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The Link between Individual Personality Traits and Criminality: A Systematic Review

N. k. tharshini.

1 Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Kota Samarahan 94300, Sarawak, Malaysia

Fauziah Ibrahim

2 Centre for Research in Psychology and Human Well-Being, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Selangor, Malaysia; ym.ude.mku@haizuafi (F.I.); ym.ude.mku@kmihar (M.R.K.)

Mohammad Rahim Kamaluddin

Balan rathakrishnan.

3 Faculty of Psychology and Education, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Sabah, Malaysia; ym.ude.smu@nalahbr

Norruzeyati Che Mohd Nasir

4 School of Applied Psychology, Social Work and Policy, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Sintok 06010, Kedah, Malaysia; ym.ude.muu@itayez

In addition to social and environmental factors, individual personality traits have intricately linked with maladaptive behaviour. Thus, the purpose of this article was to review the link between individual personality traits and criminality. A systematic review was conducted to obtain information regarding the link between individual personality traits with criminal behaviour in the Sage, Web of Science, APA PsycNet, Wiley Online Library, and PubMed databases. The results indicate that individual personality traits that contribute towards criminality are (i) psychopathy; (ii) low self-control; and (iii) difficult temperament. As an overall impact, the review is expected to provide in-depth understanding of the link between individual personality traits and criminality; hence, greater consideration will be given to the dimension of personality as a notable risk factor of criminal behaviour.

1. Introduction

Criminology has become an interdisciplinary field where the focal point of each study has diversely evolved from individual-level to environmental-level risk factors associated with criminal behaviour. As such, individual personality traits constitute one dimension of the bigger picture which has received significant empirical attention in recent decades, especially research linking personality traits to various measures of crime. According to Beaver (2017) [ 1 ], personality refers to the stability of individuals in regard to patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. In general, personality traits can be categorised into four general combinations, namely (i) high control–high affiliation; (ii) low control–low affiliation; (iii) high control–low affiliation; and (iv) low control–high affiliation [ 1 ]. Some empirical research has suggested that high interpersonal control and low interpersonal affiliation are strongly interrelated with antisocial behaviour [ 1 ].

The Big Five Model of Personality suggested that five domains largely account for individual differences in personality including (i) extraversion; (ii) openness; (iii) neuroticism; (iv) agreeableness; and (v) conscientiousness [ 2 ]. Sleep (2021) [ 2 ] stated that low conscientiousness, low agreeableness, and high neuroticism increase aggression, mental distress, and antisocial behaviour among individuals. Similarly, the personality theory constructed by Eysenck (1966) (trait-psychologist) proposes a significant relationship between criminal behaviour and personality variables [ 3 ]. Based on the Eysenck personality theory, there are three fundamental factors of personality including psychoticism (P), extraversion (E), and neuroticism (N) [ 3 ]. Empirical investigations discover that delinquents score high on the P scale compared to the E and N scales [ 3 ]. More specifically, the P scale predicts those involved in violence and sexual crimes, whereas the N scale predicts serious crime and recidivism [ 3 ]. Furthermore, a great deal of research has also found that psychoticism is always connected to crime, whereas extraversion is related to younger samples (young offenders/delinquent), and neuroticism is related to older samples (adult offenders) [ 3 ].

A meta-analysis related to personality and antisocial behaviour has concluded that individuals who commit crime tend to be self-centred, hostile, adhere to unconventional values/beliefs, and have difficulty controlling their impulses [ 4 ]. In addition, compared to non-offenders, individuals who commit crimes are less sociable, more aggressive, sensation seekers, and tend to score higher for the neuroticism and psychoticism dimensions [ 5 ]. Additionally, Jones et al., (2016) [ 5 ], and Cunha et al., (2018) [ 6 ], found that individual personality traits represent a predictor of criminal behaviour regardless of gender, race, age, or geographical location. Acknowledging the role of individual personality traits in relation to criminal behaviour, the current study seeks to develop an improved understanding of personality traits to impart significant information to the existing literature in the field of crime studies.

2. Materials and Methods

This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Keywords such as “personality”; “personality traits”; “individual personality”, “maladaptive behaviour”; “crime”, and “antisocial behaviour” were typed into the Sage, Web of Science, APA PsycNet, Wiley Online Library, and PubMed databases to find the relevant information.

2.1. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Studies that were included in this review are (i) full-text articles; (ii) articles published in Sage, Web of Science, APA PsycNet, Wiley Online Library, and PubMed; (iii) research with at least 20 respondents (to reduce the bias associated with a small sample size; (iv) studies that examine the link between personality traits and criminal behaviour; and (v) articles that were published from January 2016 to June 2021. Conversely, the exclusion criteria in this review were (i) duplicate publication; (ii) articles published before January 2016, (iii) studies with less than 20 respondents (due to small sample size); (iv) non-full-text articles; and (v) articles that do not reflect the link between personality traits and criminality.

2.2. Screening and Selection Process

For this review, a total of 22,608 sources were found in five well-established databases. A total number of 8007 articles were identified after duplicates were removed. After including other exclusion criteria such as non-full-text articles, year of publication and sample of studies, 127 articles were assessed for eligibility. Furthering this, 94 articles were removed at the eligibility stage since the content of the article did not clearly reflect the link between personality traits and criminality. In the end, 33 full-text articles were reviewed in this study. Figure 1 depicts the flowchart of the systematic review process, whereas Table 1 delineates the summary of articles that were reviewed in this study.

Flowchart of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA).

Summary of articles.

3. Results and Discussion

Based on the systematic review, the finding of the study stipulates that there are three major personality traits which contribute towards criminal behaviour, namely (i) psychopathy; (ii) low self-control; and (iii) difficult temperament.

3.1. Psychopathy

The term “psychopathy” is commonly used in the global literature on both empirical and theoretical grounds. Psychopathy is a clinical construct associated with emotional and behavioural disturbance, which are considered important risk factors for criminal and antisocial behaviour, criminal recidivism, sexual recidivism, and instrumental violence [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Most of the research concerning the measurement of psychopathy has employed Hare’s Psychopathy Checklist (now the Hare’s Psychopathy Checklist—Revised) as the main psychological assessment tool to identify the presence of psychopathic traits in an individual [ 8 ]. An individual who scores high for the psychopathy measure (usually > 30 on the PCL-R) is more likely to be short-tempered, irresponsible, egocentric, callous, display superficial charm, frequently violates social norms/values, and be unable to empathise [ 4 , 6 , 7 , 11 ]. Similarly, Boccio and Beaver (2016) [ 11 ] identified that an individual with psychopathic personality traits have a lower level of self-regulation, are manipulative, impulsive, and unable to feel remorse/guilt.

Based on the Big Five Model of Personality, scholars have stated that the psychopathy dimension is a mixture of high extraversion, low conscientiousness and agreeableness, and a combination of low and high neuroticism (depression, low anxiety, self-consciousness, vulnerability to stress, high impulsiveness, and hostility). For example, psychopathic criminals tend to commit a wider variety of crimes and are likely to recidivate faster compared to non-psychopathic criminals. In addition, the dominant conceptualization suggests that psychopathy is an inborn condition with a strong genetic component that is further escalated by environmental factors such as adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), traumatic childhood experiences, child maltreatment or parental inadequacy [ 12 , 13 ]. According to Cunha et al., (2018) [ 6 ], psychopathy is conventionally conceptualised as a syndrome that remains throughout life and influences different aspects of individual functioning, including their interpersonal, emotional, and behavioural traits. In addition, studies have revealed that psychopathy is more often diagnosed among men (31%) compared to women [ 4 ]. Similarly, an incarcerated individual with higher PCL-R scores is more prone to commit violent criminal offenses upon being released from prison [ 3 ]. Cunha et al. (2018) [ 6 ] also stated that individuals with psychopathic personality traits are unable to form strong emotional bonds with others and struggle to control their temper.

A burgeoning line of research has consistently revealed that the prevalence of psychopathic traits is higher among prisoners compared to general populations [ 6 , 7 ]. Theorist and researchers have more recently contended that approximately 1% of the general population exhibit psychopathic tendency, whereas approximately 15–25% of the prison population display these characteristics [ 14 ]. As such, individuals with psychopathic traits begin their criminal activities at a young age and continue to engage in antisocial behaviour throughout their lives [ 15 ]. In addition, myriad research outputs from the psychiatry, criminology, neuroscience, and psychology fields of study have shown that psychopathic personality traits are associated with serious juvenile offenders and adult criminals since these individuals are unable to process cues of punishment and rewards [ 5 , 6 , 8 , 16 , 17 ]. Moreover, recent neurocognitive findings unveiled that abnormalities in the amygdala (connected regions of the orbitofrontal cortex) may result in impaired decision making and social functioning, resulting in higher possibilities of engagement in antisocial behaviour [ 16 ].

Accumulating evidence stipulates that there are significant differences between types of crime which are commonly committed by a psychopathic female and male [ 18 ]. Generally, psychopathic females tend to be less aggressive and rarely repeat their criminal acts compared to males [ 18 ]. In addition, in some cases, psychopathic females have a significant level of impulsivity, a trait often associated with borderline personality disorder [ 18 , 19 ]. Furthermore, research related to psychopathic and sexual coercion shows that compared to non-psychopathic individuals, psychopaths are more likely to become sexual offenders (subgroup of rapists) [ 14 ]. Similarly, DeLisi et al. (2018) [ 16 ] notes that a psychopathic individual also displays severe alcohol and drug use (includes trying a greater variety of drugs and starting to use drugs at earlier age) compared to non-psychopathic populations.

3.2. Low Self-Control

Research examining the underpinnings of crime suggests that low self-control has been consistently linked with involvement in criminal activities [ 20 ]. Empirical evidence indicates that low self-control is associated with involvement in delinquency, violence, and antisocial behaviour [ 21 ]. According to Boccio et al. (2016) [ 11 ] individuals with low self-control are more impulsive, self-centred, prone to risky behaviour, irresponsible, and display volatile temperament. In addition, Brown (2016) [ 2 ] stated that individuals with low self-control exhibit six common characteristics. Firstly, those with low self-control tend to be less meticulous, prefer simple tasks that would require little commitment, are short-sighted, and exhibit a lack of self-determination. Secondly, these individuals are easily drawn to the more daring and exciting behaviour/activities. Thirdly, those with lower self-control are impulsive and tend to seek instant gratification, inclined to seize opportunities without considering the dangers/consequences of such behaviours. Fourthly, individuals with low self-control prefer simple activities over concentration-oriented activities such as a long conversation. Fifthly, those with low self-control tend to be less concerned about other individuals’ feelings and have a low tolerance for frustration and conflicts.

Findings from a broad array of studies have revealed that low self-control is a quintessential predictor of various maladaptive behaviours such as involvement in substance abuse, theft, property offending, and robbery among diverse samples of participants including parolees, jail inmates, and institutionalised delinquents [ 2 , 21 ]. According to Forrest et al., (2019) [ 21 ], low self-control increases the probability of an individual engaging in criminal activities when presented with suitable opportunities (mainly because they are unable to ignore or anticipate the potential long-term consequences of their actions). Furthermore, a plethora of studies has agreed that individuals with poor self-control are more likely to engage in a wider range of criminal behaviour such as computer-related crimes, associating with gangs, and participating in antisocial behaviour [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ].

Based on the social control theory, Gottfredson and Hirschi argue that females exhibit lower offending frequencies since they are more subjected to stricter enforcement and parental supervision compared to males [ 21 ]. The “parented more” variation that exists as a product of parental influence causes females to have a greater ability to self-regulate their behaviour whereas the less effective parenting of male children results in lower levels of self-control, consequently leading to involvement in criminal activities among males [ 21 ]. Similarly, Forrest et al. (2019) [ 21 ] and Mata et al. (2018) [ 22 ] found that gender and type of household (more patriarchal vs. less patriarchal) also influence an individual’s level of self-control. For instance, Mata et al. (2018) [ 22 ] note that females growing up in a patriarchal household along with a high level of parental control are less likely to have criminal aspirations.

A handful of studies have clarified that individuals with low self-control are less concerned with the long-term consequences of their behaviour and are more likely to engage in activities that provide them with immediate gratification, such as shoplifting and fraud-related behaviours [ 17 , 20 , 24 , 25 ]. In addition to the negative implications, many studies have indicated that low self-control and a high level of impulsivity is strongly related to socially undesirable behaviour such as smoking and risky drinking [ 25 ]. Furthermore, DeLisi et al. (2018) [ 16 ] found that low self-control and low moral values escalate intentions to steal and/or fight among individuals who regularly smoke marijuana, occasionally crack cocaine, and drink nearly every day.

3.3. Difficult Temperament

Human development is a complex phenomenon involving the joint influence of socioecological conditions and individual dispositional characteristics. As such, one’s temperament is defined as an individual characteristic which comprises a habitual mode of emotional response to stimulus [ 17 , 26 ]. Foulds et al. (2017) [ 26 ] stated that the temperament has been traditionally viewed as an emotional and behavioural characteristic of feelings and presumed to be more biologically rooted by maturation and heredity. Prior research has found that children who throw tantrums will usually react negatively towards people around them, have a low level of bonding with their parents (poor parent–children interaction), and develop various forms of psychopathological problems including antisocial behaviour [ 29 ]. According to DeLisi et al., (2018) [ 16 ], one’s temperament reflects the baseline differences in the central nervous systems that particularly involve components such as (i) emotionality and mood; (ii) variance in activity level; (iii) withdrawal behaviours; and (iv) self-regulation. In addition, empirical evidence shows that individuals with difficult temperaments experience mood disorders, anxiety disorders, major depression disorders, disruptive behaviour disorders, and drug abuse [ 17 ]. Furthermore, Foulds et al. (2017) [ 26 ] stated that temperamental deficits also contribute to crime/violence occurrence among adolescents.

Based on the theoretical framework, temperament was divided into nine major dimensions, namely adaptability to the environment; physical activity; approach/withdrawal in response to novelty; regularity of the child’s behaviour (rhythmicity); task persistence; quality of mood in terms of positive/negative feelings; threshold of responsiveness to stimulation; distractibility; and intensity of the reaction [ 30 ]. According to Dos Santos et al. (2020) [ 29 ], individuals with a low regularity of behaviour (rhythmicity) are more aggressive and delinquent compared to individuals with highly regular behaviour. Furthermore, the result of a study conducted by Nigg (2017) [ 28 ] disclosed that girls who scored higher for “adaptability to the environment”; “quality of mood in terms of positive/negative feelings (negative emotional reactivity and low positive affectivity)”; and “approach/withdrawal in response to novelty” (based on the temperament framework) are highly at-risk of engaging in antisocial behaviour.

Substantial evidence has emerged of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) (including various forms of neglect and abuse) and temperament factors being significantly associated with conduct problems (relating to poor emotional self-regulation) [ 17 , 27 , 29 , 32 ]. The neurobiological model suggests that an early childhood adverse environment and stress regulating systems (autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis) increase susceptibility to severe antisocial behaviour, such as being associated with gang membership, gang delinquency, and gang activities [ 27 , 29 , 31 ]. Moreover, existing evidence has disclosed that difficult temperament, peer rejection, disciplinary problems, and antisocial peer selection upon school entry also contribute to gang membership among youths [ 32 ].

Researchers have argued that the home environment, socioeconomic status, and parenting style have a profound impact on child temperament [ 17 , 28 , 29 , 32 ]. For instance, Nigg (2017) [ 28 ] found that negative parenting practices (inconsistent discipline practice, harsh behaviour, and permissive parenting practice) contribute to behavioural disorders among children. Moreover, some researchers have also begun to acknowledge that parenting roles significantly influence children’s temperament [ 30 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 ]. Dos Santos et al. (2020) [ 31 ] stated that inconsistent discipline practice by parents and harsh behaviour may accelerate nonaggressive antisocial behaviour (e.g., stealing or frequent truancy) among school-aged adolescents [ 31 ]. Furthermore, Dos Santos et al. (2020) [ 29 ] also found that a child who constantly receives negative parental feedback for bold behaviour may experience low self-esteem and start to display uncooperative behaviour and incohesive functioning while growing up. In the same line of thought, a great deal of research has revealed that youth with difficult temperaments who grow up in socioeconomically disadvantaged households (marked by poverty, unemployment) and have been exposed to a toxic neighbourhood environment (easy access to criminal gangs, easy access to drugs or firearms) are greatly at-risk of engaging in delinquent behaviour and future criminality across urban and rural contexts [ 17 , 33 , 35 ].

4. Limitations and Direction for Future Research

This systematic review has several limitations. Firstly, information gathered regarding the link between individual personality traits and criminal behaviour was only obtained from the Sage, Web of Science, APA PsycNet, Wiley Online Library, and PubMed databases, and published from January 2016 to June 2021. Thus, there is a possibility that some research published by well-known leading scholars might have been excluded from this review process. Secondly, studies included in this review were limited to articles published in peer-reviewed journals alone without including other resources such as newspapers, letters to editors, or prison reports, thereby limiting the generalizability of the findings.

Despite the outlined limitations, future research should concentrate on other singular features of individual personality traits such as narcissism, impulsivity, attitude favouring aggression, and Machiavellianism which contribute to criminal behaviour in order to develop diversified treatment protocols based on personality traits. Additionally, future studies should also include mediator factors to allow the in-depth understanding of the process underlying the link between individual personality traits and criminal behaviour.

5. Conclusions

In sum, this review adds to the growing literature in the field of crime-related studies and improves our understanding regarding how personality traits escalate the risk of engaging in criminal activities. Substantial empirical research performed by Gatner et al., (2016) [ 7 ] and Nigel et al. (2018) [ 8 ] suggested that psychopathy is a robust predictor of criminal behaviour, mainly focusing on instrumental violence. Furthermore, many scholars agree that instrumental violence among psychopathic offenders is significantly determined by the affective traits of psychopathy. Additionally, the inputs obtained through systematic review show that the domain of low self-control predicts a varied range of criminal behaviour. Based on Gottfredson and Hirschi’s social control theory, low self-control contributes to the adoption of deviant values and leads to an individual engaging in various types of antisocial behaviour. Furthermore, a difficult temperament has also been suggested to be one of the key predictors of criminal behaviour, mainly due to the influence of socioecological conditions and individual dispositional characteristics such as sensation seeking, narcissism, Machiavellianism, and sociosexual orientation.

Although the aim of this study was rather academic, the conclusion reached from this finding clearly identifies some significant risk factors for engaging in criminal behaviour. Admittedly, not all individuals with at-risk personality traits are at high risk of becoming delinquents/adult offenders. Therefore, it is essential that the stakeholders and practitioners who work within the criminal justice system to diversify their methods of assessment to identify individuals who fall under the “early onset group”. Furthermore, a proper treatment regimen that matches the result of the rigorous assessment is equally important to promote preventative measures to reduce crime rates in the future.

Through this review, it is transparent that major personality traits such as psychopathy, low self-control, and a difficult temperament can be measured using various scales/inventory or secondary data. Thus, it is suggested that the interventions that aim to reduce the risk of criminality should begin during the early childhood stage since some of the existing evidence agrees that youths usually start engaging in criminal activities after reaching the age of 15 years old [ 34 , 35 , 36 ]. Moreover, the identification of personality traits regardless of gender is also crucial to initiate appropriate preventative strategies for vulnerable groups such as children, at-risk youths, and adolescents.

Author Contributions

Introduction, N.K.T. and F.I.; material and methods, M.R.K. and B.R.; psychopathic, N.K.T., F.I. and N.C.M.N.; low self-esteem, N.K.T., F.I.; difficult temperament, M.R.K. and B.R.; limitation, N.C.M.N.; conclusion, N.C.M.N.; writing—original draft preparation, N.K.T.; review and editing, F.I. and B.R., N.C.M.N.; funding acquisition, F.I. and M.R.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

The publication fee of this article was funded by the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan, Malaysia.

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The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Contemporary developments in investigative interviewing.

Submit your paper here! Introduction The special issue of the Journal of Criminal Psychology, titled Contemporary Developments in Investigative...

Contemporary Developments in the Retrieval and Evaluation of Witness Testimony: Towards making research more applicable to investigations.

Submit your paper here! Introduction Research into the retrieval and evaluation of memory for witnessed events offer valuable insight for impro...

Contemporary Developments in Understanding Desistance among Individuals who have Sexually Offended

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Journal of Criminal Psychology - Call for papers

About the journal The Journal of Criminal Psychology (JCP) is both multi-agency and multidisciplinary and publishes both scholarly and practitioner-based research on all aspects of the psychology of criminal behaviour. The journal’s co...

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Dr Dominic Willmott (Editor-in-Chief) - Loughborough University, UK Within Legal, Forensic and Criminological Psychology priorities vary and evolve over time. Certain crime types become less central to mainstream researc...

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Thank you to the 2022 Reviewers of Journal of Criminal Psychology

The publishing and editorial teams would like to thank the following, for their invaluable service as 2022 reviewers for this journal. We are very grateful for the contributions made. With their help, the journal has been able to publish such high...

Emerald Best Student Poster Award (PhD) 2022

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Thank you to the 2021 Reviewers of Journal of Criminal Psychology

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Journal of Criminal Psychology - Literati Award Winners 2022 

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Journal of Criminal Psychology - Literati Award Winners 2021

We are pleased to announce our 2021 Literati Award winners. Outstanding Paper Peer groups, street gangs and ...

Journal of Criminal Psychology - Literati Award Winners 2020

We are to pleased to announce our 2020 Literati Award winners. Outstanding Paper Overkill, we know it when we see it: examining defi...

International and multidisciplinary, the Journal of Criminal Psychology publishes both scholarly and practitioner-based research on all aspects of the psychology of criminal behaviour.

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The Journal of Criminal Psychology (JCP) is both multi-agency and multidisciplinary and publishes both scholarly and practitioner-based research on all aspects of the psychology of criminal behaviour. The journal’s content is of relevance internationally to academics, the police, social workers, youth offending and youth justice teams, prison workers and other professionals representing various facets of the criminal justice system.

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What Criminal Psychologists Do

Job Description, Education, and Expected Salary

Verywell / Bailey Mariner 

• Job Description
• Work Environment
• Education and Training

Criminal psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the behaviors and thoughts of criminals.

The field of criminal psychology is related to forensic psychology, but there are important differences. Criminal psychologists typically focus more directly on criminal behaviors. Forensic psychologists, on the other hand, deal more with the intersection of psychology and civil and criminal law.

Interest in criminal psychology has grown dramatically in recent years, thanks to popular television programs that depict fictionalized criminal psychologists, such as Criminal Minds and CSI . The field is highly related to forensic psychology and, in some cases, the two terms are used interchangeably.

This article discusses what criminal psychology is and what criminal psychologists do. It includes information about educational requirements, typical salaries, and work environments for those who work in criminal psychology.

Criminal Psychology Job Description

A large part of what a criminal psychologist does is studying why people commit crimes. They may also assess criminals in order to evaluate the risk of recidivism (how likely the person is to re-offend in the future) or make educated guesses about the actions that a criminal may have taken after committing a crime.

In addition to helping law enforcement solve crimes or analyze the behavior of criminal offenders, criminal psychologists also often provide expert testimony in court.

Criminal Profiling

Perhaps one of the best-known duties of a criminal psychologist is known as offender profiling, also known as criminal profiling. Although the practice had been used informally for many decades, criminal profiling made its professional debut in the 1940s, when the U.S. Office of Strategic Services asked a psychiatrist to create a profile for Adolf Hitler.

Today, organizations such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) use offender profiling to help apprehend violent criminals. The goal of criminal profiling is to provide law enforcement with a psychological assessment of the suspect and to provide strategies and suggestions that can be used in the interviewing process.

Criminal Psychology In Real Life vs. the Movies

Psychologists don't typically accompany officers to interrogate apprehended suspects. Moreover, many cases take weeks, months, or even years to solve, and are rarely pieced together as quickly and irrefutably as they are on TV shows.

While the job may not be exactly like you see it portrayed on TV, the realities of the job are far from boring. In addition to profiling, criminal psychologists may counsel people who have committed crimes and need psychological assessment. Many psychologists work in computer-related fields, like studying internet predators or helping investigate online fraud.

Click Play to Learn More About What Criminal Psychologists Do

This video has been medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD .

Criminal Psychology Work Environment

People in the field of criminal psychology usually work in office and court settings. A criminal psychologist might spend a considerable amount of time interviewing people, researching an offender’s life history, or providing expert testimony in the courtroom.

Some specific areas where a person might work with a degree in criminal psychology include:

• Criminal profiler : Work with law enforcement to look for patterns in crimes and create profiles of offenders
• Criminal analyst : Look for patterns in communities to assess criminal activity and help develop crime prevention programs
• Criminal psychologist : Work in correctional, government, or mental health settings to assess and treat criminal offenders
• Victim advocate : Assist people who have experienced crime or trauma to help them understand their rights, process their experiences, and access support resources in the community
• Behavioral therapist : Work with people who have come into contact with the criminal justice system to overcome problematic behavior in order to minimize the risk of re-offending
• Expert witness : Provide testimony in criminal court cases to answer questions about behavioral and psychological questions
• Case manager : Work with clients who need support managing their behaviors and legal situations, including helping them access and coordinate treatment services
• Forensic psychologist : Perform assessments and evaluations in civil and criminal court cases

In some cases, criminal psychologists may work closely with police and federal agents to help solve crimes, often by developing profiles of murderers, rapists, and other violent criminals.

Criminal psychologists are employed in a number of different institutions. Some work for local, state, or federal government, while others are self-employed as independent consultants. Still others opt to teach criminal psychology at the university level or at specialized criminology training facilities.

Education and Training in Criminal Psychology

In many cases, criminal psychologists start out by earning a bachelor's degree in psychology. After completing an undergraduate degree, some students opt to then enter a master's in psychology program.

Entering a doctorate program after earning your bachelor's is another option. Job openings in this specialty area are more plentiful for those with a PhD or PsyD degree in psychology.

The PhD (or Doctor of Philosophy) degree is typically more focused on theory and research, while the PsyD (or Doctor of Psychology) tends to be more practice-oriented.

To become a criminal psychologist, you should seriously consider earning a PhD or PsyD degree in clinical or counseling psychology . In some cases, students opt to focus on a particular specialty area such as forensic or criminal psychology.

No matter what type of doctorate degree you choose to earn, it will likely take about five to seven years to complete and will include classroom work, practical training, research, and a dissertation. In order to become a licensed psychologist , you will also need to complete an internship and pass state examinations.

Typical Salaries in Criminal Psychology

While there are jobs in forensic psychology at the master's level, the competition for these positions is fierce. While there were roughly 181,700 psychologists in the United States in 2018, around 18,300 of them were specialist psychologists, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (The database doesn't have data for forensic psychologists specifically.)

In terms of income, salaries for specialist psychologists tend to be higher than in other fields of practice, with a mean annual wage of $95,610. In 2018, annual incomes ranged from $41,220 to as high as $127,510.

Specialist psychologists working for state and local governments or private practice tend to have higher average salaries, while those employed by the federal government or hospitals tend to have lower annual salaries.

A Word From Verywell

Before you decide if this is the right specialty area for you, spend some time considering your own capabilities and goals. Due to the nature of this profession, you may find yourself dealing with some truly disturbing situations. You may need to look at crime scene photos or interview people suspected of horrifying crimes. You need to be prepared to deal with the emotional distress that this type of work may cause.

One of the best ways to determine if this career is right for you is to talk to a practicing criminal psychologist about what the job is like. Contact your local law enforcement department to see if they can connect you with a criminal psychologist in your area.

Ibe B, Ochie C, Obiyan E. Racial misuse of "criminal profiling" by law enforcement: Intentions and implications . AJCJS . 2012;4(1): 177-196.

American Psychological Association. A career in forensic and public service psychology .

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Psychologists . Occupational Outlook Handbook.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Occupational Employment and Wages, May 2018: 19-3039 Psychologists, All Other.

American Psychological Association. What is forensic psychology ?

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Criminal Psychology: Understanding Criminal Behaviour

• First Online: 02 October 2021

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• Sanjeev P. Sahni 3 &
• Nisha Phakey 3  

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Criminal psychology is a field involving an amalgamation of psychology, criminology, and the law. This discipline was conceived in the mid-twentieth century, when psychologists began offering expert perspectives on criminal behaviour and speculate about the possible causes that push one to commit such acts. This chapter will expound upon the purview of criminal psychology, how it emerged as a specialized field of study, and how it is different from related disciplines such as forensic psychology. Further, this chapter will cover the role and responsibilities of a criminal psychologist in criminal justice proceedings as a clinician, experimentalist, actuarial, and advisor in criminal proceedings. It will also briefly encapsulate the role played by a criminal psychologist in investigation, trial, conviction, and rehabilitation of convicts. Then, next section will deal with scope of this field realized by different institutions and individuals globally, and what are the applications of this discipline in different countries of the world and India.

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About this chapter

Sahni, S.P., Phakey, N. (2021). Criminal Psychology: Understanding Criminal Behaviour. In: Sahni, S.P., Bhadra, P. (eds) Criminal Psychology and the Criminal Justice System in India and Beyond. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4570-9_2

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• Bystander Intervention
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Psychology and Crime by David Canter LAST REVIEWED: 13 January 2014 LAST MODIFIED: 13 January 2014 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195396607-0114

Psychologists have studied many aspects of crime and criminality ever since modern psychology began to emerge in the late 19th century. The founding fathers of psychology taught courses on criminal psychology and considered delinquency at the time they were laying their foundations. Just about every psychological theory has been applied to the consideration of crime or its prosecution, from Freudian psychodynamics to neuropsychology, by way of learning theories and studies of memory. These theories have covered the causes of crime, psychological aspects of criminal investigations, assessment of criminals, court psychology, interventions to reduce offending and help offenders cope with prison, and victimology and the nature of criminal activity, emphasizing behavioral variations between offenses that have the same legal definition. In the last forty years the study of psychological aspects of crime and criminals has also become part of the professional discipline of forensic psychology. Thus, any review of psychology and crime now overlaps with considerations of the professional roles of psychologists in a variety of legal, investigative, correctional, and therapeutic settings. The influence of the legal context and culture as well as the local institutional frameworks, therefore, always needs to be kept in mind when considering publications on psychology and crime. For example, access to offenders in prison for research purposes is currently extremely difficult in the United States but is much easier in developing countries. Consequently, a bias results in what is actually studied depending on where the studies take place. What is considered criminal and how crime is dealt with varies considerably from one jurisdiction to another. These variations carry implications for how readily findings can be generalized or acted on in practice beyond the context in which they were established. Furthermore, many of the considerations of the psychological aspects of crime take place under the umbrella of other disciplines, notably criminology but also socio-legal studies and even jurisprudence. Writings on psychology and crime, consequently, vary in the depth of their scholarship and the validity of their arguments. This qualitative range is further extended by the enormous popular interest in crime, both in fact and in fiction, producing a plethora of opinions on criminals that have little basis in systematic research or even, often, in objective evidence. The purpose of this bibliography is to capture the major psychological publications on crime. Because of the popular interest in this topic, it is of value to refer to some of the early foundations that still haunt public debate before moving on to the rapidly growing range of currently significant research.

Major figures in late 19th century medicine, notably Havelock Ellis ( Ellis 1890 ) and Richard von Krafft-Ebing ( von Krafft-Ebing 1998 ) wrote about criminals as being abnormal in some way, treating criminality as a form of illness or an indication that the offender was less than fully human. They were greatly influenced by Darwinian theories, seeing criminals as some sort of evolutionary throwback to an early stage of human development. This view reached its most extreme form in the writings of Cesare Lombroso, particulary in Lombroso 1911 . Such views, embedded in a biological or clinincal explanation of why people become criminals is still a dominant strand in many discussions. It is also still reflected in the fact that psychological studies of crimnals are dominated by examination of bizarre criminal activity, sexual crimes, and homicide. So, although the extremes of Lomborso’s claims, which include reference to physiognomic features that he thought indicated a lower level of human evolution, have long since been discredited, the view that criminals are different from noncriminals still dominates many psychological considerations. A second, rather different strand grew out of a social science tradition that sees criminals as no different from anyone else except for their circumstances. This line of reasoning is most clearly articulated in Sutherland 1924 .

Ellis, Havelock. 1890. The Criminal . New York: Scribner & Welford.

Along with von Krafft-Ebing 1998 , holds the view of criminality as a form of illness.

Lombroso, Cesare. 1911. Crime, its causes and remedies . Translated by Henry P. Horton. London: Little, Brown.

Originally published in 1899 as Le crime; causes et remédes (Paris: Reinwald).

Sutherland, Edwin H. 1924. Criminology . Philadelphia: Lippincott.

Revised and reprinted many times. In contrast to the clinical psychology emphases, this perspective has tended to focus on more day-to-day crimes such as burglary and delinquency.

von Krafft-Ebing, Richard. 1998. Psychopathia sexualis . Translated by Franklin S. Klaf. New York: Arcade.

A seminal work, originally published in 1886.

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Forensic psychology research topics.

Criminal Competencies Research Topics

Adjudicative Competence of Youth Capacity to Waive Rights Capacity to Waive Miranda Rights Checklist for Competency for Execution Evaluations Competence Assessment for Standing Trial for Defendants With Mental Retardation (CAST*MR) Competency, Foundational and Decisional Competency Restoration Competency Assessment Instrument (CAI) Competency for Execution Competency Screening Test (CST) Competency to Be Sentenced Competency to Confess Competency to Stand Trial Competency to Waive Appeals Competency to Waive Counsel (Proceed Pro Se) Delusions Evaluation of Competence to Stand Trial–Revised (ECST–R) Fitness Interview Test–Revised (FIT–R) Georgia Court Competence Test (GCCT) Grisso’s Instruments for Assessing Understanding and Appreciation of Miranda Rights Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales Hallucinations Interdisciplinary Fitness Interview (IFI) MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Criminal Adjudication (MacCAT–CA) Psychotic Disorders

Criminal Responsibility Research Topics

Evaluation of Aggravating and Mitigating Circumstances in Capital Cases American Bar Association Resolution on Mental Disability and the Death Penalty Automatism Battered Woman Syndrome Battered Woman Syndrome Testimony Criminal Responsibility Assessment Criminal Responsibility Defenses and Standards Delusions Diminished Capacity Dissociative Identity Disorder Extreme Emotional Disturbance Guilty but Mentally Ill Verdict Hallucinations Insanity Defense Reform Act (IDRA) Mens Rea and Actus Reus Mental Illness and the Death Penalty Mental Retardation and the Death Penalty M’Naghten Standard Psychotic Disorders Rogers Criminal Responsibility Assessment Scales (R–CRAS)

Death Penalty Research Topics

Evaluation of Aggravating and Mitigating Circumstances in Capital Cases Aggravating and Mitigating Circumstances Effects of on Jurors in Capital Trials American Bar Association Resolution on Mental Disability and the Death Penalty Capital Mitigation Checklist for Competency for Execution Evaluations Competency for Execution Death Penalty Death Qualification of Juries Jury Understanding of Judges’ Instructions in Capital Cases Juvenile Death Penalty Mental Illness and the Death Penalty Mental Retardation and the Death Penalty Moral Disengagement and Execution Religion and the Death Penalty Victim Impact Statements

Divorce and Child Custody Research Topics

Ackerman-Schoendorf Parent Evaluation of Custody Test (ASPECT) Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) Child Abuse Potential (CAP) Inventory Child Custody Evaluations Child Maltreatment Child Sexual Abuse Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) Divorce and Child Custody Parent-Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI) Parenting Satisfaction Scale (PSS) Parenting Stress Index (PSI) Tender Years Doctrine Termination of Parental Rights Uniform Child Custody Evaluation System (UCCES)

Education and Professional Development Research Topics

Diplomates in Forensic Psychology Doctoral Programs in Forensic Psychology Ethical Guidelines and Principles Master’s Programs in Forensic Psychology Postdoctoral Residencies in Forensic Psychology Trial Consultant Training

Eyewitness Memory Research Topics

Alcohol Intoxication Impact on Eyewitness Memory Appearance-Change Instruction in Lineups Clothing Bias in Identification Procedures Cognitive Interview Computer-Assisted Lineups Confidence in Identifications Confidence in Identifications Malleability Conformity in Eyewitness Reports Cross-Race Effect in Eyewitness Identification Double-Blind Lineups Elderly Eyewitnesses Estimator and System Variables in Eyewitness Identification Expert Psychological Testimony on Eyewitness Identification Accuracy of Eyewitness Descriptions Eyewitness Identification: Effect of Disguises and Appearance Changes Eyewitness Identification: Field Studies Eyewitness Identification: General Acceptance in the Scientific Community Eyewitness Memory Lay Beliefs About Eyewitness Memory Facial Composites False Memories Forced Confabulation Hypnosis and Eyewitness Memory Best Practices in Identification Tests Instructions to the Witness Juries and Eyewitnesses Lineup Fillers Lineup Size and Bias Motions to Suppress Eyewitness Identification Mug Shots Neil v. Biggers Criteria for Evaluating Eyewitness Identification Optimality Hypothesis in Eyewitness Identification Police Eyewitnesses Popout Effect in Eyewitness Identification Postevent Information and Eyewitness Memory Presence of Counsel Safeguard and Eyewitness Identification Reconstructive Memory Repeated Recall Repressed and Recovered Memories Response Latency in Eyewitness Identification Retention Interval and Eyewitness Memory Showups Simultaneous and Sequential Lineup Presentations Source Monitoring and Eyewitness Memory Stress and Eyewitness Memory Training of Eyewitnesses Unconscious Transference Verbal Overshadowing Voice Recognition Weapon Focus Effect

Forensic Assessment Research Topics

Ackerman-Schoendorf Parent Evaluation of Custody Test (ASPECT) Adjudicative Competence of Youth Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) Evaluation of Aggravating and Mitigating Circumstances  in Capital Cases American Bar Association Resolution on Mental Disability and the Death Penalty Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Antisocial Personality Disorder Automatism Battered Woman Syndrome Capacity to Consent to Treatment Instrument (CCTI) Capacity to Waive Miranda Rights Capacity to Waive Rights Checklist for Competency for Execution Evaluations Child Abuse Potential (CAP) Inventory Child Custody Evaluations Child Maltreatment Child Sexual Abuse Civil Commitment Classification of Violence Risk (COVR) Competence Assessment for Standing Trial for Defendants With Mental Retardation (CAST*MR) Competency Foundational and Decisional Competency Restoration Competency Assessment Instrument (CAI) Competency for Execution Competency Screening Test (CST) Competency to Be Sentenced Competency to Confess Competency to Stand Trial Competency to Waive Appeals Competency to Waive Counsel (Proceed Pro Se) Conduct Disorder Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) Consent to Clinical Research Criminal Responsibility Assessment Criminal Responsibility, Defenses and Standards Danger Assessment Instrument (DA) Delusions Diminished Capacity Assessment of Disability and Workers’ Compensation Claims Disparate Treatment and Disparate Impact Evaluations Dissociative Identity Disorder Divorce and Child Custody Domestic Violence Screening Instrument (DVSI) Ethical Guidelines and Principles Ethnic Differences in Psychopathy Evaluation of Competence to Stand Trial–Revised (ECST–R) Extreme Emotional Disturbance Financial Capacity Financial Capacity Instrument (FCI) Fitness-for-Duty Evaluations Fitness Interview Test–Revised (FIT–R) Forensic Assessment Georgia Court Competence Test (GCCT) Grisso’s Instruments for Assessing Understanding and Appreciation of Miranda Rights Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales Guilty but Mentally Ill Verdict Hallucinations Hare Psychopathy Checklist–Revised (2nd edition) (PCL–R) Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV) HCR–20 for Violence Risk Assessment Hopkins Competency Assessment Test (HCAT) Insanity Defense Reform Act (IDRA) Interdisciplinary Fitness Interview (IFI) Jail Screening Assessment Tool (JSAT) Litigation Stress MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Criminal Adjudication (MacCAT–CA) MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Treatment (MacCAT–T) MacArthur Violence Risk Assessment Study Malingering Probability Scale Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument–Version 2 (MAYSI–2) Mens Rea and Actus Reus Mental Illness and the Death Penalty Mental Retardation and the Death Penalty Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Assessment Miller Forensic Assessment of Symptoms Test (M–FAST) Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory–III (MCMI–III) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI–2) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI–2) Validity Scales Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool–Revised (MnSOST–R) M’Naghten Standard Mood Disorders Novaco Anger Scale Parens Patriae Doctrine Parent-Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI) Parenting Satisfaction Scale (PSS) Parenting Stress Index (PSI) Pedophilia Personal Injury and Emotional Distress Personality Disorders Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Presentence Evaluations Psychological Autopsies Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) Psychopathy Psychopathy Treatment Psychotic Disorders Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offense Recidivism (RRASOR) Return-to-Work Evaluations Risk Assessment Approaches Risk-Sophistication-Treatment Inventory (RSTI) Rogers Criminal Responsibility Assessment Scales (R–CRAS) Sex Offender Assessment Sex Offender Civil Commitment Sex Offender Needs Assessment Rating (SONAR) Sex Offender Recidivism Sex Offender Risk Appraisal Guide (SORAG) Sexual Harassment Sexual Violence Risk–20 (SVR–20) Short-Term Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START) Spousal Assault Risk Assessment (SARA) STABLE–2007 and ACUTE–2007 Instruments STATIC–99 and STATIC–2002 Instruments Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS) Substance Abuse and Intimate Partner Violence Substance Use Disorder Suicide Assessment and Prevention in Prisons Suicide Assessment Manual for Inmates (SAMI) Testamentary Capacity Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) Uniform Child Custody Evaluation System (UCCES) Validity Indicator Profile (VIP) Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (VRAG) Violence Risk Assessment Waiver to Criminal Court

Juvenile Offenders Research Topics

Adjudicative Competence of Youth Capacity to Waive Miranda Rights Juvenile Offenders Juvenile Offenders Risk Factors Juvenile Psychopathy Juvenile Death Penalty Legal Socialization Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument–Version 2 (MAYSI–2) Mental Health Needs of Juvenile Offenders Risk-Sophistication-Treatment Inventory (RSTI) Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) Victim-Offender Mediation Waiver to Criminal Court

Mental Health Law Research Topics

Capacity to Consent to Treatment Civil Commitment Consent to Clinical Research End-of-Life Issues Forcible Medication Guardianship Institutionalization and Deinstitutionalization Mandated Community Treatment Mental Health Courts Mental Health Law Mental Health Needs of Juvenile Offenders Involuntary Outpatient Commitment Patient’s Rights Proxy Decision Making Psychiatric Advance Directives Substance Abuse Treatment Therapeutic Jurisprudence

Psychological Assessment Instruments Research Topics

Ackerman-Schoendorf Parent Evaluation of Custody Test (ASPECT) Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) Capacity to Consent to Treatment Instrument (CCTI) Checklist for Competency for Execution Evaluations Child Abuse Potential (CAP) Inventory Classification of Violence Risk (COVR) Competency Assessment Instrument (CAI) Competency Screening Test (CST) Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) Danger Assessment Instrument (DA) Domestic Violence Screening Instrument (DVSI) Evaluation of Competence to Stand Trial–Revised (ECST–R) Financial Capacity Instrument (FCI) Fitness Interview Test–Revised (FIT–R) Georgia Court Competence Test (GCCT) Grisso’s Instruments for Assessing Understanding and Appreciation of Miranda Rights Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales Hare Psychopathy Checklist–Revised (2nd edition) (PCL–R) Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV) HCR–20 for Violence Risk Assessment Hopkins Competency Assessment Test (HCAT) Interdisciplinary Fitness Interview (IFI) Jail Screening Assessment Tool (JSAT) MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Clinical Research (MacCAT–CR) MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Criminal Adjudication (MacCAT–CA) MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Treatment (MacCat–T) Malingering Probability Scale Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument–Version 2 (MAYSI–2) Miller Forensic Assessment of Symptoms Test (M–FAST) Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory–III (MCMI–III) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI–2) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI–2) Validity Scales Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool–Revised (MnSOST–R) Novaco Anger Scale Parent-Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI) Parenting Satisfaction Scale (PSS) Parenting Stress Index (PSI) Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offense Recidivism (RRASOR) Risk-Sophistication-Treatment Inventory (RSTI) Rogers Criminal Responsibility Assessment Scales (R–CRAS) Sex Offender Needs Assessment Rating (SONAR) Sex Offender Risk Appraisal Guide (SORAG) Sexual Violence Risk–20 (SVR–20) Short-Term Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START) Spousal Assault Risk Assessment (SARA) STABLE–2007 and ACUTE–2007 Instruments STATIC–99 and STATIC–2002 Instruments Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS) Suicide Assessment Manual for Inmates (SAMI) Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) Uniform Child Custody Evaluation System (UCCES) Validity Indicator Profile (VIP) Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (VRAG)

Psychology of Crime Research Topics

AMBER Alert System Battered Woman Syndrome Battered Woman Syndrome, Testimony on Bias Crimes Child Abuse Potential (CAP) Inventory Child Maltreatment Child Sexual Abuse Classification of Violence Risk (COVR) Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) Criminal Behavior, Theories of Criminal Responsibility, Assessment of Criminal Responsibility, Defenses and Standards Cybercrime Domestic Violence Screening Instrument (DVSI) Elder Abuse Elderly Defendants Homicide, Psychology of Intimate Partner Violence MacArthur Violence Risk Assessment Study Media Violence and Behavior Obscenity Pedophilia Pornography, Effects of Exposure to Psychological Autopsies Public Opinion About Crime Serial Killers Sex Offender Civil Commitment Sex Offender Community Notification (Megan’s Laws) Sex Offender Treatment Sex Offender Typologies Stalking Substance Abuse and Intimate Partner Violence Suicide by Cop Terrorism Therapeutic Communities for Treatment of Substance Abuse Treatment and Release of Insanity Acquittees Victim-Offender Mediation With Juvenile Offenders

Psychology of Policing Research Topics

Behavior Analysis Interview Competency to Confess Confession Evidence Crisis and Hostage Negotiation Critical Incidents Detection of Deception: Cognitive Load Detection of Deception: Event-Related Potentials Detection of Deception: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Detection of Deception: Nonverbal Cues Detection of Deception: Reality Monitoring Detection of Deception: Use of Evidence in Detection of Deception by Detection “Wizards” Detection of Deception in Adults Detection of Deception in Children Detection of Deception in High-Stakes Liars False Confessions Fitness-for-Duty Evaluations Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales Interrogation of Suspects Police as Eyewitnesses Police Decision Making Police Decision Making and Domestic Violence Police Interaction With Mentally Ill Individuals Police Occupational Socialization Police Psychologists Police Psychology Police Selection Police Stress Police Training and Evaluation Police Use of Force Polygraph and Polygraph Techniques Profiling Public Opinion About the Polygraph Reid Technique for Interrogations Return-to-Work Evaluations Statement Validity Assessment (SVA) Suicide by Cop Videotaping Confessions

Sentencing and Incarceration Research Topics

Community Corrections Competency to Be Sentenced Conditional Release Programs Death Penalty Domestic Violence Courts Drug Courts Juvenile Boot Camps Parole Decisions Presentence Evaluations Prison Overcrowding Probation Decisions Public Opinion About Sentencing and Incarceration Sentencing Decisions Sentencing Diversion Programs Stanford Prison Experiment Substance Abuse Treatment Suicide Assessment and Prevention in Prisons Suicide Assessment Manual for Inmates (SAMI) Supermax Prisons Therapeutic Communities for Treatment of Substance Abuse Treatment and Release of Insanity Acquittees

Symptoms and Disorders Research Topics

Antisocial Personality Disorder Automatism Battered Woman Syndrome Child Maltreatment Child Sexual Abuse Conduct Disorder Delusions Dissociative Identity Disorder Hallucinations Malingering Mild Traumatic Brain Injury, Assessment of Mood Disorders Pedophilia Personality Disorders Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Psychopathy Psychotic Disorders Substance Use Disorders

Trial Processes Research Topics

Aggravating and Mitigating Circumstances in Capital Trials, Effects on Jurors Alibi Witnesses Alternative Dispute Resolution Amicus Curiae Briefs Bail-Setting Decisions Battered Woman Syndrome, Testimony on Chicago Jury Project Children’s Testimony Children’s Testimony, Evaluation by Juries Complex Evidence in Litigation Confession Evidence CSI Effect Damage Awards Death Qualification of Juries Domestic Violence Courts Drug Courts “Dynamite Charge” Elderly Defendants Expert Psychological Testimony Expert Psychological Testimony, Admissibility Standards Expert Psychological Testimony, Forms of Expert Psychological Testimony on Eyewitness Identification Expert Testimony, Qualifications of Experts Fingerprint Evidence, Evaluation of Hearsay Testimony Inadmissible Evidence, Impact on Juries Insanity Defense, Juries and Judges’ Nonverbal Behavior Juries and Eyewitnesses Juries and Joined Trials Juries and Judges’ Instructions Jury Administration Reforms Jury Competence Jury Decisions Versus Judges’ Decisions Jury Deliberation Jury Nullification Jury Questionnaires Jury Reforms Jury Selection Jury Size and Decision Rule Jury Understanding of Judges’ Instructions in Capital Cases Legal Authoritarianism Legal Negotiation Legal Socialization Leniency Bias Litigation Stress Mental Health Courts Parole Decisions Plea Bargaining Pretrial Publicity, Impact on Juries Probation Decisions Procedural Justice Prosecutorial Misconduct Public Opinion About Crime Public Opinion About the Courts Public Opinion About the Polygraph Race, Impact on Juries Racial Bias and the Death Penalty Religion and the Death Penalty Scientific Jury Selection Sexual Harassment, Jury Evaluation of Statistical Information, Impact on Juries “Stealing Thunder” Story Model for Juror Decision Making Translated Testimony Trial Consulting U.S. Supreme Court Victim Impact Statements Voir Dire Witness Preparation Wrongful Conviction

Victim Reactions to Crime Research Topics

Battered Woman Syndrome Child Maltreatment Child Sexual Abuse Coping Strategies of Adult Sexual Assault Victims Danger Assessment Instrument (DA) Elder Abuse Intimate Partner Violence Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Rape Trauma Syndrome Reporting Crimes and Victimization Sexual Harassment Stalking Victimization Victim-Offender Mediation With Juvenile Offenders Victim Participation in the Criminal Justice System

Violence Risk Assessment Research Topics

Classification of Violence Risk (COVR) Danger Assessment Instrument (DA) Domestic Violence Screening Instrument (DVSI) Hare Psychopathy Checklist–Revised (2nd edition) (PCL–R) Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV) HCR–20 for Violence Risk Assessment Jail Screening Assessment Tool (JSAT) MacArthur Violence Risk Assessment Study Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument–Version 2 (MAYSI–2) Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool–Revised (MnSOST–R) Novaco Anger Scale Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) Psychopathy Psychopathy, Treatment of Rapid Risk Assessment for Sexual Offense Recidivism (RRASOR) Risk Assessment Approaches Sex Offender Assessment Sex Offender Civil Commitment Sex Offender Needs Assessment Rating (SONAR) Sex Offender Recidivism Sex Offender Risk Appraisal Guide (SORAG) Sexual Violence Risk–20 (SVR–20) Short-Term Assessment of Risk and Treatability (START) Spousal Assault Risk Assessment (SARA) STABLE–2007 and ACUTE–2007 Instruments STATIC–99 and STATIC–2002 Instruments Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) Substance Abuse and Intimate Partner Violence Substance Use Disorders Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (VRAG) Violence Risk Assessment

Psychology and law play a significant role in postgraduate education and professional development. Forensic psychology courses are increasingly common in undergraduate psychology programs, and many such offerings are filled to capacity with undergraduate students weaned on justice- and crime-themed media and literature. Attracted by the compelling application of psychology to real-world criminal investigations and trials, undergraduate students frequently volunteer as research assistants in forensic psychology laboratories. Master’s and doctoral programs focusing on various aspects of forensic psychology have been developed and provide the research and service industries with additional intellectual capital. Postdoctoral training and professional certification options in forensic psychology support the development of a profession that is uniquely qualified to address mental health issues in a wide variety of legal contexts.

Read more about Forensic Psychology:

• Forensic Psychology (Main article)
• Psychology and Law
• What is Forensic Psychology?
• History of Forensic Psychology
• Clinical Forensic Psychology
• Forensic Psychology Ethics
• Forensic Psychology Education

Journal of Criminal Psychology

Issue(s) available: 45 – From Volume: 1 Issue: 1 , to Volume: 14 Issue: 3

• Issue 3 2024
• Issue 2 2024
• Issue 1 2024
• Issue 4 2023
• Issue 3 2023
• Issue 2 2023 Stalking: What do we know, and where do we go?
• Issue 1 2023
• Issue 4 2022
• Issue 3 2022
• Issue 1/2 2022
• Issue 4 2021
• Issue 3 2021 The impact of COVID-19 on crime, policing, and prisons
• Issue 2 2021
• Issue 1 2021
• Issue 4 2020
• Issue 3 2020
• Issue 2 2020 Cold Case Investigations
• Issue 1 2020
• Issue 4 2019
• Issue 3 2019
• Issue 2 2019
• Issue 1 2019
• Issue 4 2018 Biopsychosocial predictors of violent offending
• Issue 3 2018
• Issue 2 2018
• Issue 1 2018 Prison research: expanding our network
• Issue 4 2017
• Issue 3 2017 Strengths-based approaches used when working with people with sexual convictions
• Issue 2 2017 Pathological offending
• Issue 1 2017
• Issue 4 2016 Self-harm and suicidal behaviour in forensic settings
• Issue 3 2016
• Issue 2 2016
• Issue 1 2016
• Issue 4 2015
• Issue 3 2015 Recent developments in homicide research
• Issue 2 2015 Use of contemporary multivariate statistical methods in criminal psychology
• Issue 1 2015
• Issue 2 2014
• Issue 1 2014
• Issue 2 2013
• Issue 1 2013
• Issue 2 2012
• Issue 1 2012
• Issue 1 2011

Increasing access and transparency: evaluating transcript provision for rape victim-survivors in Scottish legal proceedings

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The effect of tailored reciprocity on information provision in an investigative interview

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Reconstructive psychological assessment (RPA) applied to the analysis of digital behavioral residues in forensic contexts

This paper aims to explore advances in indirect personality assessment, with emphasis on the psychology of digital behavior based on the analysis of new technological devices and…

Operation Soteria Bluestone: Rethinking RASSO investigations

This paper aims to evaluate how five Operation Soteria Bluestone (OSB) participating forces integrated principles of procedural justice and proactive disruption of offending into…

Prospective person memory and own-race bias of missing person appeals

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An overview of the replicability, generalizability and practical relevance of eyewitness testimony research in the Journal of Criminal Psychology

Before psychological research is used for policy reforms and recommendations, it is important to evaluate its replicability, generalizability and practical relevance. This paper…

“We have to fight for our existence in the system”: exploring service providers’ experiences with male victims and female perpetrators of intimate partner violence

This study aims to investigate the experiences of service providers supporting male victims and female perpetrators of intimate partner violence (IPV). The study explored the…

Factors in terrorist risk assessment: a rapid evidence assessment of the extremism risk guidance (ERG22+) factors

Since 2011, the Extremism Risk Guidance (ERG 22+) has been the primary risk assessment framework used for terrorist and violent extremist offenders in England and Wales. The aim…

One psychopathic route to an unsuccessful life. Psychopathy and life outcomes in Generation 3 of the Cambridge study in delinquent development

This study aims to examine whether psychopathic traits are associated with “unsuccessful” life outcomes in a community sample. While it is not easy to define what a successful…

Self-generated cues: the role of cue quality in facilitating eyewitness recall

Witness-led techniques, informed by theory, have been recognized as best practice for eliciting information from cooperative eyewitnesses. This study aims to test a self-generated…

Evaluation of forensic interviews and interrogations: a thematic analysis of law-enforcement views

Effective forensic interviewing is crucial, particularly if the interview is the only source of evidence. Whilst there are a number of interview models that advocate for…

Why some homicide investigations go cold: a study exploring the experiences of the investigative review process by UK detectives

The purpose of this study is to explore the review mechanisms’ efficacy from the perspective of cold case reviewers. Live homicide review mechanisms at the 7- and 28-day stage of…

Unmasking the dark triad: exploring its relationship with attitudes toward intimate partner violence

Although it is a relatively recent conceptualization of malevolent personality, the dark triad (DT) has been widely researched and shown to be responsible for increases in…

Getting stuck in a collective stigma: sex offense registrants, liminality liminoid experiences, and identity limbo groups

The purpose of this study was to examine the internalization of group-level identities held by people who are on the sex offense registry and how these influence emotions and the…

Double jeopardy: the effects of retrial knowledge on juror decisions

Since the passage of the Double Jeopardy (Scotland) Act 2011, mirroring changes in other jurisdictions, a person who has been acquitted in Scotland can, under certain…

The dark figure of murder and unsolved homicides in the USA

This study aims to use a novel data set of 636 murderers sentenced to death in California to investigate homicide offenses that are committed but not prosecuted or officially…

Hanging up on emergency services: staged calls end differently

Emergency service dispatchers perform a vital role in assisting callers by helping them through the emergency they are in and ensuring the delivery of first responders. If an…

Are legal experts better decision makers than jurors? A psychological evaluation of the role of juries in the 21st century

The Scottish Government hope to pilot judge only rape trials to increase the woefully low rape conviction rates in Scotland. The reasoning is that by removing jurors, the court…

Perceptions of the freezing response of male and female rape victims, and the moderating role of rape myth beliefs

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether indicating victims of sexual attacks actively resisted their attacker or froze during their assault affected perceptions of…

Examining traumatic brain injury as a risk factor for violent offending: testing for cognitive and affective mediation

While prior research has established that traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a risk factor for violent offending, there is little understanding of mechanisms that may underpin this…

Actions speak: personality, nonverbal behaviors, and self-perceptions of vulnerability in college-aged women

Despite representing a relatively small portion of the population, those who experience repeat victimization make up a significant share of all sexual and violent crimes, implying…

Doubling down on dosage: exploring the interplay between dosage effects, antisocial traits, treatment attitudes, and recidivism-related therapy outcomes

Studies evaluating the external validity of theoretically informed (risk-need-responsivity [RNR]) cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) programs have not systematically assessed…

Risk and desistance factors for female acquisitive offending: a systematic review

This systematic review sought to examine the research body on acquisitive offending among female offenders, specifically exploring what factors may take females closer towards…

A systematic review of evidence capturing efficacy of community and school-based approaches to knife crime intervention and prevention programs

Knife crime and serious violent crime (SVC) among youth has been growing at an alarming rate in the UK (Harding and Allen, 2021). Community and school-based intervention and…

What happened that day? Recall for events of a day that later became important

The purpose of this study was to explore potential witnesses' memories for a day that was experienced an unremarkable. There may be instances in an investigation in which all…

Beliefs in repressed memory and dissociative amnesia from a cross-cultural lens

This study aimed to examine beliefs in repressed memory and dissociative amnesia from a cross-cultural perspective.

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• Frontiers in Psychology
• Forensic and Legal Psychology
• Research Topics

Crime, Mental Health, and the Law: A Psycho-Criminological Perspective

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Psychological criminology is regarded as the convergence of psychology and criminology, in which psychological criminology is concerned with the use of psychological knowledge to explain or describe, with the attempt to change, criminal behavior. This Research Topic focuses on the application of ...

Keywords : Forensic psychology, legal psychology, crime and delinquency, criminal behavior and the law, mental health and crime, forensic mental health, public health perspective of the crime, environmental conditions and crime, risk and protective factors of criminal behavior, crime prevention and intervention, offender rehabilitation, civil and criminal mental health law

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What is a Criminal Psychologist?

Criminal psychologists are common in today's society. Criminal psychology has helped solve countless crimes over the decades, and the field is hugely popular among "true crime" enthusiasts. But, how does one become a criminal psychologist and how is forensic psychology different from criminal psychology? Within the justice system of the United States, you'll find criminal psychologists working in numerous capacities including criminal law and forensic psychology among others.

Understanding Criminal Psychology

The field of criminal psychology delves into the intricate workings of the criminal mind. A criminal psychologist is a professional who studies the wills, thoughts, intentions, and reactions of criminals and potential criminals. It may sound like a thrilling venture straight out of a popular television series, but it's a serious scientific field with a profound societal impact and becoming a criminal psychologist isn't easy.

The focus of criminal psychology lies predominantly in understanding and predicting criminal behavior. The criminal psychology field encompasses an extensive array of aspects relating to a criminal's behavior, such as the causes of such behavior, the thoughts and feelings behind the behavior, and its prevention.

In essence, to become a criminal psychologist, it's about comprehending why certain individuals commit crimes and how these actions might be deterred or prevented.

The primary purpose of the criminal psychology field, then, is not solely to understand criminal minds for the sake of knowledge.

Rather, criminal psychologists work to apply this understanding in practical settings - for instance, to help law enforcement officers prevent crimes or to assist in the rehabilitation of those who have committed crimes. These findings can also be used to help design correctional facilities and programs, or to improve interrogation techniques.

It's not unusual to find criminal psychologists and law enforcement officials working in tandem.

The Role of a Criminal Psychologist in the Justice System

The criminal justice system is a complex network of agencies and processes designed to uphold laws, investigate crimes, and dispense justice. Within this system, criminal psychologists play a crucial role, providing their expertise to various segments of this intricate structure.

One key area where criminal psychologists typically work is within law enforcement agencies. Their contributions in this setting range from helping to design police interrogation techniques to providing support for law enforcement officers.

Criminal psychologists focus not only on behavior but also on the impacts of these interactions on the law enforcement professionals themselves.

Criminal psychologists often work in collaboration with many other justice professionals. They assist in creating offender profiles, studying patterns of behavior, and understanding the motivations behind criminal acts.

In doing so, they provide law enforcement professionals with crucial insights that can lead to more accurate investigations and more effective law enforcement strategies.

Criminal Psychology in the Court Room

Their expertise is also applied in the court system. They help legal teams better understand the psychological aspects of a defendant's actions and potential recidivism.

They may also serve as expert witnesses, providing clear, concise explanations of complex psychological principles and their implications for a defendant's actions or mindset.

Moreover, many criminal psychologists focus on rehabilitation and treatment within the justice system. They work with convicted offenders, aiming to help them understand and modify their behaviors.

By doing so, they support the primary goals of the justice system: not only punishment but also prevention and reformation. The role of a criminal psychologist within the system is multi-faceted, encompassing contributions to law enforcement, court proceedings, and offender treatment.

They provide essential insights into the psychological aspects of behavior, significantly aiding in the pursuit of justice. Nonetheless, the breadth and complexity of their duties necessitate rigorous training, continual learning, and a high degree of professional commitment.

Forensic and Criminal Psychologists

While they might seem interchangeable to the untrained eye, criminal psychology and forensic psychology each carry their own unique purviews within the realm of legal and clinical psychology. Nevertheless, these fields of criminal psychology and forensic psychology often intersect, sharing some commonalities in terms of their roles and responsibilities.

Forensic psychology broadly encompasses the application of psychological knowledge and methods to the legal system. Forensic psychologists often play a pivotal role in legal proceedings. However, for every forensic psychologist, there is usually a criminal psychologist standing by to assist.

Each person may assess the mental state of defendants, evaluate the competency to stand trial, or provide expert testimony in court cases. They are also involved in family court matters and child custody evaluations, which typically fall outside the scope of a criminal psychologist.

A Criminal's Behavior

That said, criminal psychology focuses on the psychological aspects of criminal behavior. Experts in this field work closely with law enforcement agencies to help solve crimes, create offender profiles, and offer insights into criminal minds. Their work is generally more confined to issues related to crimes, criminal justice and - in particular - a criminal investigation.

Despite their unique focal points, there is an undeniable intersection between criminal psychology and forensic psychology. Many forensic psychologists, for instance, work in criminal justice settings, where their skills overlap with those of criminal psychologists.

Criminal and forensic psychologists both contribute significantly to the understanding of human behavior within the context of the law.

The key difference lies in the breadth of their applications, with forensic psychologists often working more broadly within the legal system, and criminal psychologists focusing more narrowly on crimes and criminal behavior.

A prime example of this intersection is the area of offender rehabilitation. Both a forensic psychologist and a criminal psychologist may be involved in the assessment and treatment of criminal offenders, with a shared goal of reducing recidivism and facilitating reintegration into society. In short, criminal psychology and forensic psychology are both vital entities within the world of crime solving.

The Daily Life of a Criminal Psychologist

The life of a criminal psychologist is far from predictable, with tasks and responsibilities varying significantly depending on their work environment and the specific roles they perform.

Criminal psychologists often work within law enforcement agencies where they conduct research on criminal behavior, often involved in complex criminal investigations.

They might help law enforcement professionals build profiles of offenders, advising on behavioral patterns, potential motivations, and likely next steps. This can often involve an in-depth analysis of crime scenes, examining various facets from a psychological standpoint.

A significant part of a criminal psychologist's daily routine can involve consultation. Criminal psychologists may be called upon to provide professional advice to other professionals in the justice system, from police detectives to attorneys.

Their expertise can be integral in providing a comprehensive understanding of a criminal’s mindset or predicting future behaviors.

Assessments and Treatment Plans

In some cases, criminal psychologists target their efforts on mental health centers, working directly with offenders, or individuals who are at risk of offending. Their day-to-day tasks may include assessments, therapy sessions, and the development of treatment plans aimed at mitigating criminal behavior.

Criminal psychologists often also have a role in academia and research. They may conduct studies, evaluate criminal offenders, analyze data, and publish their findings in academic journals. This research by a criminal psychologist forms a crucial part of our collective understanding of criminal behavior and the factors that contribute to it.

The Intricacies of Criminal Profiling and Investigation

A central facet of criminal psychology is the process of criminal profiling, a technique frequently used in criminal investigations.

Profiling involves constructing a psychological and behaviorally-based portrait of an individual who is likely to have committed a crime. The criminal profile process is complex, involving an in-depth understanding of criminal behavior and psychology.

Psychological profiling isn't about identifying a specific individual; instead, it's about identifying a type of individual. A clinical psychologist or criminal profiler looks at the evidence from crime scenes and, based on this, infers the characteristics of the likely offender, including personality traits, behavior patterns, and demographic variables.

Moreover, criminal psychologists often use crime scene photos and details about the nature of the alleged crime to deduce a criminal's profile. Their interpretations provide a unique perspective that can contribute significantly to the solving of crimes. The behavioral clues left at a crime scene can give insights into the personality and motivations of the perpetrator.

Criminal Psychology and Mental Health

In the arena of mental health, criminal psychologists contribute by working with offenders who may struggle with various mental illnesses. Their work can involve assessing and treating individuals who commit crimes due to mental health issues. Their interventions aim not only to address the immediate mental illness issues but also to reduce the risk of future criminal behavior.

The role of criminal psychologists extends into legal proceedings and mental health, most criminal psychologists are making significant contributions to both fields. Their expertise helps ensure the fairness of legal proceedings and the appropriate treatment of individuals involved in the criminal justice system.

The field of criminal psychology is typically varied for those who decide study the discipline. When considering a criminal psychology major - or related major - it's crucial to understand that this field is fundamentally interdisciplinary.

A bachelor's degree in criminal psychology or criminal justice often includes courses not only in psychology but also in social science, criminal justice, and usually forensic psychology.

It helps to provide a foundation for students interested in this field by introducing them to the understanding of criminal behavior, the legal system, and the ways in which criminal psychology and forensic psychology can be applied within these contexts.

Obviously, to become a criminal psychologist, a solid education is required.

American Public University’s Bachelor of Science in Criminal Justice Curriculum

American Public University offers a comprehensive online Bachelor of Science in Criminal Justice that aims to equip students with an in-depth understanding of the field. The curriculum for this undergraduate degree, developed and updated in response to industry trends and standards, offers a broad foundation in the field.

The coursework in this bachelor's degree spans various key areas such as criminology, law enforcement, corrections, and law and the courts. It aims to foster students' understanding of criminal behavior and the criminal justice system.

As part of the bachelor's degree program, students can also delve into specialized subjects like homeland security, intelligence studies, and emergency management. And, as with all of the University's degree programs, students have an academic advisor on hand to answer any questions or concerns they may have along the way.

The University's Flexible, Asynchronous Schedule

Balancing education with other responsibilities can be a challenge. Recognizing this, American Public University offers a flexible, asynchronous schedule, allowing students to learn at their own pace.

This approach enables students to engage with course material when it suits them best, which can be a significant advantage for those juggling work, family, or other commitments alongside their studies.

Expert Faculty Members at American Public University

The university prides itself on its faculty members, many of whom bring real-world experience to the virtual classroom. This wealth of professional knowledge across various areas of criminal justice may help students relate theoretical concepts to practical scenarios.

These faculty members not only instruct students in the complexities of the field but also share their personal insights and experiences from their professional practice. This level of exposure to the industry may enrich the learning experience, providing students with a comprehensive perspective on the intricacies of this dynamic discipline.

American Public University’s Master’s Degree in Criminal Justice

The Master's Degree in Criminal Justice at American Public University is a comprehensive program aimed at fostering a deep understanding of the criminal justice system.The classes, including “Crime and Mental Disorders” and “Criminal Profiling” – and many more – integrate theory with practical applications, allowing students to delve into the intricate complexities of the field.

Curriculum Design and Specializations

The curriculum for this graduate degree is designed to cover a broad range of critical subjects, including criminological theory, forensic science, criminal justice administration, law enforcement leadership, and legal aspects of criminal justice.

With a focus on critical thinking, research, and communication skills, the curriculum may help students to apply criminal justice theories and practices in various contexts.

Students also have the opportunity to tailor their studies to their interests, with the option to choose from four concentrations: Legal Studies, Emergency Management and Public Safety, Intelligence Studies, and Security Management. Each of these specializations provides a unique perspective on criminal justice, allowing students to delve deeper into a specific area of the field.

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Criminal Justice

Criminal psychology.

Criminal Psychology is the application of psychology to the views, thoughts, intentions and actions of people who engage in criminal behavior. This area of research relies both on core resources in criminal justice and psychology. The included resources below will help you learn more about topics in criminal psychology. To explore additional psychology resources, consider consulting the Psychology Research Guide .

• Society for Police and Criminal Psychology (SPCP) This link opens in a new window
• American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law (AAPL) This link opens in a new window
• Council of Specialties in Police and Public Safety Psychology This link opens in a new window
• American Board of Forensic Psychology This link opens in a new window
• American Board of Professional Psychology: Police and Public Safety This link opens in a new window
• Psychology Today: Law & Crime This link opens in a new window

Psychology Databases

• << Previous: Criminology
• Next: Organized Crime and Gang Violence >>

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What is forensic psychology?

Interest in forensic psychology has surged in recent years, primarily due to such television programs as “Criminal Minds,” where criminal profilers have an almost psychic ability to give elaborate personality and behavioral descriptions of perpetrators (“UNSUBs”). This is a misconception of the role that forensic psychologists play and leads to confusion about who is a forensic psychologist. Since forensic psychology is a relatively new field within psychology, it is still having growing pains. Thus, it would probably be best to start with a definition.

Most forensic psychology textbook authors describe forensic psychology as having a broad definition and a narrow definition. Forensic psychology, as defined by the American Psychological Association, is the application of clinical specialties to the legal arena. This definition emphasizes the application of clinical psychology to the forensic setting. Christopher Cronin, who has written a well-known textbook on forensic psychology, defines it as “The application of clinical specialties to legal institutions and people who come into contact with the law” (p. 5), again emphasizing the application of clinical skills such as assessment, treatment, evaluation to forensic settings. This is considered a narrow definition. The broad definition of forensic psychology emphasizes the application of research and experimentation in other areas of psychology (e.g., cognitive psychology, social psychology) to the legal arena. This would include applying results from studies in areas such as cognitive psychology to legal questions. Two good examples include Elizabeth Loftus’ many studies on eyewitness identification and Stephen Ceci’s research on children’s memory, suggestibility and competence to testify. Cronin labels this definition “legal psychology” or “The scientific study of the effect of the law on people, and the effect people have on the law.”

Thus, the practice of forensic psychology, and perhaps the most frequent duty of forensic psychologists, is the psychological assessment of individuals who are involved, in one way or another, with the legal system. Therefore, although it is necessary to have training in law and forensic psychology, the most important skills a forensic psychologist must possess are solid clinical skills. That is, skills like clinical assessment, interviewing, report writing, strong verbal communication skills (especially if an expert witness in court) and case presentation are all very important in setting the foundation of the practice of forensic psychology. With these skills forensic psychologists perform such tasks as threat assessment for schools, child custody evaluations, competency evaluations of criminal defendants and of the elderly, counseling services to victims of crime, death notification procedures, screening and selection of law enforcement applicants, the assessment of post-traumatic stress disorder and the delivery and evaluation of intervention and treatment programs for juvenile and adult offenders. The practice of forensic psychology involves investigations, research studies, assessments, consultation, the design and implementation of treatment programs and expert witness courtroom testimony.

Arguably one of the most interesting assessments for a forensic psychologist is assessment in “mens rea” (insanity) cases. In the U.S., a person cannot be held responsible for a crime if he/she did not possess a “guilty mind” (mens rea) at the time the criminal act was committed. There are several conditions in which the law recognizes that a guilty mind is absent (e.g., self-defense). “Insanity” is not a psychological term but a legal one. The standard for insanity is determined by each state, and there is also a federal standard. A common standard is whether the person knew what he/she was doing was wrong. The forensic psychologist has to determine not how the person is functioning at the present moment, but his/her mental state at the time of the crime. Thus, much of the forensic psychologist’s work is retrospective and must rely on third-party information, collateral contacts and written communications (e.g., statements made at the time of the crime). 

Although there are master’s level degrees in forensic psychology, all forensic psychologists must have either a PhD or a PsyD degree from an APA-accredited or Canadian Psychological Association (CPA)-accredited doctoral program. They must also have the equivalent of two years of organized, sequential, supervised professional experience, one year of which is an APA- or CPA-accredited predoctoral internship. Often there are other requirements as well. The candidate can apply for licensure and sit for an oral or written exam (depending on the state where the candidate will be practicing). Practitioners can also become board certified (as diplomates) by the American Board of Forensic Psychology.

Forensic psychology has grown in the past 20 years. It is a broad applied field that offers numerous opportunities to the practitioner. Forensic psychologists work in many different legal environments, writing reports, giving testimony, doing direct treatment or working with therapeutic communities. In his book “Trials of a Forensic Psychologist: A Casebook,” Charles Patrick Ewing gives a clear picture of what it is like to evaluate, write and give testimony in court on difficult criminal cases. In many of Stephen Ceci’s and Elizabeth Loftus’s studies, forensic concerns change the nature of how we conceptualize memory and miscommunication. Forensic psychology is definitely here to stay.

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Applied psychology careers

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