form an opinion on current political issues
• It can help you become more politically engaged
• It can help you make informed decisions when voting
• It can help you connect with other people who have similar interests
• Political research can help you understand the political process
• It can help you learn about different political parties and their ideologies
• You can use it to track the progress of bills in Congress
• Political research can give you insights into how the government works
• It can help you develop a better understanding of world politics
• You can use it to make informed decisions when voting
• It is a great way to stay up-to-date on current events
• Political research is necessary for civic engagement
• Learning about the political process
• Understanding your own political beliefs and values
• Developing critical thinking skills
• Gaining knowledge about current events and issues
• Connecting with others who share your political interests
• Participating in the democratic process
• The ability to make an informed decision when voting
• Understanding the policies of political parties and how they will affect your life
• Gaining a better understanding of world events and their impact on politics
• Learning about different political systems and how they work
• Meeting new people with similar interests
• Contributing to society by sharing your knowledge
• It can help you understand the political landscape and how it affects your life.
• It can give you a better understanding of world events
• It can help you develop critical thinking skills
• It can help you form opinions on complex topics
• It can increase your knowledge of history and government
• It can help you stay up-to-date on current affairs
• It is an essential part of being an engaged citizen
• It can help you understand the political process
• It can help you develop a strong understanding of different ideologies
• It can help you learn about your own political beliefs
• It can help you stay up-to-date on current events and politics
• It can help you become more civically engaged
• It can help prepare you for a career in politics
• Learn about your elected officials
• Get insights into how politics affects you and your community
• Discover new ways to get involved in the political process
• Connect with other people who are interested in politics
• Stay up-to-date on current events and news
• Learn about your elected officials and their stances on specific issues
• Connect with other people who share your political beliefs
• Get involved in the political process by volunteering or donating to campaigns
• Educate yourself on current events so you can be an informed voter
• Discuss politics with friends and family members in a civil manner
• Help spread awareness about important issues that matter to you
• Political research can help you stay up-to-date on the latest news and events
• It can help you understand different viewpoints on political topics
• It can help you develop your own political opinions and beliefs
• It can help you become more involved in the political process
• It can help you connect with other people who share your political interests.

Political research is complex and ever-changing; staying current on the latest trends, strategies, and technologies is essential for any political campaign .

We pride ourselves on the forefront of political research and strategy consulting.

Contact us today to learn how we can help you win your next election!

One way to get in touch is by filling out our online form on this site or give us a call at +91 9848321284. Let’s work together today!

Subscribe To Receive The Latest News

Curabitur ac leo nunc. Vestibulum et mauris vel ante finibus maximus.

Add notice about your Privacy Policy here.

Related Posts

Political Leader Brand Protection

How to Remove Duplicate and Bogus Voters from the Electoral list in India

What is Called the Electoral Roll or the Voters’ List?

Voter Registration Process: How to Register to Vote in India

Use basic attention token to maximize political strategy impact.

Call me +91 9848321284

[email protected]

• Data Structure
• Coding Problems
• C Interview Programs
• C++ Aptitude
• Java Aptitude
• C# Aptitude
• PHP Aptitude
• Linux Aptitude
• DBMS Aptitude
• Networking Aptitude
• AI Aptitude
• MIS Executive
• Web Technologie MCQs
• CS Subjects MCQs
• Databases MCQs
• Programming MCQs
• Testing Software MCQs
• Digital Mktg Subjects MCQs
• Cloud Computing S/W MCQs
• Engineering Subjects MCQs
• Commerce MCQs
• More MCQs...
• Machine Learning/AI
• Operating System
• Computer Network
• Software Engineering
• Discrete Mathematics
• Digital Electronics
• Data Mining
• Embedded Systems
• Cryptography
• CS Fundamental
• More Tutorials...
• Tech Articles
• Code Examples
• Programmer's Calculator
• XML Sitemap Generator
• Tools & Generators

Home » MCQs » DBMS MCQs

DBMS Databases & Types Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs) and Answers | Set 3

DBMS Databases & Types MCQs (Set 3) : This section contains DBMS Databases & Types Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs) and Answers. Submitted by Anushree Goswami , on December 06, 2021

1. Which among the following is a type of database?

• Centralized
• Distributed
• All of the above

Answer: D) All of the above

Explanation:

Centralized, Distributed and Cloud are all types of databases.

Discuss this Question

2. What is Centralized Database?

These databases store information in a central location.

• These databases store information in a decentral location.
• These databases store information in a left location.
• These databases store information in a right location.

Answer: A) These databases store information in a central location

3. What is the advantage of Centralized Database?

• As a result of the large size of the centralized database, fetching the data takes a long time.

Because data is managed in a central repository, consistency is maintained.

• An extensive database system is difficult to update.
• A server failure could result in the loss of all data, which is a huge loss.

Answer: B) Because data is managed in a central repository, consistency is maintained

4. What is the disadvantage of Centralized Database?

The disadvantages of Centralized Database are –

5. What is an example of Distributed Database?

HBase, Ignite, Apache are all examples of Distributed Database.

6. What is a Homogeneous DDB?

Database systems running on these platforms are running on the same operating system, using the same application protocol, and using similar hardware.

• Database systems on these platforms operate on different operating systems and use different application protocols, as well as different hardware.
• Database systems running on these platforms are running on the different operating system, using the same application protocol, and using similar hardware.
• Database systems on these platforms operate on same operating systems and use different application protocols, as well as different hardware.

Answer: A) Database systems running on these platforms are running on the same operating system, using the same application protocol, and using similar hardware

7. Database systems on ____ operate on different operating systems and use different application protocols, as well as different hardware.

• Homogeneous DDB
• Heterogeneous DDB
• None of the above

Answer: B) Heterogeneous DDB

Database systems on heterogeneous DDB operate on different operating systems and use different application protocols, as well as different hardware.

8. What is the advantage of Distributed Database?

• The distributed database can be developed in a modular way, that is, new computers can be added to the system, and they can be connected to the system.
• There will be no impact on the data set if one server fails.
• Both A. and B.

Answer: C) Both A. and B.

The advantages of Distributed Database are –

9. What is TRUE about Relational Database?

• Relational databases store information in rows (tuples) and columns (attributes), which create tables (relations).
• Data is stored, manipulated, and maintained using SQL in a relational database
• Tables in the database contain unique keys that identify them from other tables.

The following statements are TRUE about Relational Database –

10. What is the short form of properties in Relational Database?

Answer: D) ACID

There are four properties in Relational Database known as ACID in short, i.e., Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation and Durability.

Comments and Discussions!

Load comments ↻

• Marketing MCQs
• Blockchain MCQs
• Artificial Intelligence MCQs
• Data Analytics & Visualization MCQs
• Python MCQs
• C++ Programs
• Python Programs
• Java Programs
• D.S. Programs
• Golang Programs
• C# Programs
• JavaScript Examples
• jQuery Examples
• CSS Examples
• C++ Tutorial
• Python Tutorial
• ML/AI Tutorial
• MIS Tutorial
• Software Engineering Tutorial
• Scala Tutorial
• Privacy policy
• Certificates
• Content Writers of the Month

Copyright © 2024 www.includehelp.com. All rights reserved.

• Find My Rep

You are here

The SAGE Handbook of Research Methods in Political Science and International Relations

• Luigi Curini - Università degli Studi di Milano
• Robert Franzese - University of Michigan
• Description

The SAGE Handbook of Research Methods in Political Science   and International Relations  offers a comprehensive overview of research processes in social science — from the ideation and design of research projects, through the construction of theoretical arguments, to conceptualization, measurement, & data collection, and quantitative & qualitative empirical analysis — exposited through 65 major new contributions from leading international methodologists. 

Each chapter surveys, builds upon, and extends the modern state of the art in its area. Following through its six-part organization, undergraduate and graduate students, researchers and practicing academics will be guided through the design, methods, and analysis of issues in Political Science and International Relations:

Part One: Formulating Good Research Questions & Designing Good Research Projects

Part Two: Methods of Theoretical Argumentation

Part Three: Conceptualization & Measurement

Part Four: Large-Scale Data Collection & Representation Methods

Part Five: Quantitative-Empirical Methods

Part Six: Qualitative & “Mixed” Methods

Supplements

For scholars seeking credible research designs, this is an indispensable volume. The methods are wide-ranging and on the cutting edge, and the authors are an all-star cast of leading experts.

This is an extraordinarily comprehensive handbook on the current state of the art in research methods for political science. The roster of authors is both stellar and extensive. No single person knows this much about all this material. So all serious researchers can benefit from having this handbook on their shelves, whether to expand the scope of their own work or to enhance their reading of the work of others.

Since the dawn of the twenty-first century there has been an explosion of methods in the social and natural sciences.  As data has gotten bigger and bigger, we have been developing new tools to acquire, analyze, and synthesize all these bits and bytes, and this has led to nothing short of a revolution in political science.  The very leaders of this revolution have come together in these volumes to show the way, with both deep insight and engaging connections to the biggest substantive problems of our day.  This is literally the dream team of political science, and they are explaining in plain language exactly how to live on the cutting edge.  As someone deeply committed to both learning and teaching new methods, I can't think of another book I would rather have on my shelf. 

This handbook provides the reader with a very broad overview of research methods in political science. With chapters authored by notable senior and junior methodologists and applicants, it does not only cover a wide range of techniques, but also places methods within their context, such as research designs. This book is an excellent companion for researchers of all steps of their career who are about to find their way through the jungle of methodological offers.

This is a very impressive and broad collection of authors and essays.   This book will be my, and my students’, first stop in exploring any topic in political methodology.   The editors provide an important service to the discipline.  

The Sage Handbook of Research Methods in Political Science and International Relations has wide coverage from leading scholars and practitioners. There is definitely something for everyone to learn while emphasizing accessibility for all as well. 

Preview this book

Select a purchasing option, order from:.

• VitalSource
• Amazon Kindle
• Google Play

Related Products

SAGE Knowledge is the premier social sciences platform for SAGE and CQ Press book, reference and video content.

The platform allows researchers to cross-search and seamlessly access a wide breadth of must-have SAGE book and reference content from one source.

SAGE Research Methods is a research methods tool created to help researchers, faculty and students with their research projects. SAGE Research Methods links over 175,000 pages of SAGE’s renowned book, journal and reference content with truly advanced search and discovery tools. Researchers can explore methods concepts to help them design research projects, understand particular methods or identify a new method, conduct their research, and write up their findings. Since SAGE Research Methods focuses on methodology rather than disciplines, it can be used across the social sciences, health sciences, and more.

With SAGE Research Methods, researchers can explore their chosen method across the depth and breadth of content, expanding or refining their search as needed; read online, print, or email full-text content; utilize suggested related methods and links to related authors from SAGE Research Methods' robust library and unique features; and even share their own collections of content through Methods Lists. SAGE Research Methods contains content from over 720 books, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and handbooks, the entire “Little Green Book,” and "Little Blue Book” series, two Major Works collating a selection of journal articles, and specially commissioned videos.

Saturated soils could impact survival of young trees planted to address climate change

The saturated soil conditions predicted to result from increased rainfall in the UK’s upland regions could have a knock-on effect on the ambition to create more woodland in the fight against climate change, a new study has found.

Researchers from the University of Plymouth have spent a number of years exploring how temperate rainforests could be an effective nature-based solution to some of the planet’s greatest challenges.

They have also shown that the UK’s uplands could in future see significantly more annual rainfall than is currently being predicted in national climate models.

In new research, they found that higher soil water levels within areas such as Dartmoor, the Lake District and the Scottish Highlands could have a significant impact on the survival rates of both acorns and juvenile oak saplings.

Published in the journal Forest Ecology and Management , it is the first study to highlight the importance of factoring in soil conditions when looking at where and how to create the temperate rainforests of the future.

Dr Thomas Murphy, Lecturer in Environmental Sciences at the University of Plymouth, is the study’s lead author. He said: “In recent years, there have been increasing calls to plant more trees as part of the global effort to combat climate change. Restoration and expansion of temperate rainforests, which are a globally rare ecosystem, is seen as one of the potential solutions. But with our previous work also predicting an increase in future rainfall we wanted to know if the woodlands we create will support naturally colonising trees in future. Our results show that higher water levels within soils directly contribute to reduced survival of both acorns and young oak trees. We believe it provides landowners, land managers and policy makers with important information as to which species might work in particular locations to support more resilient future rainforests.”

For the study, researchers planted acorns from English oaks (Quercus robur) in containers with four soil states, from completely flooded to low saturation where the water level was 220mm below the acorn.

The acorns did not survive in the flooded soils, but survival rates improved gradually – 43% at high saturation, 77% at medium saturation, and 83% at low saturation – as the water level dropped.

The surviving seedlings also exhibited reduced root:shoot ratio, leaf photosynthesis, and a lower likelihood of late season shoot growth in soils of higher saturation.

In a concurrent field experiment, juvenile English oak and Sessile oak (Quercus petraea) saplings were planted in a region of Dartmoor that is seasonally waterlogged and frequented by grazing livestock.

In these tests, the English oaks exhibited greater shoot growth and leaf photosynthesis than its close relation in areas where the soil was more saturated.

The researchers, including environmental scientists and ecologists, say the results highlight the need for better understanding of soil influence on tree development.

Dr Murphy added: “There has been extensive talk about how larger trees respond to the effects of climate change. But these results show we need to factor in the response of young trees as well, especially if they are being envisioned as an integral part of the solution. By examining their response to conditions now, while also thinking about what these locations are going to be like in 50 years’ time, we can better understand the right trees for the right locations, and hopefully make these woodlands more resilient in the long-term.”

• Environmental Issues
• Global Warming
• Environmental Awareness
• Global warming
• Global warming controversy
• Climate engineering
• Consensus of scientists regarding global warming
• Effects of global warming
• Common Eider

Story Source:

Materials provided by University of Plymouth . Original written by Alan Williams. Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Thomas R. Murphy, Mick E. Hanley, Jon S. Ellis, Paul H. Lunt. Soil saturation limits early oak establishment in upland pastures for restoration of Atlantic oak woodlands . Forest Ecology and Management , 2024; 561: 121895 DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2024.121895

Cite This Page :

Explore More

• Controlling Shape-Shifting Soft Robots
• Brain Flexibility for a Complex World
• ONe Nova to Rule Them All
• AI Systems Are Skilled at Manipulating Humans
• Planet Glows With Molten Lava
• A Fragment of Human Brain, Mapped
• Symbiosis Solves Long-Standing Marine Mystery
• Surprising Common Ideas in Environmental ...
• 2D All-Organic Perovskites: 2D Electronics
• Generative AI That Imitates Human Motion

Trending Topics

Strange & offbeat.