example of phenomenological research topic

Top 150 Phenomenological Research Topics [Updated]

Have you ever thought about what it’s like to be in someone else’s shoes? To really get how they see things, what they’re thinking, and how they feel? Well, that’s exactly what phenomenological research aims to do. In this blog, we’ll take a deep dive into the world of phenomenology, exploring its core principles, methodologies, and some fascinating phenomenological research topics that shed light on the richness of human experiences.

Understanding Phenomenological Research

Table of Contents

Phenomenology is not just a mouthful of a word; it’s a fascinating approach to research that delves into the lived experiences of individuals. Imagine peeling back the layers of everyday life to uncover the essence of human existence. That’s what phenomenological research is all about. It’s like putting on a pair of special glasses that allow you to see the world through someone else’s eyes.

How To Choose Phenomenological Research Topics?

Choosing phenomenological research topics involves a thoughtful process to identify phenomena that intrigue and resonate with both the researcher and the broader field of study. Here’s a simplified guide:

• Identify Personal Interests: Start by reflecting on your own interests, experiences, and curiosities. What aspects of human experiences fascinate you the most? Personal passion can drive deeper engagement with the research.
• Explore Relevant Literature: Conduct a literature review to understand existing research in your field of interest. Look for gaps, unanswered questions, or emerging trends that could inspire new phenomenological inquiries.
• Consider Significance: Assess the relevance and importance of potential topics. Is the phenomenon you’re considering meaningful in the context of society, culture, or human behavior? Aim for topics that have practical implications or contribute to theoretical advancements.
• Consult Peers and Mentors: Seek feedback from colleagues, mentors, or advisors. Discuss your ideas with others in your field to gain insights, perspectives, and potential directions for your research.
• Stay Open-Minded: Be willing to explore diverse topics and perspectives. Phenomenological research thrives on openness to different experiences and viewpoints. Remain flexible and receptive to unexpected discoveries along the way.
• Consider Feasibility: Assess the feasibility of researching your chosen topic within the constraints of time, resources, and available methodologies. Ensure that your research goals align with your capabilities and constraints.
• Connect with Participants: If possible, engage with individuals who have firsthand experience with the phenomenon you’re studying. Their insights can provide valuable perspectives and inform the direction of your research.
• Refine and Narrow Down: Refine your research topic based on feedback, feasibility assessments, and further reflection. Narrow down your focus to a specific aspect or dimension of the phenomenon to ensure depth and clarity in your research.

150 Phenomenological Research Topics: Category Wise

Social phenomenology.

• The experience of social media addiction among young adults.
• Phenomenology of loneliness in urban settings.
• The lived experience of discrimination based on race in the workplace.
• Identity formation among immigrants in a new cultural context.
• Feeling judged or looked down upon because of mental health issues.
• How feeling embarrassed or bad about something varies between different cultures.
• What it’s like for parents who are bringing up a child with autism.
• The phenomenon of bystander intervention in emergency situations.
• Workplace bullying: A phenomenological exploration.
• The experience of forgiveness in interpersonal relationships.

Psychological Phenomenology

• Phenomenology of traumatic memories in survivors of natural disasters.
• The experience of flow states during creative activities.
• Phenomenological investigation of near-death experiences.
• The lived experience of anxiety disorders.
• Coping mechanisms of individuals with chronic pain.
• Perception of time during periods of extreme stress.
• Phenomenology of decision-making processes under uncertainty.
• The experience of addiction recovery.
• The phenomenon of lucid dreaming.
• The lived experience of post-traumatic growth.

Existential Phenomenology

• The search for meaning in life after a significant loss.
• Phenomenology of existential dread in the modern world.
• The experience of freedom and responsibility in decision-making.
• Existential crisis in adolescence: A phenomenological approach.
• Authenticity in interpersonal relationships: A phenomenological study.
• The experience of awe and wonder in nature.
• Phenomenology of spiritual awakening.
• The lived experience of existential loneliness.
• The phenomenon of existential guilt.
• Phenomenological exploration of the fear of death.

Embodied Phenomenology

• The experience of chronic illness and the body-self relationship.
• Phenomenology of the lived body in sports performance.
• Body image perception among adolescents: A phenomenological inquiry.
• The experience of pregnancy and childbirth.
• Embodied cognition in dance: A phenomenological perspective.
• The lived experience of disordered eating behaviors.
• Phenomenology of pain perception and tolerance.
• The experience of touch deprivation in early childhood.
• Embodied experiences of gender dysphoria.
• The phenomenon of phantom limb sensation.

Phenomenology of Education

• Student experiences of online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• The lived experience of academic burnout among college students.
• Phenomenology of teacher-student relationships in primary education.
• The experience of cultural adaptation in international student populations.
• Student perceptions of the effectiveness of feedback in learning.
• Phenomenological exploration of homeschooling experiences.
• The phenomenon of motivation in educational contexts.
• The experience of academic procrastination among university students.
• Peer influence on academic performance: A phenomenological study.
• The lived experience of learning disabilities in educational settings.

Phenomenology of Technology

• The experience of virtual reality immersion.
• Phenomenological investigation of smartphone addiction.
• The lived experience of technology-mediated communication.
• Ethical considerations in the development of artificial intelligence: A phenomenological approach.
• The phenomenon of information overload in the digital age.
• Augmented reality experiences: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Wearable technology and the quantified self: A phenomenological study.
• The experience of digital detoxification.
• The lived experience of privacy concerns in online environments.
• Phenomenology of human-robot interaction.

Phenomenology of Art and Aesthetics

• The experience of beauty in nature: A phenomenological exploration.
• Phenomenology of artistic creativity.
• The lived experience of aesthetic appreciation in music.
• A phenomenological inquiry into the experience of poetry.
• The phenomenon of art therapy in mental health treatment.
• The experience of architectural spaces and atmospheres.
• The lived experience of aesthetic pleasure in food consumption.
• Phenomenology of the sublime in visual art.
• The experience of catharsis in theatrical performances.
• The phenomenon of artistic inspiration.

Phenomenology of Health and Well-being

• The experience of resilience in overcoming adversity.
• Phenomenological exploration of mindfulness meditation.
• The lived experience of burnout among healthcare professionals.
• The phenomenon of self-care practices in promoting well-being.
• Coping mechanisms of individuals living with chronic illness.
• Phenomenology of the placebo effect in healthcare.
• The experience of caregiver burden in family caregiving.
• The lived experience of terminal illness and end-of-life care.
• Phenomenological investigation of holistic health practices.
• The phenomenon of health-related stigma.

Phenomenology of Nature and Environment

• The experience of connection to nature among urban dwellers.
• Phenomenology of awe-inspiring natural landscapes.
• The lived experience of environmental activism.
• The phenomenon of eco-anxiety in response to climate change.
• Sustainable lifestyle choices: A phenomenological inquiry.
• The experience of biophilia: A love of nature.
• Phenomenological exploration of outdoor recreational activities.
• The lived experience of environmental degradation.
• The phenomenon of environmental justice.
• The spiritual experience of wilderness immersion.

Phenomenology of Memory and Time

• The experience of nostalgia: A phenomenological approach.
• Phenomenology of flashbulb memories of significant events.
• The lived experience of time perception in different cultures.
• The phenomenon of déjà vu: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Traumatic memories and their impact on identity: A phenomenological study.
• The experience of timelessness in moments of flow.
• Phenomenology of memory distortion and reconstruction.
• The lived experience of reminiscence in late adulthood.
• The phenomenon of collective memory and its transmission.
• The experience of time is fluid and subjective.

Phenomenology of Gender and Sexuality

• The lived experience of coming out as LGBTQ+.
• Phenomenological exploration of gender identity development.
• The experience of sexual fluidity: A phenomenological inquiry.
• The phenomenon of heteronormativity and its impact on identity.
• Gender dysphoria and the search for authenticity: A phenomenological study.
• The lived experience of discrimination based on sexual orientation.
• Phenomenology of intimacy and relational dynamics in same-sex relationships.
• The experience of sexual awakening and exploration.
• The phenomenon of intersectionality in understanding gender and sexuality.
• The lived experience of transgender individuals in transition.

Phenomenology of Communication

• The experience of empathy in interpersonal communication.
• Phenomenological investigation of nonverbal communication cues.
• The lived experience of cross-cultural communication challenges.
• The phenomenon of language acquisition in childhood.
• Communication breakdowns in interpersonal relationships: A phenomenological approach.
• The experience of social influence in persuasive communication.
• Phenomenology of silence in communication contexts.
• The lived experience of communication apprehension.
• The phenomenon of digital communication etiquette.
• The experience of identity negotiation through language use.

Phenomenology of Religion and Spirituality

• The lived experience of religious conversion.
• Phenomenological exploration of mystical experiences.
• The experience of religious doubt and uncertainty.
• The phenomenon of religious fundamentalism: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Religious rituals and their significance: A phenomenological study.
• The lived experience of religious discrimination.
• Phenomenology of spiritual practices in diverse cultural contexts.
• The experience of existential questions and religious seeking.
• The phenomenon of secular spirituality.
• The lived experience of religious ecstasy.

Phenomenology of Aging and Life Transitions

• The experience of identity redefinition in retirement.
• Phenomenological exploration of midlife crisis.
• The lived experience of becoming a parent for the first time.
• The phenomenon of empty nest syndrome: A phenomenological study.
• The experience of caregiving for aging parents.
• Phenomenology of grief and loss in late adulthood.
• The lived experience of ageism and discrimination in older adults.
• Phenomenological investigation of life review processes in aging.
• The phenomenon of wisdom and its development over the lifespan.
• The experience of existential concerns in facing mortality.

Phenomenology of Politics and Power

• The lived experience of political activism.
• Phenomenological exploration of leadership styles and effectiveness.
• The experience of power dynamics in organizational contexts.
• The phenomenon of social movements : A phenomenological inquiry.
• Political polarization and its impact on individual identity: A phenomenological study.
• The lived experience of marginalization and oppression.
• Phenomenology of resistance and protest.
• The experience of political disillusionment.
• The phenomenon of nationalism and identity formation.
• The lived experience of participating in democratic processes.

What Are The Four Types Of Phenomenological Research?

Phenomenological research typically encompasses four main types or approaches:

• Descriptive Phenomenology: This approach focuses on providing a detailed description of a particular phenomenon or experience as it is lived or perceived by individuals. Researchers aim to capture the essence of the phenomenon without imposing preconceived theories or interpretations.
• Interpretive Phenomenology: In interpretive phenomenology, researchers go beyond mere description to interpret the meaning of lived experiences within a particular context. They aim to understand how individuals make sense of their experiences and the underlying structures of meaning that shape those experiences.
• Psychological Phenomenology: Psychological phenomenology explores the subjective experiences of individuals within the realm of psychology. It investigates how people perceive, interpret, and experience various psychological phenomena such as emotions, cognition, consciousness, and mental health.
• Existential Phenomenology: Existential phenomenology delves into the lived experiences of individuals in relation to existential themes such as freedom, responsibility, authenticity, death, and meaning. It seeks to understand how individuals navigate existential concerns and construct their identities within the context of human existence.

In simple terms, phenomenological research helps us understand what it’s like to be human. By studying how people experience things, researchers can uncover the core of different experiences and learn more about how our minds work.

So, the next time you find yourself pondering life’s big questions, remember that phenomenological research topics offer a pathway to deeper understanding. It’s a journey worth taking.

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Phenomenological Research: Methods And Examples

Ravi was a novice, finding it difficult to select the right research design for his study. He joined a program…

Ravi was a novice, finding it difficult to select the right research design for his study. He joined a program to improve his understanding of research. As a part of his assignment, he was asked to work with a phenomenological research design. To execute good practices in his work, Ravi studied examples of phenomenological research. This let him understand what approaches he needed and areas he could apply the phenomenological method.

What Is Phenomenological Research?

Phenomenological research method, examples of phenomenological research.

A qualitative research approach that helps in describing the lived experiences of an individual is known as phenomenological research. The phenomenological method focuses on studying the phenomena that have impacted an individual. This approach highlights the specifics and identifies a phenomenon as perceived by an individual in a situation. It can also be used to study the commonality in the behaviors of a group of people.  

Phenomenological research has its roots in psychology, education and philosophy. Its aim is to extract the purest data that hasn’t been attained before. Sometimes researchers record personal notes about what they learn from the subjects. This adds to the credibility of data, allowing researchers to remove these influences to produce unbiased narratives. Through this method, researchers attempt to answer two major questions:

• What are the subject’s experiences related to the phenomenon?
• What factors have influenced the experience of the phenomenon?

A researcher may also use observations, art and documents to construct a universal meaning of experiences as they establish an understanding of the phenomenon. The richness of the data obtained in phenomenological research opens up opportunities for further inquiry.

Now that we know what is phenomenological research , let’s look at some methods and examples.

Phenomenological research can be based on single case studies or a pool of samples. Single case studies identify system failures and discrepancies. Data from multiple samples highlights many possible situations. In either case, these are the methods a researcher can use:

• The researcher can observe the subject or access written records, such as texts, journals, poetry, music or diaries
• They can conduct conversations and interviews with open-ended questions, which allow researchers to make subjects comfortable enough to open up
• Action research and focus workshops are great ways to put at ease candidates who have psychological barriers

To mine deep information, a researcher must show empathy and establish a friendly rapport with participants. These kinds of phenomenological research methods require researchers to focus on the subject and avoid getting influenced.

Phenomenological research is a way to understand individual situations in detail. The theories are developed transparently, with the evidence available for a reader to access. We can use this methodology in situations such as:

• The experiences of every war survivor or war veteran are unique. Research can illuminate their mental states and survival strategies in a new world.
• Losing family members to Covid-19 hasn’t been easy. A detailed study of survivors and people who’ve lost loved ones can help understand coping mechanisms and long-term traumas.
• What’s it like to be diagnosed with a terminal disease when a person becomes a parent? The conflict of birth and death can’t be generalized, but research can record emotions and experiences.

Phenomenological research is a powerful way to understand personal experiences. It provides insights into individual actions and motivations by examining long-held assumptions. New theories, policies and responses can be developed on this basis. But, the phenomenological research design will be ineffective if subjects are unable to communicate due to language, age, cognition or other barriers. Managers must be alert to such limitations and sharp to interpret results without bias.

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171 Best Phenomenological Research Topics For Students

Welcome to our exploration of Phenomenological Research Topics, where we examine how people experience life. Phenomenology, a philosophy turned research method, tries to understand how we experience the world around us. 

By studying people’s experiences, this blog will uncover the depths of emotions, perceptions, social interactions, memories, and identity. We want to illuminate the complex woven cloth of human existence and our realities by examining these topics. 

Whether you’re a student, researcher, or just curious about how complicated human experiences are, join us as we explore the rich research landscape of people’s experiences. Let’s start this journey together to understand better what it means to be human.

What Is Phenomenological Research?

Table of Contents

Phenomenological research is a type of study that tries to understand people’s personal experiences and how they make sense of the world. Researchers ask participants questions about their lives, feelings, perceptions, and understandings. 

The goal is to uncover the deep meaning behind everyday experiences we may take for granted. Phenomenological studies value the subjective perspectives of individuals and aim to see the world through their eyes. These studies often rely on in-depth interviews, observations, art, diaries, and other personal sources of information. 

The focus is on describing the essence of an experience rather than explaining or analyzing it. The aim is to gain insight into the diversity and complexity of human experience in a way that is accessible and relatable. Phenomenological research provides an enriching window into what it means to be human.

171 Phenomenological Research Topics

Here is the list of phenomenological research topics:

• The experience of being a first-generation college student.
• The lived experiences of pupils with disabilities in higher education.
• Teachers’ experiences of burnout in urban schools.
• Parental involvement in early childhood education: A phenomenological study.
• The lived experiences of immigrant students in the classroom.
• Homeschooling: A phenomenological exploration of parental motivations.
• Student perceptions of online education during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• The experiences of teachers implementing project-based learning in STEM education.
• Peer tutoring: A phenomenological investigation into its effectiveness.
• Educational leadership: A phenomenological study of principals’ experiences.

Psychology and Mental Health

• The lived experiences of individuals with anxiety disorders.
• Perceptions of body image among adolescents: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Faring mechanisms of parents of children with autism spectrum disorder.
• Experiences of postpartum depression among new mothers.
• The phenomenology of addiction recovery.
• The lived adventures of survivors of domestic violence.
• Self-care practices among mental health professionals.
• The meaning of resilience: A phenomenological exploration.
• Experiences of grief and loss: A phenomenological study.
• Psychological well-being in the LGBTQ+ community: A phenomenological approach.

Health and Medicine

• The lived experiences of cancer survivors.
• The patient experiences chronic pain management.
• Understanding the meaning of disability: A phenomenological study.
• Nurses’ experiences of compassion fatigue.
• The lived experiences of people living with HIV/AIDS.
• Family caregivers’ experiences of caring for elderly relatives.
• Medical professionals’ experiences of ethical dilemmas in healthcare.
• The phenomenology of end-of-life care.
• Experiences of stigma among some people with mental illness.
• The lived experiences of organ transplant recipients.

Sociology and Anthropology

• The experience of homelessness: A phenomenological exploration.
• Perceptions of social justice among marginalized communities.
• Cultural identity among immigrant populations: A phenomenological study.
• Experiences of discrimination based on race/ethnicity.
• The meaning of community in rural areas: A phenomenological inquiry.
• The lived experiences of refugees resettling in a new country.
• Social media use and its impact on interpersonal relationships.
• Experiences of aging: A phenomenological perspective.
• Work-life balance: A phenomenological study of dual-career couples.
• The phenomenology of poverty in urban settings.

Business and Management

• Entrepreneurial experiences of women in male-dominated industries.
• Leadership styles in multinational corporations: A phenomenological approach.
• Work-life integration among Millennials in the workforce.
• Employee experiences of workplace diversity and inclusion initiatives.
• Small business owners’ experiences of navigating economic challenges.
• The lived experiences of remote workers.
• Burnout among healthcare professionals: A phenomenological study.
• The meaning of success in the business world: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of workplace harassment and discrimination.
• The effect of organizational culture on worker satisfaction: A phenomenological exploration.

Technology and Society

• The lived experiences of individuals with technology addiction.
• Online gaming communities: A phenomenological investigation.
• Experiences of cyberbullying among adolescents.
• Social media and self-esteem: A phenomenological perspective.
• The impact of (AI) artificial intelligence on everyday life: A phenomenological study.
• Digital nomadism: A phenomenological exploration of remote work lifestyles.
• Virtual reality experiences: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Ethical considerations in the use of big data: A phenomenological study.
• The lived experiences of individuals disconnecting from technology.
• The phenomenology of online activism and social movements.

Arts and Humanities

• The lived experiences of professional artists.
• Experiences of creativity and inspiration among writers.
• Art therapy: A phenomenological exploration of its effects.
• The meaning of beauty: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of cultural heritage preservation.
• Music therapy: A phenomenological study of its impact on mental health.
• The lived experiences of actors in the theater industry.
• The role of storytelling in shaping identity: A phenomenological perspective.
• Experiences of cultural assimilation through literature.
• The phenomenology of dance as a form of expression.

Environmental Studies

• The lived experiences of individuals affected by climate change.
• Sustainable living practices: A phenomenological exploration.
• Environmental activism: A phenomenological study of motivations.
• Experiences of reconnecting with nature in urban environments.
• The meaning of environmental stewardship: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Perceptions of ecological justice in marginalized communities.
• The lived experiences of indigenous people’s relationship with the land.
• Ecopsychology: A phenomenological perspective.
• Experiences of volunteering for environmental conservation efforts.
• The phenomenology of outdoor recreational activities.

Philosophy and Ethics

• The meaning of happiness: A phenomenological exploration.
• Experiences of moral dilemmas in everyday life.
• Personal identity: A phenomenological study of self-perception.
• The phenomenology of forgiveness and reconciliation.
• The lived experiences of individuals practicing mindfulness.
• Ethical decision-making in professional contexts: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of existential anxiety and meaninglessness.
• The phenomenology of altruism and empathy.
• Spirituality and well-being: A phenomenological perspective.
• The meaning of life: A phenomenological inquiry into existential questions.

Politics and Governance

• Political engagement among young adults: A phenomenological study.
• Experiences of activism and social change.
• The lived experiences of refugees navigating asylum processes.
• Experiences of political polarization in society.
• Grassroots movements: A phenomenological exploration.
• The meaning of democracy: A phenomenological perspective.
• Experiences of political participation among marginalized groups.
• The role of identity in political discourse: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of civic engagement in local communities.
• The phenomenology of political leadership.

Family and Relationships

• The lived experiences of blended families.
• Experiences of parenthood: A phenomenological exploration.
• Sibling relationships: A phenomenological study.
• The meaning of love in romantic relationships: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of caregiving for elderly family members.
• Intergenerational relationships: A phenomenological perspective.
• The lived experiences of individuals in long-distance relationships.
• Experiences of infertility and assisted reproductive technologies.
• Divorce and its impact on family dynamics: A phenomenological study.
• The phenomenology of friendship and social support.

Religion and Spirituality

• Religious conversion experiences: A phenomenological exploration.
• The lived experiences of individuals in religious communities.
• Experiences of spiritual awakening and transformation.
• Religious rituals and their significance: A phenomenological study.
• The meaning of faith: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Religious identity and its role in personal development.
• Experiences of religious discrimination and persecution.
• The phenomenology of religious pilgrimage.
• Spirituality and coping with illness: A phenomenological perspective.
• Mystical experiences: A phenomenological exploration.

Miscellaneous

• Experiences of travel and cultural immersion.
• The meaning of home: A phenomenological study.
• Experiences of coming out: A phenomenological exploration.
• The lived experiences of people in recovery from substance abuse.
• Volunteerism and its impact on personal development: A phenomenological perspective.
• The meaning of leisure: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of intercultural communication and adaptation.
• The phenomenology of dreams and their interpretation.
• Experiences of living with chronic illness.
• The meaning of success: A phenomenological exploration of personal goals.

Sports and Recreation

• The lived experiences of professional athletes.
• Experiences of team dynamics in sports.
• The meaning of competition: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of injury and rehabilitation in sports.
• Sports fandom: A phenomenological exploration.
• The lived experiences of coaches in youth sports.
• Experiences of gender identity in sports.
• The phenomenology of extreme sports.
• Sportsmanship and ethics: A phenomenological study.
• The meaning of achievement in sports: A phenomenological perspective.

Technology and Innovation

• Experiences of early adopters of new technologies.
• The lived experiences of individuals with wearable technology.
• Technological disruptions in the workplace: A phenomenological exploration.
• Experiences of artificial intelligence and automation in daily life.
• Virtual reality gaming: A phenomenological study of immersion.
• The impact of social media influencers: A phenomenological perspective.
• Experiences of privacy and surveillance in the digital age.
• The meaning of digital literacy: A phenomenological inquiry.
• Experiences of technology-mediated communication.
• The phenomenology of online shopping experiences.

Media and Communication

• The lived experiences of journalists covering conflict zones.
• Experiences of social media activism and advocacy.
• Media representation and identity: A phenomenological exploration.
• Experiences of misinformation and fake news consumption.
• The meaning of celebrity culture: A phenomenological study.
• Experiences of binge-watching television series.
• The phenomenology of advertising and consumer behavior.
• Experiences of online dating and virtual relationships.
• The lived experiences of content creators on digital platforms.
• Experiences of censorship and freedom of speech in media.

Law and Justice

• Experiences of wrongful conviction: A phenomenological inquiry.
• The lived experiences of people involved in restorative justice processes.
• Experiences of bias in the criminal justice system.
• The meaning of justice: A phenomenological exploration.
• Experiences of being a juror in a criminal trial.
• Police-community relations: A phenomenological study.
• The lived experiences of victims of crime.
• Experiences of incarceration and reintegration into society.
• Legal professionals’ experiences of ethical dilemmas.
• The meaning of punishment: A phenomenological inquiry into justice systems.
• Experiences of seeking legal recourse: A phenomenological exploration.

These phenomenological research topics cover various disciplines and provide ample opportunities for phenomenological research. Researchers can explore lived experiences, perceptions, and meanings associated with various phenomena within each field.

Applications of Phenomenological Research

Here are some ways phenomenological research can be helpful for students:

• Understanding learning experiences – Students can be interviewed about their subjective experiences in the classroom, with homework, studying for exams, etc. This provides insight into how to improve education.
• Exploring social experiences – Students’ experiences making friends, joining groups, dealing with peer pressure, and more can be examined. This sheds light on social development.
• Investigating identity formation – The essence of forming one’s identity and sense of self during college can be uncovered through phenomenological methods.
• Discovering motivations – Students’ motivations for pursuing higher education, choosing a major, and setting career goals can be explored in-depth.
• Gaining perspectives on diversity – Students from diverse backgrounds can share their experiences on campus related to culture, race, gender, sexuality, disability, etc.
• Understanding extracurriculars – The meaning students ascribe to activities like sports, clubs, volunteer work, and internships and how these shape their collegiate journey.
• Transition challenges – Phenomenological studies can provide insight into the lived experiences of crucial transitions like moving away from home, transferring schools, graduating, etc.
• Wellness/health – Students’ experiences with stress, anxiety, depression, sleep issues, burnout, and other health concerns can be examined to promote well-being.

The takeaway is that phenomenological research can give rich insights into the student’s perspective and subjective realities. This is invaluable for improving educational experiences.

Challenges and Criticisms in Phenomenological Research

Here are some common challenges and criticisms associated with phenomenological research:

• Subjectivity – Critics argue phenomenology is too subjective and lacks scientific rigor. The subjective nature makes it challenging to generalize findings.
• Researcher bias – The researcher’s personal views and expectations may bias the collection and interpretation of data. Bracketing to set aside presuppositions is difficult.
• Retrospective bias – Participants may not accurately recall past experiences, distorting the lived essence under examination.
• Ambiguous approach – There is no single phenomenological method, which makes the overall approach vague. Steps in data analysis can be unclear.
• Abstract concepts – Descriptions of essences, meanings, and perceptions can be abstract. Communicating findings is challenging.
• Data collection limits – Depth interviews or observations may not capture the lived experience. Relying only on language is restricting.
• Generalizability – Small sample sizes in phenomenology make extending findings to larger populations difficult.
• Lack of causality – Phenomenology aims for descriptive insight rather than explanatory models or causal relationships.
• Time-consuming – Conducting in-depth interviews and analyzing large amounts of qualitative data is very time-intensive.

While valuable, phenomenology has limitations. Researchers should acknowledge subjectivities, triangulate data carefully, and communicate detailed descriptions of the phenomenon under study.

Future Directions in Phenomenological Research

Here are some potential future directions for phenomenological research:

• Increased diversity – Studies that aim to understand a broader range of cultural, social, and individual experiences. Giving voice to marginalized groups.
• New contexts – Applying phenomenological methods to emerging topics like technology, social media, climate change , pandemics, etc.
• Multimodal data – Incorporating data beyond interviews, like art, videography, observation, and participant diaries.
• Longitudinal insights – Following individuals’ lived experiences over extended periods as phenomena evolve.
• Collaborative approaches – Having participants be actively involved as co-researchers in designing studies and analyzing/communicating shared experiences.
• Innovative analysis – Leveraging advancements in qualitative data analysis software to uncover subtleties and connections in phenomenological data.
• Integration – Combining phenomenological findings with methods like grounded theory, ethnography, and experimental research for richer insights.
• Enhanced rigor – Improving methodological rigor while retaining open phenomenological inquiry using techniques like member checking.
• Applied research – Partnering with communities, organizations, and policymakers to ensure phenomenological insights translate to impact in real-world contexts.
• Cross-disciplinary – Scholars from diverse fields like health, psychology, and business collaborating on phenomenological projects using mixed expertise.
• New publishing models – Opting for open-access and multimedia publication to enhance dissemination and accessibility of phenomenological research.

The future looks bright for phenomenology’s continued elucidation of human experience!

Final Remarks

In conclusion, our journey through Phenomenological Research Topics has given us valuable insights into the complexities of human life. From exploring emotions and perceptions to understanding social interactions, memories, and identity, we have uncovered the rich woven cloth of personal realities that shape our lives.

Studying people’s experiences offers a unique lens through which we can delve into the essence of being human, acknowledging the importance of individual perspectives and real-life experiences. As we conclude our exploration, it’s clear that research about people’s experiences holds huge potential for further inquiry and understanding in various fields.

By embracing the nuanced nature of human existence, we can continue to heighten our knowledge of ourselves and the world around us. Let’s keep exploring and appreciating the depth of human experience by studying people’s experiences. I hope you liked this post about Phenomenological Research Topics. 

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Home » Phenomenology – Methods, Examples and Guide

Phenomenology – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

Phenomenology

Definition:

Phenomenology is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with the study of subjective experience and consciousness. It is based on the idea that the essence of things can only be understood through the way they appear to us in experience, rather than by analyzing their objective properties or functions.

Phenomenology is often associated with the work of philosopher Edmund Husserl, who developed a method of phenomenological inquiry that involves suspending one’s preconceptions and assumptions about the world and focusing on the pure experience of phenomena as they present themselves to us. This involves bracketing out any judgments, beliefs, or theories about the phenomena, and instead attending closely to the subjective qualities of the experience itself.

Phenomenology has been influential not only in philosophy but also in other fields such as psychology, sociology, and anthropology, where it has been used to explore questions of perception, meaning, and human experience.

History of Phenomenology

Phenomenology is a philosophical movement that began in the early 20th century, primarily in Germany. It was founded by Edmund Husserl, a German philosopher who is often considered the father of phenomenology.

Husserl’s work was deeply influenced by the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, particularly his emphasis on the importance of subjective experience. However, Husserl sought to go beyond Kant’s transcendental idealism by developing a rigorous method of inquiry that would allow him to examine the structures of consciousness and the nature of experience in a systematic way.

Husserl’s first major work, Logical Investigations (1900-1901), laid the groundwork for phenomenology by introducing the idea of intentional consciousness, or the notion that all consciousness is directed towards objects in the world. He went on to develop a method of “bracketing” or “epoche,” which involved setting aside one’s preconceptions and assumptions about the world in order to focus on the pure experience of phenomena as they present themselves.

Other philosophers, such as Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre, built on Husserl’s work and developed their own versions of phenomenology. Heidegger, in particular, emphasized the importance of language and the role it plays in shaping our understanding of the world, while Sartre focused on the relationship between consciousness and freedom.

Today, phenomenology continues to be an active area of philosophical inquiry, with many contemporary philosophers drawing on its insights to explore questions of perception, meaning, and human experience.

Types of Phenomenology

There are several types of phenomenology that have emerged over time, each with its own focus and approach. Here are some of the most prominent types of phenomenology:

Transcendental Phenomenology

This is the type of phenomenology developed by Edmund Husserl, which aims to investigate the structures of consciousness and experience in a systematic way by using the method of epoche or bracketing.

Existential Phenomenology

This type of phenomenology, developed by philosophers such as Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre, focuses on the subjective experience of individual existence, emphasizing the role of freedom, authenticity, and the search for meaning in human life.

Hermeneutic Phenomenology

This type of phenomenology, developed by philosophers such as Hans-Georg Gadamer and Paul Ricoeur, emphasizes the role of interpretation and understanding in human experience, particularly in the context of language and culture.

Phenomenology of Perception

This type of phenomenology, developed by Maurice Merleau-Ponty, emphasizes the embodied and lived nature of perception, arguing that perception is not simply a matter of passive reception but is instead an active and dynamic process of engagement with the world.

Phenomenology of Sociality

This type of phenomenology, developed by philosophers such as Alfred Schutz and Emmanuel Levinas, focuses on the social dimension of human experience, exploring how we relate to others and how our understanding of the world is shaped by our interactions with others.

Methods of Phenomenology

Here are some of the key methods that phenomenologists use to investigate human experience:

Epoche (Bracketing)

This is a key method in phenomenology, which involves setting aside one’s preconceptions and assumptions about the world in order to focus on the pure experience of phenomena as they present themselves. By bracketing out any judgments, beliefs, or theories about the phenomena, one can attend more closely to the subjective qualities of the experience itself.

Introspection

Phenomenologists often rely on introspection, or a careful examination of one’s own mental states and experiences, as a way of gaining insight into the nature of consciousness and subjective experience.

Descriptive Analysis

Phenomenology also involves a careful description and analysis of subjective experiences, paying close attention to the way things appear to us in experience, rather than analyzing their objective properties or functions.

Another method used in phenomenology is the variation technique, in which one systematically varies different aspects of an experience in order to gain a deeper understanding of its structure and meaning.

Phenomenological Reduction

This method involves reducing a phenomenon to its essential features or structures, in order to gain a deeper understanding of its nature and significance.

Epoché Variations

This method involves examining different aspects of an experience through the process of epoché or bracketing, to gain a more nuanced understanding of its subjective qualities and significance.

Applications of Phenomenology

Phenomenology has a wide range of applications across many fields, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, education, and healthcare. Here are some of the key applications of phenomenology:

• Philosophy : Phenomenology is primarily a philosophical approach, and has been used to explore a wide range of philosophical issues related to consciousness, perception, identity, and the nature of reality.
• Psychology : Phenomenology has been used in psychology to study human experience and consciousness, particularly in the areas of perception, emotion, and cognition. It has also been used to develop new forms of psychotherapy, such as existential and humanistic psychotherapy.
• Sociology : Phenomenology has been used in sociology to study the subjective experience of individuals within social contexts, particularly in the areas of culture, identity, and social change.
• Education : Phenomenology has been used in education to explore the subjective experience of students and teachers, and to develop new approaches to teaching and learning that take into account the individual experiences of learners.
• Healthcare : Phenomenology has been used in healthcare to explore the subjective experience of patients and healthcare providers, and to develop new approaches to patient care that are more patient-centered and focused on the individual’s experience of illness.
• Design : Phenomenology has been used in design to better understand the subjective experience of users and to create more user-centered products and experiences.
• Business : Phenomenology has been used in business to better understand the subjective experience of consumers and to develop more effective marketing strategies and user experiences.

Purpose of Phenomenology

The purpose of phenomenology is to understand the subjective experience of human beings. Phenomenology is concerned with the way things appear to us in experience, rather than their objective properties or functions. The goal of phenomenology is to describe and analyze the essential features of subjective experience, and to gain a deeper understanding of the nature of consciousness, perception, and human existence.

Phenomenology is particularly concerned with the ways in which subjective experience is structured, and with the underlying meanings and significance of these structures. Phenomenologists seek to identify the essential features of subjective experience, such as intentionality, embodiment, and lived time, and to explore the ways in which these features give rise to meaning and significance in human life.

Phenomenology has a wide range of applications across many fields, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, education, healthcare, and design. In each of these fields, phenomenology is used to gain a deeper understanding of human experience, and to develop new approaches and strategies that are more focused on the subjective experiences of individuals.

Overall, the purpose of phenomenology is to deepen our understanding of human experience and to provide insights into the nature of consciousness, perception, and human existence. Phenomenology offers a unique perspective on the subjective aspects of human life, and its insights have the potential to transform our understanding of ourselves and the world around us.

Examples of Phenomenology

Phenomenology has many real-life examples across different fields. Here are some examples of phenomenology in action:

• Psychology : In psychology, phenomenology is used to study the subjective experience of individuals with mental health conditions. For example, a phenomenological study might explore the experience of anxiety in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder, or the experience of depression in individuals with major depressive disorder.
• Healthcare : In healthcare, phenomenology is used to explore the subjective experience of patients and to develop more patient-centered approaches to care. For example, a phenomenological study might explore the experience of chronic pain in patients, in order to develop more effective pain management strategies that are based on the patient’s individual experience of pain.
• Education : In education, phenomenology is used to study the subjective experience of students and to develop more effective teaching and learning strategies. For example, a phenomenological study might explore the experience of learning in students, in order to develop teaching methods that are more focused on the individual needs and experiences of learners.
• Business : In business, phenomenology is used to better understand the subjective experience of consumers, and to develop more effective marketing strategies and user experiences. For example, a phenomenological study might explore the experience of using a particular product or service, in order to identify areas for improvement and to create a more user-centered experience.
• Design : In design, phenomenology is used to better understand the subjective experience of users, and to create more user-centered products and experiences. For example, a phenomenological study might explore the experience of using a particular app or website, in order to identify ways to improve the user interface and user experience.

When to use Phenomenological Research

Here are some situations where phenomenological research might be appropriate:

• When you want to explore the meaning and significance of an experience : Phenomenological research is particularly useful when you want to gain a deeper understanding of the subjective experience of individuals and the meanings and significance that they attach to their experiences. For example, if you want to understand the experience of being a first-time parent, phenomenological research can help you explore the various emotions, challenges, and joys that are associated with this experience.
• When you want to develop more patient-centered healthcare: Phenomenological research can be useful in healthcare settings where there is a need to develop more patient-centered approaches to care. For example, if you want to improve pain management strategies for patients with chronic pain, phenomenological research can help you gain a better understanding of the individual experiences of pain and the different ways in which patients cope with this experience.
• When you want to develop more effective teaching and learning strategies : Phenomenological research can be used in education settings to explore the subjective experience of students and to develop more effective teaching and learning strategies that are based on the individual needs and experiences of learners.
• When you want to improve the user experience of a product or service: Phenomenological research can be used in design settings to gain a deeper understanding of the subjective experience of users and to develop more user-centered products and experiences.

Characteristics of Phenomenology

Here are some of the key characteristics of phenomenology:

• Focus on subjective experience: Phenomenology is concerned with the subjective experience of individuals, rather than objective facts or data. Phenomenologists seek to understand how individuals experience and interpret the world around them.
• Emphasis on lived experience: Phenomenology emphasizes the importance of lived experience, or the way in which individuals experience the world through their own unique perspectives and histories.
• Reduction to essence: Phenomenology seeks to reduce the complexities of subjective experience to their essential features or structures, in order to gain a deeper understanding of the nature of consciousness, perception, and human existence.
• Emphasis on description: Phenomenology is primarily concerned with describing the features and structures of subjective experience, rather than explaining them in terms of underlying causes or mechanisms.
• Bracketing of preconceptions: Phenomenology involves bracketing or suspending preconceptions and assumptions about the world, in order to approach subjective experience with an open and unbiased perspective.
• Methodological approach: Phenomenology is both a philosophical and methodological approach, which involves a specific set of techniques and procedures for studying subjective experience.
• Multiple approaches: Phenomenology encompasses a wide range of approaches and variations, including transcendental phenomenology, hermeneutic phenomenology, and existential phenomenology, among others.

Advantages of Phenomenology

Phenomenology offers several advantages as a research approach, including:

• Provides rich, in-depth insights: Phenomenology is focused on understanding the subjective experiences of individuals in a particular context, which allows for a rich and in-depth exploration of their experiences, emotions, and perceptions.
• Allows for participant-centered research: Phenomenological research prioritizes the experiences and perspectives of the participants, which makes it a participant-centered approach. This can help to ensure that the research is relevant and meaningful to the participants.
• Provides a flexible approach: Phenomenological research offers a flexible approach that can be adapted to different research questions and contexts. This makes it suitable for use in a wide range of fields and research areas.
• Can uncover new insights : Phenomenological research can uncover new insights into subjective experience and can challenge existing assumptions and beliefs about a particular phenomenon or experience.
• Can inform practice and policy: Phenomenological research can provide insights that can be used to inform practice and policy decisions in fields such as healthcare, education, and design.
• Can be used in combination with other research approaches : Phenomenological research can be used in combination with other research approaches, such as quantitative methods, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular phenomenon or experience.

Limitations of Phenomenology

Despite the many advantages of phenomenology, there are also several limitations that should be taken into account, including:

• Subjective nature: Phenomenology is focused on subjective experience, which means that it can be difficult to generalize findings to a larger population or to other contexts.
• Limited external validity: Because phenomenological research is focused on a specific context or experience, the findings may have limited external validity or generalizability.
• Potential for researcher bias: Phenomenological research relies heavily on the researcher’s interpretations and analyses of the data, which can introduce potential for bias and subjectivity.
• Time-consuming and resource-intensive: Phenomenological research is often time-consuming and resource-intensive, as it involves in-depth data collection and analysis.
• Difficulty with data analysis: Phenomenological research involves a complex process of data analysis, which can be difficult and time-consuming.
• Lack of standardized procedures: Phenomenology encompasses a range of approaches and variations, which can make it difficult to compare findings across studies or to establish standardized procedures.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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What is phenomenology in qualitative research?

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7 February 2023

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Take a closer look at this type of qualitative research along with characteristics, examples, uses, and potential disadvantages.

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• What is phenomenological qualitative research?

Phenomenological research is a qualitative research approach that builds on the assumption that the universal essence of anything ultimately depends on how its audience experiences it .

Phenomenological researchers record and analyze the beliefs, feelings, and perceptions of the audience they’re looking to study in relation to the thing being studied. Only the audience’s views matter—the people who have experienced the phenomenon. The researcher’s personal assumptions and perceptions about the phenomenon should be irrelevant.

Phenomenology is a type of qualitative research as it requires an in-depth understanding of the audience’s thoughts and perceptions of the phenomenon you’re researching. It goes deep rather than broad, unlike quantitative research . Finding the lived experience of the phenomenon in question depends on your interpretation and analysis.

• What is the purpose of phenomenological research?

The primary aim of phenomenological research is to gain insight into the experiences and feelings of a specific audience in relation to the phenomenon you’re studying. These narratives are the reality in the audience’s eyes. They allow you to draw conclusions about the phenomenon that may add to or even contradict what you thought you knew about it from an internal perspective.

• How is phenomenology research design used?

Phenomenological research design is especially useful for topics in which the researcher needs to go deep into the audience’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences.

It’s a valuable tool to gain audience insights, generate awareness about the item being studied, and develop new theories about audience experience in a specific, controlled situation.

• Examples of phenomenological research

Phenomenological research is common in sociology, where researchers aim to better understand the audiences they study.

An example would be a study of the thoughts and experiences of family members waiting for a loved one who is undergoing major surgery. This could provide insights into the nature of the event from the broader family perspective.

However, phenomenological research is also common and beneficial in business situations. For example, the technique is commonly used in branding research. Here, audience perceptions of the brand matter more than the business’s perception of itself.

In branding-related market research, researchers look at how the audience experiences the brand and its products to gain insights into how they feel about them. The resulting information can be used to adjust messaging and business strategy to evoke more positive or stronger feelings about the brand in the future.

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• The 4 characteristics of phenomenological research design

The exact nature of phenomenological research depends on the subject to be studied. However, every research design should include the following four main tenets to ensure insightful and actionable outcomes:

A focus on the audience’s interpretation of something . The focus is always on what an experience or event means to a strictly defined audience and how they interpret its meaning.

A lack of researcher bias or prior influence . The researcher has to set aside all prior prejudices and assumptions. They should focus only on how the audience interprets and experiences the event.

Connecting objectivity with lived experiences . Researchers need to describe their observations of how the audience experienced the event as well as how the audience interpreted their experience themselves.

• Types of phenomenological research design

Each type of phenomenological research shares the characteristics described above. Social scientists distinguish the following three types:

Existential phenomenology —focuses on understanding the audience’s experiences through their perspective. 

Hermeneutic phenomenology —focuses on creating meaning from experiences through the audience’s perspective.

Transcendental phenomenology —focuses on how the phenomenon appears in one consciousness on a broader, scientific scale.

Existential phenomenology is the most common type used in a business context. It’s most valuable to help you better understand your audience.

You can use hermeneutic phenomenology to gain a deeper understanding of how your audience perceives experiences related to your business.

Transcendental phenomenology is largely reserved for non-business scientific applications.

• Data collection methods in phenomenological research

Phenomenological research draws from many of the most common qualitative research techniques to understand the audience’s perspective.

Here are some of the most common tools to collect data in this type of research study:

Observing participants as they experience the phenomenon

Interviewing participants before, during, and after the experience

Focus groups where participants experience the phenomenon and discuss it afterward

Recording conversations between participants related to the phenomenon

Analyzing personal texts and observations from participants related to the phenomenon

You might not use these methods in isolation. Most phenomenological research includes multiple data collection methods. This ensures enough overlap to draw satisfactory conclusions from the audience and the phenomenon studied.

Get started collecting, analyzing, and understanding qualitative data with help from quickstart research templates.

• Limitations of phenomenological research

Phenomenological research can be beneficial for many reasons, but its downsides are just as important to discuss.

This type of research is not a solve-all tool to gain audience insights. You should keep the following limitations in mind before you design your research study and during the design process:

These audience studies are typically very small. This results in a small data set that can make it difficult for you to draw complete conclusions about the phenomenon.

Researcher bias is difficult to avoid, even if you try to remove your own experiences and prejudices from the equation. Bias can contaminate the entire outcome.

Phenomenology relies on audience experiences, so its accuracy depends entirely on how well the audience can express those experiences and feelings.

The results of a phenomenological study can be difficult to summarize and present due to its qualitative nature. Conclusions typically need to include qualifiers and cautions.

This type of study can be time-consuming. Interpreting the data can take days and weeks.

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Chapter 6: Phenomenology

Darshini Ayton

Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Identify the key terms, concepts and approaches used in phenomenology.
• Explain the data collection methods and analysis for phenomenology.
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of phenomenological research.

What is phenomenology ?

The key concept in phenomenological studies is the individual .

Phenomenology is a method and a philosophical approach, influenced by different paradigms and disciplines. 1

Phenomenology is the everyday world from the viewpoint of the person. In this viewpoint, the emphasis is on how the individual constructs their lifeworld and seeks to understand the ‘taken for granted-ness’ of life and experiences. 2,3 Phenomenology is a practice that seeks to understand, describe and interpret human behaviour and the meaning individuals make of their experiences; it focuses on what was experienced and how it was experienced. 4 Phenomenology deals with perceptions or meanings, attitudes and beliefs, as well as feelings and emotions. The emphasis is on the lived experience and the sense an individual makes of those experiences. Since the primary source of data is the experience of the individual being studied, in-depth interviews are the most common means of data collection (see Chapter 13). Depending on the aim and research questions of the study, the method of analysis is either thematic or interpretive phenomenological analysis (Section 4).

Types of phenomenology

Descriptive phenomenology (also known as ‘transcendental phenomenology’) was founded by Edmund Husserl (1859–1938). It focuses on phenomena as perceived by the individual. 4 When reflecting on the recent phenomenon of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is clear that there is a collective experience of the pandemic and an individual experience, in which each person’s experience is influenced by their life circumstances, such as their living situation, employment, education, prior experiences with infectious diseases and health status. In addition, an individual’s life circumstances, personality, coping skills, culture, family of origin, where they live in the world and the politics of their society also influence their experience of the pandemic. Hence, the objectiveness of the pandemic is intertwined with the subjectiveness of the individual living in the pandemic.

Husserl states that descriptive phenomenological inquiry should be free of assumption and theory, to enable phenomenological reduction (or phenomenological intuiting). 1 Phenomenological reduction means putting aside all judgements or beliefs about the external world and taking nothing for granted in everyday reality. 5 This concept gave rise to a practice called ‘bracketing’ — a method of acknowledging the researcher’s preconceptions, assumptions, experiences and ‘knowing’ of a phenomenon. Bracketing is an attempt by the researcher to encounter the phenomenon in as ‘free and as unprejudiced way as possible so that it can be precisely described and understood’. 1(p132) While there is not much guidance on how to bracket, the advice provided to researchers is to record in detail the process undertaken, to provide transparency for others. Bracketing starts with reflection: a helpful practice is for the researcher to ask the following questions and write their answers as they occur, without overthinking their responses (see Box 1). This is a practice that ideally should be done multiple times during the research process: at the conception of the research idea and during design, data collection, analysis and reporting.

Box 6.1 Example s of bracketing prompts

How does my education, family background (culture), religion, politics and job relate to this topic or phenomenon?

What is my previous experience of this topic or phenomenon? Do I have negative and/or positive reactions to this topic or phenomenon? What has led to this reaction?

What have I read or understood about this topic or phenomenon?

What are my beliefs and attitudes about this topic or phenomenon? What assumptions am I making?

Interpretive or hermeneutic phenomenology was founded by Martin Heidegger (1889–1976), a junior colleague of Husserl. It focuses on the nature of being and the relationship between an individual and their lifeworld. While Heidegger’s initial work and thinking aligned with Husserl’s, he later challenged several elements of descriptive phenomenology, leading to a philosophical separation in ideas. Husserl’s descriptive phenomenology takes an epistemological (knowledge) focus while Heidegger’s interest was in ontology 4 (the nature of reality), with the key phrase ‘being-in-the-world’ referencing how humans exist, act or participate in the world. 1 In descriptive phenomenology, the practice of bracketing is endorsed and experience is stripped from context to examine and understand it.

Interpretive or hermeneutic phenomenology embraces the intertwining of an individual’s subjective experience with their social, cultural and political contexts, regardless of whether they are conscious of this influence. 4 Interpretive or hermeneutic phenomenology moves beyond description to the interpretation of the phenomenon and the study of meanings through the lifeworld of the individual. While the researcher’s knowledge, experience, assumptions and beliefs are valued, they do need to be acknowledged as part of the process of analysis. 4

For example, Singh and colleagues wanted to understand the experiences of managers involved in the implementation of quality improvement projects in an assisted living facility, and thus they conducted a hermeneutic phenomenology study. 6 The objective was to ‘understand how managers define the quality of patient care and administrative processes’, alongside an exploration of the participant’s perspectives of leadership and challenges to the implementation of quality improvement strategies. (p3) Semi-structured interviews (60–75 minutes in duration) were conducted with six managers and data was analysed using inductive thematic techniques.

New phenomenology , or American phenomenology , has initiated a transition in the focus of phenomenology from the nature and understanding of the phenomenon to the lived experience of individuals experiencing the phenomenon. This transition may seem subtle but fundamentally is related to a shift away from the philosophical approaches of Husserl and Heidegger to an applied approach to research. 1 New phenomenology does not undergo the phenomenological reductionist approach outlined by Husserl to examine and understand the essence of the phenomenon. Dowling 1 emphasises that this phenomenological reduction, which leads to an attempt to disengage the researcher from the participant, is not desired or practical in applied research such as in nursing studies. Hence, new phenomenology is aligned with interpretive phenomenology, embracing the intersubjectivity (shared subjective experiences between two or more people) of the research approach. 1

Another feature of new phenomenology is the positioning of culture in the analysis of an individual’s experience. This is not the case for the traditional phenomenological approaches 1 ;  hence, philosophical approaches by European philosophers Husserl and Heidegger can be used if the objective is to explore or understand the phenomenon itself or the object of the participant’s experience. The methods of new phenomenology, or American phenomenology, should be applied if the researcher seeks to understand a person’s experience(s) of the phenomenon. 1

See Table 6.1. for two different examples of phenomenological research.

Advantages and disadvantages of phenomenological research

Phenomenology has many advantages, including that it can present authentic accounts of complex phenomena; it is a humanistic style of research that demonstrates respect for the whole individual; and the descriptions of experiences can tell an interesting story about the phenomenon and the individuals experiencing it. 7 Criticisms of phenomenology tend to focus on the individuality of the results, which makes them non-generalisable, considered too subjective and therefore invalid. However, the reason a researcher may choose a phenomenological approach is to understand the individual, subjective experiences of an individual; thus, as with many qualitative research designs, the findings will not be generalisable to a larger population. 7,8

Table 6.1. Examples of phenomenological studies

Phenomenology focuses on understanding a phenomenon from the perspective of individual experience (descriptive and interpretive phenomenology) or from the lived experience of the phenomenon by individuals (new phenomenology). This individualised focus lends itself to in-depth interviews and small scale research projects.

• Dowling M. From Husserl to van Manen. A review of different phenomenological approaches. Int J Nurs Stud . 2007;44(1):131-42. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2005.11.026
• Creswell J, Hanson W, Clark Plano V, Morales A. Qualitative research designs: selection and implementation. Couns Psychol . 2007;35(2):236-264. doi:10.1177/0011000006287390
• Morse JM, Field PA. Qualitative Research Methods for Health Professionals. 2nd ed. SAGE; 1995.
• Neubauer BE, Witkop CT, Varpio L. How phenomenology can help us learn from the experiences of others. Perspect Med Educ . 2019;8(2):90-97. doi:10.1007/s40037-019-0509-2
• Merleau-Ponty M, Landes D, Carman T, Lefort C. Phenomenology of Perception . 1st ed. Routledge; 2011.
• Singh J, Wiese A, Sillerud B. Using phenomenological hermeneutics to understand the experiences of managers working with quality improvement strategies in an assisted living facility. Healthcare (Basel) . 2019;7(3):87. doi:10.3390/healthcare7030087
• Liamputtong P, Ezzy D. Qualitative Research Methods: A Health Focus . Oxford University Press; 1999.
• Liamputtong P. Qualitative Research Methods . 5th ed. Oxford University Press; 2020.
• Abbaspour Z, Vasel G, Khojastehmehr R. Investigating the lived experiences of abused mothers: a phenomenological study. Journal of Qualitative Research in Health Sciences . 2021;10(2)2:108-114. doi:10.22062/JQR.2021.193653.0
• Engberink AO, Mailly M, Marco V, et al. A phenomenological study of nurses experience about their palliative approach and their use of mobile palliative care teams in medical and surgical care units in France. BMC Palliat Care . 2020;19:34. doi:10.1186/s12904-020-0536-0

Qualitative Research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners Copyright © 2023 by Darshini Ayton is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Phenomenological research is a qualitative research approach that focuses on exploring the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals. Phenomenology aims to understand how people make meaning of their experiences and how they interpret the world around them.

Phenomenological research typically involves in-depth interviews or focus group discussions with individuals who have experienced a particular phenomenon or event. The data collected through these interviews or discussions are analyzed using thematic analysis. 

Today, we will learn how a scholar can successfully conduct a phenomenological study and draw inferences based on individual's experiences. This information would be especially useful for those who conduct qualitative research . Well then, let’s dive into this together!

What Is Phenomenological Research: Definition

Let’s define phenomenological research notion. It is an approach that analyzes common experiences within a selected group. With it, scholars use live evidence provided by actual witnesses. It is a widespread and old approach to collecting data on certain phenomenon. People with first-hand experience provide researchers with necessary data. This way the most up-to-date and, therefore, least distorted information can be received.  On the other hand, witnesses can be biased in their opinions. This, together with their lack of understanding about subject, can influence your study. This is why it is important to validate your results. If you aren’t sure how to validate the outcomes, feel free to contact our dissertation writers . They have proven experience in conducting different research studies, including phenomenology.

Phenomenological Research Methodology

You should use phenomenological research methods carefully, when writing an academic paper. Aside from chance of running into bias, you risk misplacing your results if you don't know what you're doing. Luckily, we're here to provide thesis help and explain what steps you should take if you want your work to be flawless!

• Form a target group. It is typically 10 to 20 people who have witnessed a certain event or process. They may have an inside knowledge of it.
• Systematically observe participants of this group. Take necessary notes.
• Conduct interviews, conversation or workshops with them. Ask them questions about the subject like ‘what was your experience with it?’, ‘what did it mean?’, ‘what did you feel about it?’, etc.
• Analyze the results to achieve understanding of the subject’s impact on the group. This should include measures to counter biases and preconceived assumptions about the subject.

Phenomenological Research: Pros and Cons

Phenomenological research has plenty of advantages. After all, when writing a paper, you can benefit from collecting information from live participants. So, here are some of the cons:

• This method brings unique insights and perspectives on a subject. It may help seeing it from an unexpected side.
• It also helps to form deeper understanding about a subject or event in question. Many details can be uncovered, which would not be obvious otherwise.
• It provides undistorted data first-hand.

But, of course, you can't omit some disadvantages of phenomenological research. Bias is obviously one of them, but they don't stop with it. Observe:

• Sometimes participants may find it hard to convey their experience correctly. This happens due to various factors, like language barriers.
• Organizing data and conducting analysis can be very time consuming.
• You can generalize the resulting data easily.
• Preparing a proper presentation of the results may be challenging.

Phenomenological Research: Questions With Examples

It is important to know what phenomenological research questions can be used for certain papers. Remember, that you should use a qualitative approach here. Use open-ended questions each time you talk with a participant. This way the participant could give you much more information than just ‘yes’ or ‘know’.  Here are a few real examples of phenomenological research questions that have been used in academic works by term paper writers .

Phenomenological Research Questions: Examples

When you're stuck with your work, you might need some examples of phenomenological research questions. They focus on retrieving as much data as possible about a certain phenomenon. Participants are encouraged to share their experiences, feelings and emotions. This way scholars could get a deeper and more detailed view of a subject.

• What was it like, when the X event occurred?
• What were you thinking about when you first saw X?
• Can you tell me an example of encountering X?
• What could you associate X with?
• What was the X’s impact on your life/your family/your health etc.?

Phenomenological Research Examples

Do you need some real examples of phenomenological research? We'll be glad to provide them here, so you could better understand the information given above. Please note that good research topics should highlight the problem. It must also indicate the way you will collect and process data during analysis.

• Understanding the role of a teacher's personality and ability to lead by example play in the overall progress of their class. A study conducted in 6 private and public high schools of Newtown.
• Perspectives of aromatherapy in treating personality disorders among middle-aged residents of the city. A mixed methods study conducted among 3 independent focus groups in Germany, France and the UK.
• View and understanding of athletic activities' roles by college students. Their impact on overall academic success. Several focus groups have been selected for this study. They underwent both online conduct surveys and offline workshops to voice their opinions on the subject.

Phenomenological Research: Final Thoughts

Phenomenological qualitative research is crucial if you must collect data from live participants. In this article, we have examined the concept of this approach. Moreover, we explained how you can collect your data. Hopefully, this will provide you with a broader perspective about phenomenological research!

Or do tight deadlines give you a headache? Check out our paper writing services ! We’ve got a team of skilled authors with expertise in various academic fields. Our papers are well written, proofread and always delivered on time!

Frequently Asked Questions About Phenomenological Qualitative Research

1. what are the 4 various types of experiences in phenomenology.

Phenomenology studies the structure of various types of experience. It attempts to view a subject from many different angles. A good phenomenological research requires focusing on different ways the information can be retrieved from respondents. These can be: perception, thought, memory, imagination, emotion, desire, and volition. With them explained, a scholar can retrieve objective information, impressions, associations and assumptions about the subject.

3. What is the purpose of phenomenological research design?

Main goal of the phenomenological approach is highlighting the specific traits of a subject. This helps to identify phenomena through the perceptions of live participants. Phenomenological research design helps to formulate research statements. Questions must be asked so that the most informative replies could be received.

4. What is phenomenological research study?

A phenomenological research study explores what respondents have actually witnessed. It focuses on their unique experience of a subject in order to retrieve the most valuable and least distorted information about it. The study must include open-ended questions, target focus groups who will provide answers, and the tools to analyze the results.

2. What is hermeneutic phenomenology research?

Hermeneutic phenomenology research is a method often used in qualitative research in Education and other Human Sciences. It inspects deeper layers of respondents’ experiences by analyzing their interpretations and their level of comprehension of actual events, processes or objects. By viewing a person’s reply from different perspectives, researchers try to understand what is hidden beneath that.

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Best 151+ Phenomenological Research Topics For Students

Phenomenological research, centered on understanding the essence of human experiences, has garnered increasing attention in academic circles. Its popularity in education stems from its unique ability to offer students a deeper understanding of the intricacies of human existence. 

In the realm of education, phenomenological research holds significant importance. It empowers students to connect theory with practice, fostering a deeper appreciation for the human dimensions of learning and development. 

Through phenomenological investigations, students gain valuable insights into diverse perspectives, enhancing their empathy and understanding.

Research topics in phenomenology are crucial for students as they provide avenues for exploration and growth. These topics allow students to investigate various aspects of human experience, from the mundane to the extraordinary, unveiling layers of meaning and significance.

In this blog, we will explore a wide range of phenomenological research topics tailored specifically for students. From unraveling the essence of consciousness to exploring the lived experiences of individuals in different contexts.

Our aim is to inspire and guide students in their research endeavors, empowering them to uncover the richness of human existence through the lens of phenomenology.

Phenomenological research: What Exactly Is It?

Table of Contents

Phenomenological research delves into the essence of human experiences, aiming to understand the subjective aspects of reality. 

It explores how individuals interpret and make sense of the world around them, focusing on their lived experiences rather than objective observations. This approach emphasizes the importance of understanding the unique perspectives and perceptions of individuals, recognizing that reality is shaped by personal experiences. 

Phenomenological research involves rigorous reflection, analysis, and interpretation, with the goal of uncovering the underlying meanings and structures inherent in human consciousness. 

It offers a valuable framework for exploring the intricacies of human existence and has applications across various disciplines, including psychology, sociology, and education.

Criteria for Selecting Phenomenological Research Topics

Selecting phenomenological research topics involves careful consideration of various factors to ensure the relevance, significance, and feasibility of the study. Here are some criteria to consider when choosing phenomenological research topics:

• Personal Interest: Choose a topic that genuinely interests you, as enthusiasm will fuel your research efforts.
• Relevance: Ensure the topic aligns with your academic or professional goals and contributes to existing knowledge in your field.
• Feasibility: Consider the resources, time, and access needed to conduct research on the chosen topic.
• Clarity: Select a topic with clear boundaries and research questions, facilitating focused investigation.
• Significance: Opt for topics that address meaningful questions or issues, offering potential insights or solutions.
• Accessibility: Ensure the availability of relevant literature, data, and resources to support your research.
• Ethical Considerations: Reflect on the ethical implications of your research topic and ensure compliance with ethical guidelines and standards.

List of Phenomenological Research Topics & Ideas In Education

Phenomenological research in education focuses on exploring lived experiences, perceptions, and meanings related to various aspects of teaching, learning, and educational contexts. Here is a list of potential phenomenological research topics and ideas in education:

Student Experience

• The Lived Experience of First-Generation College Students
• Understanding Student Motivation in Online Learning Environments
• Perceptions of Academic Stress Among High School Students
• Exploring Student-Teacher Relationships in Early Childhood Education
• The Lived Experience of Bullying Among Middle School Students
• Student Perspectives on the Transition to Remote Learning During COVID-19
• The Meaning of Success for College Students
• Navigating Cultural Identity in Higher Education
• Exploring the Impact of Extracurricular Activities on Student Well-being
• Student Perspectives on Inclusive Education Practices
• The Lived Experience of Homeschooling
• Student Perceptions of STEM Education
• Understanding Student Engagement in Project-Based Learning
• The Meaning of Achievement for High-Achieving Students
• Exploring Student Resilience in the Face of Academic Challenges
• The Lived Experience of Special Education Students

Teacher Experience

• The Lived Experience of New Teachers in Urban Schools
• Teacher Perspectives on the Integration of Technology in the Classroom
• Exploring Teacher Burnout and Stress in Secondary Education
• The Meaning of Teaching Excellence
• Teacher Experiences with Classroom Management Strategies
• The Lived Experience of Teaching Students with Disabilities
• Teacher Perceptions of Professional Development Programs
• Understanding Teacher Identity and Role Perception
• Exploring Teacher Collaboration in Professional Learning Communities
• Teacher Perspectives on Inclusive Classroom Practices
• The Lived Experience of Teaching in Multicultural Classrooms
• Teacher Attitudes Towards Standardized Testing
• Exploring Teacher Well-being and Self-care Practices
• The Meaning of Teacher Leadership
• Teacher Perspectives on Parental Involvement in Education
• The Lived Experience of Teaching in Rural Schools

Parental Involvement

• Parent Perspectives on Early Childhood Education Programs
• The Lived Experience of Parenting a Child with Special Needs
• Understanding Parental Involvement in Homework Practices
• Exploring Parent-Teacher Communication in Elementary Schools
• Parent Perspectives on School Choice and Education Policy
• The Meaning of Parental Engagement in Education
• Parent Experiences with Homeschooling
• Understanding Parental Expectations and Aspirations for Their Children
• Exploring Parental Involvement in Extracurricular Activities
• Parent Perspectives on Inclusive Education for Children with Disabilities
• The Lived Experience of Being a Single Parent in Education
• Parental Perceptions of Social and Emotional Learning Programs
• Exploring Parental Involvement in Early Literacy Development
• The Meaning of Parent-Teacher Partnerships
• Parent Experiences with Remote Learning During the Pandemic
• Understanding Parental Involvement in College Preparation

School Climate and Culture

• Student Perspectives on School Safety Measures
• The Lived Experience of School Bullying Prevention Programs
• Teacher Perceptions of School Leadership and Administration
• Exploring School Climate and Its Impact on Student Well-being
• Parent Perspectives on School Culture and Diversity
• The Meaning of Equity and Inclusion in School Environments
• Student Experiences with Restorative Justice Practices in Schools
• Understanding the Role of School Climate in Academic Achievement
• Exploring Cultural Competency in School Settings
• Teacher Perspectives on Building Positive Classroom Culture
• The Lived Experience of Student Discipline Policies
• Parental Involvement in School Decision-Making Processes
• Exploring Teacher-Student Relationships and Trust in Schools
• The Meaning of Respect and Belonging in School Communities
• Student Perspectives on Peer Relationships and Social Dynamics
• Teacher Experiences with Classroom Diversity and Inclusion Initiatives

Curriculum and Instruction

• Student Perspectives on Project-Based Learning Experiences
• The Lived Experience of STEM Education Programs
• Teacher Perspectives on Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices
• Exploring Student Engagement in Differentiated Instruction
• Parent Perspectives on Homeschool Curriculum Choices
• The Meaning of Authentic Assessment in Education
• Student Experiences with Inquiry-Based Learning Approaches
• Understanding Teacher Decision-Making in Curriculum Design
• Exploring Student Voice and Choice in Learning
• Teacher Experiences with Integrating Social and Emotional Learning
• The Lived Experience of Outdoor and Experiential Education
• Parent Perspectives on Early Literacy Curriculum
• Exploring the Role of Arts Education in Student Development
• The Meaning of Global Citizenship Education
• Student Perspectives on Online Learning Platforms
• Teacher Experiences with Flipped Classroom Models

Educational Policy and Reform

• Student Perspectives on Standardized Testing Practices
• The Lived Experience of Education Policy Implementation
• Teacher Perceptions of Educational Equity Initiatives
• Exploring the Impact of School Funding Policies on Student Achievement
• Parent Perspectives on School Choice Options and Charter Schools
• The Meaning of Educational Justice in Policy Discourse
• Student Experiences with No Child Left Behind and Every Student Succeeds Acts
• Understanding Teacher Resistance to Education Reform Efforts
• Exploring the Role of Advocacy Groups in Shaping Education Policy
• Teacher Perspectives on Teacher Evaluation Systems
• The Lived Experience of High-Stakes Testing Pressure
• Parental Involvement in Education Policy Advocacy
• Exploring the Impact of Immigration Policies on Education Access
• The Meaning of Educational Accountability in Policy Implementation
• Student Perspectives on School Discipline Policies and Zero Tolerance
• Teacher Experiences with Education Policy Changes During the Pandemic

Technology in Education

• Student Perspectives on Digital Learning Platforms
• The Lived Experience of Online Education Programs
• Teacher Perceptions of Educational Technology Integration
• Exploring Student Engagement in Virtual Classroom Environments
• Parent Perspectives on Screen Time and Technology Use in Education
• The Meaning of Digital Literacy in the 21st Century Classroom
• Student Experiences with Blended Learning Models
• Understanding Teacher Professional Development in Educational Technology
• Exploring the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Personalized Learning
• Teacher Experiences with Overcoming Technological Barriers in Education
• The Lived Experience of Cyberbullying and Online Safety Measures
• Parent Perspectives on Distance Learning During the Pandemic
• Exploring Student Creativity and Innovation in Technology-Enhanced Learning
• The Meaning of Educational Access and Equity in Digital Spaces
• Student Perspectives on Social Media Use and Its Impact on Education
• Teacher Experiences with Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Applications in Education

Special Education and Inclusive Practices

• Student Perspectives on Inclusive Education Programs
• The Lived Experience of Students with Learning Disabilities in Mainstream Classrooms
• Teacher Perceptions of Individualized Education Plans (IEPs)
• Exploring Parental Involvement in Special Education Decision-Making
• The Meaning of Inclusion and Belonging for Students with Disabilities
• Student Experiences with Assistive Technology in Education
• Understanding Teacher Attitudes Towards Inclusive Classroom Practices
• Exploring the Role of Paraprofessionals in Supporting Students with Special Needs
• Teacher Experiences with Differentiated Instruction for Diverse Learners
• The Lived Experience of Transition Planning for Students with Disabilities
• Parent Perspectives on Advocating for Special Education Services
• Exploring Student Self-Advocacy Skills in Special Education Settings
• The Meaning of Success and Achievement for Students with Disabilities
• Student Perspectives on Peer Relationships in Inclusive Classrooms
• Teacher Experiences with Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
• Understanding the Impact of Stigma and Stereotypes on Students with Disabilities

Higher Education and Career Development

• Student Perspectives on College Readiness and Preparation
• Teacher Perceptions of College and Career Readiness Programs
• Exploring Parental Expectations for Higher Education
• The Meaning of Success in Higher Education
• Student Experiences with Internship and Work-Study Programs
• Understanding Teacher-Student Relationships in College Settings
• Exploring the Role of Mentoring in College and Career Success
• Teacher Experiences with Advising and Counseling College-Bound Students
• The Lived Experience of Non-Traditional Students in Higher Education
• Parent Perspectives on College Affordability and Financial Aid
• Exploring Student Decision-Making in Choosing a College Major
• The Meaning of Employability and Career Preparedness
• Student Perspectives on Work-Life Balance During College
• Teacher Experiences with Supporting Students’ Transition to the Workforce
• Understanding the Impact of College Experiences on Long-Term Career Trajectories

Global Perspectives in Education

• Student Perspectives on International Education Programs and Exchanges
• The Lived Experience of Cultural Adjustment for International Students
• Teacher Perceptions of Global Citizenship Education
• Exploring Parental Attitudes Towards Global Learning Initiatives
• The Meaning of Diversity and Inclusion in Global Education
• Student Experiences with Service-Learning and Volunteer Abroad Programs
• Understanding Teacher-Student Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges
• Exploring the Role of Technology in Connecting Global Classrooms
• Teacher Experiences with Incorporating Global Issues into Curriculum
• The Lived Experience of Language Learning and Multilingualism
• Parent Perspectives on the Value of Global Education for Their Children
• Exploring Student Perspectives on Cultural Identity and Belonging
• The Meaning of Intercultural Competence in Education
• Student Perspectives on Global Environmental Education and Sustainability
• Teacher Experiences with Leading Global Education Initiatives
• Understanding the Impact of Globalization on Education Systems and Practices

These topics offer avenues for exploring the subjective experiences, perceptions, and meanings embedded within educational contexts, shedding light on diverse aspects of teaching, learning, and the educational experience.

Importance of Phenomenological Research Topics

Phenomenological research topics hold significant importance for several reasons:

Deep Understanding

Phenomenological research topics allow researchers to delve into the depth of human experiences, providing insights into the subjective aspects of reality.

Personal Connection

These topics resonate with individuals personally, fostering empathy and understanding of diverse perspectives.

Practical Application

Findings from phenomenological research can inform educational practices, policy-making, and interventions aimed at improving student outcomes and enhancing the educational experience.

Meaningful Exploration

Phenomenological research topics offer opportunities for meaningful exploration of complex phenomena, contributing to advancing knowledge in education and related fields.

Tips for Conducting Phenomenological Research Topics

Conducting phenomenological research requires careful attention to methodological principles and approaches that facilitate the exploration of lived experiences and subjective meanings. Here are some tips for conducting phenomenological research:

• Immersion: Immerse yourself fully in the phenomenon under study, experiencing it firsthand to gain deeper insight.
• Bracketing: Set aside preconceived notions and biases to approach the research with an open mind.
• Reflexivity: Reflect on your own experiences and how they may influence your interpretation of the data.
• Participant Selection: Choose participants who have experienced the phenomenon in question and can provide rich, detailed accounts.
• Data Collection: Utilize methods such as interviews, observations, and journaling to gather in-depth data.
• Thematic Analysis: Identify common themes and patterns in the data to uncover the essence of the phenomenon.
• Member Checking: Validate findings with participants to ensure accuracy and authenticity.
• Ethical Considerations: Respect participants’ privacy, autonomy, and confidentiality throughout the research process.

Final Thoughts

The selection of appropriate phenomenological research topics is crucial for delving into the richness of human experience and uncovering subjective meanings. 

It empowers students to explore the complexities of lived experiences, fostering empathy, understanding, and meaningful insights. 

By embracing phenomenology, researchers can advance knowledge and understanding across diverse fields, shedding light on the intricacies of the human condition. 

As students embark on their research endeavors, may they be inspired to engage deeply with the phenomenological approach, recognizing its profound potential to contribute to scholarship, practice, and the pursuit of truth.

1. What are some common challenges in conducting phenomenological research?

Challenges may include ensuring participant confidentiality and privacy, managing researcher bias, and interpreting subjective experiences. Additionally, researchers may encounter difficulties in selecting appropriate data collection methods and analyzing rich qualitative data.

2. Can phenomenological research be applied across different disciplines?

Yes, phenomenological research can be applied in various fields, including psychology, sociology, education, healthcare, and more. The subjective nature of phenomenological inquiry allows researchers to explore diverse phenomena and perspectives, making it adaptable to different disciplines.

3. What are some examples of phenomenological research topics in education?

Examples include exploring student experiences in online learning environments, understanding teacher perspectives on inclusive education practices, and investigating parental involvement in early childhood education programs.

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Phenomenological psychology and qualitative research

• Open access
• Published: 30 October 2021
• Volume 22 , pages 25–53, ( 2023 )

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• Magnus Englander   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1211-8829 1 &
• James Morley 2  

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This article presents the tradition of phenomenologically founded psychological research that was originally initiated by Amedeo Giorgi. This data analysis method is inseparable from the broader project of establishing an autonomous phenomenologically based human scientific psychology. After recounting the history of the method from the 1960’s to the present, we explain the rationale for why we view data collection as a process that should be adaptable to the unique mode of appearance of each particular phenomenon being researched. The substance of the article is then devoted to a detailed outline of the method’s whole-part-whole procedure of data analysis. We then offer a sample analysis of a brief description of an ordinary daydream. This is an anxiety daydream in response to the recent Covid-19 pandemic. We present this daydream analysis in full to show the concrete hands-on 5 step process through which the researcher explicated the participants’ expressions from the particular to the general. From this brief sample analysis, the researcher offers a first-person reflection on the data analysis process to offer the reader an introduction to the diacritical nature of phenomenological psychological elucidation.

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Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Pure phenomenology's tremendous significance for any concrete grounding of psychology is clear from the very beginning. If all consciousness is subject to essential laws in a manner similar to that in which spatial reality is subject to mathematical laws, then these essential laws will be of most fertile significance in investigating facts of the conscious life of human and brute animals.—Husserl 1917 . Footnote 1 The natural sciences were never intended to study man as a person. One need not leave the realm of science to study man adequately. We need only to broaden science itself.—Giorgi, 1970 Footnote 2

1 Introduction

Recently, there has been a healthy and long overdue discussion over how best to appraise the many new qualitative methods and how they contribute to scientific knowledge in psychology. For phenomenological psychologists the crucial challenge is, as expressed by Edmund Husserl (quoted above), to show how phenomenology provides a " concrete grounding " and " fertile significance " to the development of psychology as a science. Historically, it is well known that psychology, by and large, has imitated the methodology of the natural sciences. As expressed by Amedeo Giorgi (quoted above), by emulating physical science, psychology gave up studying human beings "as persons ." In response to this critical flaw at the heart of modern psychology, phenomenological psychologists endeavor to redirect psychology toward a more phenomenologically based direction. The centerpiece of this project has been the development of a qualitative research methodology that would make a phenomenological psychological science possible. What follows is an outline of the original research method, where we also offer an example of data analysis as carried out by the researcher.

2 Historical context: the project of a human science psychology

Before we launch into our main presentation, we believe that it is important to offer a brief historical review to illustrate the unique way in which this method developed in close collaboration with phenomenological philosophy. The following section is a synthesis that draws from historical accounts by Smith ( 2002 ), ( 2010 ), Cloonan ( 1995 ), and Churchill and Wertz’s ( 2015 ), as well as from the past experience of the authors.

In the early 1960’s Giorgi found phenomenology to be practiced in an ambivalent and often methodologically contradictory manner in European academic psychology. Similarly, American humanistic psychologists, sympathetic to phenomenology, were active critics of the deterministic approaches of mainstream psychology. But they, nonetheless, like their European counterparts, also defaulted to non-phenomenological measurement techniques when it came to their own research designs. It was as a response to this situation that the first systematically phenomenological psychology program was founded at Duquesne University in the early 1960’s. In this context Giorgi and his colleagues articulated this distinctly phenomenological way of doing psychological research—a methodology consistent with its phenomenological foundations. While Giorgi took the lead role in the development of this methodology, it needs to be stressed that this a was also an interdisciplinary community endeavor that took place between the philosophy and psychology departments at Duquesne University spanning the 1960’s to the late 1980’s. John Scanlon, the translator of Husserl’s phenomenological psychology lectures, was particularly supportive as a consultant to Giorgi and his colleagues during this period—as was Richard Rojcewicz, Al Lingis, Lester Embree, and several non-Duquesne but sympathetic scholars such as Martin Dillon, William Richardson and many others whom, records show, were often invited as guest speakers and consultants. Also, the psychology curriculum required students to take a minimum of two courses in modern philosophy, whereas the psychology faculty consistently audited philosophy courses.

In 1970 Giorgi launched the Journal of Phenomenological Psychology , which was at the outset a joint venture with European phenomenologically oriented psychologists and psychiatrists, as well as phenomenological philosophers. The journal was initially co-edited by Georges Thines and Carl F. Graumann. Serving on the first editorial board were Europeans such as Blankenburg, Buytendijk, Gurwitsch, van den Berg, van Breda, and Straus. The key point here is that the work being done on the development of the research methodology was part of a radically interdisciplinary and international project from the very beginning. As part of the overall project, Giorgi also founded the Simon Silverman Phenomenology Center . This research center also carries a copy of Husserl’s unpublished papers from the archives in Leuven, as well as the archives of Gurwitsch, Straus, Strasser, Bouman, Heidegger’s Marburg lectures, Buytendijk’s Pensée Repensée , and over 20,000 volumes, making it the largest collection of existential-phenomenological literature in the world. At the official inception of the center, Giorgi invited John Salis as his co-director.

Giorgi's seminal work, Psychology as a Human Science: A Phenomenology-Based Approach ( 1970 ) expressed a phenomenological response to the historical situation of psychology as a natural science. This also served as a foundational text for the psychology curriculum at Duquesne. Here, as a psychologist, he first proposed the necessity of a rigorously procedural, qualitative research method for a human scientific psychology. It made the appeal for an overall paradigmatic unity of “approach, method, and content” as the basis for a non-naturalistic psychology—an authentic Geisteswissenschaft or ‘human scientific’ psychology. Giorgi insisted that if psychology is to be true to its own subject matter, the scientific study of humans as persons, then the meaning of term 'empirical' in psychology must by necessity be 'broadened' beyond empiricism’s restriction to the sensory (see also, Giorgi, 1971 , 2009 ). A phenomenologically empirical science would be inclusive of all experience. This would include (in Husserl’s terms) the ir-real, or the more than sensory aspects of experience, not just the real or sense-based measurables of classical empiricism. The vision was to employ the overall phenomenological paradigm to ground a human scientific psychology, a scientific enterprise autonomous from the naturalistic juggernaut of mainstream psychology.

Over this 50-year history this methodological approach has been known by various names: the phenomenological psychological method, the existential-phenomenological psychological method, the qualitative phenomenological method, human science psychology and even “the Duquesne method.” The founding Duquesne faculty mostly preferred the term “ Existential-Phenomenological Psychology ” to highlight the influence of all main continental thinkers: Heidegger, Sartre and Merleau-Ponty—as well as Husserl and many others. The term “existential” also expressed their emphasis on concrete psychological situatedness in contrast to transcendental phenomenological philosophy. Phenomenological psychologists who received their graduate training from within the Duquesne research tradition, such as, Frederick Wertz (Wertz et al., 2011 ) used the term “Phenomenological Psychological Method,” whereas Scott Churchill ( 2022 ) maintains the original Duquesne term “Existential Phenomenological Research.” As we will see ahead, it was only in 2009 that Giorgi committed to the nomenclature of “the descriptive phenomenological method in psychology.” The emphasis on description was done to offer a counterpoint to the penchant among qualitative researchers, often influenced by cultural postmodernism, to take the extreme position that 'everything is an interpretation'—something rejected by Giorgi as the imposition of a hermeneutic universalism (Giorgi, 1992 ). Footnote 3 However, while generally based on Husserl’s approach, it is very important to highlight how in his 2009 text he never claimed his method to be identical to Husserl's. It was instead it was a modification of Husserlian philosophical methodology to adapt to the human scientific context of the discipline of psychology (Giorgi, 2014 , 2021 ). Footnote 4 In addition, Giorgi ( 2006 , 2010 , 2018 ) has also made several critical comparisons with other qualitative phenomenological methods as well as replies to philosophers (Giorgi, 2017 , 2020 , 2021 ). Several of his psychology colleagues and ex-students have developed variations of the method. Davidson ( 1988 , 2003 , 2021 ), for example, offers such a variation, to which both Giorgi ( 2020 , 2021 ) and Wertz ( 2016 ) are sympathetic. Churchill ( 2022 ) maintains the core Husserlian elements while complimenting them with Heideggerian insights. But all such variations maintain most of the key components of the overall method—as shall be outlined ahead.

Across the development of this research tradition, there have been innumerable studies published in various psychology journals and books based on this overall approach. This research tradition is cited as a significant development within the history of modern psychology (see Brennan & Houde, 2017 ). Important theoretical and original qualitative research findings were published in the four volume, Duquesne Studies in Phenomenological Psychology (Giorgi et al., 1971 , 1975 , 1979 , 1983 ), as well as the edited volume Phenomenology and Psychological Research (Giorgi, 1985 ). The latter contains paradigmatic empirical studies on learning (by Giorgi) criminal victimization (by Wertz), thinking while playing chess (by Aanstoos), and self-deception (by Fischer). A brief representative sampling that illustrates the range of recent research outputs is as follows: Living through positive experiences of psychotherapy (Giorgi & Gallegos, 2005 ), Lived persistent meaning of early emotional memories (Englander, 2007 ), Art appreciation (Roald, 2008 ), Pivotal moments in therapy (B. Giorgi, 2011 ), Postpartum depression (Røseth et al., 2011 ), Autism and culture (Desai et al., 2012 ), Leading a police vehicle pursuit (Broomé, 2013 ), Social anxiety (Beck, 2013 ), The suffering of older adults (Morrissey, 2015 ), The beginning of an extra-marital affair (Zapien, 2016 ), Mental health and the workplace (Tangvald-Pedersen and Bongaardt, 2017 ) Disturbances in maternal affection (Røseth and Bongaardt, 2019 ) Cross cultural learning (DeRobertis, 2017 , 2020 ), and Black men’s experience of police harassment (Vogel, 2021 ).

3 Data collection

Since this research tradition is oriented toward data analysis, this section on data collection will be brief and limited to some basic principles. Because psychologists are usually already well trained in interview techniques (Englander, 2020 ; Giorgi, 2020 ), it is natural that interviews will be commonly used to collect descriptive material. However, we stress that the method is not, by itself, an interview method. Footnote 5 Instead, each data collection strategy is developed in an idiosyncratic way by first understanding how each phenomenon best reveals itself in its own unique mode of appearance (Englander, 2020 ). For instance, when studying ‘thinking while playing chess’ Aanstoos ( 1985 ), found interviewing, by itself, to be insufficient for accessing the subtle psychological nuances of playing chess. To accommodate this phenomenon, Aanstoos ( 1983 ), developed a 'think aloud method' where one player freely spoke his thoughts into a recorder during a chess game while the opponent had his ears covered. In other words, the principle here was to design the data collection process by attending closely to the particularity of the phenomenon. Typically, the phenomenon is carefully circumscribed in advance through pilot studies, field work and clinical contexts from which the researcher can uncover the ways to best solicit descriptions and expressions that can most successfully reveal deeper psychological meanings.

Our main point here is that there should be a ‘custom fit’ between the phenomenon and the data collection design to solicit maximally good descriptions of the phenomenon within the context of everyday life. Strategies for collecting such descriptions should not be presumed beforehand and imposed on the phenomenon. The data collection design should fit the phenomenon instead of the phenomenon being forced to fit the design . Concretely, the phenomenon or related phenomena should be carefully studied through the trial-and-error process of pilot studies before any final decisions are made regarding data collection strategies.

Having made these points, some general recommendations have been laid out for data collection procedures. Drawing from existential-phenomenological philosophers such as Sartre ( 1962 , 28–29) and Merleau-Ponty ( 1962 ), phenomenological psychologists acknowledge that a person is always in a situation. At the start of any data collection, the research focus is on a concrete situation in which the participant has directly experienced the phenomenon under investigation. A concrete situation is not an idea, an attitude or anything abstract and conceptual—it is an experience that is directly lived. This acknowledgement of the situated concrete nature of psychological phenomena is another reason why data collection designs, again, need to be unique to the phenomenon and independently ‘custom-designed’ by the researcher. Or put another way, each study seeks the mode of investigation that allows the phenomenon to best express itself in its own distinctive way.

4 Data analysis

For a chronological development of the methodology, see Giorgi ( 1975a , 1975b , 1985 , 1997 , 2009 , 2018 ).

This is a ‘whole-part-whole’ qualitative method that includes steps where the researcher adopts the phenomenological psychological attitude and applies the technique of eidetic variation. Again, in contrast to philosophical analysis, phenomenological psychology begins and ends with meanings as lived and contextualized within the mundane, everyday lifeworld.

4.1 Concrete 5 step method of data analysis

The data analysis has five steps. Over the course of nearly five decades of experience we have learned that success with this method is best achieved by applying each step in a generally sequential relation to the other steps. In this way, all five steps work as an integral whole. The steps that follow where adopted from a recent publication by Giorgi et al. ( 2017 ). Having said this, it is important to also point out that these steps have both a linier and non-linier dimension to them. The linear sequential ‘steps’ offers an initial structure and organization that can also liberate the researcher to move back and forth, reviewing previous steps and revising them in relation to new discoveries and intuitions. In actual concrete practice, the process becomes more like a working draft or scaffold to work from. Ahead, in our discussion of the case analysis, this non-linier dimension will be more fully addressed.

4.2 Step 1. Initial reading for a sense of the whole

As this is a whole-part-whole method, the procedure begins with the ‘sense of the whole,’ proceeds with an analysis of the parts, and concludes with a newly elucidated ‘sense of the whole.’ Thus, the preliminary ‘appreciation’ of the entire description is important because it prepares and assists the researcher for the next steps where one studies its parts. This ‘sense of a whole’ should not be confused with hypothesis, conclusions or theorizations. Instead, it should be seen as a tentative understanding that is only an opening prelude to a relationship with the descriptive material. Importantly, it is this ‘sense of the whole,’ provided by the participant’s full descriptive account, that will act as the background to the diacritical figure-ground analysis carried out during the latter steps. In concrete practical terms, the researcher reviews the transcription (or audio or video) several times before starting Step 2. Again, this first step establishes the figure-ground framework that will drive the part-whole analysis of the entire method as every part, or meaning unit, will usually be explicated in terms of its relationship with the whole of the description.

4.3 Step 2. Adopting the phenomenological psychological attitude

Adopting the overall phenomenological attitude or ‘way of seeing’ is what distinguishes this method from other forms of non-phenomenological qualitative research. Importantly, and this can’t be stressed enough from the onset, in our work as social scientists doing life-world qualitative research, the epoché and the reduction function in a different context then in philosophy. Footnote 7 So, modified to accommodate the psychological sphere of interest, this attitude is essential to the next steps of the data analysis. Most would agree that time needs to be dedicated to the study authoritative primary sources in phenomenology to fully understand the nature of this phenomenological approach to research. This involves, (1) the epoché (or suspension) of the natural attitude, and (2) an assumption of the phenomenological psychological reduction.

With the practice of the epoché we try to just let the experience of something arise in its “givenness.” Footnote 8 In Husserl’s terms this is a ‘putting out of play’ or ‘parenthesizing’ of any positions of belief or doubt toward the world as independent of our consciousness of the world. This ordinary everyday position towards reality is what phenomenologists call the ‘natural attitude.’ A corollary of the natural attitude is the naturalistic attitude which is the commonsense belief that all things are ultimately explained by the physical causes of natural science. So, the psychologist appropriates the epoché for several reasons, (1) it clears the way for us to better understand how the participants are experiencing the world, self and others, and (2) it liberates us to better describe other people’s experiences without falling back on physical explanations, rationalizations, stereotypes or explaining them away with hypothetical models and concepts. (3). It allows researchers to become more aware of how, as Merleau-Ponty ( 1962 , p xiii) put it, one’s own ‘intentional threads’ are themselves influencing the phenomenon. (4). It invites researchers to overcome prejudices and doubts with regard to their own aptitudes for intuitive imagination. Put another way, the epoché opens us to see how the world is profusely intertwined with both the researchers and the research participant's experience of it, characterizing a radically non-dogmatic and open-minded perspective towards psychological research.

We will next go into some detail on the nature of the reduction in phenomenological psychology because it is here that phenomenological psychologists make significant and necessary modifications to the reduction, and in turn the epoché , as originally expressed by Husserl and philosophical phenomenologists. The phenomenological psychological reduction is what one does after first understanding the perspective of the epoché. Here we ‘reduce’ or restrict our frame of reference to a particular region of meaning. The psychological, in this sense, can be viewed as a particular region of science that is a psychological reduction. In the human scientific context of a qualitative psychology, a psychological reduction takes on a different meaning than Husserl’s original incomplete depiction of the psychological reduction. Husserl saw the psychological reduction as both a propaedeutic steppingstone towards the transcendental (or philosophical) reduction, Footnote 9 as much as he also saw it as the basis for new kind of psychological science—as we are applying it here. However, not being a psychologist, Husserl was not able to offer detail on how to apply the psychological reduction in an applied human science context. It is here where Giorgi's modification of the psychological reduction incorporates the doings of science to qualitative psychological research. The psychological region pertains to a particular domain of lived experience—an experience that is neither abstractly conceptual, nor objectively physical; it is concretely and personally lived, by a particular person, always socially engaged, in a particular situation in everyday social life, in space, time and history.

In this sense, the psychological reduction maintains an intimate but distinctively delicate, even tricky, relationship with the natural attitude. While philosophers may be disinterested in the natural attitude in order to pursue other matters, the phenomenological psychologist is studying exactly the natural attitude itself. This mundane world of everyday common-sense beliefs is precisely the subject matter of the phenomenological psychologist—and any other phenomenologically identified social scientists. In this sense, the psychological position transforms the nature of the epoché. Instead of the philosopher’s full suspension of the world of the natural attitude, the psychologist takes strong interest in exactly this world of the natural attitude. This means that the psychologist performs an epoché that is both in and out of the natural attitude. Within the psychological reduction we ‘step back’ from the natural attitude in order to study its structures. Again, the phenomenological psychologist is cognizant of the faith of the assumed world of the natural attitude but still studies this worldview not unlike the empathic manner of an anthropologist, doing field work, who both spontaneously participates in village life, like a fellow villager, while also maintaining his social scientific perspective. So, unlike the faith of the participant, the researcher’s is a faith that regularly, and methodically, steps back and questions itself. These points will be further developed in our reflection on how this attitude, particular to the phenomenological psychologists, was applied to the data analysis process performed on our sample case description.

Another aspect of this circumscribed 'psychological' region is that it pertains to the domain of relevance that is, itself, the ‘discipline’ of psychology Footnote 10 and what Giorgi ( 2009 ) has referred to as the 'disciplinary perspective'. Giorgi suggests that this ‘disciplinary’ reduction to the domain of the psychological (2009) should be most accurately depicted as a human scientific reduction. Footnote 11 In stark contrast to the empirical theory of science that drives mainstream psychology, the approach provided here allows researchers to explicate psychological meanings in their morphological, provisional, phenomenological sense.

4.4 Step 3. Dividing data into meaning units

This next step is motivated by practicality. Attempting to analyze, for example, 30–40 pages of transcribed interview material all at once is a daunting task. This is precisely why a data analysis method is helpful. Nevertheless, to stay consistent with a phenomenological theory of science, Step 3 is carried out from within the phenomenological attitude. For example, while reading through the recorded material, the researcher breaks down the material into smaller manageable parts to allow for a closer and more detailed focus in the upcoming Step 4. By phenomenologically elucidating the parts, the researcher is also able to begin distinguishing the participants’ meanings from how these appear in the natural attitude. This allows the expression by the participants to later (i.e., in Step 4) be explicated into phenomenologically psychologically sensitive description. The material is thus broken into manageable sections referred to as “meaning units.” The length of a meaning unit can vary from one sentence to an entire paragraph or (on rare occasions) a whole page of material. The length of meaning units can also vary from researcher to researcher, and such variation does not necessarily have any bearing on the general findings at the end of the analysis. Often the material can be easily differentiated. The main point is that too large a meaning unit can be unwieldy to analysis. It is also important to point out that not all meaning units are essential to the general structure of the phenomenon. However, all meaning units need to be analyzed (in Step 4). This last point is important, because sometimes when the researcher relaxes the epoché and returns to the natural attitude, some meaning units might mistakenly appear redundant. Nevertheless, when analyzed carefully, there is always the possibility of discovery.

Typically, researchers break this into two side-by-side columns that are written out in text form, referred to as Column 1 and Column 2 . This two-column transcription procedure serves several purposes. It conveniently organizes the process for the researcher and, importantly, it makes the data analysis process transparent and thus open for critique by other phenomenological researchers. As an additional procedure to this step, Giorgi also suggests that one modifies the participants’ expression into third person expressions. However, this is only a suggestion intended for researchers who are having difficulty in seeing the difference between the individual (or the idiographic level) and the phenomenon (the nomothetic level). Another discretionary modification is to extend columns, beyond the usual two, into three or even four columns. This was employed in the daydream analysis ahead where the researcher found a third column to be of value as it allowed him to visually check his more generalized transformations with the original meaning units—right before his eyes.

4.5 Step 4. Transformation of everyday expression to psychological meaning

The relationship between Column 1 (i.e., everyday expression, or naive description, of the participant) and Column 2 (i.e., phenomenological description of psychological meaning) is distinctive to this method. Here one carefully elucidates the participants’ essential meanings into generalizable terms within the domain of psychological relevance—as expressed above. We grasp and draw out the fuller psychological meanings embedded within the everyday description. Now, it is in this particular step that the phenomenological attitude takes center stage and is explicitly put into practice for the purpose of a phenomenological psychological analysis. In addition, in order to seek the general meanings within the lived experience this step also includes the tool of eidetic variation . This means that the researcher needs to maintain a general focus on the phenomenon under investigation while carrying out this detailed analysis. In this context, phenomenological elucidation is not a matter of mere notetaking, summarizing, annotating or just condensing meanings. It is more about how the researcher adjusts one’s mindset so as to allow the psychologically relevant meanings to emerge to one’s consciousness. In a certain sense, one opens oneself, or renders oneself a vehicle to the fuller meanings of the participant’s naive description, but always with a focus on the phenomenon. This is a receptive or ‘discovery’ mode of consciousness—not one of actively applying ideas, theories or concepts. One can understand this position as a contemplative openness to the givens of the other’s experience as it emerges through the participants’ expressions. There is an imaginative participation in the subjects’ descriptions not unlike the engagement one experiences when reading a novel, a poem, or any act of expressive art. There is here an ironically 'focused openness' or put another way: a resolute receptiveness. One converts the participant’s expressions (as conveyed within the natural attitude) into phenomenologically clarified psychological meanings by carefully following the intentionality in the participants' expression. The watchwords here are: elucidation, illumination, and explication. Here, we do not add to what our participants say, instead we bring forth the fuller meanings.

In addition, one does not need to restrict oneself to only one column during the analysis. It is perfectly feasible for the researcher to extend the analysis of the initial meaning unit into several levels of elucidation—such as a column 3 or 4. As noted in the previous section on Step 3, this 4th step is also about the spirit of transparency in science (similar to how one shows one's work when doing mathematics). By extending the analysis into stages or levels of analysis, one is showing colleagues exactly how one has reached these extended levels of generalization.

4.6 Step 5. Returning to the whole and moving toward the general structure

It is at this phase that the researcher moves from a part-whole eidetic analysis to a new focus on the whole again. But now we have a new whole, a whole that is the end result of this entire procedure. Remaining within the phenomenological psychological attitude, as described above, the researcher’s intimate engagement with the meaning unit analysis now becomes an act of synthesis of the parts together into what is usually a temporally sequential narrative. The watchword here is structure. A structure is understood in gestalt terms as a whole, but a whole composed only of essential parts. The idea here is that if one where to hypothetically remove one of the parts, then the rest of the structure would fall apart. Therefore, the researcher wants to be prudent to not overstuff a structure. A good structure should follow the elegance of simplicity—as much as reasonable. Furthermore, the features or constituent parts should be invariant. By invariant we do not mean universal or absolute. We are fully aware that human phenomena are contingent to history and culture. We only mean that an invariant psychological structure should “hold together” within this culture at this point in history. Within these parameters we think it reasonable that generalized psychological claims can be made. Footnote 12

It is important to note that most other qualitative research methods present their conclusions in terms of ‘themes.’ But because this approach emphasizes phenomena as totalities, i.e. as structures, we avoid any overemphasis on themes and prefer to comment on the structure of the phenomenon as a totality as much as possible. When we do discuss parts, we prefer the term ‘constituents’ to stress their relatedness to the whole of the structure. It is conventional for many other methods to present to readers curated direct quotes from their participants. But because we have already performed a very close analysis of the direct expressions of the participants in the earlier steps of the data analysis, we prefer to offer readers the more structural, or general, levels of meaning in any discussion of our results as will be seen ahead when we discuss the results of our analysis of an experience of daydreaming. In short, our inclination is to offer readers prepared or explicated data instead of curated raw data.

4.7 Situated structures

As an optional procedure one can add an extra step between the meaning unit analysis (step 4) and the General Structure (step 5). While Giorgi stressed the general structure, most advanced researchers find it effective to add this intermediary step—as demonstrated in the analysis offered ahead. Footnote 13 This can support the eventual goal of generality and can be an extremely helpful ‘bridge step’ toward the general structural description. But it must be stressed that to remain only on the level of situated individual experience would miss the key purpose of the method—which is to achieve a general (inter-subjective) structural description of the phenomenon. Having said this, a situated structure can be very rich in life world details and remarkably illuminative in its own right. One could depict this as a structure on the idiographic or individual level. This is often popular with clinical psychologists who prefer an individual ‘case-study’ level of understanding. But unlike ‘clinical’ case-studies, this is a research phenomenon which is different from a diagnostic, or therapeutic relationship. Here the research intention is paramount—not the clinical intention. Again, this is the elucidation of an individual participant’s experience performed as a step before moving to the general structure. This would be an essential structure of the invariant aspects of an individual person’s experience of the phenomenon. In more simple language this is a basic summary of the psychologically relevant aspects of this particular person’s experience of the phenomenon. Developing situated structures from three or more research participants can be a very helpful way to eidetically scrutinize the phenomenon as experienced by all of the participants. But when it comes to groups, it is important to emphasize that within the phenomenological approach to science, eidetic comparison (Wertz, 2010 ) should not be confused with statistical comparison. Though more challenging (especially for newcomers), in phenomenological psychology an eidetic analysis could just as well be performed on a single participant as on a group. But having made this qualification, a group of any number of situated structures is always a great support to one’s eidetic analysis towards generalizability. Footnote 14

4.8 The general structure

At this point, these phenomenologically elucidated ‘parts’ of the data analysis (including the situated structures) are brought back together into a new whole . Phenomenological psychology is definitively a search for psychological essences or what we prefer to call general invariant structures. Husserl called this ‘eidetic analysis’ and the primary technique he used for this level of analysis he called eidetic or ‘imaginary variation.’ In this analysis, one imaginatively reviews the phenomenologically clarified parts of the previous analysis as achieved in step 4, with an eye for intuiting a new whole. Again, this is a discovery frame of mind where I render myself open to the continually emerging intuitions and patterns in the elucidated data as they give themselves to my awareness. In other words, it is not an empirical summary or the common denominator of facts across the cases, but another level of the analysis. Specific to this level of the analysis is the technique of imagining the phenomenon in its various profiles, angles or possibilities. For example, as a researcher I can ask myself if the structure of this phenomenon is possible without any of the particular constituent parts that I have discovered during my analysis in Step 4? I may even imagine adding new parts that were not explicitly expressed in the data but ‘apperceptively’ or intuitively suggested by the data. To reiterate, in contrast to most other qualitative approaches, the general structure is an integral whole and is never just a series of separate themes. The key idea here is that a structure is a full gestalt , a whole, or a totality that dissipates when a part is removed. Therefore, it is important to edit a general structure with rigor and integrity and to delete all that is unessential to the systemic pattern that makes the phenomenon what it is. The general structure is typically narrated in the present tense—though not always. Sometimes a phenomenon may split off into types or variants. In such cases one could have two or three general structures, representing different ‘types.’ Therefore, forcing a closure by applying a psychological theory is not an option. The findings, as supported by the analysis, can at a later stage in the discussion section (of the research report) be presented in dialogue with established psychological theories (‘backloading’ in current nomenclature) and other research results (See Fig.  1 ).

Overview—flowchart of data analysis process (from Giorgi et al., 2017 ). R researcher, P participant

5 Case example

What follows is a brief case example of a phenomenological psychological data analysis. Again, unlike philosophy where the research is done in a solitary first person manner, in phenomenological psychology we take a second person position. We see ourselves as participants —not mere observers—as we try to grasp the fuller meaning of other people’s concrete descriptions as expressed within the natural attitude of everyday life (Englander, 2020 ; Giorgi, 2009 ). We make no demands on our participants to take the reflective attitude of the practicing phenomenologist. Instead, only the researcher is responsible for taking the phenomenological stance as he or she reads the expressions of the participant. Here the data analysis is conducted within the tension of two intertwined goals: to be faithful to the intentional meanings as expressed while also deepening their meaning through their re-expression within the phenomenological psychological attitude—as performed in meaning unit analysis (step 4) and the development of structures (step 5). This, again, is what we call elucidation or explication . This is a fidelity that also takes us into a deeper understanding of the expressed intentions our participants. This is exactly the power of the epoché (within the psychological standpoint) as applied to the grasping or bringing-forth of psychological meaning. Like the way certain artists can transform the taken-for-granted experience of an ordinary object, such as an apple in a still-life painting, into an apple seen afresh ‘as if for the first time,’ so does the phenomenological psychologist strive to bring out the psychological meaning of the participant’s experience of the phenomenon.

The sample presented here is taken from the context of an ongoing research project on daydreaming that is currently replicating and updating a previously published study (Morley, 1998 , 1999 , 2003 ) through fresh interview material. As explained above, the data collection process was customized to suit the unique nature of the phenomenon. Here, in this particular research context, the procedure for collecting daydream reports has been to first request a self-written protocol from persons who are not themselves directly involved with psychology. A formal protocol question prompt (see below) was given to the participant to help guide the written description. As mentioned above, the reason for beginning with a written description is that, as an imaginary phenomenon, daydreaming can become unwieldy and difficult to articulate during an interview. Through pilot trials we have learned that written descriptions help the participant to ground or anchor their memory of the daydream. It then serves as an organizing point of reference for the interview—without imposing any leading external influences. Then, the researcher and participant begin the interview itself by re-reading the written protocol together to refresh their memories of the event. The researcher initiates the interview by asking the participant to take the initiative to express what, in the written description, he or she feels is most in need of elaboration or expansion. After the participants have offered further elaborations on what stands out as most important to them, the researcher will then pose questions from an informal semi-structured check-list of points of special phenomenological interest to the researcher. Specifically, the researcher asks for fuller descriptions of existential constants such as space, time, embodiment, social relations, sense of reality, and sense of self as experienced during the various temporal phases of the daydream. The actual interview approach, for this particular phenomenon, will vary across a spectrum from a gentle reiterative style to intensive and challenging inquiries Footnote 15 —depending on circumstances. As described above, this data collection method was developed through the researcher’s intimate relationship with the phenomenon over time.

A full data analysis of an entire interview would surfeit the space of this presentation. So it is for this reason that we chose to offer a concise sample of the analysis process drawn from material that was recently collected in the form of an initial written protocol. While not as detailed and spontaneous as the interview that followed, the written protocol still offers the reader a rich “sense of the whole’ that allows for a faithful sample the data analysis process. So, though brief, this was still a reasonably good description that offers a worthy example of the whole-part-whole dynamic central to the analysis process of this method. Choosing a brief sample also expresses the authors’ confidence that even the smallest fragment of an everyday type of description will explode in meaning when approached from within the phenomenological psychological attitude. Not unlike how the sensory empirical world burst open with the introduction of telescopes and microscopes, so does the human life world open up before us when beheld from within the openness provided by the lens of the overall phenomenological perspective as expressed above.

Having said this, we again caution that as a sample data analysis it does not benefit from the detail offered by the follow-up interview. This small sample is offered for strictly didactic reasons. More importantly, it also stands alone without the fuller dimensionality offered by the intersubjective eidetic analysis at least two other individual case examples to which it’s whole and constituent parts could be eidetically compared. It was for this reason that we restricted the title of the phenomenon from “daydreaming” to “an anxiety daydream” to reflect the particularity of the one sample. But even without the intersubjective corroboration of at least two other daydream descriptions, we hope readers will agree that it can be surprising to see what can emerge when using only one case example.

To reiterate, in brief, we begin with the whole daydream description as depicted in the written protocol. After reading for the whole we then break it into parts—or meaning units. Then, we phenomenologically elucidate each of the parts, or meaning units, though the technique of using columns—in this case we used 3 columns (most researchers only use two). Finally, we return to a renewed sense of the whole in both of the situated and general structures. The situated structure, like a case study, is idiographic to the particular description while the general structure is an attempt to achieve a nomothetic statement on the phenomenon of anxious daydreaming. In this instance, the general structure will be restricted to the meanings elicited from this single, and very brief, case example and will therefore be somewhat limited and tentative. It’s very important to note that in most research instances the general structure will be an eidetic analysis based on the various other individual situated structures. The general structure corresponds to what one could call the results of the research process. While the constituent parts of the whole structure will be discussed in most research reports, unlike most other qualitative methods that discuss themes , typically supported with selected quotes, we prefer to keep the whole structure of the experience as the primary reference point.

Ahead, within the analysis we will refer to the participant as ‘P.’ Later, in the discussion, we will address the participant through the pseudonym of Ashling.

5.1 Written daydream protocol—initial protocol prompt to the participant (P)

Please concretely describe a situation in which you experienced a daydream. Please describe what was happening when the daydream began, what the daydream was about, what it was like while having the daydream, and how the daydream came to an end. Please try to be as concrete and detailed in your description as possible.

5.2 Ashling’s written protocol description—including step 3, marking the meaning units

On March 14, 2020, I was in Tepoztlán, Mexico. Trump had recently announced he would be suspending travel from Europe to the US due to COVID-19. I had just moved to Mexico a few months prior. I feared if the closure was happening with Europe it would most likely be happening with Mexico very soon, a golden moment for Trump to assert his plan for the border with Mexico to be even more impenetrable. As we drove back from Tepoztlán to Mexico City and night was falling, I started to gaze out the window, daydreaming, as we passed the silhouetted Popocatépetl volcano in the distance.

I started thinking about how I would get back to my family in the US if flights were suspended with Mexico. As we continued to drive I thought about if we didn’t stop in Mexico city but just continued all the way to the border (about a 15 h drive). In my daydream I imagined arriving at the border and that there would be mayhem, cars piled up for miles and the border patrol not allowing anyone across. The border agents were armed and aggressive and unreachable. I imagined the reasons I would give, that my family needed me etc., but reasoning with them was not working. And I envisioned somehow managing to get past them as they were distracted by the chaos, and the relief felt by speeding into the US away from the border and onward towards home.

I felt anxious imagining the border patrol and their dominance, their potential to shoot us when we sped past, defying their rules of closure. But I then felt relief at the outcome of getting past, of fighting our way in and across and making it to a place of safety.

When my partner and I later got to the apartment in Mexico City that night I looked into flights to get to Boston where we would be in a familiar place during this most intensive and uncertain time. My good friend called me from Rennes in France and told me how bad it was, that death rates were rising, and how she wasn't leaving the house at all. She advised me to leave quickly and that to have a garden was a saving grace for her, and that at least in Boston I would have a garden. I booked my flight and packed a small case. I daydreamed again as I looked around the apartment, that 10 or so years would pass, and I would finally be able to come back and all my things would be here but between and around old weeds and crumbled walls and cobwebs, a scene left untouched and abandoned.

5.3 Meaning unit analysis

5.4 Situated structure of an anxiety daydream

Daydreaming for this person was an imaginary manifestation of her feelings of anxiety. By manifesting this anxiety as a dramatically staged scenario, she was able to live-out or play-out the enactment of her anxiety and its eventual resolution. This particular daydream occurred as a person’s affective response to the threat of having her freedom of movement, across international borders, curtailed or restricted by political forces beyond her control. In particular she feared being cut-off and separated from her home and family during a time of great uncertainty. These strongly felt emotions around the experience of constraint or restriction had no means of expression within the context of a long road trip in a car. Turning her gaze, away from the car interior, out the window towards the twilight horizon of the landscape, P entered into an imagined scenario where she is in the same car but has arrived at the international border between her foreign country of residence and her desired home country. The daydream manifests the person’s own momentary existential situation as a scene of chaos and mayhem enforced by the imposing, threatening and impersonal agents of power i.e. the border guards who refuse to allow her to cross the border into her home country. P imagines trying to reason or negotiate with the guards but realizes that dialogue is futile in this situation. Again, these are circumstances out of her control. As a staged enactment or ‘metaphorization’ of her actual existential situation, the daydream is both the expression and revelation of her life situation. It allows her to “express” her immersion in the situation which also, in a reversible way, offers her a reflective distance to “see” the feeling of restriction that has occupied her. As both the expression and revelation of her present life situation the daydream is, in this sense, lived ambiguously as both an active and passive experience. These ambiguously dual, yet interwoven, perspectives are implicit to her daydreaming experience. Next, within the imaginary narrative of the daydream, the daydreaming/daydreamed person commits an act of defiant transgression. P shifts the narrative from that of passive casualty of powers beyond her control, to one where she takes charge, or assumes agency, by choosing the extreme risk of speeding past the distracted guards and thus flouting their overbearing authority by driving across the border without their sanctioned permission. By taking matters into her own hands and transgressing the rules, P escapes confinement and experiences the satisfaction that comes with the security of having returned to her home country. The daydream concludes with feelings of relief. The experience of this daydream allowed P to articulate her desire to return home to her native country during this time of uncertainty—a desire that was converted into an actual concrete decision to eventually book an airline flight home to family and friends.

5.5 Tentative general structure of an anxiety daydream

Daydreaming emerges in a situation of unfulfilling circumstances. In the case of anxiety, it appears in the form on an ominous and yet opaque threat to one’s well-being. This feeling presents itself as a demand for action—to seek the source of the threat and to overcome it. However, this demand for action cannot be achieved in the current situation as it is impeded by circumstances where no real behavioral action is possible. This becomes a tension between the feeling’s demand for action, regarding the ominous threat, and its restraining context. The person turns attention away from the immediately restraining situation by seeking out and shifting attention to another horizonal field of focus. It is here that the emotion takes the course of expressing itself through the medium of an imaginary scenario that opens up an opportunity for the fulfillment of the emotion. The emotion transforms into a world scenario where it is expressed in the form of an enacted narrative drama. The person assumes a dual intentional role as both the author/narrator of the dramatic scenario and well as the actor immersed within the dramatic action. The emotion is now lived in a narrative context that allows the possibility of its fulfilment. As a staged enactment the daydream can become a living metaphor of the person’s actual existential situation. The daydream scenario can be both the expression and revelation of one’s emotional situation. Its expression makes it possible to “see” one’s immersion in the emotional dramatic scenario. It can offer the opportunity for a reflective distance from the feeling of restriction that had previously occupied the person. As both expression and revelation of the person’s present life situation daydreaming reveals an ambiguous interplay between both active and passive aspects of experience. These ambiguously interwoven perspectives vary between being implicit or explicit to the daydreamer. Though daydreaming takes place within an imaginary region of experience, this region is always also interfused within one’s life historical horizons—always expressing one’s life projects and goals.

6 Commentary on the analysis

In any phenomenological psychological research report, there is an extensive theoretical discussion of the results (i.e. the constituent parts of general and situated structures) with the phenomenological and natural scientific literature. We have much to say here, especially with regard to such constituents as ‘dual intentionality’ ‘multiple realities, the ‘affective-imaginary dynamic,’ the “linkage of expression with revelation’ and, of course, the comparison of these findings with current studies in cognitive science (such as the default mode network). But alas, as the purpose of this essay is didactic with regard to the method, and due to the limits of space, we must defer this full dialogue to a future publication.

Due to the brevity of the written description, and the very fact of there being only a single participant, the researcher can only modestly offer a highly tentative sample general structure. However, despite its brevity, the participant, whom we will here call ‘Ashling,’ offered a rich and full description and the researcher feels confident that the situated structure was faithful to the participants experience.

6.1 The non-linier dimension of data analysis

While the researcher initially worked with fidelity to the 5 step method, it is also important to note that there was a significantly non-linier dimension to this process. This was especially the case when it came to the composition of the situated and general structures. Once the meaning units were demarcated, the process towards the situated and eventual general structures took on a life of its own. In other words, while the meaning units established a framework for data analysis, once the 3 column framework was established, and the participant’s expressions were laid out before his eyes , the researcher began a back-and-forth process of checking, rechecking, reflecting and intuitively linking the meanings into fuller wholes and patterns. To use an imperfect metaphor, we can compare this explication process to what is called a detective’s “crazy wall” that is used to help interpret and understand a crime case. From detective stories and movies, we are familiar with how the investigator will post pieces of data and information across a wallboard, or sometimes a city map. The detective can then use this to meaningfully link the information and datapoints with connecting strings. Seeing the constituent parts ‘before his eyes’ helps the investigator to make the ‘meaningfully intuitive connections’ that lead to better understanding of the case. Obviously, this helps the investigator to step back and see the dynamic relation between the parts and the whole and it is from this perspective that insights and discoveries can arise. This is exactly the benefit of meaning unit analysis.

6.2 The diacritical aspect of data analysis

To reiterate, the psychological phenomenological attitude is focused on understanding the particular experience of a particular person. Obviously, as evidenced by the general structure, we do not stop a the particular—but this is where we begin. While this attitude undoubtedly suspends the naturalistic attitude of physical science, its disposition towards the more global natural attitude, as discussed above, contains a strategic ambiguity. Very importantly, unlike phenomenological philosophy, phenomenological psychology directly takes up the naively believed world of the natural attitude as a subject of inquiry. Ours is, as Maurice Natanson, citing Alfred Schutz, calls it: “a phenomenology of the natural attitude” ( 1973 , p107). In other words, while we ourselves as researchers are trained to be aware of our own natural attitude, and ‘step back’ from it as best we can, it is also true that we do not entirely put it aside. So, for example, when reading Ashling’s description of her daydream, the researcher imaginatively participated with the description of her daydream and, for that moment, may have been empathically engrossed within the world of her natural attitude. In a recent publication this is well described by Scott Churchill as a ‘disciplined fascination’ (Churchill, 2022 ). Also, as a denizen of the natural attitude oneself, the researcher may well have applied his background stock of knowledge of daydreaming, garnered from personal experiences as well as professional readings on the subject; all of this in order to better understand Ashling’s experience and intentional structures. Hence, as discussed above, this is not a pure epoché or a pure reduction as practiced by the philosopher. On the other hand, unlike Ashling, or any research participant, the researcher continually practices a ‘stepping back’ from that believed world, again, in order to better understand her world. There is, in this way, a weaving process that is unique to the phenomenological psychological attitude.

The figure-ground metaphors used by Merleau-Ponty are very helpful here. Throughout his works he explicitly describes what we are calling the phenomenological psychological attitude, as a ‘ diacritical ’ process (Kearney, 2011 ) that is, like the act of breathing—both inhaling and exhaling as one whole act. This is precisely what we mean by the strategic ambiguity of the phenomenological psychological position. In his well-known discussion on methodology Merleau-Ponty describes the attitude of the researcher as follows: “Reflection does not withdraw us from the world…’ “…it steps back to watch the forms of transcendence fly up like sparks from a fire; it slackens the intentional threads which attach us to the world and thus brings them to our notice…” ( 1962 , p xiii). As psychologists these threads or tethers to the natural attitude are never cut, they are “loosened or slackened” to enable us to see the intentions of others—as well as one’s own. Seeing my own intentional threads can reveal fore-understandings that could either inhibit or enhance my analysis.

In this case, a young woman is learning about the encroaching covid pandemic, wants to return to the security of her home and family, and becomes upset about the closing international borders that could restrict, and become an obstacle, to her desire to return home. This was the big picture to which the researcher returned, in a circular manner, throughout the analysis.

The researcher came to see how Ashling was originally overcome with a desire to go home while simultaneously experiencing a feeling of being impeded from that intention. Though she did not explicitly say this, one could easily imagine how, as more borders closed, Ashling’s desire to return home would only intensify. The beginning part of the daydream narrative reflected this distressing and overwhelming devils circle where she is impeded by powers beyond her control. But in meaning unit 7 we see a turn.

Another diacritical element is the weaving between the whole of the description and its parts. As a reader one could say that I am “zooming-in” on the unique and minute details of the participants expressions as much as I am continually “zooming-out” to use the whole as the context for understanding these details. For example, Ashling’s use of key expressions in Meaning Unit 7 (MU7) such as “envisioned,” “getting past” and “the relief felt” all offered a basis for enhanced eidetic exploration and fuller illumination. They allowed the researcher to come to the insight of Ashling’s shift in position, from that of passive victim of overpowering circumstances to that of an active agent of an imaginary act of courageous transgression—driving past the armed and aggressive border guards to cross the border. Understanding the “whole” of her situation is what brought to light the essential meaning of the daydream.

6.3 Spelling out tacit meanings

By explication, or elucidation, we mean the process of spelling-out latent or tacit meanings. To offer an example, Ashling, of course, never explicitly said that she experienced a ‘dual intentional structure.’ It was the task of the researcher to cull out this structural component that was implicit to the description and likely lived-out in a pre-thematic way by Ashling. The researcher’s recognition of this constituent happened during the researcher’s transition from the meaning unit analysis to the whole of the situated structure. It was in this process of “putting the whole story back together again” that the researcher saw how this double intentionality was experienced by Ashling. Here, there were two distinct but related intentions, (1). the intention to deal with the practical frustrations of booking a flight home during an uncertain period of international crisis (the actual world), and (2). the daydreamed intention of getting past imaginary border guards (the daydreamed world scenario). The researcher came to see Ashling as experiencing both intentions and both corresponding world relations—the actual car scenario and the other being the daydreamed car scenario. Hence, the dual intentional structure. One could call this a “generalizing process” but, in actual practice, it was a much fuzzier and more unclear event than any such nominalizations can portray. Once again, we can understand this as a diacritical process: (1). The insight came ‘as given’ in the discovery manner of a direct phenomenological intuition, and (2). This pattern was ‘recognized’ from the researcher’s background stock of knowledge (or fore-understanding) as a daydream researcher and reader of phenomenological literature. Because this elucidation process is itself somewhat pre-reflective, one can never have absolute certainty over whether it was an intuitive given or a pre-understanding.

Again, Merleau-Ponty’s diacritical approach helps to illuminate this elucidation process. In describing Merleau-Ponty’s ( 1968 ) diacritical approach to grasping meaning, Kearney cites James Joyce’s statement that it is possible to have “two thinks at a time.” ( 2011 , p 1). Directly addressing psychological research, Merleau-Ponty says: “One may say indeed that psychological knowledge is reflection but that it is at the same time an experience. According to the phenomenologist (Husserl) it is a material apriori . Psychological reflection is a “constatation” (a finding). Its task is to discover the meaning of behavior through an effective contact with my own behavior and that of others. Phenomenological psychology is therefore a search for the essence, or meaning, but not apart from the facts.” (Merleau-Ponty,  1964 , p.95).

With the term “constatation’ Merleau-Ponty is suggesting that both observing , (receiving the intuitive givens) and asserting (actively applying one’s stock of knowledge) can be at play in the same act of psychological understanding. Both are one whole movement within the same act—in the chiasmatic, reversable manner of a figure-ground dynamic. While space does not allow us to develop this issue in the detail it deserves, we raise this matter to try to bring some light to the act of elucidation that is so central to this method. The take home point here is that, while the method highlights the significance of description, this does not mean that one needs to choose between stark antinomies such as description and interpretation, or phenomenology and hermeneutics as within this elucidation process of ‘disciplined fascination’ both movements come together.

7 Conclusion

7.1 towards dual disciplinary citizenship.

This method was designed to give psychological researchers an organized and structured framework for doing second person research. The whole-part-whole process, in itself, is not complicated or difficult to understand and learn. What is difficult for those who are beginning this style of research, is the assumption of the phenomenological psychological attitude. This attitude, which distinguishes this method from non-phenomenological qualitative research methods, can’t be taken for granted and requires training, study, and the support of a like-minded research community. Because it is founded in phenomenological epistemology, phenomenological psychology is a hybrid discipline. The practice of phenomenological psychology requires a kind of ‘dual citizenship’ in both psychology and phenomenological philosophy. Those trained solely in philosophy’s orthodox emphasis on textual exegesis may often lack experience in practical professional life-world applications as well as an overall knowledge of the literature and scientific history psychology. On the other hand, those trained solely in psychology, with little to no exposure to philosophy, coupled with the field’s strictly naturalist experimental orientation—which underscores the natural/naturalistic attitude—come to phenomenology with this resilient attitudinal disadvantage that can take effort to overcome. What we have here, in the current academic world, is a set-up for mutual misunderstanding between these disciplines. While the sharp disciplinary divides of the current academic world make such ‘dual citizenship’ training difficult and rare, this is possible, but only with special effort and unique pedagogical interventions. There are institutionalized training programs, usually schools of psychotherapy, that are open to such interdisciplinary training. Yet, these programs are few and far-ranging in their offerings. Most independent researchers entering this field need to supplement their training in naturalistic psychology with an intense period of philosophical study of primary sources and guidance in this study is too often lacking. Then, on the other hand, it is encouraging to see the increasing number of philosophers who are taking an interest in “applied phenomenology.” Yet, we currently see little cognizance, in much of this recent literature, of the 50-year phenomenological psychological research tradition. We mention this, as a friendly invitation to psychologically interested philosophical researchers to acquaint themselves with their predecessors to avoid re-inventing the wheel and duplicating research results and techniques that have already been developed within the phenomenological psychological research tradition. In the same breath, we would just as strongly urge our colleagues in the social sciences to give more serious study to the phenomenological philosophical tradition.

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20 february 2022.

Springer Nature's version of this paper was updated to present the corrected funding note.

From Husserl’s inaugural lecture in Freiburg given 1917 and published in Husserl—Shorter Works ( 1981 , 17).

This quote is from a talk that Giorgi gave at the Symposium on science and scientism: the human sciences Trinity College, May 15–16, 1970 and documented by Maurice Friedman ( 1984 ) Contemporary Psychology: revealing and obscuring the human . Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press. (p.30).

To Giorgi, relativism is as much a dogmatism to be avoided in psychology as is reductionism. Giorgi's ( 2009 ) method, hence, became known as the descriptive phenomenological psychological research method. With the emphasis on description Giorgi intended to apply the phenomenological attitude by staying true to discoveries from the everyday lifeworld. So even though discoveries may sometimes be incomplete, he preferred that they were described in their incompleteness rather than forced into unnecessary closure for aesthetic or ideological reasons (ibid.). Hence, both psychologically relevant aspects of Husserl's phenomenology as well as the discovery-oriented spirit of science became essential influences on Giorgi's approach to the project of a qualitative research method in psychology.

Initially influenced by Merleau-Ponty’s psychologically oriented thought, Giorgi turned more to Husserl’s methodological emphasis in his pursuit of a phenomenological theory of science to support a qualitative psychological research method (see Giorgi, 2009 ). As Giorgi ( 2014 , 236) recently stated "…I use Husserl because he confronts the issue directly and he contrasts his position with that of the empiricists." In the late 90’s, several other qualitative methods using a phenomenological approach started to emerge, most had a stronger emphasis on postmodernism or hermeneutics. Giorgi differentiated his method from the newer ones by stressing that his was a more descriptive emphasis as opposed to an interpretative one (Giorgi, 1992 , see also, Giorgi 2006 , 2010 , 2018 ). Of course, the distinction should not be understood too literally, because in certain settings the use of the word ‘interpretation’ could synonymously refer to the act of ‘description.’ However, with the term ‘description’ Giorgi ( 1992 ) simply meant to stay true, or rooted, to what appeared in the data . This is similar to what is called a “close reading of the text” in literary studies. The intention was to avoid the kind of intrusive and overly imposing 'interpretations' where gaps in the qualitative data would be 'filled' with theoretical explanations, abstractions or even speculations.

Developing phenomenological interviewing skills requires practice and training that is often already present in the education of most clinical psychologists and health care workers. However, phenomenological psychologists have been recently applying the insights of philosophical phenomenology to better articulate the role of empathic reflection in participant observation (Englander, 2020 ; Churchill 2010 ) and designing phenomenologically inspired teaching methods (Englander  2014 ; Churchill, 2018 ) for improving quality of psychological interviewing and qualitative phenomenological research generally.

Referring to Schutz, Michal Barber points out how these terms are “analogous to the phenomenological prototype.” In other words, again, as social scientists we apply them with a different purpose than that of the philosopher. See: Barber, Michael, "Alfred Schutz",  The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,  Summer 2021 Edition, Edward N. Zalta (ed.),

URL =  <  https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2021/entries/schutz/  > .

The history of phenomenology could be considered one big ongoing deliberation about the meaning and possibility of the epoché. We hope readers will forgive us for sidestepping these discussions for the purposes of this presentation where space only permits us to present the epoché as practically applied to the research process in phenomenological psychology. But we will make this one brief point. All major phenomenological themes such as embodiment, temporality, intersubjectivity and even the hermeneutic circle were developed by philosophers thorough their initial employment of the epoché —or awareness of the natural attitude. It is therefore important, we believe, for one to understand the practice of the epoché to, in turn, fully grasp these phenomenological concepts. We find it inconceivable that one could proficiently comprehend basic phenomenological concepts such as the lived body or intersubjectivity while remaining unreflectively within the influence of the natural attitude. Similarly, we have learned through experience that success with the method we are presenting here is often in direct proportion to one’s awareness of their natural attitude.

The relation between the transcendental and the psychological reduction is another long-deliberated issue in the history of phenomenology which we can’t develop here. In brief, because the transcendental “philosophical” reduction is a non-personal and non-situated level of reflection it is simply not appropriate for performing qualitative psychological research—at the moment that we are doing it. To our knowledge, no phenomenological psychologist would claim to be doing both standpoints at once. But this does not mean that psychologists must, or should, ignore the insights of transcendentally derived philosophical concepts when we design our research or reflect on the results of our psychological analysis. Phenomenological philosophy can be a perfectly compatible basis from which to deepen our understandings of the results of our descriptive analysis. In short, psychologists may visit the transcendental position, but we do not unpack our bags, and we always remember our return ticket.

This is very similar to the relevance structure of a world as suggested by Schutz ( 1962 ).

As Giorgi ( 2009 , 99–100) writes, “The researcher does, of course, assume the human scientific (psychological) reduction. Everything in the raw data is taken to be how the objects were experienced by the describer, and no claim is made that the events described really happened as they were described. The personal past experiences of the researcher and all his or her past knowledge about the phenomenon are also bracketed. This bracketing results in a fresh approach to the raw data and the refusal to posit the existential claim allows the noetic-noematic relation to come to the fore so that the substratum of the psychologist's reality can be focused upon. That is, the particular way in which the describer's personal acts of consciousness were enacted to allow the phenomenal intentional objects to appear from the basis of the sense determination that the psychologist is interested in uncovering.”.

For a more elaborate discussion on general knowledge claims in qualitative research and its relation to a phenomenological theory of science, see for example, Englander ( 2019 ).

Giorgi originally included situated structures but later dropped them to emphasize the nomothetic (or generalized knowledge) aspect of the method. But most Giorgi’s colleagues and ex-students prefer to include situated structures as a transition to the general. As teachers we have learned that this psychologically rich transitional step is of great pedagogical value. For most newcomers to the method, it is intuitively much easier to construct situated structures before moving on to develop general structures. We also find situated structures to be of great psychological value in their own right—as we hope is demonstrated in our case example ahead.

It is important to note that research participants are not considered from the stance of an empirical theory of science. Any qualitative methodology, grounded in a phenomenological theory of science, cannot naively adopt the concept of the population (and sampling methods ) as its ground for making general knowledge claims (see for example, Englander, 2019 ).

At points in the interview when a more active questioning is called for, evocation techniques like those from the explication interview, or the micro phenomenological interview method, can be very effective. (see Petitmengin et al., 2018 ) Here, we invoke the daydream so that both the interviewer and the participant can, in an almost trance-like way, imaginatively re-live the daydream together. These techniques can provoke profoundly rich description. Here is another example of how we approach data collection as always contingent to the manner in which the phenomenon best expresses itself. Again, this is why we endorse an adaptable approach to data collection.

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Englander, M., Morley, J. Phenomenological psychology and qualitative research. Phenom Cogn Sci 22 , 25–53 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-021-09781-8

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The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

This study aimed to understand and describe the experiences of nurses who cared for patients with COVID-19. A descriptive phenomenological approach was used to collect data from individual in-depth interviews with 14 nurses, from 20 October 2020 to 15 January 2021. Data were analyzed using the phenomenological method of Colaizzi. Five theme clusters emerged from the analysis: (1) nurses struggling under the weight of dealing with infectious disease, (2) challenges added to difficult caring, (3) double suffering from patient care, (4) support for caring, and (5) expectations for post-COVID-19 life. The findings of this study are useful primary data for developing appropriate measures for health professionals’ wellbeing during outbreaks of infectious diseases. Specifically, as nurses in this study struggled with mental as well as physical difficulties, it is suggested that future studies develop and apply mental health recovery programs for them. To be prepared for future infectious diseases and contribute to patient care, policymakers should improve the work environment, through various means, such as nurses’ practice environment management and incentives.

1. Introduction

As the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) spreads worldwide and becomes more serious, the World Health Organization (WHO) has declared it a global epidemic. In Korea, the first case of COVID-19 was confirmed on 20 January 2020; as of 29 June 2021, the total number of patients was 156,167, of which 6882 were quarantined and treated, with a fatality rate of 1.29% [ 1 ].

COVID-19 is caused by a novel coronavirus—severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2)—and manifests in clinical symptoms, such as cough (74.9%), fever (68.0%) and dyspnea (60.9%) among hospitalized patients [ 2 ]. In the case of SARS-CoV-2, it has been reported that if patients are isolated within 5 days of the onset of clinical symptoms, secondary infections occur less frequently; transmission can be effectively blocked by isolating immediately after the onset of symptoms [ 3 ]. However, hospitalizations in negative pressure isolation rooms, to block airborne infections, create a more isolated environment than the general intensive care unit environment; mandate medical personnel to wear unfamiliar and uncomfortable protective equipment; prohibit family visits and outside contact. Isolation affects patients as well, as it has been reported that many patients were insufficiently informed about the isolation environment and period, and this uncertainty caused them to experience depression [ 4 ]. These circumstances increase the importance of caring for patients in isolation.

Caring is an important concept within the field of nursing, as it affects the health of the patient as a whole [ 5 ]. In particular, in the early stages of outbreaks of new infectious diseases, all aspects, such as the pathology, transmission route, and effective treatment of the disease are uncertain [ 6 ]. Even the effectiveness of protective equipment is uncertain. It has been found that healthcare providers’ anxiety and fear in such conditions affects their ability to care for patients [ 7 , 8 ]. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, many scholars predict that the time before and after the pandemic will be very different and are asking if we are ready for post- or the ‘with COVID-19 era’ [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Even in nursing, this change is difficult to ignore, and nursing professionals and researchers should answer whether we are preparing the ‘with COVID-19 era’. In order to identify the reality of nursing in the ‘with COVID-19 era’, it is necessary to understand what nursing and caring experiences were like for nurses who have been care professionals during the unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic. During the pandemic, nurses played a positive role in the rapid reorganization of the nursing system, improvement of team communication, coordination materials for emergency and continuous care, improvement of efficiency of nursing performance as a front-line caregiver, and caring for other nurses [ 12 ]. However, nurses are starting to experience burnout, having been unaware that the pandemic would soon change health professions universally [ 13 ]. For this, it is necessary to examine the experiences of nurses who have been, and are, caring for quarantined patients.

Studies on the nursing experience of patients with COVID-19 are underway in countries in various trajectories of the COVID-19 pandemic, such as Spain [ 14 ], Italy [ 15 ], Canada [ 16 ], the United States [ 17 ], and China [ 18 ], and these previous studies are focused on the lived nursing experience itself or the ethical aspect. Experiences of nursing care reported so far are summarized as providing nursing care [ 14 , 15 , 16 ], psychosocial and emotional aspects [ 14 , 15 , 18 , 19 ], resource management [ 14 , 16 ], struggling on the frontline [ 19 , 20 ], personal growth [ 18 , 19 ] and adapting to changes [ 18 , 20 ].

In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Korean government responded using the K-Quarantine, also known as 3T–Test (diagnosis/confirmation), Trace (epidemiological survey/trace) and Treat (isolation/treatment) [ 21 ]. In particular, since February 2020, COVID-19 hospitals have been designated and operated for safe isolation beds for hospitalization of COVID-19 patients [ 22 ]. As patients diagnosed with COVID-19 are transferred to a designated hospital, operating a medical system that receives intensive treatment and care, the nurses at the hospitals are facing a high level of depression, anxiety, and stress [ 23 , 24 ].

However, the nursing experience of Korean nurses is only a small part of the research done in the early stage of the pandemic, and that knowledge is not enough to understand the essence of nursing in the special nursing environment of COVID-19. Therefore, this study was conducted to understand the lived nursing experience of the nurses at COVID-19-designated hospitals during the third wave [ 25 ] of the COVID-19 pandemic in Korea. The nursing experience of Korean COVID-19-dedicated hospital nurses could provide a unique opportunity to develop long-term sustainable response strategies under a long-lasting pandemic.

Phenomenological research focuses on vivid experiences, perceived or interpreted by participants, and aims to view and describe the world of their consciousness as a real world. In addition, exploring the experiences of others can discover insights that were previously unavailable, so it is considered a useful method for the purpose of this study. Particularly, Colaizzi’s [ 26 ] method focuses on deriving a collection of common attributes and themes from multiple responses, rather than individual attributes. This method will facilitate an in-depth understanding of how nurses experienced caregiving for patients with COVID-19, and further contribute to the literature, regarding high-quality nursing care for quarantined patients. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the meaning and essence of nurses’ experiences of caring for COVID-19 patients, using a phenomenological research method.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. study design.

The philosophical framework and study design of this study were guided by phenomenology. The philosophical aim of phenomenology is to provide an understanding of the participant’s lived experiences [ 27 ]. In order to reveal the true essence of the ‘living experience’, it is first necessary to minimize the preconceived ideas that researchers may have about the research phenomenon (bracketing). Through such a phenomenological attitude, the participant’s experience can be explored as it is [ 28 ]. From a phenomenological point of view, objectivity is obtained by being faithful to the phenomenon, and it can be secured by paying attention to the phenomenon itself rather than explaining what it is. As such, phenomenology seeks to reveal meaning and essences in the participant’s experiences of the participant to facilitate understanding [ 28 ].

This study is an inductive study, applying the phenomenological research method of Colaizzi [ 26 ], in order to gain an in-depth understanding of the essence of nurses’ experience in caring for COVID-19 patients, and it followed the guideline for qualitative research, established by the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research [ 29 ]. The question of this study is, “What is the meaning and essence of the care experience of nurses who directly cared for COVID-19 patients?”

2.2. Participants and Settings

Participants were nurses working at a COVID-19 Infectious Disease Hospital in Seoul and Gyeonggi Province. The COVID-19 Infectious Disease Hospital was established and is operated by the Ministry of Health and Welfare, one of the central government ministries of South Korea, to respond to infectious diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic. It is dedicated to managing infected patients.

The inclusion criteria were as follows: nurses who had directly cared for confirmed or suspected COVID-19 patients in an isolation ward for at least 1 month; could communicate well and comprehend the purpose of this study; had voluntarily consented to participate. Nurses who had cared for COVID-19 patients for less than 1 month, had not participated in direct care, or had not been released from isolation, were excluded. Fourteen nurses participated in in-depth interviews individually ( Table 1 ).

General Characteristics of Participants ( N = 14).

Note. COVID-19 = coronavirus disease-2019.

2.3. Data Collection

Data were collected through in-depth interviews from 20 October 2020 to 15 January 2021 using purposive sampling (n = 12) and snowball sampling (n = 2). The sample size was determined by data saturation [ 30 ]. Data saturation was considered achieved when no new themes were revealed in the interviews of participants. Data saturation was determined by two researchers after the fourteenth case interview. Interviews were conducted either online or face-to-face by one well-trained researcher, depending on participants’ convenience. During face-to-face interviews, we created a comfortable atmosphere by beginning with everyday conversations. Interviews began with an open-ended question: “Tell me about your experience of caring for patients with COVID-19”, so that participants could elaborately and spontaneously describe their experiences. The interviews lasted about 60–120 min, and data collection and analysis were conducted simultaneously.

2.4. Data Analysis

The interview content was transcribed verbatim within 24 h of each interview by the researcher. Transcripts of each participant’s interview and the memos were used to analyze data. Two researchers with doctoral degrees independently analyzed and discussed findings.

Data analysis was guided by Colaizzi’s seven-step descriptive phenomenological method [ 26 ]: (1) researchers read all accounts multiple times to understand the overall flow of participants’ experiences in caring for COVID-19 patients; (2) we extracted significant statements from each description, focusing on meaningful statements related to participants’ caring experiences; (3) we formulated meanings from those significant statements, trying to discover the latent meaning in the context; (4) we organized those formulated meanings into themes and theme clusters; (5) the phenomenon under study was exhaustively described by integrating all the research results; (6) we identified the fundamental structure of the phenomenon; (7) finally, we validated this study by receiving feedback from two participants.

In the entire process of data analysis, we tried to keep a distance from the researcher’s thoughts and feelings, and point of view about the phenomenon, as well as the content of the data, while being conscious of Husserl’s ‘bracketing’ [ 28 ]. In this way, we tried to avoid data distortion, reduction, and exaggeration by the researcher, and we tried to confirm and understand the perspective, attitude, and feeling of the participant as much as possible in the participant’s statement.

To ensure trustworthiness of this study, the four criteria established by Lincoln and Guba [ 31 ] were used. For enhancing truth-value, we tried to obtain a rich set of data by selecting participants who would like to express the research phenomenon well and making it as comfortable as possible for the participants to state their experiences. We showed the study results to two participants to verify whether the derived results reflected the participants’ experiences.

To ensure applicability, we provided the general characteristics of participants and tried to provide a thick description of the research phenomenon.

To establish consistency, Colaizzi’s analysis method was adhered to, and the detailed research process and original data for each theme were presented to enhance the reader’s understanding of the research results. The researcher conducted the research while taking a neutral attitude throughout the research process, excluding bias, prejudices, assumptions (bracketing), so that the participant’s experience distortion by the researcher was minimized. In other words, in order to establish neutrality, which means freedom from prejudice about research results, at the beginning of the study, the researcher explicated any assumptions that could influence data collection and analysis [ 32 ] (ex. participants will mostly have negative emotions while caring for patients without any preparation. Participants will be withdrawn from the social perspective because they are taking care of infected patients.) The other researcher reviewed data analysis to ensure that the researcher’s assumptions did not influence data interpretation.

2.6. Ethical Considerations

This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the researcher’s affiliated institution (HYUIRB-202009-009). Participants were informed about the purpose of the study, reporting of study results, and interview recordings. We obtained written informed consents from all participants before data collection. In addition, it was explained that even after consenting, participants could withdraw from the study at any time without any harm if they wished. All participants were provided with a small reward as appreciation for their participation in the study.

The essential structure of the phenomenon was identified as ‘Going beyond the double suffering tunnel of taking charge of infected patients into the future’. The essence of the phenomenon is presented as five theme clusters, and twelve themes emerged from analyzing nurses’ experiences with caring for COVID-19 patients: (1) nurses struggling under the weight of dealing with infectious disease, (2) challenges added to difficult caring, (3) double suffering from patient care, (4) support for caring, and (5) expectations for post-COVID-19 life ( Table 2 ).

Theme Clusters and Themes.

3.1. Nurses Struggling under the Weight of Dealing with Infectious Disease

Participants felt fear and anxiety while caring for COVID-19 patients, as they have remained unaware of any definitive treatments. Consumed by thoughts of contracting the disease, they reported feeling unable to remain calm and dutifully serve their patients. In particular, it was shocking, as well as saddening, for them to be unable to provide respectful end of life care toward patients who could not recover.

3.1.1. Anxiety and Fear Accompanying Patient Care

The anxiety and fear at the heart of the thought that they could also be infected became an invisible chain, binding the participants. According to them, nursing without being guaranteed safety was challenging. When facing the reality of nursing while fearing patients’ diseases, it felt unfamiliar for participants to worry about their own and their patients’ safety simultaneously, rather than completely immersing themselves in patients’ recovery. They were uncertain of whether their feelings were normal; although they tried their best to provide quality care, they found it challenging to do so while dealing with their persistent anxiety.

To be honest, that was the hardest for me. Since we were constantly exposed to the risk of infection, it was hard to care for patients due to anxiety rather than due to physical challenges while caring for the patient. (Participant J)

3.1.2. Dignity Ignored Due to the Fear of Infectious Diseases

Having to watch patients struggling alone and in isolation, without the support and comfort of their family members during their final moments, made participants feel extremely sorry and heartbroken. The most distressing aspect of caring for patients on their deathbed was that patients and nurses were faced with the reality that patients’ families would not be allowed to be with them during their moment of dying; the fact that they would pass away without receiving appropriate treatment was secondary. “Patients who died during the COVID-19 period were the most pitiful” does not just indicate the limitations of medical treatment. It highlights dignity, which is be protected even in the worst circumstances, but was disregarded due to the fear of contracting infectious diseases. Participants experienced unimaginable shock and ethical anguish as they witnessed patients being taken to crematoriums without being seen by their family members, with their bodies in bags without having their clothing changed. As these uncontrollable experiences kept repeating, participants made a paradoxical resolve to prevent patients from dying.

Patients who die while I work in the ward usually have their families come to see them and hold their hands. However, for those who die of COVID-19, families come and check their patients on the monitor. I think that’s the most heartbreaking and sad thing. (Participant L)

The post-death process was really shocking. I feel like it didn’t treat people like human beings. Thus, that hurt me the most. I think that’s hard while working in the ward. When patients die, I know how they will be treated. I am so sorry, and my heart hurts. That’s why I really want to discharge them. Seriously, I think I’m getting desperate for this kind of feeling. (Participant B)

3.2. Challenges Added to Difficult Caring

Participants struggled every day, and factors that made their lives more challenging are as follows: the personal protective equipment (PPE) that had to be worn for patient care, working in chaotic conditions without clear instructions, and being overburdened with tasks.

3.2.1. The Burden of Triple Distress for Everyone’s Safety; Wearing PPE

Participants had to endure a significant amount of pain and discomfort for safety purposes, especially while nursing patients in PPE. Less than 10 min after wearing them, the inside of the protective clothing would become warm and fill with sweat, and the eye goggles would become foggy. In these situations, participants experienced difficulties in certain activities, such as communicating with patients, securing intravenous (IV) lines, or drawing blood. Occasionally, they had to wear gloves that did not fit well due to a lack of proper supplies, making their practice more difficult.

I think the hardest thing was to wear Level D and go inside. At first, I did the intubation wearing protective clothing. At that time, my body became sluggish, and my vision became narrower because I was wearing goggles. So, even if I moved a little, it got too hot and I would sweat too much, and it was really hard to deal with something in there. Because it was too hot. (Participant D)

3.2.2. Work Loaded Solely on Nurses

To prevent the spread of COVID-19, hospitals implemented policies to minimize the number of family members and caregivers in contact with patients, which increased the burden of caregiving on participants. Blood collections and portable X-ray imaging that radiological technologists performed also became nurses’ duties. In addition, nurses had to prepare documents for the hospital transfers of patients, and were also responsible for checking, storing, and delivering parcels to patients. Nurses were gradually exhausted as most duties, especially those outside their purview, were delegated to them.

To be honest, there are not just nurses in the hospital. However, it’s a situation where we have to take on everything that other employees have done. I feel like they’re giving all their work to the nurses. We have to prepare everything that the radiology department had to do on their own before. For the meal distribution for COVID-19 patients, nurses have to do everything that the nutrition team previously did. For blood collection, we have to do all the things that the laboratory medicine department used to do. It’s overwhelming that nurses have to do most of the work. (Participant F)

3.2.3. Confusing and Uncertain Working Conditions

Participants’ routine caring for COVID-19 patients has been as uncertain as COVID-19 patients’ conditions. Due to the number of confirmed cases increasing daily and sudden confirmations of the infection in colleagues, situations such as the operation of additional negative pressure wards or temporary closures of wards occurred unexpectedly. Consequently, participants were frequently relocated, and their work schedules and wards were changed, creating confusion. In particular, unclear guidelines and insufficient training made their jobs more difficult.

It’s tough to get the work schedule on a weekly basis. Actually, I don’t know my work schedule for Tuesday even on Monday, so I don’t know which shift I will work on the next day. Hence, it’s really very stressful. (Participant E)

3.3. Double Suffering from Patient Care

Participants experienced not only physical difficulties but also mental and social challenges while caring for COVID-19 patients. They endured self-isolation along with their families, and were uncomfortable with causing their family members to experience isolation. In addition, unlike the usual positive public perception of nurses, participants felt a social disconnection from the negativity and stigma surrounding them, which was also hurtful and uncomfortable.

3.3.1. Self-Isolation: Anxiety Becomes a Reality

Participants contracted the virus while caring for patients or had to enter complete self-isolation due to coming in contact with infected colleagues. They endured the anxiety and fear of being infected and suddenly became subjects of self-isolation, leading to concerns about having their personal information exposed, and the social stigma of being confirmed COVID-19 patients. Those who tested negative felt “uncomfortable relief”, even as their colleagues were testing positive during self-isolation.

When being in self-isolation, as you know, I must contact my child’s school. I had to contact a homeroom teacher of my child. Actually I didn’t really do anything wrong, but I really, really felt bad. Wouldn’t the image appear strange to my child? Because of that thought, every time I thought about that, I thought if I should resign. (Participant N)

3.3.2. A Contrasting Perception of Nurses: Heroes of Society versus Subjects of Avoidance

Even with the “Thank you Challenge” campaign spreading among the public, to express gratitude and respect towards health care professionals who responded to COVID-19, nurses did not feel particularly gratified. In a pandemic, the true heroes fighting COVID-19 could only work efficiently in isolation from other people. Close neighbors viewed participants as dangerous sources of pollution or pathogens that threatened their safety. Unlike the warm gaze of the public to see the nurses, participants felt judged by those around them, which made their jobs more uncomfortable.

Above all, the most challenging thing is the social perspective of “these people are working in an isolation hospital now”. People close to me have this kind of perspective… When one of the nurses is reported on the news or the media as a confirmed patient, we also feel like cringing. Such social perspectives were very hard for us because we’ve become people that the public wants to avoid rather them feeling appreciation for us and thinking of us like we are working hard and trying our best. (Participant M)

3.4. Support for Caring

Sympathetic colleagues, and supportive and appreciative patients, encouraged participants to care for patients despite their difficulties. In addition, participants felt rewarded and proud of their care when they witnessed patients recovering, which further drove them to fulfill their duties.

3.4.1. Companionship and Sharing Difficulties

Participants endured difficult working routines with the support of colleagues, who best understood their struggles. In experiencing and sharing the same difficulties, participants found comfort with their colleagues. As nurses cannot quit, as that would mean additional pressures for their colleagues, they rely on each other for support.

To be honest, I think I’m being able to endure hard times thanks to my companionship. It’s hard for us all. And fortunately, all colleagues are friendly, and many colleagues are so considerate of each other. We’re not pushing each other to go in, but we are voluntarily working. Even though COVID-19 is hard for me, this companionship has helped me learn and endure with them until now. (Participant I)

3.4.2. Support and Appreciation from Patients and People

While struggling, words of support and appreciation from patients, family, and friends helped participants withstand their difficult situations.

A patient wrote a very long letter. “Thank you. Thank you so much for taking care of me, and I was moved by the hard work you did. And even in the heat, you never got annoyed”. Well, because the patient wrote a lot of appreciative words like this, I was really grateful. Somehow, apart from the money, I thought it was terrific to work. (Participant A)

3.4.3. A Sense of Satisfaction and Self-Esteem

The sense of satisfaction and self-esteem felt while caring for COVID-19 patients became an essential incentive for participants to remain in nursing. When patients hospitalized in severe conditions were able to recover, participants felt rewarded by their occupation, and their self-esteem was increased.

At first, the patient‘s condition was so bad. So, we thought the patient would actually die, but it turned out that the patient improved so much and was discharged later. We felt like we were being compensated for the hard work. I had pride that we did an excellent job in nursing. (Participant D)

3.5. Expectations for Post-COVID-19 Life

As COVID-19 keeps persisting in everyday life, expectations for life after COVID-19 are gradually blurring. Participants are unsure if there will ever be a time when they can care for their patients without protective clothing. Much of what participants wanted to accomplish after COVID-19 has been delayed for at least a year, but they have some expectations and are preparing for another future.

3.5.1. Restoring Everyday Life

Even in the current uncertain situation, participants have sincerely performed their nursing duties, while dreaming of restoring daily life. They recognized the importance of everyday social activities, such as eating together, watching movies, capturing bright smiles on camera, and realized that these activities were all they wished to do. Conversely, along with these wishes, there are also concerns about being able to return to the past sense of normalcy.

Returning to normality is what I want the most, and I think the next step is to think about it together with the management team and the government. I believe our request should be reviewed to combat physical exhaustion, and psychotherapists need to be involved and actively work on recovering. It’s not just that we get rest. Professional intervention is necessary. (Participant M)

3.5.2. Preparing for the Future

Participants encountered COVID-19, which occurred several years after the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) epidemic, as another infectious disease that was able to threaten society at any time. In addition, chaotic situations in the hospital were not promptly managed, as the effects of the virus were so severe and fast that the experience of nursing MERS patients became insignificant. The MERS experience was inadequate in training healthcare providers to respond to similar future emergencies. Accordingly, efforts have been made to incorporate the vivid nursing experiences of COVID-19 into protocols against bracing for other diseases in the future.

That’s why even though I don’t know when the COVID-19 pandemic will end, once it’s over, I think the protocol needs to be more complete. Furthermore, I think we should regularly stockpile a certain amount of items for the future. And, we need to plan a little more neatly how to manage nursing staff systematically. (Participant K)

Since we don’t know when another infectious disease will afflict us, we have to prepare a lot for response training to infectious diseases, facilities and personnel of institutions, and locations for care facilities. To reduce certain mistakes, I think we should prepare well now. (Participant M)

4. Discussion

This study was conducted to understand the meanings and essence of the experiences of nurses who cared for COVID-19 patients, using a descriptive phenomenological method. As a result of this study, 5 theme clusters and 12 themes were extracted.

The first theme cluster indicated that the nurses struggled under the weight of dealing with infectious diseases. Participants expressed anxiety and fear in the absence of a definitive treatment for COVID-19. This is similar to the results of previous studies that reported that the lack of information and knowledge about unfamiliar diseases leads to ambiguity in nursing services, resulting in nurses feeling fearful and anxious [ 33 ]. The anxiety and fear accompanying patient care may be the result of rushing to the battlefield without any preparation [ 19 ]. In addition, participants appeared to have persistent fears of unintentional exposure and of transmitting the virus to co-workers [ 34 ]. Nurses who performed shift work during COVID-19 had a significantly increased association between COVID-19-related work stressors and anxiety disorder [ 24 ]. These physiological and psychological conditions are reported to create high stress and further lead to post-traumatic stress [ 35 ]. Hence, nurses caring for COVID-19 patients require continuous evaluation and management to sustain their mental wellbeing.

In the COVID-19 pandemic, nurses are experiencing ethical anguish in the face of unique situations that they have never experienced before. In particular, watching patients pass away alone, in isolation, without the support and comfort of family members, causes unimaginable shock and anguish. Moral distress between patient dignity and infection control is a similar experience to nurses in other countries, reported in previous studies. Nurses are known to experience contradictory feelings [ 18 ] as they experience the pressure of having to coordinate their responsibilities for the prevention of COVID-19 infection, along with other moral responsibilities [ 16 ].

Therefore, we need to create an ethically supportive environment [ 36 ], not just alleviate the ethical distress experienced by nurses [ 37 ]. In addition, it is necessary to find ways to guarantee both infection control and dignified death; for instance, family members can wear protective clothing and safely participate in their relatives’ end-of-life processes. Other measures to ensure a dignified death include minimal post-mortem medical interference, and respect for and adherence to cultural customs [ 38 ].

The second theme cluster was participants’ aggravated caring difficulties. Participants in this study were uncomfortable with the heat and sweat caused by wearing sealed PPE. This seems to be a slightly different experience than the Italian nurses who raised some concerns about the lack of PPE, the inadequacy of PPE, and the lack of guidelines for proper use [ 15 ]. In Korea, where resources, such as PPE, were relatively abundant since the COVID-19 pandemic declaration, wearing PPE acted as a triple pain burden on the safety of all people rather than the problem of lack of equipment.

It is similar to a previous study, demonstrating that these devices make it difficult to communicate with patients and perform basic tasks [ 34 ]. The appropriate wearing of PPE has been reported to protect medical staff from burnout [ 39 ]. However, continuous wearing of PPE can cause tissue damage or skin reactions, and prolonged wearing of goggles has been found to increase discomfort and fatigue due to abrasive straps and visual distortion [ 38 ]. Therefore, compliance with the PPE-wearing guidelines should be monitored and shift work should be assigned, taking into account the maximum period during which nurses are allowed to wear protective equipment.

It has also been found that medical workload has been excessively delegated to nurses taking care of COVID-19 patients. Policies to minimize social contact with patients have burdened nurses with extra tasks, causing exhaustion [ 40 ]. The excessive increase in work burden is in line with the results of qualitative research on the experience of nurses in other countries. A study by Liu et al. [ 34 ], in the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic, reported that nurses had done a lot of work. Recent studies also reported that COVID-19 caused a lot of work for nurses [ 20 ], and the treatment characterized by many isolated patients increased the work of nurses exponentially [ 14 ]. Nurses are constantly aware of new knowledge and skills associated with evolving pandemics and viruses, and receive new training, in preparation for adapting to the situation and providing care for suspected or identified patients [ 20 ]. In addition, frequent changes of working locations and wards, changes in work schedules, and confusion over working guidelines, have made nurses’ lives uncertain.

The final theme of the challenge with difficult care was the confusing and uncertain working conditions, partly related to nursing staffing [ 14 ]. However, it was more difficult for the participants in this study to be able to predict their work schedule, rather than the shortage of nursing personnel. This may be due to the difficulty in predicting the hospitalization rates of infected patients and the problems caused by frequent and rapid relocation of nurses, depending on the number of hospitalized patients. In this study, the uncertainty in working conditions is consistent with the report by Liang et al. [ 20 ], that there was uncertainty among nurses about being transferred to the areas where the epidemic was most serious. Moreover, the ambiguity surrounding COVID-19 and whether patients have contracted it have been shown to increase nurses’ stress [ 33 ]. Even in such situations, thoroughly preparing for and predicting potential emergency situations, based on comprehensive data analysis, knowledge accumulation, and education, can reduce the uncertainty and anxiety surrounding infectious diseases.

The third theme cluster was double suffering from patient care. Despite continuing to monitor self-health to avoid infecting others, nurses contracted the virus or had to self-isolate due co-workers’ positive diagnoses. Sabetian et al. [ 41 ] found that 273 out of a total of 4854 cases contracted the virus while caring for COVID-19 patients, of which 51.3% were nurses. The fear of self-reliance approaching reality is a reflection of the situation at the time, when nurses were not allowed to return home after cohort isolation for two weeks as their colleagues were diagnosed with COVID-19 [ 19 ].

Notably, participants felt that they were subjected to dual perceptions, both as national heroes and as contagions. In Korea, the “Thank You Challenge” campaign encouraged expressing gratitude and respect to medical staff. The Korean people were deeply impressed by the situation of nurses and care protection, as they knew that they could not care for patients infected with COVID-19 without the sacrifice and compassionate mission of the nurses [ 42 ]. However, nurses have reported preferring forms of recognition and support other than hero worship [ 37 ], indicating that the campaign alone was insufficient in improving their morale. Participants also felt that their community members wanted to avoid them and considered them as dangerous contagions, threatening public safety. Previous studies reported that nurses were treated as viruses [ 19 ] or suffered from stigma [ 20 ], and conversely, were motivated to work harder through public support [ 19 ]. However, there are few research reports that nurses experience double suffering from patient care due to the coexistence of such contrasting perceptions. These experiences corroborate previous findings that disease uncertainty and social anxiety have caused nurses to be perceived as carriers and spreaders of the virus [ 33 ].

The fourth theme cluster was supporting caring. Participants endured their situations because quitting would have overburdened their colleagues. While participants found it awkward to work with nurses from different wards at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, their relationships improved and became encouraging and supportive [ 19 ]. It is worth noting that, even in situations of extreme stress and emotional exhaustion, support from colleagues and teams can positively impact recovery [ 43 ]. In addition, this study found that support and appreciation from patients and families encouraged participants to endure their difficult situations [ 19 , 35 ]. In previous studies, negative emotions, such as fatigue, helplessness, and fear of infections, prevailed in the early stages of COVID-19, but coping strategies were created with adaptation, support from others, and expressions of positive emotions [ 44 ]. International researchers reported that nurses dealt with and attempted to overcome their challenges and feelings and emotional responses by coping during the pandemic. Nurses in the United States [ 17 ] and India [ 45 ] used teamwork and peer support, and used personal coping strategies, such as relationship development, play, exercise, meditation, and distractions.

In the face of unknown diseases and unpredictable dangers, participants took responsibility and devoted themselves to their mission. Despite nurses and healthcare staff demonstrating professional devotion [ 33 , 34 ], a social atmosphere that demands sacrifice should be avoided to decrease their experiences of stress and fatigue.

The last theme cluster encompassed expectations for post-COVID-19 life. The participants had been doing their best to care for patients, while dreaming of returning to their regular lives, despite working in uncertain conditions. To instill a sense of normalcy in their lives, it is imperative to provide physical and mental health support to exhausted nurses. Even after the impact of COVID-19 has diminished, it is necessary to fully recognize the inherent stress and emotional burden experienced by nurses and support recovery with routine procedures and systems [ 44 ]. This aspect of the pandemic has been reported by Italian nurses to have obvious psychological trauma, which is quite similar to that reported in China [ 46 , 47 ]. As COVID-19 cases begin to decline, research into resilience, particularly post-traumatic stress syndrome in nursing staff, will be needed [ 48 ]. Although new epidemic outbreaks cannot be prevented, risk awareness can direct attention to emerging epidemics and promote capacity development toward disease management and control [ 19 , 49 ]. As seen from this study, experience alone did not prepare nursing staff to deal with novel disease outbreaks. Hence, specific protocols and standard operating procedures, targeting different disease risk scenarios, should be established to support nursing work, with ample resources.

Limitations of This Research

In this study, we applied a phenomenological approach to understanding nurses’ experiences of COVID-19 patient caring, and the participants were the nurses who involuntarily cared for COVID-19 patients. Accordingly, there is a limitation in that the nursing experience of the nurses who voluntarily participated in COVID-19 patient nursing could not be presented. We conducted online or face-to-face interviews, depending on the participants’ preferences, but the online interview had limitations, in that it did not fully grasp the vivid experiences contained in the non-verbal expressions of the participants and did not describe their experiences in more depth. Participants were in a vulnerable situation; not only were they at risk of infection, but were also responsible for covering the duty of their colleagues with confirmed COVID-19, and the work of other health care assistants because they were wearing PPE. Despite these limitations, it is significant that this study gained a deeper understanding of nurses’ experiences of caring for COVID-19 patients and came a little closer to the essence of nursing.

5. Conclusions

This study is significant as it explored and organized nurses’ experiences of caring for COVID-19 patients, using a descriptive phenomenological research method. The findings of this study are useful primary data for developing appropriate measures for health professionals’ wellbeing during outbreaks of infectious diseases.

A limitation of this study is that, because data were collected before the participants were vaccinated against COVID-19, negative emotional aspects, such as anxiety and fear about caring for patients, were drawn as the main results. In the future, it is necessary to balance this perspective by incorporating experiences of healthcare providers who have been vaccinated against COVID-19. In addition, as nurses in this study struggled with mental as well as physical difficulties, it is suggested that future studies develop and apply mental health recovery programs for them.

Author Contributions

H.-Y.J., J.-E.Y. and Y.-S.S. conceived and designed the study; H.-Y.J. acquired data; H.-Y.J. and Y.-S.S. analyzed the data; H.-Y.J. and J.-E.Y. wrote the first draft. All authors contributed to revisions of the manuscript and critical discussion. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Hanyang University (HYUIRB-202009-009-1, 30 September 2021).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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The power of phenomenology.

1. Introduction

interviews with active members of patient organisations and persons with intersex/dsd revealed that they mostly do not use either term themselves. Instead, they generally tend to use the condition-specific term, such as ‘men with Klinefelter syndrome’ or ‘women with x y chromosomes’. Some of those interviewed were actually found to be entirely unfamiliar with the terms intersex and dsd. ( van Lisdonk 2014, p. 25 )

2. Methodology

We come to know what it means to think when we ourselves try to think. If the attempt is to be successful, we must be ready to learn thinking. ( Heidegger 1976, p. 3 )

analysis [it] is a continuous circular and reflexive process where themes emerge, and the researcher returns to the data and starts to re-read it. ( Dibley et al. 2020, p. 127 )

3. Story Telling

For him [Heidegger] the spoken word is greatly superior to the written. ( Gray 1976, p. vi )

4. Invitation to Speak

This has been one of the challenges for me; how to express what it’s like to be me. [correspondent]

Throughout my life including my encounters with the medical world I was never asked, “How do you feel?” or “Tell me about yourself “. It seems almost too obvious to miss this critical question because our inner world is as important as our physical outer world. [correspondent]

As that sphere in which man can dwell alright and make clear to himself who he is. ( Heidegger ( 1962 ), in Gray 1976, p. vii )

5. Participant’s Engagement

No, I can’t really think of anything. I think I am good. I have covered everything. But that really is everything now. I don’t think there is anymore that I can possibly tell you but if there is I will come back to you and tell you but thank you for giving me the opportunity to come back and tell more of it. [Darcy]

Part of the reason why I am committed to doing this and doing it so fully is because I appreciate the fact that you guys want to do it for fully and you are being led by intersex people. I have never done a research study that is so led by intersex people like myself and that is why I am happy to do it. [Darcy]

6. Building Trust Leads to Understanding

Being aware of one’s population is very important; being sensitive to the concerns of others and listening to their fears, needs and desires for their own personal safety emanates from an ethical standpoint. ( Dibley et al. 2020, p. 81 )

I would probably answer by asking you the question, how does a teenager hide a variation in genital anatomy in a compulsory shower with 20 other fellas after PE? My answer to that is you could only hide by being in plain sight. There was no option of hiding. [Alan]

No, again that is before the age of the internet and before the age of, I don’t believe, I didn’t have access and no one else would have access to pictures, descriptions, diagrams, terminology etc either. That anyone else could pick it up readily. I do remember the PE teacher looking but never went as far as saying anything. So, the obvious thing for me was as quickly as possible to shower without ever drawing attention to myself. Cause there was another chap in the class like that was even more self-conscious than I was and he became a target. So the two together was the absolute proof that you do not be visible by being, the best way to be invisible to be completely visible. By showing no signs, showing nothing. [Alan]

Very good at hiding in plain sight but I spent my life hiding. [Alan]

a feeling of biographical continuity which she is able to grasp reflexively and, to a greater or lesser degree, communicate to others. That person also, through early trust relations, has established a protective cocoon which ‘filters out’, in the practical conduct of day-to-day life, many of the dangers which in principle threaten the integrity of the self. Finally, the individual is able to accept that integrity as worthwhile. ( Giddens 1991, p. 54 )

My possibility of hiding in the corner becomes the fact that the Other can surpass it towards the possibility of pulling me out of concealment, of identifying me, of arresting me. ( Sartre 1969, p. 264 )

7. Hiding Loss, Hiding Pain

It is in the reality of everyday life that the Other appears to us, and his probability refers to everyday reality. ( Sartre 1969, p. 253 )

I was 12 that is when I realised there was something different about me because like all kids went through the change of life and I stayed the same of when I was like a child. [Frankie]

And then when I was older, I kept going to the doctors to find out why I wasn’t growing, and they said, well, when you are 13 we are going to try medication because if you are on medication you should go through the changes of life. [Frankie]

I just know that I was born a mistake. [Frankie]

And he [doctor] checked me in the same way that my dad would check me or whatever and he was like ‘I can’t believe how she didn’t grow properly’ and he [father] was like ‘well what does this mean?’ And the doctor said ‘well, it is kind of like she is trans but she is not’. ‘Well can it have kids? Because that is the only thing that I want’ [father] and the doctor said ‘no, she can’t have kids’. And he [father] was like ‘well what use is she to me then?’ And he’s [doctor] like ‘she can adopt kids’, ‘and like what, she can have two people that are mentally retarded in the house? No thanks.’ [father]

Context of discourse and interaction position persons in systems of evaluation and expectations which often implicate their embodied being; the person experiences herself as looked at in certain ways, described in her physical being in certain ways, she experiences the bodily reactions of others to her, and she reacts to them. ( Young 2005, p. 17 )

To every being as such there belongs identity, the unity with itself. ( Heidegger 1969, p. 26 )

It is only through being object that we can be given a value, assigned a worth, some “thing” that can be assessed. ( Howard 2002, p. 59 )

So, I grew up thinking that everybody was supposed to hate me. [Frankie]

8. Conclusions

They had all the power, I had nothing. I had no information. I had no ground to stand on. All I could do was just react to what was being said to me. I was so much on the back foot I couldn’t catch up and that would have been a major part of the difficulty. Again, it goes back to if you don’t even know enough of your own story to be able to say it. [Alan]

Author Contributions

Institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Duffy, M.; Ní Mhuirthile, T. The Power of Phenomenology. Soc. Sci. 2024 , 13 , 442. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13090442

Duffy M, Ní Mhuirthile T. The Power of Phenomenology. Social Sciences . 2024; 13(9):442. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13090442

Duffy, Mel, and Tanya Ní Mhuirthile. 2024. "The Power of Phenomenology" Social Sciences 13, no. 9: 442. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13090442

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Anatomy of a Case Citation

Court opinions, once they're handed down by the court, are published in books called Reporters that depend on the region and level of court. Even though most cases can be found online, cases are still (mostly) published in physical volumes. You can find your regional reporter here .

These can be "official" Reporters, meaning they're published with the approval and permission of the federal or state government, or "unofficial" Reporters, which are produced by commercial publishers (like West and Lexis). The publisher isn't the only difference, however. Unofficial Reporters often include additional annotations, such as summaries and headnotes. 

Some examples of official Reporters at the federal level include the United States Reports, which houses U.S. Supreme Court cases; the Federal Reporter, which houses U.S. Court of Appeals cases; and the Federal Supplement, which contains U.S. District Court cases. Similarly, an example of an official regional reporter would be the Southwestern Reporter, which publishes Texas cases. "Official" Reporters are the ones that should be cited to when practicing in front of a court.

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When researching case law, the ultimate goal is to find primary, mandatory authority, meaning law that will bind the court to decide in a specific way. It is important to explore what will bind the court before looking into what will simply persuade the court. The court will always ultimately be bound by mandatory authority like statutes and regulations within the jurisdiction, but cases take a bit more analytical reasoning to determine if they’re mandatory or persuasive.

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While jurisdiction, in this context, refers to the territory within which a court can exercise power over a case, the level of court refers to where a particular court falls in the hierarchy of the federal or state court system. If the case you found while researching was decided in the same jurisdiction, and the same or higher level of court, that case will be binding authority for your set of facts.

Using Citators

A red flag doesn’t always mean that a case is bad law and shouldn’t be used in research. When you encounter a red citator, for instance, it's important to look into it further to find out what that means. It's possible the case you found was only superseded in one particular point of law discussed, or perhaps a point of law was distinguished by another case. Additionally, citators often lead you to other law/cases that gave your case the red flag in the first place.

The depth meter shows how far in depth this new case analyzes your original case. It can range from a very extended discussion to a basic string citation. This becomes quite helpful when you’re trying to figure out why the case you’re looking at has a red or yellow flag. Instead of reading through every single citing decision, you’ll be able to see at a glance how extensively the case was discussed and avoid having to read through a bunch of cases that only briefly mention your original case.

Ultimately, you shouldn't just move on the moment you see a red flag or a red stop sign in your research. Find out why it’s listed that way. Was the case superseded? Overturned? Is it affected in whole or in part? Does the red flag indicate a point of law that actually applies to your issue? This type of legal analysis takes practice but is crucial for using citators effectively.

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