how to critique a research article psychology

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How to Critique an Article (Psychology)

Introduction.

• The introduction is a justification for why the study was conducted.
• By the end of the introduction you should have a very good idea of what the researchers are going to study, and be convinced that the study is absolutely necessary to advance the field.
• The justification should be a combination of improving on previous research and good theoretical reasons and practical reasons for why the study is important.
• If the authors are talking about a controversial issue, are they presenting both sides in a reasonable way? Is their choice of one side over the other based on hard evidence?
• Do you understand what their hypotheses are e.g. what they expect to find?
• It is not good enough just to say that the study has not been done before. There are plenty of topics that have not been scientifically researched before but that doesn't mean that they should be. For example, I doubt that anyone has ever looked at the correlation between favorite color of Skittles and personality, but that doesn't mean that it should be researched unless there is a good theoretical reason for why we would expect a relationship and a good reason to think that knowing the relationship would advance our understanding of personality in some meaningful way.

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How to Write an Article Critique

Tips for Writing a Psychology Critique Paper

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Cultura RM / Gu Cultura / Getty Images

• Steps for Writing a Critique

Evaluating the Article

• How to Write It
• Helpful Tips

An article critique involves critically analyzing a written work to assess its strengths and flaws. If you need to write an article critique, you will need to describe the article, analyze its contents, interpret its meaning, and make an overall assessment of the importance of the work.

Critique papers require students to conduct a critical analysis of another piece of writing, often a book, journal article, or essay . No matter your major, you will probably be expected to write a critique paper at some point.

For psychology students, critiquing a professional paper is a great way to learn more about psychology articles, writing, and the research process itself. Students will analyze how researchers conduct experiments, interpret results, and discuss the impact of the results.

At a Glance

An article critique involves making a critical assessment of a single work. This is often an article, but it might also be a book or other written source. It summarizes the contents of the article and then evaluates both the strengths and weaknesses of the piece. Knowing how to write an article critique can help you learn how to evaluate sources with a discerning eye.

Steps for Writing an Effective Article Critique

While these tips are designed to help students write a psychology critique paper, many of the same principles apply to writing article critiques in other subject areas.

Your first step should always be a thorough read-through of the material you will be analyzing and critiquing. It needs to be more than just a casual skim read. It should be in-depth with an eye toward key elements.

To write an article critique, you should:

• Read the article , noting your first impressions, questions, thoughts, and observations
• Describe the contents of the article in your own words, focusing on the main themes or ideas
• Interpret the meaning of the article and its overall importance
• Critically evaluate the contents of the article, including any strong points as well as potential weaknesses

The following guidelines can help you assess the article you are reading and make better sense of the material.

Read the Introduction Section of the Article

Start by reading the introduction . Think about how this part of the article sets up the main body and how it helps you get a background on the topic.

• Is the hypothesis clearly stated?
• Is the necessary background information and previous research described in the introduction?

In addition to answering these basic questions, note other information provided in the introduction and any questions you have.

Read the Methods Section of the Article

Is the study procedure clearly outlined in the methods section ? Can you determine which variables the researchers are measuring?

Remember to jot down questions and thoughts that come to mind as you are reading. Once you have finished reading the paper, you can then refer back to your initial questions and see which ones remain unanswered.

Read the Results Section of the Article

Are all tables and graphs clearly labeled in the results section ? Do researchers provide enough statistical information? Did the researchers collect all of the data needed to measure the variables in question?

Make a note of any questions or information that does not seem to make sense. You can refer back to these questions later as you are writing your final critique.

Read the Discussion Section of the Article

Experts suggest that it is helpful to take notes while reading through sections of the paper you are evaluating. Ask yourself key questions:

• How do the researchers interpret the results of the study?
• Did the results support their hypothesis?
• Do the conclusions drawn by the researchers seem reasonable?

The discussion section offers students an excellent opportunity to take a position. If you agree with the researcher's conclusions, explain why. If you feel the researchers are incorrect or off-base, point out problems with the conclusions and suggest alternative explanations.

Another alternative is to point out questions the researchers failed to answer in the discussion section.

Begin Writing Your Own Critique of the Paper

Once you have read the article, compile your notes and develop an outline that you can follow as you write your psychology critique paper. Here's a guide that will walk you through how to structure your critique paper.

Introduction

Begin your paper by describing the journal article and authors you are critiquing. Provide the main hypothesis (or thesis) of the paper. Explain why you think the information is relevant.

Thesis Statement

The final part of your introduction should include your thesis statement. Your thesis statement is the main idea of your critique. Your thesis should briefly sum up the main points of your critique.

Article Summary

Provide a brief summary of the article. Outline the main points, results, and discussion.

When describing the study or paper, experts suggest that you include a summary of the questions being addressed, study participants, interventions, comparisons, outcomes, and study design.

Don't get bogged down by your summary. This section should highlight the main points of the article you are critiquing. Don't feel obligated to summarize each little detail of the main paper. Focus on giving the reader an overall idea of the article's content.

Your Analysis

In this section, you will provide your critique of the article. Describe any problems you had with the author's premise, methods, or conclusions. You might focus your critique on problems with the author's argument, presentation, information, and alternatives that have been overlooked.

When evaluating a study, summarize the main findings—including the strength of evidence for each main outcome—and consider their relevance to key demographic groups.  

Organize your paper carefully. Be careful not to jump around from one argument to the next. Arguing one point at a time ensures that your paper flows well and is easy to read.

Your critique paper should end with an overview of the article's argument, your conclusions, and your reactions.

More Tips When Writing an Article Critique

• As you are editing your paper, utilize a style guide published by the American Psychological Association, such as the official Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association .
• Reading scientific articles can be challenging at first. Remember that this is a skill that takes time to learn but that your skills will become stronger the more that you read.
• Take a rough draft of your paper to your school's writing lab for additional feedback and use your university library's resources.

What This Means For You

Being able to write a solid article critique is a useful academic skill. While it can be challenging, start by breaking down the sections of the paper, noting your initial thoughts and questions. Then structure your own critique so that you present a summary followed by your evaluation. In your critique, include the strengths and the weaknesses of the article.

Archibald D, Martimianakis MA. Writing, reading, and critiquing reviews .  Can Med Educ J . 2021;12(3):1-7. doi:10.36834/cmej.72945

Pautasso M. Ten simple rules for writing a literature review . PLoS Comput Biol . 2013;9(7):e1003149. doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003149

Gülpınar Ö, Güçlü AG. How to write a review article?   Turk J Urol . 2013;39(Suppl 1):44–48. doi:10.5152/tud.2013.054

Erol A. Basics of writing review articles .  Noro Psikiyatr Ars . 2022;59(1):1-2. doi:10.29399/npa.28093

American Psychological Association.  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association  (7th ed.). Washington DC: The American Psychological Association; 2019.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Making sense of research: A guide for critiquing a paper

Affiliation.

• 1 School of Nursing, Griffith University, Meadowbrook, Queensland.
• PMID: 16114192
• DOI: 10.5172/conu.14.1.38

Learning how to critique research articles is one of the fundamental skills of scholarship in any discipline. The range, quantity and quality of publications available today via print, electronic and Internet databases means it has become essential to equip students and practitioners with the prerequisites to judge the integrity and usefulness of published research. Finding, understanding and critiquing quality articles can be a difficult process. This article sets out some helpful indicators to assist the novice to make sense of research.

Publication types

• Data Interpretation, Statistical
• Research Design
• Review Literature as Topic

Article Critique Assignment Pick two psychological research articles relevant to your study (I will hand out an additional one to everyone in class). The articles should be less than 5 years old and different from those of your classmates. At least one should be quantitative (both are ok). For each of the three articles, answer the following questions, providing appropriate support. Quantitative Studies Qualitative Studies 1. Purpose of the study a. Why does the author think the study is necessary? b. Do you agree with his/her justification? 1. Purpose of the study a. Why does the author think the study is necessary? b. Do you agree with his/her justification? 2. Hypotheses a. Are the hypotheses clearly stated and testable? b. What previous research are they based on? c. Are they grounded in theory? (if so, describe) 2. Research questions a. What previous research are questions based on? b. Are they grounded in existing theory or designed to build new theory? 3. General methodology a. Is a quantitative approach appropriate in this case? b. What are its strengths and weaknesses (in this study)? 3. Experimenter's background a. What is the relevant life experience (including professional background)? b. What is the past/current role with this population? c. What biases do you think she/he has? 4. Sample a. Is there sufficient power? b. How are "subjects" selected/recruited? b. How generalizable is the sample? (Who's left out?) 4. Methodology (2 points) a. Why do you think these methods were selected? b. What are their strengths and weaknesses? c. Are there ways the study could be improved? d. Could different methods of analysis be used? If so, what might be gained/lost? 5. Measures a. What are the independent and dependent variables? b. How are they operationalized and measured? c. Are the measures valid and reliable? 5. Sample a. How were participants selected/recruited? b. Is it an appropriate sample for the study purpose? 6. Procedures a. What are pros & cons of how data were collected? b. Are there ways the procedure could be improved? 6. Variables a. How were the variables of interest operationalized? b. How were they assessed? 7. Data analysis a. Are analyses appropriate given the type of data? b. Could different methods of analysis been used? 7. Results a. Are they consistent with the hypotheses? b. What are their implications and real-world applications? 8. Results a. Are they consistent with the hypotheses? b. What are their implications and real-world applications? 8. Final thoughts... (2 points) a. Was the study clearly presented? b. Was the study worth doing and publishing? c. Describe a logical extension of this study. 9. Final thoughts... (2 points) a. Was the study clearly presented? b. Was the study worth doing and publishing? c. Describe a logical extension of this study.    

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How to Write a Psychology Critique Paper

by  Antony W

June 9, 2022

Students must do a critical examination of another work of writing, typically a book, journal article, or essay, for critique papers. Regardless of your major, you will likely be required to compose a critique paper at some time.

Critique of a professional paper is an excellent approach for psychology students to learn more about psychology articles and the research process itself. Students will examine how scientists perform experiments, evaluate data, and debate the implications of the discoveries.

In this guide, you’ll learn how to write a psychology critique paper and do so with ease, even if you’ve never written a critique before. 

Let’s get started.

What is a Psychology Research Paper?

Psychologist Papers is a scientific-professional journal of reviews, meta-analyses, solutions, discoveries, guidance, experiences, and practical techniques on handling difficulties and challenges emerging in professional practice in any area of Psychology.

It also serves as a solution for conflicting viewpoints and promoting discussion of contentious techniques or topics. To guarantee that the work represents the most up-to-date techniques and practical applications, all choices are made through a rigorous and anonymous review procedure.

While these guidelines are intended to assist students in writing a psychology paper evaluation, many of the same ideas also apply to writing critiques in other disciplines.

Always begin with a comprehensive reading of the information you will be examining and commenting on. This requires more than a cursory perusal. Consider reading with a keen eye on the details. 

The following advice will assist you in evaluating what you are reading and making greater sense of the content.

Read the Introduction

By reading the introduction, you’ll know whether the author of the psychology paper has expressed their theory precisely. Also, you’re able to determine if the paper features background information and past research. 

In addition to completing these fundamental questions, you should also take note of any additional information offered in the introduction and any questions you may have.

Read the Methods Section

Does the author describe the study’s methodology in the methods section? Can you identify the variables measured by the researchers?

Remember to write down any questions and ideas that arise as you read. Once you have completed reading the article, you can review your original questions to see which ones remain unanswered.

Read the Results Section

Are all tables and graphs in the results section correctly labeled? Did the researchers give sufficient statistical data? Did the researchers acquire all of the necessary data to measure the variables at hand?

Make a note of any queries you have and any material that seems illogical. As you write your final criticism, you can return to these questions for reference.

Read the Discussion Section

Experts recommend taking notes as you read the portions of the paper you are analyzing.

Ask yourself fundamental questions as you read this section:

• How do researchers interpret the study’s findings?
• Was their theory supported by the results?
• Do the findings of the researchers appear reasonable?

The discussion part provides students with an excellent opportunity to take a stance.

Explain why you agree with the researcher’s conclusions if you do. If you believe the researchers’ conclusions are flawed or off base, you should point out the flaws and offer alternate explanations.

Another option is to highlight questions that were not addressed by the researchers in the discussion section.

Help with Psychology Paper Critique

Do you need help with article critique writing even after reading this guide? Help for Assessment is here to help. Check out our article critique writing service here, and hire our team to help you get the work done with the shortest time possible. We guarantee high quality work submitted on time.

Write the Critique on the Psychology Paper

As soon as you have finished reading the material, consolidate your notes and create an outline to guide you as you compose your psychology review paper.

Introduction

Describe the journal article and authors you are evaluating in the introduction of your paper. Provide the paper’s principal hypothesis and justify why you believe the information is significant.

Thesis Statement

Your thesis statement should be included at the end of your introduction. Your thesis statement is the central argument of your analysis. Your thesis should succinctly summarize the primary arguments of your critique.

Article Summary

Provide a concise overview of the article. Summarize the key points, findings, and debate.

Experts recommend including an overview of the topics being addressed, study participants, interventions, comparisons, results, and study design when discussing the study or publication.

Avoid being bogged down in your summary. This section should emphasize the article’s key arguments. Do not feel forced to describe every minor point from the major body of the article. Focus on providing the reader with an overview of the article’s substance.

Write Your Evaluation

This area will contain your analysis on the article. Describe any difficulties you encountered with the author’s premise, methodology, or conclusions. You might focus your criticism on ignored issues with the author’s argument, presentation, facts, and alternatives.

When reviewing a study, provide a summary of the significant results, including the evidence strength for each major outcome, and examine their applicability to relevant demographic groups.

Organize your paper with great care. Be cautious about jumping from one argument to another. If you argue one issue at a time, your work will flow effectively and be easy to read.

Write Your Conclusion

Your paper should conclude with a summary of the thesis of the article, your findings, and your comments.

Final Thoughts on Critiquing a Psychology Critique Paper

Utilize a style guide issued by the American Psychological Association, such as the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, while revising your manuscript.

Reading scientific journal papers can be challenging. You may choose to educate yourself on how to read and comprehend psychological journal articles.

Take a preliminary copy of your work to the writing lab at your school for further input and utilize the library’s resources.

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

• Research Guides

PSYC 2301 | Article Critique Assignment

• What is a Scholarly Article?
• Locating Scholarly Articles
• APA Citation

Write a 2-3 page college-level paper in APA format, in which you analyze one scientific, peer reviewed article in the discipline of psychology and discuss how the results of the study may benefit the surrounding community and/or society as a whole.

• Journal Article Critique Assignment
• Article topics must be selected from topics within the discipline of psychology.
• Anything from Chapters 1-15 of your textbook.

​U se the  Locating Scholarly Articles   tab on the left for help locating your scholarly article for this assignment.

The journal article...

• must be current (no earlier than January 2015 or as specified by professor )
• must come from professional, scientific journals. Click on the  What is a Scholarly Article?  tab to the left for a discussion of what makes an article scholarly.
• must be a research article (MUST HAVE SECTIONS LABELED " METHODS ", " RESULTS " & " DISCUSSION ")
• You must use APA format . Click the APA Citation tab on the left for help with APA format.
• APA format requirements include a cover page, reference page, in-text citations, etc. (*you do not need an abstract page for this paper.)
• Next: What is a Scholarly Article? >>
• Last Updated: Nov 15, 2023 12:58 PM
• URL: https://sjcd.libguides.com/PSYC2301

https://www.sanjac.edu/library | Central Library: 281-476-1850 | Generation Park Campus: 281-998-6150 x8133 | North Library: 281-459-7116 | South Library: 281-998-6150 ext. 3306

• Open access
• Published: 21 May 2024

The bright side of sports: a systematic review on well-being, positive emotions and performance

• David Peris-Delcampo 1 ,
• Antonio Núñez 2 ,
• Paula Ortiz-Marholz 3 ,
• Aurelio Olmedilla 4 ,
• Enrique Cantón 1 ,
• Javier Ponseti 2 &
• Alejandro Garcia-Mas 2  

BMC Psychology volume  12 , Article number:  284 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

357 Accesses

Metrics details

The objective of this study is to conduct a systematic review regarding the relationship between positive psychological factors, such as psychological well-being and pleasant emotions, and sports performance.

This study, carried out through a systematic review using PRISMA guidelines considering the Web of Science, PsycINFO, PubMed and SPORT Discus databases, seeks to highlight the relationship between other more ‘positive’ factors, such as well-being, positive emotions and sports performance.

The keywords will be decided by a Delphi Method in two rounds with sport psychology experts.

Participants

There are no participants in the present research.

The main exclusion criteria were: Non-sport thema, sample younger or older than 20–65 years old, qualitative or other methodology studies, COVID-related, journals not exclusively about Psychology.

Main outcomes measures

We obtained a first sample of 238 papers, and finally, this sample was reduced to the final sample of 11 papers.

The results obtained are intended to be a representation of the ‘bright side’ of sports practice, and as a complement or mediator of the negative variables that have an impact on athletes’ and coaches’ performance.

Conclusions

Clear recognition that acting on intrinsic motivation continues to be the best and most effective way to motivate oneself to obtain the highest levels of performance, a good perception of competence and a source of personal satisfaction.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

In recent decades, research in the psychology of sport and physical exercise has focused on the analysis of psychological variables that could have a disturbing, unfavourable or detrimental role, including emotions that are considered ‘negative’, such as anxiety/stress, sadness or anger, concentrating on their unfavourable relationship with sports performance [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ], sports injuries [ 5 , 6 , 7 ] or, more generally, damage to the athlete’s health [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. The study of ‘positive’ emotions such as happiness or, more broadly, psychological well-being, has been postponed at this time, although in recent years this has seen an increase that reveals a field of study of great interest to researchers and professionals [ 11 , 12 , 13 ] including physiological, psychological, moral and social beneficial effects of the physical activity in comic book heroes such as Tintin, a team leader, which can serve as a model for promoting healthy lifestyles, or seeking ‘eternal youth’ [ 14 ].

Emotions in relation to their effects on sports practice and performance rarely go in one direction, being either negative or positive—generally positive and negative emotions do not act alone [ 15 ]. Athletes experience different emotions simultaneously, even if they are in opposition and especially if they are of mild or moderate intensity [ 16 ]. The athlete can feel satisfied and happy and at the same time perceive a high level of stress or anxiety before a specific test or competition. Some studies [ 17 ] have shown how sports participation and the perceived value of elite sports positively affect the subjective well-being of the athlete. This also seems to be the case in non-elite sports practice. The review by Mansfield et al. [ 18 ] showed that the published literature suggests that practising sports and dance, in a group or supported by peers, can improve the subjective well-being of the participants, and also identifies negative feelings towards competence and ability, although the quantity and quality of the evidence published is low, requiring better designed studies. All these investigations are also supported by the development of the concept of eudaimonic well-being [ 19 ], which is linked to the development of intrinsic motivation, not only in its aspect of enjoyment but also in its relationship with the perception of competition and overcoming and achieving goals, even if this is accompanied by other unpleasant hedonic emotions or even physical discomfort. Shortly after a person has practised sports, he will remember those feelings of exhaustion and possibly stiffness, linked to feelings of satisfaction and even enjoyment.

Furthermore, the mediating role of parents, coaches and other psychosocial agents can be significant. In this sense, Lemelin et al. [ 20 ], with the aim of investigating the role of autonomy support from parents and coaches in the prediction of well-being and performance of athletes, found that autonomy support from parents and coaches has positive relationships with the well-being of the athlete, but that only coach autonomy support is associated with sports performance. This research suggests that parents and coaches play important but distinct roles in athlete well-being and that coach autonomy support could help athletes achieve high levels of performance.

On the other hand, an analysis of emotions in the sociocultural environment in which they arise and gain meaning is always interesting, both from an individual perspective and from a sports team perspective. Adler et al. [ 21 ] in a study with military teams showed that teams with a strong emotional culture of optimism were better positioned to recover from poor performance, suggesting that organisations that promote an optimistic culture develop more resilient teams. Pekrun et al. [ 22 ] observed with mathematics students that individual success boosts emotional well-being, while placing people in high-performance groups can undermine it, which is of great interest in investigating the effectiveness and adjustment of the individual in sports teams.

There is still little scientific literature in the field of positive emotions and their relationship with sports practice and athlete performance, although their approach has long had its clear supporters [ 23 , 24 ]. It is comforting to observe the significant increase in studies in this field, since some authors (e.g [ 25 , 26 ]). . , point out the need to overcome certain methodological and conceptual problems, paying special attention to the development of specific instruments for the evaluation of well-being in the sports field and evaluation methodologies.

As McCarthy [ 15 ] indicates, positive emotions (hedonically pleasant) can be the catalysts for excellence in sport and deserve a space in our research and in professional intervention to raise the level of athletes’ performance. From a holistic perspective, positive emotions are permanently linked to psychological well-being and research in this field is necessary: firstly because of the leading role they play in human behaviour, cognition and affection, and secondly, because after a few years of international uncertainty due to the COVID-19 pandemic and wars, it seems ‘healthy and intelligent’ to encourage positive emotions for our athletes. An additional reason is that they are known to improve motivational processes, reducing abandonment and negative emotional costs [ 11 ]. In this vein, concepts such as emotional intelligence make sense and can help to identify and properly manage emotions in the sports field and determine their relationship with performance [ 27 ] that facilitates the inclusion of emotional training programmes based on the ‘bright side’ of sports practice [ 28 ].

Based on all of the above, one might wonder how these positive emotions are related to a given event and what role each one of them plays in the athlete’s performance. Do they directly affect performance, or do they affect other psychological variables such as concentration, motivation and self-efficacy? Do they favour the availability and competent performance of the athlete in a competition? How can they be regulated, controlled for their own benefit? How can other psychosocial agents, such as parents or coaches, help to increase the well-being of their athletes?

This work aims to enhance the leading role, not the secondary, of the ‘good and pleasant side’ of sports practice, either with its own entity, or as a complement or mediator of the negative variables that have an impact on the performance of athletes and coaches. Therefore, the objective of this study is to conduct a systematic review regarding the relationship between positive psychological factors, such as psychological well-being and pleasant emotions, and sports performance. For this, the methodological criteria that constitute the systematic review procedure will be followed.

Materials and methods

This study was carried out through a systematic review using PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews) guidelines considering the Web of Science (WoS) and Psycinfo databases. These two databases were selected using the Delphi method [ 29 ]. It does not include a meta-analysis because there is great data dispersion due to the different methodologies used [ 30 ].

The keywords will be decided by the Delphi Method in two rounds with sport psychology experts. The results obtained are intended to be a representation of the ‘bright side’ of sports practice, and as a complement or mediator of the negative variables that have an impact on athletes’ and coaches’ performance.

It was determined that the main construct was to be psychological well-being, and that it was to be paired with optimism, healthy practice, realisation, positive mood, and performance and sport. The search period was limited to papers published between 2000 and 2023, and the final list of papers was obtained on February 13 , 2023. This research was conducted in two languages—English and Spanish—and was limited to psychological journals and specifically those articles where the sample was formed by athletes.

Each word was searched for in each database, followed by searches involving combinations of the same in pairs and then in trios. In relation to the results obtained, it was decided that the best approach was to group the words connected to positive psychology on the one hand, and on the other, those related to self-realisation/performance/health. In this way, it used parentheses to group words (psychological well-being; or optimism; or positive mood) with the Boolean ‘or’ between them (all three refer to positive psychology); and on the other hand, it grouped those related to performance/health/realisation (realisation; or healthy practice or performance), separating both sets of parentheses by the Boolean ‘and’’. To further filter the search, a keyword included in the title and in the inclusion criteria was added, which was ‘sport’ with the Boolean ‘and’’. In this way, the search achieved results that combined at least one of the three positive psychology terms and one of the other three.

Results (first phase)

The mentioned keywords were cross-matched, obtaining the combination with a sufficient number of papers. From the first research phase, the total number of papers obtained was 238. Then screening was carried out by 4 well-differentiated phases that are summarised in Fig.  1 . These phases helped to reduce the original sample to a more accurate one.

Phases of the selection process for the final sample. Four phases were carried out to select the final sample of articles. The first phase allowed the elimination of duplicates. In the second stage, those that, by title or abstract, did not fit the objectives of the article were eliminated. Previously selected exclusion criteria were applied to the remaining sample. Thus, in phase 4, the final sample of 11 selected articles was obtained

Results (second phase)

The first screening examined the title, and the abstract if needed, excluding the papers that were duplicated, contained errors or someone with formal problems, low N or case studies. This screening allowed the initial sample to be reduced to a more accurate one with 109 papers selected.

Results (third phase)

This was followed by the second screening to examine the abstract and full texts, excluding if necessary papers related to non-sports themes, samples that were too old or too young for our interests, papers using qualitative methodologies, articles related to the COVID period, or others published in non-psychological journals. Furthermore, papers related to ‘negative psychological variables’’ were also excluded.

Results (fourth phase)

At the end of this second screening the remaining number of papers was 11. In this final phase we tried to organise the main characteristics and their main conclusions/results in a comprehensible list (Table  1 ). Moreover, in order to enrich our sample of papers, we decided to include some articles from other sources, mainly those presented in the introduction to sustain the conceptual framework of the concept ‘bright side’ of sports.

The usual position of the researcher of psychological variables that affect sports performance is to look for relationships between ‘negative’ variables, first in the form of basic psychological processes, or distorting cognitive behavioural, unpleasant or evaluable as deficiencies or problems, in a psychology for the ‘risk’ society, which emphasises the rehabilitation that stems from overcoming personal and social pathologies [ 31 ], and, lately, regarding the affectation of the athlete’s mental health [ 32 ]. This fact seems to be true in many cases and situations and to openly contradict the proclaimed psychological benefits of practising sports (among others: Cantón [ 33 ], ; Froment and González [ 34 ]; Jürgens [ 35 ]).

However, it is possible to adopt another approach focused on the ‘positive’ variables, also in relation to the athlete’s performance. This has been the main objective of this systematic review of the existing literature and far from being a novel approach, although a minority one, it fits perfectly with the definition of our area of knowledge in the broad field of health, as has been pointed out for some time [ 36 , 37 ].

After carrying out the aforementioned systematic review, a relatively low number of articles were identified by experts that met the established conditions—according to the PRISMA method [ 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ]—regarding databases, keywords, and exclusion and inclusion criteria. These precautions were taken to obtain the most accurate results possible, and thus guarantee the quality of the conclusions.

The first clear result that stands out is the great difficulty in finding articles in which sports ‘performance’ is treated as a well-defined study variable adapted to the situation and the athletes studied. In fact, among the results (11 papers), only 3 associate one or several positive psychological variables with performance (which is evaluated in very different ways, combining objective measures with other subjective ones). This result is not surprising, since in several previous studies (e.g. Nuñez et al. [ 41 ]) using a systematic review, this relationship is found to be very weak and nuanced by the role of different mediating factors, such as previous sports experience or the competitive level (e.g. Rascado, et al. [ 42 ]; Reche, Cepero & Rojas [ 43 ]), despite the belief—even among professional and academic circles—that there is a strong relationship between negative variables and poor performance, and vice versa, with respect to the positive variables.

Regarding what has been evidenced in relation to the latter, even with these restrictions in the inclusion and exclusion criteria, and the filters applied to the first findings, a true ‘galaxy’ of variables is obtained, which also belong to different categories and levels of psychological complexity.

A preliminary consideration regarding the current paradigm of sport psychology: although it is true that some recent works have already announced the swing of the pendulum on the objects of study of PD, by returning to the study of traits and dispositions, and even to the personality of athletes [ 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 ], our results fully corroborate this trend. Faced with five variables present in the studies selected at the end of the systematic review, a total of three traits/dispositions were found, which were also the most repeated—optimism being present in four articles, mental toughness present in three, and finally, perfectionism—as the representative concepts of this field of psychology, which lately, as has already been indicated, is significantly represented in the field of research in this area [ 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 ]. In short, the psychological variables that finally appear in the selected articles are: psychological well-being (PWB) [ 53 ]; self-compassion, which has recently been gaining much relevance with respect to the positive attributional resolution of personal behaviours [ 54 ], satisfaction with life (balance between sports practice, its results, and life and personal fulfilment [ 55 ], the existence of approach-achievement goals [ 56 ], and perceived social support [ 57 ]). This last concept is maintained transversally in several theoretical frameworks, such as Sports Commitment [ 58 ].

The most relevant concept, both quantitatively and qualitatively, supported by the fact that it is found in combination with different variables and situations, is not a basic psychological process, but a high-level cognitive construct: psychological well-being, in its eudaimonic aspect, first defined in the general population by Carol Ryff [ 59 , 60 ] and introduced at the beginning of this century in sport (e.g., Romero, Brustad & García-Mas [ 13 ], ; Romero, García-Mas & Brustad [ 61 ]). It is important to note that this concept understands psychological well-being as multifactorial, including autonomy, control of the environment in which the activity takes place, social relationships, etc.), meaning personal fulfilment through a determined activity and the achievement or progress towards goals and one’s own objectives, without having any direct relationship with simpler concepts, such as vitality or fun. In the selected studies, PWB appears in five of them, and is related to several of the other variables/traits.

The most relevant result regarding this variable is its link with motivational aspects, as a central axis that relates to different concepts, hence its connection to sports performance, as a goal of constant improvement that requires resistance, perseverance, management of errors and great confidence in the possibility that achievements can be attained, that is, associated with ideas of optimism, which is reflected in expectations of effectiveness.

If we detail the relationships more specifically, we can first review this relationship with the ‘way of being’, understood as personality traits or behavioural tendencies, depending on whether more or less emphasis is placed on their possibilities for change and learning. In these cases, well-being derives from satisfaction with progress towards the desired goal, for which resistance (mental toughness) and confidence (optimism) are needed. When, in addition, the search for improvement is constant and aiming for excellence, its relationship with perfectionism is clear, although it is a factor that should be explored further due to its potential negative effect, at least in the long term.

The relationship between well-being and satisfaction with life is almost tautological, in the precise sense that what produces well-being is the perception of a relationship or positive balance between effort (or the perception of control, if we use stricter terminology) and the results thereof (or the effectiveness of such control). This direct link is especially important when assessing achievement in personally relevant activities, which, in the case of the subjects evaluated in the papers, specifically concern athletes of a certain level of performance, which makes it a more valuable objective than would surely be found in the general population. And precisely because of this effect of the value of performance for athletes of a certain level, it also allows us to understand how well-being is linked to self-compassion, since as a psychological concept it is very close to that of self-esteem, but with a lower ‘demand’ or a greater ‘generosity’, when we encounter failures, mistakes or even defeats along the way, which offers us greater protection from the risk of abandonment and therefore reinforces persistence, a key element for any successful sports career [ 62 ].

It also has a very direct relationship with approach-achievement goals, since precisely one of the central aspects characterising this eudaimonic well-being and differentiating it from hedonic well-being is specifically its relationship with self-determined and persistent progress towards goals or achievements with incentive value for the person, as is sports performance evidently [ 63 ].

Finally, it is interesting to see how we can also find a facet or link relating to the aspects that are more closely-related to the need for human affiliation, with feeling part of a group or human collective, where we can recognise others and recognise ourselves in the achievements obtained and the social reinforcement of those themselves, as indicated by their relationship with perceived social support. This construct is very labile, in fact it is common to find results in which the pressure of social support is hardly differentiated, for example, from the parents of athletes and/or their coaches [ 64 ]. However, its relevance within this set of psychological variables and traits is proof of its possible conceptual validity.

Analysing the results obtained, the first conclusion is that in no case is an integrated model based solely on ‘positive’ variables or traits obtained, since some ‘negative’ ones appear (anxiety, stress, irrational thoughts), affecting the former.

The second conclusion is that among the positive elements the variable coping strategies (their use, or the perception of their effectiveness) and the traits of optimism, perfectionism and self-compassion prevail, since mental strength or psychological well-being (which also appear as important, but with a more complex nature) are seen to be participated in by the aforementioned traits.

Finally, it must be taken into account that the generation of positive elements, such as resilience, or the learning of coping strategies, are directly affected by the educational style received, or by the culture in which the athlete is immersed. Thus, the applied potential of these findings is great, but it must be calibrated according to the educational and/or cultural features of the specific setting.

Limitations

The limitations of this study are those evident and common in SR methodology using the PRISMA system, since the selection of keywords (and their logical connections used in the search), the databases, and the inclusion/exclusion criteria bias the work in its entirety and, therefore, constrain the generalisation of the results obtained.

Likewise, the conclusions must—based on the above and the results obtained—be made with the greatest concreteness and simplicity possible. Although we have tried to reduce these limitations as much as possible through the use of experts in the first steps of the method, they remain and must be considered in terms of the use of the results.

Future developments

Undoubtedly, progress is needed in research to more precisely elucidate the role of well-being, as it has been proposed here, from a bidirectional perspective: as a motivational element to push towards improvement and the achievement of goals, and as a product or effect of the self-determined and competent behaviour of the person, in relation to different factors, such as that indicated here of ‘perfectionism’ or the potential interference of material and social rewards, which are linked to sports performance—in our case—and that could act as a risk factor so that our achievements, far from being a source of well-being and satisfaction, become an insatiable demand in the search to obtain more and more frequent rewards.

From a practical point of view, an empirical investigation should be conducted to see if these relationships hold from a statistical point of view, either in the classical (correlational) or in the probabilistic (Bayesian Networks) plane.

The results obtained in this study, exclusively researched from the desk, force the authors to develop subsequent empirical and/or experimental studies in two senses: (1) what interrelationships exist between the so called ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ psychological variables and traits in sport, and in what sense are each of them produced; and, (2) from a global, motivational point of view, can currently accepted theoretical frameworks, such as SDT, easily accommodate this duality, which is becoming increasingly evident in applied work?

Finally, these studies should lead to proposals applied to the two fields that have appeared to be relevant: educational and cultural.

Application/transfer of results

A clear application of these results is aimed at guiding the training of sports and physical exercise practitioners, directing it towards strategies for assessing achievements, improvements and failure management, which keep them in line with well-being enhancement, eudaimonic, intrinsic and self-determined, which enhances the quality of their learning and their results and also favours personal health and social relationships.

Data availability

There are no further external data.

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Efficacy of Progressive Muscle Relaxation in Adults for Stress, Anxiety, and Depression: A Systematic Review

Syazwina muhammad khir.

1 Department of Psychology, School of Human Resource Development and Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia

Wan Mohd Azam Wan Mohd Yunus

2 INVEST Research Flagship, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

3 Research Centre for Child Psychiatry, University of Turku, Turku, Finland

Norashikin Mahmud

Siti aisyah panatik, mohammad saipol mohd sukor, nor akmar nordin.

The rise in the prevalence of mental health problems among adults worldwide has raised concerns, highlighting the critical need for evidence-based mental health interventions that are accessible, comprehensive, and effective. Previous research suggests that Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) is a promising intervention widely used to reduce mental health problems. Nevertheless, the current literature on the efficacy of PMR among adults globally is fragmented, indicating a potential gap in this research area. Hence, this paper aims to systematically compile the research evidence on the efficacy of PMR in adults for stress, anxiety, and depression.

The Scopus, Web of Sciences, PubMed, PsycINFO, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials were searched from the earliest available evidence to 28th March 2023. The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses) guidelines were followed, and the protocol was registered on the Open Science Framework. Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Critical Appraisal Tools were used to assess the quality of the included studies.

A total of forty-six (46) publications from sixteen (16) countries covering more than 3402 adults were included in the review. The results show that PMR are effective in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression in adults. When PMR is combined with other interventions, the combined techniques have also consistently exhibited enhanced efficacy. Moreover, findings also indicate that the efficacy of PMR is heightened when implemented in conjunction with other interventions, surpassing its standalone efficacy.

Funding and Registration

This research was supported/funded by the Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) (FRGS/1/2020/SS0/UTM/02/23). The review was registered on Open Science Framework (OSF) on the 7th of March 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/U2HZP .

Introduction

There is more to mental health than the absence of mental disorders. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 1 the term “mental health” refers to a state of psychological well-being that allows individuals to successfully manage the challenges of life, recognize their strengths, participate in study and work, and make significant contributions to the communities. There is a broad continuum of mental health that is experienced differently by each individual. It carries diverse levels of challenges and distress as well as possibly highly distinct social and psychological impacts. Being typically capable of thinking, feeling, and acting in a way that satisfies one’s desires in life is a sign of good mental health. However, if one has experienced a phase of poor mental health such as stress, anxiety, and depression, they will likely find everyday life as challenging or even impossible to deal with the frequent thoughts, feelings, or responses. These poor conditions could lead to more serious psychiatric disorders or conditions such as clinical anxiety, depression, bipolar disorders, schizophrenia, or even suicide. 2–4 The aforementioned statement emphasizes the critical need to swiftly address stress, anxiety, and depression as these are major contributors to the wider range of mental health issues that people may encounter.

Stress may not be typical of the person or the environment; rather, it is a complex system formed by the interplay of specific psychological and physiological elements with the surroundings, 5 while anxiety is a mental condition characterized by unpleasant emotions, unease, anxiety about the future, or dread of reacting to the present without a clear trigger. 6 According to World Health Organization, 7 depression is a widespread mental health condition that impacts over 300 million individuals globally. Depression is commonly characterized by symptoms like poor mood, interest loss, changes in weight or appetite, sleep difficulties, psychomotor changes, guilt feelings, lack of focus, and suicidal thoughts or attempts in the past. 8 An earlier research conducted among adult population in 2020 revealed that nearly half of the study sample (48.1%) were affected with mild to extremely severe stress, anxiety, and depression. 9 These figures are very alarming since they could trigger negative affect, which includes erratic feelings and apathy 10 among the adults.

To address those mental health issues, experts have suggested several recommendations like maintaining physical well-being, partaking in recreational activities, staying positive, socializing, and learning relaxation exercises 11 Relaxation exercises have been found to be effective for a person’s physical and mental well-being by enabling one’s breathing to calm down, decreasing blood pressure, easing stress, and minimizing muscle spasm. 12 , 13 Moreover, there are emerging studies on the use of relaxation exercises as part of an interdisciplinary prevention or intervention approach for stress, anxiety, and depression, 14–17 and relaxation techniques like progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) are capable of successfully tensing and relaxing different muscle groups. 18

Of all the relaxation techniques, the PMR technique is the most straightforward to understand and to be used as it is accessible, affordable, self-induced, and offers no adverse impacts. 19 Utilizing PMR is particularly effective in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression. By differentiating between sensations of tension (a purposeful tensing of the muscles) and relaxation (a conscious, deliberate release of the muscles’ tension), PMR makes it easier to identify muscles or muscle groups that are persistently tense. 18 , 20

Systematic reviews on PMR by previous scholars have focused on the impact of the exercises on patients with serious illnesses such as cancer patients, schizophrenic patients, and those who are undergoing surgery 14 , 21 , 22 in reducing their mental health problems. However, to our knowledge, there are no systematic reviews that assess the efficacy of PMR interventions on stress, anxiety, and depression of the general adult population, thus contributing to the current body of knowledge.

Methodology

The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guided the present study. PRISMA was developed to assist reviewers in clearly describing their studies’ purpose, methods, and findings. 23 Using this guideline, the reviewers developed pertinent research questions based on the PICO framework. This framework aids reviewers in structuring research questions by dividing them into four main parts: Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome. 24 Based on the framework, one research question is formulated: Does Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) effectively reduce stress, anxiety, and depression among adults? In this review, adults are defined as those who are 18 years of age or older. 25 The review’s objectives, inclusion criteria, and methods of analysis were pre-specified and documented in a protocol filed on Open Science Framework (OSF) on the 7th March 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/U2HZP .

Search Strategy

The reviewers conduct a comprehensive search of five electronic databases; Scopus, Web of Sciences, PubMed, PsycINFO, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. The reviewers used various keywords for the literature search to match the study’s context and succeed in enhancing the keywords while constructing a comprehensive search string (based on phrase searching, field code function, Boolean operator, truncation, and wild card). The search terms utilized for all the databases included are presented in Table 1 .

The Search Terms

Selection Criteria

This review includes publications that fit two distinct criteria: (1) Those that explore the effects of PMR on stress, anxiety, and depression in adults, either as a standalone intervention or in combination with additional intervention approaches; and (2) Studies that implement rigorous methodologies, utilizing either a Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) or a Quasi-Experimental Design (QED). For this review, the inclusion criteria necessitate studies to includes all studies that investigate the efficacy of PMR on stress, anxiety, and/or depression symptoms, focus on experimental research, look at non-clinical cases among adults, and have been published in English language from earliest time until 28th March 2023. Conversely, the review excludes all meta-analysis papers, systematic review papers, students’ thesis, or unauthorized or unrecognized dissertations, any non-experimental research, all clinical cases, and non-English articles or studies.

Study Search, Selection, and Retrieval Processes

The research procedure includes a methodical flow that starts with a thorough database search, followed by exporting the identified articles into the reference management software EndNote X7. After that, duplicates were removed and both the titles and abstracts were screened for relevancy. The process continued by retrieving the full texts of the publications that had been shortlisted. Some articles were unable to be retrieved due to access restrictions on databases, full-text not available, limited database archive, and is a conference abstracts. Finally, a thorough evaluation of these full texts was done to determine which articles are most significant based on the aforementioned criteria. The process was carried out independently by two different reviewers, who then met to compare their findings and reach a consensus. In cases where a consensus was elusive, the reviewers engaged a senior researcher for guidance and resolution.

Quality Assessment of the Included Study

Following the screening procedure, two (2) reviewers used revised Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Critical Appraisal Tools 26 , 27 to complete the quality assessment on all the selected papers. The reviewers used two (2) different checklists from the revised JBI critical appraisal tools.

The first tool was a checklist called the “Revised Randomized Controlled Trial Checklist”. This checklist was used to review papers that used the Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) design. The checklist provided a thorough, standardized methodology for evaluating many components of RCTs, including internal validity, all types of bias checklists, statistical conclusion validity, randomization protocols, blinding methods, and attrition rates, among other crucial variables. 26 This tool examines thirteen (13) significant components for the systematic review. The checklists consist of four distinct responses: Yes, No, Unclear, and Not Applicable. 28 For this checklist, each of the items received a score for adherence. Items marked with a “Yes” earn a score of one (1), signifying adherence to the checklist criterion, whilst any other replies - “No”, “Unclear”, or “Not Applicable”, receive a score of zero (0), suggesting a lack of assurance or non-relevance to the specific criterion. Previous research on the JBI critical appraisal tool confirms that the attribution of cut-off values or scores that identify a study as being of low, moderate, or high quality is best selected by the systematic reviewers themselves. 29 The aforementioned approach enables reviewers to determine these thresholds based on the specific requirements and circumstances of their assessment, resulting in a more personalized and precise evaluation process. For the current review, the reviewers opted to implement the scoring system from earlier studies. 30 , 31 Under the assessment criteria, studies obtaining 70% or more of the maximum attainable score were classified as “high quality”, those scoring between 50% and 70% were classified as “moderate quality”, while studies with scores falling below the 50% threshold were classified as “poor quality”. Moreover, for this checklist, those earning ten (10) points or more were classified as “high quality”, those that scored between seven (7) and ten (10) points were deemed “moderate quality”, and articles that accrued six (6) points or less were categorized as “poor quality”.

The second tool was the “Revised Checklist for Quasi-Experimental Studies”. This checklist functioned as an evaluative measure for all studies that used a quasi-experimental design (QED), offering a formal framework for examining the robustness and dependability of the procedures used, how they were carried out, and the subsequent validity of the results. 26 This tool examines nine (9) significant components for the systematic review. Similar to RCT tool, this checklist consists of four distinct responses: Yes, No, Unclear, and Not Applicable. Each of the items received a score for adherence. Items marked with a “Yes” earn a score of one (1), signifying adherence to the checklist criterion, whilst any other replies - “No”, “Unclear”, or “Not Applicable”, receive a score of zero (0), suggesting a lack of assurance or non-relevance to the specific criterion. Moreover, studies obtaining 70% or more of the maximum attainable score were classified as “high quality”, those scoring between 50% and 70% were classified as “moderate quality”, while studies with scores falling below the 50% threshold were classified as “poor quality”. 30 , 31 Those earning seven (7) points or more were classified as “high quality”, those that scored between five (5) and seven (7) points were deemed “moderate quality”, and articles that received four (4) points or less were categorized as “poor quality”.

The quality assessment instructs reviewers to include articles with high and moderate qualities only. Two reviewers made decisions on the study’s eligibility and quality. All possible disagreements were settled through discussion. If no conclusion was achieved, a third reviewer who is a senior researcher is brought in to assist in reaching a final decision. The careful assessments ensured that the research included in the review met a high standard of methodological quality. Next, two independent reviewers extracted the data, and the findings are provided in the next section.

Data Extraction

Data extraction was done by one independent reviewer and subsequently cross-checked by another reviewer to ensure accuracy and consistency. Following a meticulous data extraction procedure, relevant data addressing the study questions were collected from the reviewed publications and systematically organized into tables. For this review, the findings are divided and presented in two separate tables. The first table focuses primarily on the effects of Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) procedures on the stress, anxiety, and depression in adults, whereas the second table presents on the effects of PMR on stress, anxiety, and depression when paired with other interventions. The extraction tables consisted of: (1) General information (Authors, Publication Years, and Country); (2) Training Duration (minutes/length); (3) Frequency of Training (per week); (4) Participants (Sample Size, Setting, Dropout Rates); (5) Study Design (RCT or QED, Pre-test, Post-Test, and Follow-Up); (6) Research Instruments; (7) Components/Contents of the PMR; (8) Outcome Measures (with effect size where available); (9) Key Findings; and (10) Quality of the Article. The categories were constructed based on reading knowledge and extensive systematic literature reviews by previous scholars. 21 , 32 , 33 The data extraction for the current study is illustrated in Table 2 and Table 3

Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR)

Abbreviations : PMR, Progressive Muscle Relaxation; EXP, Experiment; F-Up, Follow up; S, Setting; DO, Dropouts; RCT, Randomized control trial; QED, Quasi-experimental design; IG, Intervention group; CG, Control group; d, Cohen’s d ; TAS, Test anxiety scale; STAI, State-trait anxiety inventory; SAS, Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale; DASS, Depression; anxiety; stress scale; BDI, Beck Depression Inventory; CSAI-2, Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2; RESTQ-Sport, Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes; PSS, Perceived Stress Scale; JSS, Job Stress Scale; GDS, Geriatric Depression Scale; WSS, Work Stress Scale; SRSI3, Smith Relaxation States Inventory 3; BDS, Beck Depression Scale; SRLE, Survey of Recent Life Experiences; STAS, Sarason test anxiety scale; EMAS-S, Endler Multidimensional Anxiety Scale—State; SQST, Smith Quick Stress Test; SRI, Stress Response Index.

Progressive Muscle Relaxation with Other Interventions

Abbreviations : PMR, Progressive Muscle Relaxation; EXP, Experiment; F-Up, Follow up; S, Setting; DO, Dropouts; RCT, Randomized control trial; QED, Quasi-experimental design; IG, Intervention group; CG, Control group; d, Cohen’s d ; EMR, Education & Muscle Relaxation; HE, Health Education; HADS, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale; NS, Nature sound; DASS-21, Depression; anxiety; stress scale-21; CBT, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy; MT, Music Therapy; CS, Counseling services; PEPSAEE, Pan-Hellenic Association for Psychosocial Rehabilitation and Professional Reintegration; MM, Mindfulness Meditation; PSS, Perceived Stress Scale; STAI, State-trait anxiety inventory; SC, Stress Control; RT, Relaxation Therapy; GI, Guided Imagery; HAM-A, Hamilton’s Anxiety Scale; DB, Deep Breathing; BDI, Beck Depression Inventory; SMS Stress management skills.

Results of the Search

A thorough database search yielded 3205 findings. During the initial screening phase, two reviewers identified and eliminated 1336 duplicate papers. Following that a thorough screening of research titles and abstracts was performed to eliminate another 1708 publications from the remaining findings. Next, 65 articles were not retrieved due to access restrictions on databases, full-text not available, limited database archive, or is a conference abstracts. The remaining 96 full-text publications were then screened based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Finally, based on the specified criteria, the reviewers eliminate additional 50 findings that did not meet the inclusion criteria due to clinical studies. As a result, the final phase of the selection approach yields 46 articles from 16 countries ( Figure 1 ) that match all of the inclusion requirements. Figure 2 illustrates the PRISMA flow diagram for the included and excluded studies.

List of Countries Involved (16 Countries).

PRISMA flow diagram for the included and excluded studies.

Quality of the Included Studies

Two independent reviewers conducted a quality assessment of each included study. As a results, twenty-four (24) studies were rated as high quality, whereas twenty-two (22) studies were rated as moderate quality. The quality of the studies is presented in the extraction tables from high to moderate quality ( Table 2 and Table 3 ).

Standalone Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) Studies Vs PMR Combined with Other Interventions Studies

Progressive muscle relaxation (pmr) studies.

Following the completion of the systematic review procedure, the reviewers identified thirty-one (31) papers concentrating on Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR), laying a complete framework for the synthesis and interpretation of the data. The summary of the systematic findings of the studies can be referred on Table 2 . The efficacy of each outcome measures was illustrated in Figure 3 .

The Efficacy of PMR on Stress, Anxiety and Depression.

Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT)

Using the “Revised Randomized Controlled Trial Checklist”, 28 the reviewers found three (3) studies of high quality, 43 , 54 , 57 and seven (7) studies of moderate quality. 59–62 , 64 , 66 , 68

Following an exhaustive review, major findings demonstrated a significant trend in three (3) studies 43 , 59 , 64 that reported a substantial decrease in stress outcomes among adult volunteers, nurses and university students at posttest compared to pretest within the PMR group. Moreover, one (1) study 64 among university students discovered the potential efficacy of PMR, finding a substantial decrease in stress outcomes in the PMR group compared to the control group at the posttest evaluations. Nonetheless, one (1) study 59 found no significant reduction in stress levels among adult volunteers in the PMR group when compared to the control group at the post-test intervention stage.

For the anxiety outcomes, the systematic review’s key findings revealed that six (6) studies 43 , 57 , 59 , 62 , 66 , 68 showed a significant reduction in anxiety levels on adult volunteers, nurses, and university students at posttest compared to pretest within the PMR group. Additionally, two (2) studies 59 , 62 further underscored the potential efficacy of PMR on anxiety among adult volunteers, and nursing students, respectively, finding a significant outcome in the PMR group in comparison to the control group at the posttest assessments.

In terms of depression, the key outcomes revealed that in four (4) studies 54 , 59–61 among adult volunteers, caregivers of elders, and elderly women, there was a significant decrease in depression post-test compared to pretest within the PMR group. Two (2) studies, 60 , 61 which further support the evidence for PMR, found a significant decrease in depressive outcomes in the PMR group compared to the control group among the caregivers of elders, and elderly women at the post-test measurement. However, a notable exception was observed in one (1) study 59 where there is no significant reduction in depression levels among adult volunteers in the PMR group compared to the control group at the post-test stage, adding a layer of complexity to the overall findings. The researcher points out, emphasizing the implications of the study’s findings, that the PMR intervention may lack the requisite potency to effectively improve depression outcomes, underscoring the need for more comprehensive or integrated procedures. These results emphasize the potential of PMR as an effective relaxation training in the therapy for stress, anxiety, and depression. In numerous studies, the consistent reduction in stress, anxiety, and depression produces in the PMR group indicates its efficacy as a relaxing technique on adults’ population.

Quasi-Experimental Design (QED)

Using the “Revised Checklist for Quasi-Experimental Studies”, 28 the reviewers identified fifteen (15) studies of high quality, 34 , 36 , 38 , 40–42 , 45–47 , 49–53 , 56 and six (6) studies of medium quality. 44 , 58 , 67 , 69 , 71 , 72

Following a thorough assessment, nine (9) studies 38 , 40 , 41 , 45 , 46 , 51 , 52 , 58 , 67 revealed noteworthy insights, indicating a discernable pattern of considerable drop in stress outcomes posttest in contrast to pretest within the PMR group among the female health care workers, nurses, university students and employees. Moreover, two (2) more studies 36 , 72 reported a significant reduction in stress outcomes in the PMR group compared to the control group among the athletes and female clerical workers, adding weight to the information at hand.

Next, when anxiety outcomes were analyzed, seven (7) studies 42 , 44 , 50 , 52 , 56 , 69 , 71 reported a significant decrease in levels of anxiety among university students, and nurses at posttest compared to pretest in the PMR group, highlighting the effective role of PMR in anxiety reduction. Besides, two (2) further studies 36 , 56 supported the discussion for PMR by demonstrating a substantial reduction in anxiety outcomes among athletes, and nursing students in the PMR group compared to the control group in the posttest phase. Interestingly, two (2) studies 42 , 50 conducted among university students and nurses, respectively, found a significant reduction in anxiety in the control group, a finding that calls for more research to uncover the underlying causes. However, in contrast to the great majority of the findings, three (3) studies 34 , 49 , 51 found no significant reduction in anxiety levels among university students, beginner athletes, and female nurses, respectively, at posttest compared to pretest in the PMR group.

Lastly, in analyzing depression outcomes, three (3) studies 47 , 51 , 53 found a notable decrease in depression levels among the elders, and female nurses’ posttest compared to pretest in the PMR group, showing PMR’s potential efficacy in battling depression. In addition, one (1) study among elders 47 reported a significant reduction in depression outcomes in the PMR group compared to the control group at the posttest stage. PMR has significant potential for cultivating mental well-being as a non-drug-based intervention, particularly or adults dealing with stress, anxiety, and depression.

Overall, the comprehensive analysis of the PMR studies in this review reveals a spectrum of Cohen’s d effect sizes, spanning from d=0.29 to d=4.57 for stress, suggesting a range from small to large impact. Similarly, the effect sizes for anxiety fall between d=0.25 and d=2.54, indicative of a spectrum from small to large, while for depression, the range of d=0.58 to d=1.95 suggests a medium-to-large effect size. The effect sizes for each PMR studies are displayed in Table 2 .

PMR Combined with Other Interventions Studies

Following a thorough systematic analysis, the reviewers identified fifteen (15) studies that explicitly explore the effects of Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) in combination with other interventions that include: Health education, 89 Nature Sound, 66 Music therapy, 68 , 80 , 83 Counseling Services, 76 Other relaxation techniques, 73 , 77 , 81 , 86 Stress control skills, 74 , 78 and Deep breathing. 79 , 85 , 88 The summary of the systematic findings can be referred on Table 3 . The efficacy of each outcome measures was illustrated in Figure 4 .

The Efficacy of PMR combined with other interventions on Stress, Anxiety and Depression.

Using the “Revised Randomized Controlled Trial Checklist”, 28 the reviewers found eight (8) studies of moderate quality. 66 , 68 , 80 , 81 , 83 , 85 , 86 , 89

Upon the completion of an in-depth review, three (3) different research 80 , 81 , 85 evaluating stress outcomes found a significant decrease in stress levels among nursing students, general adults, and caregivers’ posttest compared to pretest in the group receiving PMR paired with music therapy (MT), mindfulness meditation (MM), and deep breathing (DB), respectively. Furthermore, two (2) additional studies 80 , 83 found a significant reduction in stress outcomes in the PMR group, where PMR was combined with MT, when compared to the control group among nursing students, and nurses, respectively, at the posttest stage, adding to the evidence for the integrative approach.

When it comes to anxiety outcomes, three (3) studies 66 , 68 , 86 clearly demonstrate a significant decrease in levels of anxiety among university students, and caregivers following posttest compared to pretest within the group receiving PMR when coupled with nature sound (NS), MT, and guided imagery (GI), respectively, reinforcing the efficacy of this combined therapeutic approach in managing anxiety. In addition, a study among caregivers of patients 89 found a substantial reduction in anxiety outcomes in the group receiving PMR paired with health education (HE), when compared to the control group at posttest, lending credence to these findings. Nonetheless, one (1) study 81 found no statistically significant decrease in levels of anxiety among general adults at posttest compared to pretest in the group that received PMR alongside MM, highlighting the complexity and variability of coping with anxiety.

In terms of depressive outcomes, only one (1) study 89 demonstrating a significant reduction in depressive outcomes among caregivers of patients at the posttest stage in the group receiving PMR in combination with HE, when compared to the control group.

Using the “Revised Checklist for Quasi-Experimental Studies”, 28 the reviewers identified six (6) studies of high quality, 73 , 74 , 76–79 and one (1) study of moderate quality. 88

Following an extensive assessment, five (5) studies 73 , 74 , 76 , 79 , 88 found a substantial decline in levels of stress among elderlies, general adults, unemployed individuals, male automotive workers, and caregivers, respectively, at the posttest stage compared to pretest in groups receiving PMR alongside relaxation therapy (RT): music, physical exercise and laughter therapy, stress control (SC), counseling services (CS), and DB, respectively, highlighting the significant efficacy of this integrated approach in alleviating stress. Furthermore, three (3) other studies 76 , 77 , 79 strengthen these findings, indicating a significant reduction in stress outcomes among nursing students, unemployed individuals, and male automotive workers at the posttest phase in groups where PMR was administered in conjunction with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), CS, and DB, respectively, when compared to the control group.

In terms of anxiety outcomes, four (4) studies 73 , 74 , 76 , 78 reported a substantial reduction in levels of anxiety among elderlies, general adults, unemployed individuals, and caregivers, respectively, in the posttest as compared to the pretest in groups receiving a combination of PMR with RT: music, physical exercise and laughter therapy, SC, CS, and stress management skills (SMS), respectively. Besides, three (3) further papers 76–78 found a substantial reduction in depressive outcomes among unemployed individuals, nursing students, and caregivers at posttest in the group receiving PMR paired with CS, CBT, and SMS, respectively, when compared to the control group. However, one (1) study 79 contradicted the dominant discoveries, presenting a lack of significant decrease in levels of anxiety among male automotive workers at posttest compared to pretest, and also when compared with the control group, in the group that received PMR combined with DB, indicating the need for a more comprehensive investigation of this therapeutic approach.

When analyzing depression outcomes, reports from three (3) studies 73 , 76 , 78 revealed a significant reduction in levels of depression among elderlies, unemployed individuals, and caregivers, respectively, at the posttest compared to the pretest within the group that received PMR in combination with RT: music, physical exercise and laughter therapy, CS, and SMS, respectively. Along with the previous findings, another two (2) studies 76 , 78 have reported a substantial reduction in depressive outcomes among unemployed individuals, and caregivers, respectively, at the posttest stage in the group that got PMR integrated with CS, and SMS, respectively, when compared to the control group. Two (2) studies, 74 , 79 however, deviated from the majority of outcomes, presenting no significant decrease in symptoms of depression among general adults and male automotive workers, respectively, at posttest compared to pretest in the group receiving PMR alongside SC, and DB, respectively, and also when compared with the control group. Unexpectedly, one (1) study 78 found a significant increase in levels of depression among adults in the wait-list control group at posttest, where no interventions were provided. It is a finding that warrants additional investigation to determine the underlying causes, and therefore highlighting the need for further studies.

Overall, for the PMR combined with other intervention studies, the Cohen’s d effect sizes are ranging from d=0.40 to d=2.24 for stress, signifying an impact spectrum spanning from small to large. Similarly, the effect sizes for anxiety, falling between d=0.15 and d=2.10, indicate a spectrum from small to large impact. In the case of depression, the range of d=0.27 to d=0.74 suggests a small-to-medium effect size. The effect sizes for each study are displayed in Table 3 .

This paper presents a systematic literature review on the efficacy of Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) in adults for stress, anxiety, and depression. Our review identified 46 studies, from sixteen (16) countries, covering 3402 total sample. This review is a pioneering endeavor in that it is the first to systematically assembled and report findings relating to the efficacy of PMR and PMR combined with other interventions among general adult, thus contributing to the current body of knowledge. Furthermore, this review is notable for its comprehensive approach, providing studies employing Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) and Quasi-Experimental Design (QED) research designs. As a result, it provides a thorough view of the many approaches used to examine the efficacy of PMR. This comprehensive approach not only broadens the spectrum of evidence reviewed but also allows for the analysis of a diverse variety of study designs, resulting in a deeper comprehension of PMR’s conceivable effect. Besides, this review attempted to look at the impact of PMR as a stand-alone intervention as well as those that explore PMR in combination with other interventions. By presenting in this way, this review promotes a broad knowledge of PMR’s efficacy in various therapeutic conditions by offering evidence from both methods. The comparison of PMR itself versus PMR paired with various interventions may aid in identifying potential synergistic benefits, directing future study and potential therapeutic application.

Based on the outcome measures, overall, PMR has been demonstrated to be beneficial in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression in adults. When PMR is combined with other interventions, the combined techniques have also consistently exhibited enhanced efficacy, particularly for stress (n=10) and anxiety (n=9). There are a total of 24 studies that support PMR’s efficacy in reducing stress, 21 studies in reducing anxiety, and 11 studies in reducing depression, either on its own or in combination with other interventions.

There is a consistent trend in this review that emerges where the majority of studies using Jacobson’s Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) exercise show that it is beneficial in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression in adults, whether used in its original form 18 or as adapted by later research. 35 , 37 , 55 , 63 , 70 , 90 In our review, we discovered that when people engaged in PMR exercises on their own in private spaces, the lengths of the sessions varied, with the lowest session lasting 5 minutes 45 and the longest lasting 28 minutes. 54 , 61 When combining with other interventions or variables, the shortest duration becomes 15 minutes, 74 while the longest is 37 minutes. 85 In our analysis, we observed that the duration of the PMR exercises, whether shorter or longer, did not significantly influence the outcome measures. Our study shows that there was a pervasive pattern of decreasing mental health outcomes across time. Moreover, our findings show that the regularity, whether daily or only a few days a week, does not significantly change the outcomes when analyzing the frequency of PMR implementation. Regardless of the exact frequency of PMR sessions, the overall trend in the majority of studies consistently demonstrates a reduction in outcome measures.

When delving deeper into individual outcome measures, for stress, one (1) study 59 found no significant reduction in stress level when compared to the control group at posttest. For anxiety, there are five (5) studies 34 , 49 , 51 , 79 , 81 reported no reduction in anxiety at the posttest. Interestingly, there are two (2) studies 42 , 50 that show a significant reduction of anxiety in the control group which calls for more research to uncover the underlying causes. Lastly, the majority of the studies on depression involved elderly people and those who looked after patients and senior citizens. There are three studies 59 , 74 , 79 revealed no significant reduction compared to control groups. Alarmingly, one study 78 even indicated an increase in depression levels post-intervention of a wait-list control group.

For the record, we found an interesting pattern in our thorough review. It seems that statistically insignificant results tend to occur when PMR is explored in the context of a general adult population, without defining or focusing on specific subgroups. 59 , 74 , 81 This recurring trend of non-significant results in wider adult populations raises the possibility that the efficacy of PMR may depend on particular demographic, psychographic, or clinical traits that are unusually absent from a generalized group. However, it does not reduce PMR’s potential benefit in specific therapeutic applications, where its efficacy can be clearly seen. Future studies should investigate the efficacy of PMR in specific demographics or under predetermined circumstances to identify where its advantages are most noticeable.

When measuring the efficacy of PMR combined with other interventions versus PMR as a standalone relaxation technique, there are two (2) studies in this review 66 , 68 that found combining PMR with other variables to be more effective compared to the PMR training alone in their respective study. Korkut, Ülker, Çidem, Şahin 66 found combining PMR with nature sound to be more effective in reducing anxiety among the nursing students, while Robb 68 highlighted that combination of PMR with music to be more effective in reducing anxiety among the university students compared to PMR alone.

Because of its diverse approach, PMR and its combination with other therapies appear to be viable interventions for stress, anxiety, and depression in adults. Combining PMR with different interventions may simultaneously access several relaxing mechanisms. Moreover, additional interventions might concentrate on other psychological or physiological aspects in addition to PMR, which can only alleviate muscular tension and relaxation. Compared to employing PMR alone, this holistic approach may provide a more comprehensive course of relaxation that potentially results in increased efficacy. With the assistance of an increasing amount of evidence and research, 66 , 74 , 76 , 79 these interventions provide an approachable and well-researched way to manage stress, anxiety, and depression.

There is certain limitation to the current review that could be addressed in future research. First, while this research provides invaluable findings, it is crucial to highlight that due to limited resource, it only included studies in English from English-language databases. This linguistic and database limitation may unintentionally exclude important studies published in different languages or databases. Future reviews may thereby strengthen the extent of coverage and generalizability of data by including papers in other languages and expanding the search to non-English databases. This will ensure a more thorough understanding of the efficacy of PMR among adults for stress, anxiety, and depression in varied cultural and language areas.

In conclusion, there has been large amount of evidence that supports the efficacy of PMR in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression among adults. Studies also shows that PMR combined with other interventions are more effective compared when applied by itself. Given these findings, researchers could find it beneficial to consider combining or integrating PMR with other interventions to enhance its potential in reducing stress, anxiety, and depression. Future research could also expand on the current review’s findings by incorporating a more targeted goal such as focusing PMR interventions among the wider working population, rather than to mostly health care workers, which may further refine our knowledge of PMR’s potential advantages and appropriate implementation in diverse circumstances.

Acknowledgment

Authors acknowledge the Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) for funding under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) (FRGS/1/2020/SS0/UTM/02/23).

The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

Why I Value the Harshest Critiques of Therapy as a Therapist

Personal perspective: it’s both possible and necessary to critique the field from within..

Updated May 21, 2024 | Reviewed by Monica Vilhauer

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• Psychiatric survivors have critiqued the field's pathology, paternalism, and carcerality for years.
• Recent momentum for such critiques coincides with debate about the social responsibility of other industries.
• Many critiques of therapy's shortcomings concern structural traumas that oppress therapists themselves.

While the psychiatric survivor’s movement has problematized the mental health field since the Civil Rights Movement—particularly its penchant for pathology, paternalism, and carcerality—waning social stigma has mainstreamed critiques in recent years, normalizing the expression of dissent.

Some folks question the validity of the DSM , others strongly oppose involuntary commitment, many more see solitary confinement as inhumane, and a large segment stands against any involvement whatsoever of [armed] police in mental health crises. Among social workers, lobbying against the criminalization of addiction and homelessness has taken off.

The momentum of such critiques has coincided with intense debate about whether myriad other industries/institutions—academia, Hollywood (e.g., #MeToo), organized religion, prisons, and Wall Street—are living up to their social responsibility, and if not, whether they are still useful.

When folks turn this scrutiny on therapy , many are surprised that their critiques don’t offend me, that I don’t invalidate their experience or perspective, that I can see the merit of their arguments, and that I’m curious about how their innovative recommendations might look in praxis.

Most expect me to step out of character defending the field in which I have invested much time and energy. Yet, not even the harshest critiques of therapists could ever bait me into defending or promoting therapy as a panacea for healing—especially pertaining to structural trauma .

Here are a few reasons why I have come to appreciate the harshest critiques.

First, some of these critiques serve to humanize us therapists and remind us of certain safe spaces in graduate school, where therapists needing help was not taboo. A fair amount of therapy students are psychiatric survivors and/or individuals with mental health challenges, which they effectively manage. During graduate programs, their perspectives are able to open minds and hearts, and leave an indelible impact.

Many of their stories remind us that therapy is not the only tool for growth, healing, and recovery, and other paths are just as legitimate/valid. Their experiences with avenues besides therapy prove that therapists aren’t exclusively qualified to assist in crisis or with trauma, and that it’s wise to keep an open mind about which helpers are assets, regardless of pedigree (e.g., peer support specialists, facilitators, or elders without degrees or licensure).

Moreover, their presence in education and training spaces reminds colleagues that there is no "us v. them" binary. In some classes, for example, braver students may share about a suicide attempt, a negative experience with a crisis line, a hospitalization, or their own therapy session.

Considering the potential for re-traumatization or vicarious trauma , many faculty make a concerted effort to normalize therapists seeking therapy, and also encourage students to attend AA meetings and other support groups as a form of prevention and self-care.

To onlookers, this may seem unusual.

One study , for instance, found that clients felt anxious about their therapist's well-being and professionalism following therapist self-disclosures of illness. Failing to live up to the myth that therapists are always perfectly "put together" resulted in judgment. Relatedly, it's not uncommon for folks to express implicit bias toward therapists with tattoos, piercings, long nails, or unconventional hairstyles.

Another study found that the media perpetuates conservative stereotypes and that "in cartoons, psychotherapists or psychiatrists are described as upper-middle-class professional men, with a balding pate (92%), spectacles (77%), and beard (74%), often carefully and formally dressed."

Conversely, most degree/training programs are de-conditioning these assumptions about therapy/therapists, which lends itself to openness and listening to critiques.

Second, bridging the theory-praxis gap—specifically as it relates to structural barriers, systemic bias, and supremacy culture—requires confrontation with critique. Off-the-clock concern about clients often compels therapists to seek out critiques of status quo practices, as an ethical obligation.

In fact, for many therapists, there’s no greater burden than the insider-perspective that therapy isn’t a cure-all for structural trauma. It can be unsettling to know that anyone who’s not avoidant, escapist, or spiritually-bypassing will have to confront oppressive pitfalls head-on after session—and what we offered may be helpful to some degree, but ultimately inadequate.

On the upside, this awareness spurs many therapists to become more critically conscious, to explore the professional implications of capitalism, carcerality, and other hegemonic structures, and to listen attentively to critiques of therapy’s complicity.

The critiques that therapists discover—of “normed” assessments, evidence-based treatments, and diagnostic constructs—all enable therapists to better serve clients. So do accounts of Western psychology's "forefathers" that challenge historical revisionism and expose their dehumanization of and cultural appropriation from non-White cultures. Debunking these myths about the alleged authority and purity of the field validates our hunches that there is no one-size-fits-all intervention or "typical" client, and that even the most established and proven interventions have yet to be adapted for minoritized clients.

Last, but not least, tapping into our own resistance to pointed critiques of therapy can yield valuable insight about the potential defensiveness of willfully ignorant colleagues whose minds we try to change.

Even today, there’s still not unanimous support for analytical frames/lenses like Black feminism, harm reduction , liberation theology, and prison abolition. Some therapists who've advocated for these perspectives have faced severe backlash or had their careers derailed.

As James Baldwin said, “The price one pays for pursuing any profession or calling is an intimate knowledge of its ugly side.”

This ugly side rears its head in classrooms, group supervision, performance reviews, the elections of professional organizations, the crafting of public statements in response to current events and, most crucially, the DSM.

Yet, if critically conscious therapists can pinpoint where in our bodies resistance to new information emerges—and name the corresponding feeling—we can access the cheat code for how to best introduce our more traditionalist colleagues to new ways of thinking, perceiving, and being. Our own defensiveness can serve as a map.

My two biggest takeaways from the harshest critics of therapy are, first, that it’s possible and necessary to be critical of the field from within the field, and, second, that good-faith critiques which further innovation and social responsibility are more valuable than an appeal to tradition ("this is right because we've always done it this way").

At the end of the day, our labor is indeed important and much-needed, but also merely one of many gears in the capitalist grind. Letting our egos convince us that it's too sacred to be critiqued sets us all back. We have an ethical obligation to get out of our own way.

Araya Baker, M.Phil.Ed. , is a counselor, suicidologist, and policy analyst.

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Self-concept and Emotional Intelligence Among Adolescents: A Systematic Review

| Published: May 24, 2024

This review article explores the intricate relationship between self-concept and emotional intelligence among adolescents. Emotional intelligence, encompassing the ability to recognize, understand, and manage emotions, has gained significant attention in psychological literature for its implications on various aspects of human development. Similarly, self-concept, the cognitive and affective representation of oneself plays a crucial role in shaping an individual’s behaviours, emotions and interpersonal relationships. This paper synthesizes existing research to elucidate the relationship between self-concept and emotional intelligence during adolescence. It examines how emotional intelligence is related to self-concept, impacting their social competence, academic achievement and overall well-being. Studies aimed at enhancing self-concept and emotional intelligence aiming adolescents also reviewed. Using keywords, nineteen studies have identified. By integrating theoretical frameworks and empirical findings from diverse disciplines, this review provides insights into the complex mechanisms underlying the relationship between self-concept and emotional intelligence in adolescent development. Implications for research, practice and intervention strategies are discussed.

Self-concept , Emotional Intelligence Relationship , Intervention Strategies , Adolescents

This is an Open Access Research distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any Medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2024, Salunkhe, R.B.

Received: May 09, 2024; Revision Received: May 20, 2024; Accepted: May 24, 2024

Rekha B. Salunkhe @ [email protected]

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Published in   Volume 12, Issue 2, April-June, 2024

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3 Ways to Make a Request That Doesn’t Feel Coercive

• Rachel Schlund,
• Roseanna Sommers,
• Vanessa Bohns

To get an authentic yes, give your employee room to say no.

Research shows that people feel more pressured to agree to requests than we realize, frequently agreeing to do things they would rather not do, such as taking on burdensome, low-promotability work tasks. As a manager, what can you do to ensure that your employees aren’t taking things on because they feel like they have to, but because they actually want to? In this article, the authors share three research-backed suggestions for how to elicit a more voluntary “yes” when making a request: 1) Give people time to respond. 2) Ask them to respond over email. 3) Share an example of how to say “no.”

When staffing a project, asking your team to work overtime, or finding someone for a last-minute task to meet a deadline, it can sometimes feel like you need to get your employees to say “yes” at any cost. But what is that cost? When employees feel pressured or guilted into agreeing to a request they personally find disagreeable it can lead to feelings of regret, frustration, and resentment. An employee who begrudgingly agrees to a request in the moment may provide lower-quality assistance or back out of their commitment at a less convenient time.

• Rachel Schlund is an incoming Principal Researcher at the University of Chicago, Booth School of Business. She is currently finishing her PhD in organizational behavior at Cornell University. You can learn more about her research here .
• Roseanna Sommers (JD/PhD) is an Assistant Professor of Law at the University of Michigan, where she directs the psychology and law studies lab. Her teaching and research interests revolve around the many ways in which the law misunderstands people and people misunderstand the law. You can learn more about her research on consent and related topics   here .
• Vanessa Bohns is a Professor of Organizational Behavior at Cornell University and the author of You Have More Influence Than You Think . You can learn more about her research on social influence and persuasion here .

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Article contents

A history of the concepts of harmony in chinese culture.

• Louise Sundararajan Louise Sundararajan Independent Researcher, Psychology
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.679
• Published online: 28 February 2020

This historical overview of the concepts of harmony in Chinese culture situates the topic in the ecological context of a strong-ties society that fosters a type of rationality that privileges symmetry over asymmetry. Analysis of the discourse of harmony focuses on the texts of two native schools of thought—Confucianism and Taoism—and briefly mentions Buddhism (a religion imported from India). The modern history of harmony has just begun but is already portentous. The turbulent course of China’s rapid modernization suggests the possibility that as China transitions from a strong-ties society to the weak-ties global market, harmony may be encountering, for the first time, contradictions that defy harmonization. Whatever the future holds for the Chinese legacy of harmony, its contribution to the happiness and well-being of the individuals in their intimate relationship with self and others is likely to remain unchallenged.

• Strong ties versus weak ties
• Confucianism
• global market

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date: 26 May 2024

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