research paper about body

How to Write a Body of a Research Paper

The main part of your research paper is called “the body.” To write this important part of your paper, include only relevant information, or information that gets to the point. Organize your ideas in a logical order—one that makes sense—and provide enough details—facts and examples—to support the points you want to make.

Logical Order

Transition words and phrases, adding evidence, phrases for supporting topic sentences.

• Transition Phrases for Comparisons
• Transition Phrases for Contrast
• Transition Phrases to Show a Process
• Phrases to Introduce Examples
• Transition Phrases for Presenting Evidence

How to Make Effective Transitions

Examples of effective transitions, drafting your conclusion, writing the body paragraphs.

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• The third and fourth paragraphs follow the same format as the second:
• Transition or topic sentence.
• Topic sentence (if not included in the first sentence).
• Supporting sentences including a discussion, quotations, or examples that support the topic sentence.
• Concluding sentence that transitions to the next paragraph.

The topic of each paragraph will be supported by the evidence you itemized in your outline. However, just as smooth transitions are required to connect your paragraphs, the sentences you write to present your evidence should possess transition words that connect ideas, focus attention on relevant information, and continue your discussion in a smooth and fluid manner.

You presented the main idea of your paper in the thesis statement. In the body, every single paragraph must support that main idea. If any paragraph in your paper does not, in some way, back up the main idea expressed in your thesis statement, it is not relevant, which means it doesn’t have a purpose and shouldn’t be there.

Each paragraph also has a main idea of its own. That main idea is stated in a topic sentence, either at the beginning or somewhere else in the paragraph. Just as every paragraph in your paper supports your thesis statement, every sentence in each paragraph supports the main idea of that paragraph by providing facts or examples that back up that main idea. If a sentence does not support the main idea of the paragraph, it is not relevant and should be left out.

A paper that makes claims or states ideas without backing them up with facts or clarifying them with examples won’t mean much to readers. Make sure you provide enough supporting details for all your ideas. And remember that a paragraph can’t contain just one sentence. A paragraph needs at least two or more sentences to be complete. If a paragraph has only one or two sentences, you probably haven’t provided enough support for your main idea. Or, if you have trouble finding the main idea, maybe you don’t have one. In that case, you can make the sentences part of another paragraph or leave them out.

Arrange the paragraphs in the body of your paper in an order that makes sense, so that each main idea follows logically from the previous one. Likewise, arrange the sentences in each paragraph in a logical order.

If you carefully organized your notes and made your outline, your ideas will fall into place naturally as you write your draft. The main ideas, which are building blocks of each section or each paragraph in your paper, come from the Roman-numeral headings in your outline. The supporting details under each of those main ideas come from the capital-letter headings. In a shorter paper, the capital-letter headings may become sentences that include supporting details, which come from the Arabic numerals in your outline. In a longer paper, the capital letter headings may become paragraphs of their own, which contain sentences with the supporting details, which come from the Arabic numerals in your outline.

In addition to keeping your ideas in logical order, transitions are another way to guide readers from one idea to another. Transition words and phrases are important when you are suggesting or pointing out similarities between ideas, themes, opinions, or a set of facts. As with any perfect phrase, transition words within paragraphs should not be used gratuitously. Their meaning must conform to what you are trying to point out, as shown in the examples below:

• “Accordingly” or “in accordance with” indicates agreement. For example :Thomas Edison’s experiments with electricity accordingly followed the theories of Benjamin Franklin, J. B. Priestly, and other pioneers of the previous century.
• “Analogous” or “analogously” contrasts different things or ideas that perform similar functions or make similar expressions. For example: A computer hard drive is analogous to a filing cabinet. Each stores important documents and data.
• “By comparison” or “comparatively”points out differences between things that otherwise are similar. For example: Roses require an alkaline soil. Azaleas, by comparison, prefer an acidic soil.
• “Corresponds to” or “correspondingly” indicates agreement or conformity. For example: The U.S. Constitution corresponds to England’s Magna Carta in so far as both established a framework for a parliamentary system.
• “Equals,”“equal to,” or “equally” indicates the same degree or quality. For example:Vitamin C is equally as important as minerals in a well-balanced diet.
• “Equivalent” or “equivalently” indicates two ideas or things of approximately the same importance, size, or volume. For example:The notions of individual liberty and the right to a fair and speedy trial hold equivalent importance in the American legal system.
• “Common” or “in common with” indicates similar traits or qualities. For example: Darwin did not argue that humans were descended from the apes. Instead, he maintained that they shared a common ancestor.
• “In the same way,”“in the same manner,”“in the same vein,” or “likewise,” connects comparable traits, ideas, patterns, or activities. For example: John Roebling’s suspension bridges in Brooklyn and Cincinnati were built in the same manner, with strong cables to support a metallic roadway. Example 2: Despite its delicate appearance, John Roebling’s Brooklyn Bridge was built as a suspension bridge supported by strong cables. Example 3: Cincinnati’s Suspension Bridge, which Roebling also designed, was likewise supported by cables.
• “Kindred” indicates that two ideas or things are related by quality or character. For example: Artists Vincent Van Gogh and Paul Gauguin are considered kindred spirits in the Impressionist Movement. “Like” or “as” are used to create a simile that builds reader understanding by comparing two dissimilar things. (Never use “like” as slang, as in: John Roebling was like a bridge designer.) For examples: Her eyes shone like the sun. Her eyes were as bright as the sun.
• “Parallel” describes events, things, or ideas that occurred at the same time or that follow similar logic or patterns of behavior. For example:The original Ocktoberfests were held to occur in parallel with the autumn harvest.
• “Obviously” emphasizes a point that should be clear from the discussion. For example: Obviously, raccoons and other wildlife will attempt to find food and shelter in suburban areas as their woodland habitats disappear.
• “Similar” and “similarly” are used to make like comparisons. For example: Horses and ponies have similar physical characteristics although, as working farm animals, each was bred to perform different functions.
• “There is little debate” or “there is consensus” can be used to point out agreement. For example:There is little debate that the polar ice caps are melting.The question is whether global warming results from natural or human-made causes.

Other phrases that can be used to make transitions or connect ideas within paragraphs include:

• Use “alternately” or “alternatively” to suggest a different option.
• Use “antithesis” to indicate a direct opposite.
• Use “contradict” to indicate disagreement.
• Use “on the contrary” or “conversely” to indicate that something is different from what it seems.
• Use “dissimilar” to point out differences between two things.
• Use “diverse” to discuss differences among many things or people.
• Use “distinct” or “distinctly” to point out unique qualities.
• Use “inversely” to indicate an opposite idea.
• Use “it is debatable,” “there is debate,” or “there is disagreement” to suggest that there is more than one opinion about a subject.
• Use “rather” or “rather than” to point out an exception.
• Use “unique” or “uniquely” to indicate qualities that can be found nowhere else.
• Use “unlike” to indicate dissimilarities.
• Use “various” to indicate more than one kind.

Writing Topic Sentences

Remember, a sentence should express a complete thought, one thought per sentence—no more, no less. The longer and more convoluted your sentences become, the more likely you are to muddle the meaning, become repetitive, and bog yourself down in issues of grammar and construction. In your first draft, it is generally a good idea to keep those sentences relatively short and to the point. That way your ideas will be clearly stated.You will be able to clearly see the content that you have put down—what is there and what is missing—and add or subtract material as it is needed. The sentences will probably seem choppy and even simplistic.The purpose of a first draft is to ensure that you have recorded all the content you will need to make a convincing argument. You will work on smoothing and perfecting the language in subsequent drafts.

Transitioning from your topic sentence to the evidence that supports it can be problematic. It requires a transition, much like the transitions needed to move from one paragraph to the next. Choose phrases that connect the evidence directly to your topic sentence.

• Consider this: (give an example or state evidence).
• If (identify one condition or event) then (identify the condition or event that will follow).
• It should go without saying that (point out an obvious condition).
• Note that (provide an example or observation).
• Take a look at (identify a condition; follow with an explanation of why you think it is important to the discussion).
• The authors had (identify their idea) in mind when they wrote “(use a quotation from their text that illustrates the idea).”
• The point is that (summarize the conclusion your reader should draw from your research).
• This becomes evident when (name the author) says that (paraphrase a quote from the author’s writing).
• We see this in the following example: (provide an example of your own).
• (The author’s name) offers the example of (summarize an example given by the author).

If an idea is controversial, you may need to add extra evidence to your paragraphs to persuade your reader. You may also find that a logical argument, one based solely on your evidence, is not persuasive enough and that you need to appeal to the reader’s emotions. Look for ways to incorporate your research without detracting from your argument.

Writing Transition Sentences

It is often difficult to write transitions that carry a reader clearly and logically on to the next paragraph (and the next topic) in an essay. Because you are moving from one topic to another, it is easy to simply stop one and start another. Great research papers, however, include good transitions that link the ideas in an interesting discussion so that readers can move smoothly and easily through your presentation. Close each of your paragraphs with an interesting transition sentence that introduces the topic coming up in the next paragraph.

Transition sentences should show a relationship between the two topics.Your transition will perform one of the following functions to introduce the new idea:

• Indicate that you will be expanding on information in a different way in the upcoming paragraph.
• Indicate that a comparison, contrast, or a cause-and-effect relationship between the topics will be discussed.
• Indicate that an example will be presented in the next paragraph.
• Indicate that a conclusion is coming up.

Transitions make a paper flow smoothly by showing readers how ideas and facts follow one another to point logically to a conclusion. They show relationships among the ideas, help the reader to understand, and, in a persuasive paper, lead the reader to the writer’s conclusion.

Each paragraph should end with a transition sentence to conclude the discussion of the topic in the paragraph and gently introduce the reader to the topic that will be raised in the next paragraph. However, transitions also occur within paragraphs—from sentence to sentence—to add evidence, provide examples, or introduce a quotation.

The type of paper you are writing and the kinds of topics you are introducing will determine what type of transitional phrase you should use. Some useful phrases for transitions appear below. They are grouped according to the function they normally play in a paper. Transitions, however, are not simply phrases that are dropped into sentences. They are constructed to highlight meaning. Choose transitions that are appropriate to your topic and what you want the reader to do. Edit them to be sure they fit properly within the sentence to enhance the reader’s understanding.

Transition Phrases for Comparisons:

• We also see
• In addition to
• Notice that
• Beside that,
• In comparison,
• Once again,
• Identically,
• For example,
• Comparatively, it can be seen that
• We see this when
• This corresponds to
• In other words,
• At the same time,
• By the same token,

Transition Phrases for Contrast:

• By contrast,
• On the contrary,
• Nevertheless,
• An exception to this would be …
• Alongside that,we find …
• On one hand … on the other hand …
• [New information] presents an opposite view …
• Conversely, it could be argued …
• Other than that,we find that …
• We get an entirely different impression from …
• One point of differentiation is …
• Further investigation shows …
• An exception can be found in the fact that …

Transition Phrases to Show a Process:

• At the top we have … Near the bottom we have …
• Here we have … There we have …
• Continuing on,
• We progress to …
• Close up … In the distance …
• With this in mind,
• Moving in sequence,
• Proceeding sequentially,
• Moving to the next step,
• First, Second,Third,…
• Examining the activities in sequence,
• Sequentially,
• As a result,
• The end result is …
• To illustrate …
• Subsequently,
• One consequence of …
• If … then …
• It follows that …
• This is chiefly due to …
• The next step …
• Later we find …

Phrases to Introduce Examples:

• For instance,
• Particularly,
• In particular,
• This includes,
• Specifically,
• To illustrate,
• One illustration is
• One example is
• This is illustrated by
• This can be seen when
• This is especially seen in
• This is chiefly seen when

Transition Phrases for Presenting Evidence:

• Another point worthy of consideration is
• At the center of the issue is the notion that
• Before moving on, it should be pointed out that
• Another important point is
• Another idea worth considering is
• Consequently,
• Especially,
• Even more important,
• Getting beyond the obvious,
• In spite of all this,
• It follows that
• It is clear that
• More importantly,
• Most importantly,

How to make effective transitions between sections of a research paper? There are two distinct issues in making strong transitions:

• Does the upcoming section actually belong where you have placed it?
• Have you adequately signaled the reader why you are taking this next step?

The first is the most important: Does the upcoming section actually belong in the next spot? The sections in your research paper need to add up to your big point (or thesis statement) in a sensible progression. One way of putting that is, “Does the architecture of your paper correspond to the argument you are making?” Getting this architecture right is the goal of “large-scale editing,” which focuses on the order of the sections, their relationship to each other, and ultimately their correspondence to your thesis argument.

It’s easy to craft graceful transitions when the sections are laid out in the right order. When they’re not, the transitions are bound to be rough. This difficulty, if you encounter it, is actually a valuable warning. It tells you that something is wrong and you need to change it. If the transitions are awkward and difficult to write, warning bells should ring. Something is wrong with the research paper’s overall structure.

After you’ve placed the sections in the right order, you still need to tell the reader when he is changing sections and briefly explain why. That’s an important part of line-by-line editing, which focuses on writing effective sentences and paragraphs.

Effective transition sentences and paragraphs often glance forward or backward, signaling that you are switching sections. Take this example from J. M. Roberts’s History of Europe . He is finishing a discussion of the Punic Wars between Rome and its great rival, Carthage. The last of these wars, he says, broke out in 149 B.C. and “ended with so complete a defeat for the Carthaginians that their city was destroyed . . . .” Now he turns to a new section on “Empire.” Here is the first sentence: “By then a Roman empire was in being in fact if not in name.”(J. M. Roberts, A History of Europe . London: Allen Lane, 1997, p. 48) Roberts signals the transition with just two words: “By then.” He is referring to the date (149 B.C.) given near the end of the previous section. Simple and smooth.

Michael Mandelbaum also accomplishes this transition between sections effortlessly, without bringing his narrative to a halt. In The Ideas That Conquered the World: Peace, Democracy, and Free Markets , one chapter shows how countries of the North Atlantic region invented the idea of peace and made it a reality among themselves. Here is his transition from one section of that chapter discussing “the idea of warlessness” to another section dealing with the history of that idea in Europe.

The widespread aversion to war within the countries of the Western core formed the foundation for common security, which in turn expressed the spirit of warlessness. To be sure, the rise of common security in Europe did not abolish war in other parts of the world and could not guarantee its permanent abolition even on the European continent. Neither, however, was it a flukish, transient product . . . . The European common security order did have historical precedents, and its principal features began to appear in other parts of the world. Precedents for Common Security The security arrangements in Europe at the dawn of the twenty-first century incorporated features of three different periods of the modern age: the nineteenth century, the interwar period, and the ColdWar. (Michael Mandelbaum, The Ideas That Conquered the World: Peace, Democracy, and Free Markets . New York: Public Affairs, 2002, p. 128)

It’s easier to make smooth transitions when neighboring sections deal with closely related subjects, as Mandelbaum’s do. Sometimes, however, you need to end one section with greater finality so you can switch to a different topic. The best way to do that is with a few summary comments at the end of the section. Your readers will understand you are drawing this topic to a close, and they won’t be blindsided by your shift to a new topic in the next section.

Here’s an example from economic historian Joel Mokyr’s book The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress . Mokyr is completing a section on social values in early industrial societies. The next section deals with a quite different aspect of technological progress: the role of property rights and institutions. So Mokyr needs to take the reader across a more abrupt change than Mandelbaum did. Mokyr does that in two ways. First, he summarizes his findings on social values, letting the reader know the section is ending. Then he says the impact of values is complicated, a point he illustrates in the final sentences, while the impact of property rights and institutions seems to be more straightforward. So he begins the new section with a nod to the old one, noting the contrast.

In commerce, war and politics, what was functional was often preferred [within Europe] to what was aesthetic or moral, and when it was not, natural selection saw to it that such pragmatism was never entirely absent in any society. . . . The contempt in which physical labor, commerce, and other economic activity were held did not disappear rapidly; much of European social history can be interpreted as a struggle between wealth and other values for a higher step in the hierarchy. The French concepts of bourgeois gentilhomme and nouveau riche still convey some contempt for people who joined the upper classes through economic success. Even in the nineteenth century, the accumulation of wealth was viewed as an admission ticket to social respectability to be abandoned as soon as a secure membership in the upper classes had been achieved. Institutions and Property Rights The institutional background of technological progress seems, on the surface, more straightforward. (Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress . New York: Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 176)

Note the phrase, “on the surface.” Mokyr is hinting at his next point, that surface appearances are deceiving in this case. Good transitions between sections of your research paper depend on:

• Getting the sections in the right order
• Moving smoothly from one section to the next
• Signaling readers that they are taking the next step in your argument
• Explaining why this next step comes where it does

Every good paper ends with a strong concluding paragraph. To write a good conclusion, sum up the main points in your paper. To write an even better conclusion, include a sentence or two that helps the reader answer the question, “So what?” or “Why does all this matter?” If you choose to include one or more “So What?” sentences, remember that you still need to support any point you make with facts or examples. Remember, too, that this is not the place to introduce new ideas from “out of the blue.” Make sure that everything you write in your conclusion refers to what you’ve already written in the body of your paper.

Back to How To Write A Research Paper .

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• v.61(1); 2021

Towards a Comprehensive Understanding of Body Image: Integrating Positive Body Image, Embodiment and Self-Compassion

Diana burychka.

1 Department of Personality, Evaluation and Psychological Treatment, University of Valencia, Spain

2 Polibienestar Institute, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain

Marta Miragall

3 CIBER Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBEROBN), Instituto Carlos III, Spain

Rosa M. Baños

Body image (BI) disturbance is a relevant factor in the etiology and treatment of eating disorders (ED). Although progress has been made in recent decades in understanding BI and its relationship with ED, the efficacy of BI disturbance prevention and intervention programs is still limited. In order to reach deeper understanding of BI disturbance and clarify the interactions between some protective and risk factors related to this construct, we carried out a literature review on some specific BI-related factors that so far have been analyzed independently. We specifically examined positive and negative BI; embodiment and its role in the development of positive and negative BI; and self-compassion as a protective factor that promotes positive embodiment (vs. disembodiment) and protection against body shame. We conclude that integrating the available evidence on these factors into BI models may be used to enhance our understanding of BI and improve the efficacy of prevention and intervention programs to help fight negative BI (by reducing body shame and disembodiment) and promote positive BI (by increasing self-compassion and positive embodiment).

Body Image (BI) is a multidimensional concept that involves people’s positive and negative perceptions, thoughts, behaviors, and attitudes about their body and appearance ( Gardner, 1996 ; Garner & Garfinkel, 1982 , Grogan, 2016 ). The term was coined by Paul Schilder ( 1935 ), who defined BI as the mental representation of one’s body that everyone develops. The BI development process is dynamic, and it is influenced not only by the physical (e.g., body size or shape) or psychological (e.g., perfectionism, low self-esteem) characteristics of the individual, but also by the socio-cultural context (e.g., cultural ideal of beauty, media pressure to achieve an ideal of beauty) ( Cash, 2002 ; Wertheim & Paxton, 2011 ). Moreover, BI is linked to the multifaceted psychological experience of embodying one’s body ( Cash, 2004 ). Hence, BI is not only related to the way people perceive their body, but it also influences the way they interact with the world through that body ( Piran & Teall, 2012 ).

BI disturbance (BID) has been identified as a key factor in the development and maintenance of eating disorders (ED) in general ( Glashouwer et al., 2019 ; Mora-Giral et al., 2004 ; Stice & Shaw, 2002 ) and anorexia nervosa ( Dakanalis et al., 2016 ) and bulimia nervosa ( Degortes et al., 2018 ; Sattler et al., 2019 ), in particular. Furthermore, BID is also a crucial factor in the relapse and poor prognosis of these disorders ( Bachner-Melman et al., 2006 ; Carter et al., 2004 ; Glashouwer et al., 2019 ), as well as their increasing prevalence ( Mitchison et al., 2020 ), especially in the adolescent and young adult population ( Treasure et al., 2010 ). Furthermore, even in the absence of an ED, BID is a risk factor that impacts the individual’s quality of life ( Hosseini & Padhy, 2019 ).

Despite the large amount of research being conducted in the field, the efficacy of BI-focused interventions in ED remains limited ( Alleva et al., 2015 ; Ziser et al., 2018 ). Particularly, interventions targeting BI only, lead to small improvement, highlighting the need for enhancing current therapeutic strategies ( Alleva et al., 2015 ; Linardon et al., 2017 , 2018 ; Linardon & Wade, 2018 ). Additionally, there is evidence that BID persists in patients with ED once the intervention is finished ( Engel & Keizer, 2017 ; Eshkevari et al., 2014 ). Thus, it is necessary to consider other relevant BI-related protective and risk factors that may help improve existing assessment and intervention ED programs. For instance, there is evidence on the relationship between lower BID and higher level of positive embodiment ( Cook-Cottone, 2015 ; Homan & Tylka, 2014 ) and higher levels of self-compassion ( Braun et al., 2016 ). However, although over the last years these protective factors have gained prominence in the positive BI field ( Braun et al., 2016 ), they have been explored independently (i.e., have not been integrated in explicative models of BID). Integrating these factors in more comprehensive explicative models may increase our understanding on the origin and maintenance of BID in patients with ED.

The aim of this paper was to carry out a narrative review of the existing literature on key protective and risk factors that are being related to higher positive BI and lower negative BI (i.e., sense of embodiment, self-compassion, and body shame). Specifically, this study will review: (1) positive and negative BI, (2) embodiment and its role in the development of positive and negative BI, and (3) self-compassion as a protective factor that promotes positive embodiment (vs disembodiment) and protects against body shame. Analysis of these factors may provide further insights into the complex construct of BI and help us to better understand their role in ED.

In this narrative review, we first analyze the traditional perspective, which is focused on negative BI. However, we also highlight the importance of positive BI (e.g., body acceptance), as well as its associated protective and risk factors. Thus, we first consider positive embodiment (vs. disembodiment ) -a positive connection with one’s body- as a protective factor of positive and negative BI ( Cook-Cottone, 2018 ). Embodiment, although considered for decades as relevant in this field ( Cash, 2004 ), has been long overlooked and requires reconsideration to reach a more comprehensive understanding of BI. Second, we examine body shame ‒a self-conscious emotion that can disturb the connection to one’s body‒ ( Piran & Neumark-Sztainer, 2020 ), a specific risk factor of negative BI in patients with ED and non-clinical ED samples (e.g., Ferreira et al., 2013 ; Duarte et al., 2015 ). Finally, we explore the role of self-compassion ‒the experience of understanding one’s own pain in a non-judgmental way and seeing suffering as a part of a shared human experience‒ ( Neff, 2003 ), given its role in cultivating connection to one’s own body (positive embodiment) and positive BI ( Braun et al., 2016 ). Self-compassion has emerged as a protective factor against body shame and disembodiment, and is one of the most effective intervention techniques in this field to reduce BID ( Braun et al., 2016 ).

This review proposes that the integration of dimensions from positive and negative BI will result in a more comprehensive approach to BI. Therefore, the incorporation of factors associated to positive BI (i.e., positive embodiment, self-compassion), together with the extensively studied factors associated to negative BI (e.g., disembodiment, body shame), may improve not only the theoretical understanding of BI, but also lead to a development of specific therapeutic strategies to improve the intervention of BID and ensure long-lasting outcomes.

The classic view of BI: negative BI and its dimensions

The BI construct seems to be composed of two dimensions: negative BI and positive BI. To date, research has focused primarily on the study of the negative dimension ( Smolak & Cash, 2011 ; Tylka, 2011 ), characterized by BID. As noted above, BID is a key element in the expression of ED and one of the more common characteristics in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa ( Cash & Deagle, 1997 ; Cornelissen et al., 2013 , 2015 ), as well as a key component in its development, maintenance, and relapse ( Stice & Shaw, 2002 ; Treasure et al., 2020 ). Moreover, BID can also be found in the non-clinical population ( McCabe et al., 2006 ; Stice & Whitenton, 2002 ), making its study and understanding even more relevant.

Regarding negative BI, the research has focused on the extensive examination of two independent subdimensions that can be disturbed ( Garner & Garfinkel, 1982 ): (a) the perceptual dimension (which refers to the estimation of one’s body size and weight); and (b) the affective-attitudinal-cognitive dimension (which involves feelings, attitudes, and thoughts about one’s body size and weight) ( Bulik et al., 2006 ). Perceptual disturbance is manifested as an underestimation or overestimation of body size or weight, whereas disturbance in the affective dimension is characterized mainly by body dissatisfaction and/or overvaluation of body size and weight ( Cornelissen et al., 2013 ; Dakanalis et al., 2016 ). Therefore, disturbance can be found in one or both BI dimensions.

Most studies have prioritized the exploration of perceptual dimension disturbance. Currently, there is enough evidence to state there is a trend in patients with anorexia nervosa to be impaired in this dimension, characterized by greater overestimation of their perceived body size in comparison to control groups with no history of ED ( Brown et al., 2021 ; Hagman et al., 2015 ; Gardner & Brown, 2014 ; Mölbert et al., 2017 ). This overestimation is likely to persist over time despite demanding diets and significant weight loss, which usually occurs in these patients ( Riva et al., 2015 ). In the past few decades, the underlying mechanisms of this disturbance have been investigated in order to develop effective interventions to readjust body size estimation ( Cornelissen et al., 2013 ).

Regarding the affective dimension of BI, several authors have emphasized its relevance, as well as its relationship with the perceptual dimension ( Mölbert et al., 2018 ; Preston & Ehrsson, 2014 , 2016 ). Overall, the evidence suggests that people with ED experience higher body dissatisfaction, greater concerns about body weight and/or size, an increased drive for thinness, and a lower desired weight, compared to people with no history of ED ( Cash & Deagle, 1997 ; Moscone et al., 2017 ). In addition, studies have found that high levels of body dissatisfaction are associated with greater inaccuracy in one’s body size perception ( Keizer et al., 2011 ), and that an increased drive for thinness is associated with greater overestimation of one’s body size ( Hagman et al., 2015 ). Similarly, Gardner and Bokenkamp ( 1996 ) concluded that body dissatisfaction could be a causal factor in overestimating body size. Thus, there is a large body of research on the psychopathological symptoms associated with BI (e.g., Smolak, 2012 ; Thompson et al., 1999 ). In short, latest studies ( Hagman et al., 2015 ; Mölbert et al., 2018 ) point out the importance of studying in depth the affective dimension of BI (e.g., body shame) to understand perceptual BID (e.g., body overestimation).

Additionally, although most of these studies have focused on the negative BI, new explanatory models of ED have recently been developed. The need to study the “positive” side of BI has emerged, leading to a better understanding of both the risk factors and the possible protective factors in the development of ED ( Tylka, 2012 ).

Positive BI: A necessary dimension for the comprehensive understanding of BI

Positive BI was initially defined as an opposite concept to negative BI ( Smolak, 2012 ; Tylka, 2011 , 2012 ), so that a reduction in BID was associated with an increase in positive BI characteristics ( Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015 ). Based on this approach, BI was originally considered a continuum with negative and positive BI situated at opposite ends ( Webb et al., 2015 ). However, a growing body of evidence indicates that negative and positive BI are not opposite ends of the same continuum, but rather two different constructs that are negatively correlated ( Avalos et al., 2005 ; Tylka, 2011 , 2018 ; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015 ). Thus, interventions in negative BI would not necessarily promote positive BI (e.g., an individual with high levels of body appreciation can still experience body dissatisfaction) ( Tiggemann & McCourt, 2013 ; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015 ).

Positive BI is characterized by the acceptance, appreciation, and respect for one’s body ( Tylka, 2013 ). More specifically, according to Avalos et al. ( 2005 ), positive BI has four components: (1) favorable opinions about the body; (2) acceptance of the body with its imperfections, regardless of weight or body shape; (3) respect for the body by attending to its needs and engaging in healthy behaviors; and (4) protecting the body by rejecting unrealistic BIs portrayed in the media (e.g., positive media information is internalized, whereas negative media information is denied or reformulated).

Several studies state that positive BI is associated with healthy behaviors ( Andrew et al., 2013 ; Gillen, 2015 ). According to Avalos et al. ( 2005 ), developing positive feelings towards the body can result in increased psychological well-being. Hence, positive BI is associated with lower development of ED symptoms ( Wood-Barcalow et al., 2010 ) through its (1) direct influence on psychological well-being ( Avalos et al., 2015 ); (2) indirect influence on reducing the impact of contextual influences (e.g., appearance-centered media) ( Swami et al., 2008 ); and (3) promotion of protective cognitive styles (e.g., rejecting messages of criticism regarding one’s weight or interpreting ambiguous appearance-related messages as positive ones) and, as a result, higher resistance to the effects of appearance-centered media ( Halliwell & Diedrichs, 2012 ).

In the past few years, mainly from the field of Positive Psychology, acceptance and appreciation of the body have been promoted as therapeutic targets for building a more positive BI. Programs designed to encourage body acceptance (e.g., not worrying about or exhibiting vanity about one’s appearance, rejecting socio-cultural ideals of beauty) can be more effective than programs that do not focus on this component ( Stice et al., 2007 ). In addition, body appreciation ‒which implies an attitude of kindness, respect, and gratitude toward one’s bodily characteristics, functions, and physical condition‒ has been identified as a key protective factor of positive BI in young women ( Wood-Barcalow et al., 2010 ). It promotes body acceptance by rejecting unrealistic ideals of beauty and enhancing individual psychological well-being by engaging in healthy behaviors ( Avalos et al., 2005 ). In addition, body appreciation has been negatively related to risk factors associated with ED, such as body shame, body surveillance, and drive for thinness ( Avalos et al., 2005 ).

In conclusion, positive BI stands out as a key dimension in BI that should be considered in the prevention and intervention of ED. Increasing positive BI by promoting body appreciation and recognition of one’s body needs goes beyond decreasing negative BI ( Tylka, 2015 ). Promoting positive BI may have effective long-lasting effects and counteract the experience of disconnection from one’s body (i.e., disembodiment) ( Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015 ). Therefore, focusing on positive BI may help prevent BID intervention in individuals with ED ( Piran, 2015 ; Tylka & Piran, 2019 ) by developing acceptance and respect towards their body ( Avalos et al., 2005 ). However, more studies are needed to identify factors that enhance positive BI.

Embodiment: considering the way we inhabit our body as a protective factor of positive BI

As noted above, BI is not an easily defined concept. Cash ( 2004 ) defined BI as a multifaceted psychological experience of embodying a body that involves self-perceptions, attitudes, thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors. Despite this complexity, the concept of embodiment has hardly been included in explanatory theories of BI. Nevertheless, as the latest research suggests that difficulty in embodying one’s body could contribute to the explanation of BID in ED.

According to her developmental theory of Embodiment ( Piran, 2016 ), which integrates Buddhist psychology and mindfulness, the experience of positive embodiment includes five processes: (1) positive connection with the body, manifested by feeling comfortable and “at home” when embodying one’s body and interacting with the world from it; (2) experience of agency and functionality of one’s body (e.g., physical ability or body functions); (3) perception and awareness of bodily needs (e.g., hunger or sexual desire); (4) self-care in response to perceived internal needs (e.g., resting when tired or eating when hungry); and (5) embodying or “inhabiting” one’s body in the first person (as opposed to an objective or third-person perspective).

Although the concept of embodiment and positive BI dimensions may overlap ( Menzel & Levine, 2011 ; Tylka, 2019 ) due to their focus on a positive connection with the body ( Tylka & Piran, 2019 ), both constructs are different ( Cook-Cottone, 2016 ). Developing a positive BI comes hand-in-hand with having a healthy, embodied awareness of internal and external aspects of self ( Cook-Cottone, 2015 ). Positive embodiment promotes the growth of positive BI, as it involves a constructive connection with one’s body, which leads to caring for it with acceptance and non-judgment ( Cook-Cottone, 2015 ; Piran, 2015 ), simultaneously encompassing all processes of the developmental theory of embodiment ( Piran, 2016 ). In this regard, positive embodiment has been associated with mindfulness practice and, more specifically, the practice of self-compassion ( Cook-Cottone, 2006 , 2015 ; Tylka, 2012 ). Mindfulness practice has shown positive outcomes for variables that are negatively correlated with positive embodiment, such as body shame ( Goldsmith et al., 2014 ; Woods & Proeve, 2014 ) and self-objectification ( Cox et al., 2016 ).

In contrast, disembodiment implies the interruption of the connection with the body (the way it feels as well as its functions) ( Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015 ), which leads the person to perceive the body from an observer’s perspective (i.e., experience the body from a third-person perspective) ( Menzel & Levine, 2011 ). Disembodiment has been positively associated with a lack of interoceptive awareness and a sense of disconnection from one’s body ( Piran, 2015 , 2016 ). According to Piran ( 2016 ), the lack of connection with the body could constitute an avoidance strategy that emerges in situations of discomfort where others can observe the body. Therefore, disembodiment, or the experience of adopting an observer’s perspective of one’s body by being an “object for others”, has been suggested as an altered mechanism in ED, a risk factor for negative BI. In this regard, disembodiment seems to be closely related to the concept of self-objectification. Self-objectification refers to the perception of oneself in the third person: the person perceives him/herself as an object that others evaluate based on physical appearance rather than on the body’s functionality or psychological qualities ( Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997 ). Bodily self-objectification has been associated with increased body shame and decreased interoceptive awareness ( Ainley et al., 2013 ), and it has been identified as an obstacle to body appreciation ( Augustus-Horvath & Tylka, 2011 ). On the contrary, positive embodiment has been associated with less objectified body consciousness ( Avalos et al., 2005 ; Menzel et al., 2011 ).

Lastly, another recent research area in the field of disembodiment focuses on studying mechanisms that underlie the experience of disconnection from the body in the ED patients. In recent years, research on the induction of perceptual illusions of ownership ‒mainly of a rubber hand ( Botvinick & Cohen, 1998 ) or a full-body using visuo-tactile stimulation ( Keizer et al., 2016 )‒ has been carried out to induce the sense of embodiment with a false limb or a virtual avatar. This research area promotes the study of the basic components of embodiment (i.e., ownership, agency, and location of the body) in the disturbance of body representation. Findings indicate that patients with ED who show interoceptive deficits and self-objectification ( Eshkevari et al., 2012 ; Herbert, 2020 ; Schaefer & Thompson, 2018 ), are more likely to detach (or experience disembodiment) from their body and embody another body or part of the body (e.g., a rubber hand) ( Eshkevari et al., 2012 , 2014 ; Keizer et al., 2014 ). That is, the fact of experiencing greater capability of embodying any other body, different from its own body, constitutes a sign of disembodiment in individuals with ED. This malleability of the bodily self persists even after ED recovery ( Eshkevari et al., 2014 ). Therefore, a deeper understanding of the basic components of embodiment could promote long-lasting changes in the key mechanisms of BID by adjusting distorted body representations. For instance, the induction of bodily illusions by embodying a body that is thinner than one’s own results in lower body overestimation in women with AN ( Keizer et al., 2016 ; Serino et al., 2019 ), as well as higher body satisfaction ( Preston & Ehrsson, 2014 ; van der Hoort et al., 2011 ). Thus, induction of perceptual illusions that aim to manipulate the individual’s perception of the body -by making it thinner or fatter- is a promising alternative in the assessment and intervention of BID.

In conclusion, embodiment ‒or the way we inhabit or embody our body and the connection we establish with it‒ could be associated with our level of positive or negative BI. Therefore, assessing the experience of positive embodiment (or disembodiment) could contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of BI.

Body shame: A risk factor associated with disembodiment and negative BI

Body shame is an emotion that is increasingly being addressed in recent studies of BID in ED ( Cesare et al., 2016 , Duarte et al., 2016 , Mustapic et al., 2015 , 2016 ). According to Gilbert ( Gilbert, 2003 ; Gilbert & Miles, 2002), shame is a painful and self-conscious emotion that arises during the process of social competition as a warning sign that certain personal characteristics, attributes, or behaviors may be perceived as undesirable and, consequently, be judged negatively by others. The concept of shame has been divided into two dimensions: external shame and internal shame ( Duarte et al., 2015 ; Gilbert, 2003 ). On the one hand, external shame arises when the individual perceives that s/he could be judged negatively by others ( Gilbert & Miles, 2014 ; Tangney & Dearing, 2002 ). On the other hand, internal shame arises when the individual internalizes the negative judgment of others and, therefore, becomes her/his own judge ( Gilbert, 2003 ).

More specifically, body shame has been studied within the affective dimension of negative BI ( Menzel et al., 2011 ). It refers to a painful emotion that consists of cognitive, behavioral, affective, and social components related to appearance and body-related functions ( Gilbert, 2003 ). The experience of body shame has mainly been associated with two theories that have attempted to explain the development and maintenance of ED symptoms.

On the one hand, the social comparison theory ( Festinger, 1954 ) states that individuals, mainly women, tend to compare themselves with people from their social context. An unfavorable evaluation, experienced as inferiority, results in increased negative affect and reduced self-esteem. In this regard, evidence shows that social comparison has a negative impact on the level of body satisfaction ( Myers & Crowther, 2009 ) because self-surveillance ‒or the act of observing oneself‒ is directly associated with appearance anxiety ( Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997 ). Similarly, the anxiety experienced in exposure tasks using images of thin bodies has been shown to increase body dissatisfaction through the process of social comparison ( Friederich et al., 2007 ). Therefore, this theory suggests that increased body dissatisfaction may be related to a higher tendency to observe anxiety-inducing body parts ( Jansen et al., 2005 ).

On the other hand, the self-objectification theory posits that body shame arises from comparing one’s body to an internalized socio-cultural ideal ( Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997 ). In other words, according to this theory, self-objectification has its origins in the internalization of the ideal of socio-cultural beauty, which entails the constant tendency to self-monitor the body and observe it from a third-person perspective. This process of self-monitoring and self-objectification leads to increased body shame, greater appearance anxiety, poor interoceptive awareness, increased negative affect ( Miner-Rubino et al., 2002 ), and increased depressive symptoms ( Muehlenkamp & Saris-Baglama, 2002 ; Szymanski & Henning, 2007 ). A negative self-evaluation in this context leads individuals to perceive themselves as inferior, unattractive, or unwanted ( Duarte et al., 2015 ; Gilbert & Miles, 2014 ).

Both theories coincide in that a negative evaluation of one’s physical appearance resulting from social comparison leads to increased body shame ( Cook-Cottone et al., 2008 ). Body shame is one of the most frequent consequences of the internalization of the Western body ideal ( Lamont, 2019 ). In addition, body shame is one of the most common emotional states associated with negative BI in ED ( Goss & Gilbert, 2014 ; Hayaki et al., 2002 ; Pinto-Gouveia et al., 2014 ), and it can be found in both clinical and non-clinical populations ( Dakanalis et al., 2014 ; Doran & Lewis, 2011 ).

Furthermore, body shame is an emotion associated with the experience of disembodiment or disconnection from one’s body ( Piran, 2016 ; Piran & Neumark-Sztainer, 2020 ). Therefore, it is important to identify strategies to reduce the experience of body shame. In this regard, self-compassion is emerging as a variable that protects against body shame and improves women’s BI ( Halliwell, 2015 ). Some findings show that individuals with higher self-compassion levels have lower levels of body shame ( Breines et al., 2014 ; Ferreira et al., 2019 ; Liss & Erchull, 2015 ). Hence, practice of self-compassion could constitute an intervention strategy to enhance positive embodiment ‒or a better way to inhabit or interact with one’s body‒.

Self-compassion: A protective factor that promotes positive embodiment and positive BI?

Self-compassion, a concept derived from Buddhist psychology, involves an openness to perceiving one’s suffering as part of the human experience, without avoiding it or distancing oneself from it, and the desire to alleviate it with kindness and without judgment ( Neff, 2003 ). The self-compassion construct consists of three main components ( Neff, 2003 ): (1) mindfulness (vs over-identification), defined as the ability to observe thoughts and feelings, including body-related ones, without judgment or over-identification with them; (2) common humanity (vs isolation), defined as the ability to understand and identify one’s life experience as human and feel connected to others by identifying the experience as common (e.g., worrying about weight or not fulfilling the ideal of beauty); (3) self-kindness (vs self-criticism), defined as the ability to understand and be kind to oneself, take care of oneself, and accept one’s mistakes (e.g., being understanding when gaining weight).

Some evidence shows that self-compassion is a predictor of positive affect and happiness ( Neff et al., 2007 ; Neff & Vonk, 2009 ). In a recent meta-analysis, self-compassion was identified as an adaptive emotional regulation strategy ( Turk & Waller, 2020 ) associated with alleviating shame and self-criticism ( Gilbert, 2010 ; Leary et al., 2007 ; Neff, 2003 ; Neff & Vonk, 2009 ). More specifically, the self-kindness component would prevent negative self-evaluations involving shame, whereas the mindfulness component would prevent generalizing errors to the whole self through the ability to maintain thoughts and feelings without over-identifying with them (e.g., the person can regard a mistake made as something transitory, without over-identifying with it) ( Neff, 2003 ). Furthermore, the self-kindness component has been associated with understanding oneself during situations of stress and danger ( Neff, 2003 ). Therefore, in stressful situations related to BI (e.g., viewing advertisements that include bodies that meet the ideal of beauty), an individual with higher levels of self-compassion will be better able to counteract the discomfort caused by these situations (e.g., less self-criticism related to body size and weight) ( Webb et al., 2014 ). In the case of negative BI, the evidence suggests that self-compassion is associated with a decrease in concern about body size and weight, body shame, self-objectification, and the influence of internalizing the ideal of beauty ( Braun et al., 2016 ; Ferreira et al., 2013 ; Wasylkiw et al., 2012 ).

In addition to its role in decreasing negative BI, self-compassion is considered a protective variable associated with the development and maintenance of positive BI ( Braun et al., 2016 ; Neff, 2003 ; Siegel et al., 2020 ; Wasylkiw et al., 2012 ). The evidence suggests that there is a link between increased BI flexibility ‒defined as a compassionate response in accepting aversive body-related thoughts and feelings ( Sandoz et al., 2013 ), increased acceptance of negative BI-related experiences ( Daye et al., 2014 ; Kelly et al., 2014 ; Mosewich et al., 2011 ; Wasylkiw et al., 2012 ), and greater body appreciation ( Ferreira et al., 2013 ). Therefore, high levels of self-compassion seem to contribute to lower negative BI and higher positive BI.

In this regard, Altman et al. ( 2017 ) developed the Body Compassion Scale to assess self-compassion related to one’s body. It combines the constructs of self-compassion (from Buddhist psychology) and BI (explained from the cognitive-behavioral approach). The scale has three dimensions: (1) defusion (e.g., “When I am frustrated with my body’s lack of ability to do something, I tend to feel alienated and isolated from others”); (2) common humanity (e.g., “When I am frustrated with some aspect of my appearance, I try to remind myself that most people feel this way all the time”); and (3) acceptance (e.g., “I accept my appearance as it is”). The scale is designed to assess individuals’ relationship with their body (e.g., presence of BID or positive BI) using an acceptance and mindfulness-based approach. Nonetheless, it is unclear whether body compassion (versus self-compassion) is a protective variable that explains more variance in the reduction of negative BI and the increase in positive BI, and whether body compassion (versus self-compassion) should have a more significant role in the assessment and treatment of BID.

Self-compassion focused interventions could contribute to increasing the connection with the body and decreasing self-objectification ( Piran, 2015 ). These interventions try to modify individuals’ relationships with their appearance by fostering acceptance and appreciation of body size and weight, with the ultimate goal of promoting positive embodiment (vs disembodiment). They are aimed at promoting both body appreciation and self-care, buffering the tendency to compare oneself with others or with certain ideals ( Avalos et al., 2005 ). The studies by Albertson et al. ( 2015 ) and Toole and Craighead ( 2016 ) analyzed the effectiveness of online interventions based on self-compassion in samples of undergraduate female students with high negative BI concerns. The results showed that the intervention programs were effective in increasing body appreciation and decreasing body shame and body dissatisfaction, among other effects. Similarly, self-compassionate letter writing is an effective intervention to promote treatment-seeking motivation in patients with anorexia nervosa ( Kelly & Waring, 2018 ) and improve body satisfaction in undergraduate women ( Stern & Engeln, 2018 ). Consequently, we can determine that the practice of self-compassion seems to be a promising area of intervention, not only for decreasing negative BI, but also for enhancing positive BI.

Conclusions and future research directions in the study of BI

We carried out a narrative review of several protective and risk factors related to positive and negative BI (i.e., positive embodiment/disembodiment, body shame, and self-compassion) in order to understand this construct from a comprehensive perspective. We think this perspective should be taken into consideration in the assessment and intervention of BID in ED. Nonetheless, there are still many questions on this path that need to be clarified.

First, evidence points out the need to consider the positive (and not only the negative) dimension of BI for a comprehensive understanding of BID in patients with ED. To this end, additional and independent research on each of the specific components of positive BI (e.g., appreciation of body appearance or body functionality) is required in order to: (1) develop specific instruments (for both trait and state positive BI); and (2) integrate the BI positive components (e.g., body appreciation) into theoretical models that can explain the associations between these variables and the negative BI variables (e.g., body dissatisfaction).

Second, this review also highlights a long-neglected issue in the assessment and treatment of BI: the experience of embodiment. Although this aspect is included in some of the well-known definitions of BI, such as Cash’s ( 2004 ), it has not been thoroughly studied. This research field may provide novel experimental paradigms to explore the underlying mechanisms of positive embodiment (e.g., self-compassion) in patients with ED. More specifically, deeper understanding of how embodiment is developed may help improve prevention and intervention programs for BID by enhancing the psychological processes responsible for positive connections to one’s own body.

In addition, following the positive embodiment model incorporated in the developmental theory of Embodiment ( Piran, 2015 ), discussed in this paper, there is a need (1) to conduct more studies related to activities that promote positive embodiment (e.g., yoga or exercise) and have benefits for body awareness or the experience of self-objectification, among others; (2) to develop instruments to delimit the different dimensions of positive embodiment; (3) to explore how risk factors (e.g., disembodiment) interact with protective factors of BI (e.g., positive embodiment) ( Piran, 2016 ); and, finally, (4) to define underlying mechanisms of the association between the concepts of positive embodiment and self-compassion, as well as disembodiment and body shame.

Third, in recent years, the need to integrate body shame assessment as part of the impairment in the BID affective dimension has been highlighted. This variable appears to be associated with disembodiment, and through this interaction, body shame could lead to negative BI. Additionally, along with body shame, this review indicates the relevance of self-compassion because it can play a relevant role in fostering positive BI by cultivating positive embodiment. Therefore, it is necessary (1) to identify the mechanisms of action of self-compassionate practice and its effect on the decrease in body shame, as well as the promotion of positive BI, (2) to establish the role of the constructs of body self-compassion versus self-compassion in promoting positive embodiment and healthy BI, and finally, (3) to design effective interventions that integrate self-compassion to reduce body shame, increase positive embodiment, and consequently, increase positive BI and reduce negative BI.

Inclusion of these protective and risk factors in theoretical BI models has the potential to provide a comprehensive perspective of this complex concept and may allow using strategies and instruments to improve BI assessment, prevention, and treatment in patients with ED. Hence, more studies are required to establish the protective role of positive embodiment and self-compassion in the development, maintenance, and relapse of ED. Moreover, a shift in future study designs is needed to better understand the variables described in this review: greater diversity in the samples and the implementation of longitudinal studies. It is necessary to strive for greater heterogeneity among the participants because most of the published studies have been conducted on young, white, heterosexually oriented adult women with significant concerns about BI and no physical disabilities ( Atkinson & Wade, 2016 ; Toole & Craighead, 2016 ). To develop effective BID-related interventions in ED, full understanding of the BI construct is required considering positive BI (e.g., body functionality, body flexibility) and negative BI (e.g., body disgust, “feeling fat”) dimensions. In this regard, it is essential to explore different populations to capture all risk and protective factors involved in BID. Therefore, future studies should include a representative sample of diverse cultural groups, different age groups (especially children and the elderly), and the male population.

In addition to increasing sample diversity, a thorough examination of life transition periods (e.g., adolescence, pregnancy, or menopause) is required due to their impact on BI development and modification ( Piran, 2015 ). Studying the impact of time on the different components of BI and the embodiment experience could lead to the development of specific interventions that may address specific protective and risk factors during each period. For example, the prevalence of negative BI in adolescents indicates the relevance of prevention programs for this age group by identifying specific variables that would facilitate the promotion of healthy BI, such as body acceptance. Likewise, there is a need to conduct longitudinal studies in order to examine the causal relationships between the aforementioned variables. The results of these studies could be incorporated into the theoretical models of the psychological processes involved in the development and maintenance of positive BI and prevention of BID in ED. Moreover, dismantling studies (e.g., Roehrig et al., 2006 ) would help to determine the role of the components of the BI dimensions and their relationships, in addition to designing interventions with specific components for healthy BI development.

In conclusion, this review emphasizes the importance of considering new protective and risk factors -and the links they maintain with each other- of BI conceptualization, to continue to advance in its understanding. Inclusion of the positive dimension of BI, and considering positive embodiment and self-compassion as protective factors -opposed to the disconnection from our body and body shame- will allow us to reach a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of the BI construct. This perspective may lead to a more suitable approach for researching and developing future prevention and intervention programs focusing not only on reducing negative BI (through decreasing body shame and disembodiment), but also on positive BI connection with one’s own body (through increasing self-compassion and positive embodiment).

Funding Statement

This work was supported by the Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities of Spain under AN-BODYMENT (PSI2017-85063-R) and the grant “Programme for the Training of Researchers” (Formación de Personal Investigador, FPI), with the reference number PRE2018-084882, as well as, CIBEROBN, an initiative of ISCIII (CB06/0052).

Funding Information

Competing interests.

The authors have no competing interests to declare.

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• How to write the body of an essay | Drafting & redrafting

How to Write the Body of an Essay | Drafting & Redrafting

Published on November 5, 2014 by Shane Bryson . Revised on July 23, 2023 by Shona McCombes.

The body is the longest part of an essay . This is where you lead the reader through your ideas, elaborating arguments and evidence for your thesis . The body is always divided into paragraphs .

You can work through the body in three main stages:

• Create an  outline of what you want to say and in what order.
• Write a first draft to get your main ideas down on paper.
• Write a second draft to clarify your arguments and make sure everything fits together.

This article gives you some practical tips for how to approach each stage.

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Table of contents

Start with an outline, write the first draft, write the second draft, other interesting articles.

Before you start, make a rough outline that sketches out the main points you want to make and the order you’ll make them in. This can help you remember how each part of the essay should relate to the other parts.

However, remember that  the outline isn’t set in stone – don’t be afraid to change the organization if necessary. Work on an essay’s structure begins before you start writing, but it continues as you write, and goes on even after you’ve finished writing the first draft.

While you’re writing a certain section, if you come up with an idea for something elsewhere in the essay, take a few moments to add to your outline or make notes on your organizational plans.

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Your goals in the first draft are to turn your rough ideas into workable arguments, add detail to those arguments, and get a sense of what the final product will actually look like.

Write strong body paragraphs

Start wherever you want

Many writers do not begin writing at the introduction , or even the early body paragraphs. Start writing your essay where it seems most natural for you to do so.

Some writers might prefer to start with the easiest section to write, while others prefer to get the most difficult section out of the way first. Think about what material you need to clarify for yourself, and consider beginning there.

Tackle one idea at a time

Each paragraph should aim to focus on one central idea, giving evidence, explanation, and arguments that relate to that idea.

At the start of each paragraph, write a topic sentence that expresses the main point. Then elaborate and expand on the topic sentence in the rest of the paragraph.

When you’ve said everything you have to say about the idea, move onto a new paragraph.

Keep your argument flexible

You may realize as you write that some of your ideas don’t work as well as you thought they would. Don’t give up on them too easily, but be prepared to change or abandon sections if you realize they don’t make sense.

You’ll probably also come up with new ideas that you’d not yet thought of when writing the outline. Note these ideas down and incorporate them into the essay if there’s a logical place for them.

If you’re stuck on one section, move on to another part of the essay and come back to it later.

Don’t delete content

If you begin to dislike a certain section or even the whole essay, don’t scrap it in fit of rage!

If something really isn’t working, you can paste it into a separate document, but keep what you have, even if you don’t plan on using it. You may find that it contains or inspires new ideas that you can use later.

Note your sources

Students often make work for themselves by forgetting to keep track of sources when writing drafts.

You can save yourself a lot of time later and ensure you avoid plagiarism by noting down the name, year, and page number every time you quote or paraphrase from a source.

You can also use a citation generator to save a list of your sources and copy-and-paste citations when you need them.

Avoid perfectionism

When you’re writing a first draft, it’s important not to get slowed down by small details. Get your ideas down on paper now and perfect them later. If you’re unsatisfied with a word, sentence, or argument, flag it in the draft and revisit it later.

When you finish the first draft, you will know which sections and paragraphs work and which might need to be changed. It doesn’t make sense to spend time polishing something you might later cut out or revise.

Working on the second draft means assessing what you’ve got and rewriting it when necessary. You’ll likely end up cutting some parts of the essay and adding new ones.

Check your ideas against your thesis

Everything you write should be driven by your thesis . Looking at each piece of information or argumentation, ask yourself:

• Does the reader need to know this in order to understand or accept my thesis?
• Does this give evidence for my thesis?
• Does this explain the reasoning behind my thesis?
• Does this show something about the consequences or importance of my thesis?

If you can’t answer yes to any of these questions, reconsider whether it’s relevant enough to include.

If your essay has gone in a different direction than you originally planned, you might have to rework your thesis statement to more accurately reflect the argument you’ve made.

Watch out for weak points

Be critical of your arguments, and identify any potential weak points:

• Unjustified assumptions: Can you be confident that your reader shares or will accept your assumptions, or do they need to be spelled out?
• Lack of evidence:  Do you make claims without backing them up?
• Logical inconsistencies:  Do any of your points contradict each other?
• Uncertainty: Are there points where you’re unsure about your own claims or where you don’t sound confident in what you’re saying?

Fixing these issues might require some more research to clarify your position and give convincing evidence for it.

Check the organization

When you’re happy with all the main parts of your essay, take another look at the overall shape of it. You want to make sure that everything proceeds in a logical order without unnecessary repetition.

Try listing only the topic sentence of each paragraph and reading them in order. Are any of the topic sentences too similar? Each paragraph should discuss something different; if two paragraphs are about the same topic, they must approach it in different ways, and these differences should be made clear in the topic sentences.

Does the order of information make sense? Looking at only topic sentences lets you see at a glance the route your paper takes from start to finish, allowing you to spot organizational errors more easily.

Draw clear connections between your ideas

Finally, you should assess how your ideas fit together both within and between paragraphs. The connections might be clear to you, but you need to make sure they’ll also be clear to your reader.

Within each paragraph, does each sentence follow logically from the one before it? If not, you might need to add new sentences to make the connections clear. Try using transition words to clarify what you want to say.

Between one paragraph and the next, is it clear how your points relate to one another? If you are moving onto an entirely new topic, consider starting the paragraph with a transition sentence that moves from the previous topic and shows how it relates to the new one.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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Shane finished his master's degree in English literature in 2013 and has been working as a writing tutor and editor since 2009. He began proofreading and editing essays with Scribbr in early summer, 2014.

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• A Research Guide
• Research Paper Guide

Research Paper Body Paragraph Structure

Introduction.

• Referrences
• Ways to start paragraph
• Step by step guide
• Research paragraph examples

Learning the basics of a paragraph structure

• Title (cover page).
• Introduction.
• Literature review.
• Research methodology.
• Data analysis.
• Conclusion.
• Reference page.

5 winning ways to start a body paragraph

• Topic Sentence : it should provide a clear focus and introduce the specific aspect you will discuss. For example, “One key factor influencing climate change is…”.
• Opening Statement: grab your readers’ attention with a thought-provoking or surprising statement related to your topic. For instance, “The alarming increase in global temperatures has reached a critical point, demanding immediate action.”
• Quotation: find a relevant quote from a reputable source. It won’t only add credibility to your research but will also engage the reader right from the start.
• Anecdote or example: start your academic paragraph with a funny story or a real-world example that illustrates the significance of your research topic.
• Background information : provide a brief background or context for the topic you are about to discuss. For example, “In recent years, the prevalence of cyber-attacks has skyrocketed, posing a severe threat to individuals, organizations, and even national security.”

A step-by-step guide to starting a concise body paragraph

Step 1: introduce the main point or argument., step 2: provide evidence or examples., step 3: explain and analyze., step 4: connect to the main argument., step 5: review and revise., flawless body paragraph example: how does it look.

• Topic Sentence: Rising global temperatures have significant implications for ecosystems and biodiversity.
• Evidence/Example 1: According to a study by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), global average temperatures have increased by 1.1 degrees Celsius since pre-industrial times (IPCC, 2021). This temperature rise has led to melting polar ice caps and glaciers, rising sea levels, and coastal erosion (Smith et al., 2019).
• Explanation/Analysis 1: The significant increase in global temperatures has caused observable changes in the Earth’s physical environment. The melting of polar ice caps not only contributes to the rise in sea levels but also disrupts marine ecosystems.
• Evidence/Example 2: In addition to the loss of coastal habitats, higher temperatures have also resulted in shifts in the geographical distribution of species. Research by Parmesan and Yohe (2019) indicates that many plant and animal species have altered their ranges and migration patterns in response to changing climate conditions.
• Explanation/Analysis 2: The observed shifts in species distribution highlight the vulnerability of ecosystems to climate change. As temperature zone modification, species that cannot adapt or migrate to suitable habitats may face reduced reproductive success and increased risk of extinction.
• Connect to the main argument: These examples demonstrate that the rising global temperatures associated with climate change have profound implications for ecosystems and biodiversity.

The bottom line

• Writing a Research Paper
• Research Paper Title
• Research Paper Sources
• Research Paper Problem Statement
• Research Paper Thesis Statement
• Hypothesis for a Research Paper
• Research Question
• Research Paper Outline
• Research Paper Summary
• Research Paper Prospectus
• Research Paper Proposal
• Research Paper Format
• Research Paper Styles
• AMA Style Research Paper
• MLA Style Research Paper
• Chicago Style Research Paper
• APA Style Research Paper
• Research Paper Structure
• Research Paper Cover Page
• Research Paper Abstract
• Research Paper Introduction
• Research Paper Body Paragraph
• Research Paper Literature Review
• Research Paper Background
• Research Paper Methods Section
• Research Paper Results Section
• Research Paper Discussion Section
• Research Paper Conclusion
• Research Paper Appendix
• Research Paper Bibliography
• APA Reference Page
• Annotated Bibliography
• Bibliography vs Works Cited vs References Page
• Research Paper Types
• What is Qualitative Research

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TOPIC SENTENCE/ In his numerous writings, Marx critiques capitalism by identifying its flaws. ANALYSIS OF EVIDENCE/ By critiquing the political economy and capitalism, Marx implores his reader to think critically about their position in society and restores awareness in the proletariat class. EVIDENCE/ To Marx, capitalism is a system characterized by the “exploitation of the many by the few,” in which workers accept the exploitation of their labor and receive only harm of “alienation,” rather than true benefits ( MER 487). He writes that “labour produces for the rich wonderful things – but for the worker it produces privation. It produces palaces—but for the worker, hovels. It produces beauty—but for the worker, deformity” (MER 73). Marx argues capitalism is a system in which the laborer is repeatedly harmed and estranged from himself, his labor, and other people, while the owner of his labor – the capitalist – receives the benefits ( MER 74). And while industry progresses, the worker “sinks deeper and deeper below the conditions of existence of his own class” ( MER 483).  ANALYSIS OF EVIDENCE/ But while Marx critiques the political economy, he does not explicitly say “capitalism is wrong.” Rather, his close examination of the system makes its flaws obvious. Only once the working class realizes the flaws of the system, Marx believes, will they - must they - rise up against their bourgeois masters and achieve the necessary and inevitable communist revolution.

Not every paragraph will be structured exactly like this one, of course. But as you draft your own paragraphs, look for all three of these elements: topic sentence, evidence, and analysis.

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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