essay about physical fitness assessment

Essay on Physical Fitness

Students are often asked to write an essay on Physical Fitness in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Physical Fitness

What is physical fitness.

Physical fitness is about having a body that can do many activities without getting too tired. It means your heart, muscles, and bones are strong. When you are fit, you can run, jump, and play without feeling out of breath quickly.

Why is Fitness Important?

Being fit is good for your health. It helps you stay away from sickness. Kids who are fit can focus better in school. It also makes you feel happy and gives you more energy to enjoy life.

How to Get Fit

To get fit, you should be active. Run, swim, or play sports. Also, eat healthy foods like fruits, vegetables, and grains. Drink plenty of water and sleep well to help your body grow strong.

Staying Safe While Exercising

When you exercise, it’s important to be safe. Wear the right shoes and clothes. Start slow and learn the right way to move. Always listen to your body and rest if you feel pain or are very tired.

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250 Words Essay on Physical Fitness

Physical fitness means being in good health and shape. It’s when your body can do activities like running, jumping, and playing games without getting too tired quickly. Being fit is important for everyone, no matter how old they are. It helps us stay strong and healthy.

Parts of Physical Fitness

There are two main parts of being fit: aerobic fitness and muscle strength. Aerobic fitness is about how well your heart and lungs work when you exercise. When you can run for a long time without stopping, that’s good aerobic fitness. Muscle strength is when your muscles can lift things or do work without getting tired fast.

Why Being Fit Matters

Being fit is great for your body. It helps you not get sick often and can make you feel happier. When you’re fit, you can play with your friends and not feel like you need to stop and rest all the time. It also means you might not get hurt as often.

Getting fit can be fun. You can play sports, dance, swim, or even just go for walks. Eating healthy foods like fruits and vegetables helps too. It’s important to exercise a few times a week and not sit around too much.

Staying Fit

Once you’re fit, you have to keep exercising to stay that way. It’s like a game where you have to keep practicing to be good at it. Remember to stay active and eat well, and being fit will become a part of your life.

500 Words Essay on Physical Fitness

Physical fitness is about keeping your body in good shape. It means having the energy and strength to do daily activities without getting too tired. Just like a car needs fuel and a good engine to run smoothly, your body needs healthy food and exercise to work well.

Why is Being Fit Important?

Being fit is key to a happy and healthy life. When you are fit, you can play, run, and do your school work better. Your body fights off sickness easier, and you feel good about yourself. It’s not just about how you look; it’s about taking care of your body so that it can take care of you.

Types of Fitness

Fitness is not just one thing. There are different types, like strength, which lets you lift things; endurance, which is the power to keep going without stopping; flexibility, which helps you move your body in different ways; and balance, which keeps you from falling. Doing a mix of activities that help all these areas is the best way to stay fit.

Getting fit can be fun. You can play sports like soccer or basketball, swim, dance, or even just walk or bike around your neighborhood. It’s important to find activities you enjoy so that you will keep doing them. Try to move your body for at least an hour every day. This doesn’t have to be all at once; it can be spread out through the day.

Eating Right

Eating healthy foods helps your fitness too. Imagine your body is like a plant. Plants need water and good soil to grow. Your body needs healthy food and water to grow strong and stay fit. Eat plenty of fruits, vegetables, grains, and proteins, and drink lots of water. Try to eat less junk food, which is like giving your plant the wrong kind of soil.

Rest and Sleep

Rest is just as important as exercise. Your body needs to sleep and take breaks to rebuild and get ready for the next day. Make sure you get enough sleep each night. This helps your body heal and gives you the energy to be active and fit.

Staying Motivated

Sometimes it’s hard to stay on track with fitness. Setting goals can help. Maybe you want to be able to run a mile without stopping or learn a new sport. Write down your goals and how you plan to reach them. Celebrate when you meet them, and set new ones.

Physical fitness is a big part of a healthy life. It keeps your body strong and gives you the energy to do all the things you love. Remember, being fit isn’t just about how you look. It’s about taking good care of your body by moving around, eating well, resting, and setting goals to keep yourself motivated. Start taking steps towards being fit today, and your body will thank you for years to come.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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How a Fitness Test Is Performed

Heather Black, CPT is a NASM-certified personal trainer and owner of Heather Black Fitness & Nutrition where she offers remote and in-person training and nutrition coaching.

Body Composition Testing

Cardiovascular endurance testing, strength and endurance testing, the bottom line.

A fitness test, also known as a fitness assessment, comprises a series of exercises that help evaluate your overall health and physical status. A wide range of standardized tests is used for these exams, including body composition tests, cardio stress tests, endurance tests, and range of motion tests.

The tests are considered the starting point for designing an appropriate exercise program for general health and fitness purposes. They are meant to ensure you won't be at risk of harm and provide the trainer with the insights needed to establish clear and effective fitness goals.

General Health Evaluation

Before starting a fitness program, it is important to share your medical history with your trainer and get the necessary approval from a healthcare provider to proceed.

Most fitness specialists will use one or more screening tools to help determine your baseline health. This may include obtaining vital sign measurements such as height, weight, resting heart rate (RHR) , and resting blood pressure (RBP).

Many trainers will also use a physical activity readiness questionnaire (PAR-Q) comprising seven or more questions about your general health. Among the questions, you may be asked about the medications you take, any problems you have with dizziness or pain, or any medical condition that may impair your ability to exercise.

Body composition describes the components that comprise your total body weight, including your muscles, bones, and fat. The most common methods for estimating body composition include the following:

Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) : During BIA , electrical signals are sent from electrodes through the soles of your feet to your abdomen to estimate your body composition.
Body mass index (BMI) : BMI is a generalized calculation of body fat based on height and weight.
Skinfold measurements : During skinfold measurements , calipers are used to estimate how much body fat there is in a fold of skin.

Body Mass Index (BMI) is a dated, biased measure that doesn’t account for several factors, such as body composition, ethnicity, race, gender, and age.

Despite being a flawed measure , BMI is widely used today in the medical community because it is an inexpensive and quick method for analyzing potential health status and outcomes.

Cardiovascular endurance testing, also known as stress testing, measures how efficiently your heart and lungs work to supply oxygen and energy to your body during physical activity.

Among the three most common tests used:

12-minute run tests : Performed on a treadmill, 12-minute run tests compare your pre-exercise heart and respiration rates with your post-exercise heart and respiration rates.
Exercise stress : Exercise stress testing is also performed on a treadmill or stationary bike and involves using a heart monitor and blood pressure cuff to measure your vital signs during exercise.
VO2 max testing : Performed on a treadmill or stationary bike, V02 max testing uses a breathing device to measure your maximum rate of oxygen consumption during an activity

Some trainers will incorporate exercises such as sit-ups or push-ups to measure how you respond to specific exercises. These baseline results can be used later to see if your health and fitness levels have improved.

Strength testing measures the maximal amount of force a muscle group can exert at one time. Muscle endurance testing, by comparison, measures the length of time a muscle group can contract and release before it fatigues.

The exercises used include the push-up test and core strength and stability test . Sometimes, a trainer will use a metronome to see how long you can keep up with the rhythm. The results are then compared to people of the same age group and sex to establish your baseline levels.

Strength and endurance tests are valuable as they help the trainer pinpoint which muscle groups are stronger and which are vulnerable and in need of focused attention.

Flexibility Testing

Measuring the flexibility of your joints is vital in determining whether you have postural imbalances, foot instability, or limitations in your range of motion.

Shoulder Flexibility Testing

Sometimes called the zipper test, shoulder flexibility testing evaluates the flexibility and mobility of your shoulder joint. Use one hand to reach behind your neck, between your shoulders, while reaching behind your back, toward your shoulders, with the other. Measure how many far apart your hands are.

Sit-And-Reach Testing

This is used to measure tightness in your lower back and hamstring muscles. The sit-and-reach test is performed on the floor with your legs fully extended. Flexibility is measured by how many inches your hands are from your feet when reaching forward.

Trunk Lift Testing

Trunk lift testing is used to measure tightness in your lower back. It is performed while lying face-down on the floor. With your arms at your side, you would be asked to lift your upper body with just your back muscles. Flexibility is measured by how many inches you can lift yourself off the ground.

Fitness testing has many benefits, from helping professionals understand what types of exercise are most safe and most effective for you to helping you measure your fitness progress over time. It can also identify fitness areas that need improvement, allowing for an individualized plan to identify areas of potential for increased fitness. This can help prevent injuries and help maintain your body's overall health. If you're wondering whether fitness testing would benefit you, ask a healthcare provider.

Frequently Asked Questions

Fitness testing allows healthcare or fitness professionals to measure specific areas of health and fitness. It establishes a fitness baseline, allowing you to track your fitness gains.

There are a number of variables that affect the results of fitness testing. Your age, gender, and prior exercise routines will affect your fitness test results. In addition, the conditions of an individual test can affect results, for example, weather, time of day, and whether you are hydrated.

Consistent exercise is the best way to improve fitness. If you're a beginner, focus on making exercise part of your routine. Design a workout program you are able to sustain . As your fitness improves, add intensity and endurance to your routine. Ask a healthcare professional or fitness professional for guidance if you need advice.

National Strength and Conditioning Association. 2017. Purposes of assessment.

Harvard Health Publishing. Harvard Medical School. Do you need to see a doctor before starting your exercise program?

National Academy of Sports Medicine. Data Collection Sheet.

Doylestown Health. Bio-Electrical Impedance Analysis (BIA)-Body Mass Analysis.

Calculate your body mass index. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Marcus JB. Weight Management: Finding the Healthy Balance: Practical Applications for Nutrition, Food Science and Culinary Professionals in Culinary Nutrition: The Science of Healthy Cooking. Academic Press. 2013. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-391882-6.00010-8

UC Davis Health. Oxygen Consumption - VO2.

Jiminez C. Understanding 1-RM and Predicted 1-RM Assessments. American Council on Exercise. 2018.

Heyward VH, PhD, Gibson AL, PhD. Advanced Fitness Assessment and Exercise Prescription. Human Kinetics. 2014.

Pate R, Oria M, Pillsbury L, (Eds). Health related fitness measures for youth in Fitness Measures and Health Outcomes in Youth. Institute of Medicine. 2012.

Baumgartner TA, PhD, Jackson AS, PhD et al. Measurement for Evaluation in Kinesiology (9th Edition). Jones & Bartlett Learning. 2016.

Metcalf A. How to improve flexibility and maintain it. American Council of Exercise. 2014.

Mauch, L.; Eklund, L.; Greenberg, J.et al. Appropriate and Inappropriate Practices Related to Fitness Testing. J Phys Ed Recreat Dance. 2017;88:6,3-9. DOI:10.1080/07303084.2017.1331636.

By Elizabeth Quinn, MS Elizabeth Quinn is an exercise physiologist, sports medicine writer, and fitness consultant for corporate wellness and rehabilitation clinics.

Fitness Measures and Health Outcomes in Youth (2012)

Chapter: 9 fitness measures for schools and other educational settings.

9 Fitness Measures for Schools and Other Educational Settings

KEY MESSAGES

Conducting fitness tests in schools and other educational settings may result in benefits for both individuals and groups beyond improving fitness. Examples include tracking fitness and disease risk and using test results to set health goals, planning for enduring healthy behaviors, and driving physical education instruction.

To plan and conduct fitness testing in schools effectively and appropriately, test developers and administrators should consider the following four factors:

Test items should be selected with consideration of contextual variables, such as access to high-quality equipment, space, cost, privacy, and availability of volunteers, as well as cultural and racial/ethnic factors.
When administering tests, consideration should be given to the safety of participants, the presence of pre-existing conditions, the effects of body composition and other modifiers on test results, and the confidentiality of results.
School-based professional development that is applicable to the daily routine of teachers and includes instruction in how to integrate fitness testing into the curriculum should be provided.
Professional development should include training in the administration of protocols and interpretation and communication of test

results, with emphasis on educating participants about the importance of fitness, supporting the achievement of fitness goals, and developing healthy living habits. Those interpreting and communicating test results should ensure confidentiality, consider each individual’s demographic characteristics, provide for the involvement of parents, and offer positive feedback and recommendations to students and parents.

Based on their relationship to health, their integrity, and their feasibility (e.g., ease of administration and interpretation, need for and cost of special equipment, privacy concerns), developers and administrators of fitness test batteries for schools and other educational settings should consider including a set of test items similar to those recommended for surveys:

standing height (a measure of linear growth status) and weight (a measure of body mass) to calculate body mass index as an indicator of body composition;
a progressive shuttle run, such as the 20-meter shuttle run, to measure cardiorespiratory endurance; and
the handgrip strength and standing long jump tests to measure upper- and lower-body musculoskeletal strength and power, respectively.

Additional tests not yet shown to be related to health, such as distance and/or timed runs, the modified pull-up, the push-up, and the curl-up, may also be considered as supplemental educational tools. The guidance provided in Chapter 8 should be followed in establishing cut-points (cutoff scores) for interpreting performance on the selected fitness test items.

T he preceding chapters highlight the importance of measuring and monitoring the prevalence of physical fitness during childhood and address questions relating to the core purpose of this report—identifying fitness tests that are related to health and are valid and reliable. Tests for a national youth fitness survey are recommended based on those criteria and on practical considerations related to the feasibility of their administration in a national survey. In addition to national surveys, fitness tests often are conducted in schools (and other educational settings) for a variety of reasons. Examples include uses associated with state or local

physical fitness testing mandates in schools and with physical education curricula and instruction.

Along with improving the fitness performance of individuals, fitness tests in educational settings can yield other benefits when appropriately conducted and interpreted. One benefit is that, when integrated into physical education programs in school settings, fitness testing can provide clear technical performance expectations and minimize the effect of practice on test performance in a national survey. Another benefit is that fitness testing in schools allows for group and individual tracking of physical fitness trends and disease risk. Fitness test results can also be used for assessing learning outcomes and physical education content standards. Given the connection between physical activity/fitness and cognitive performance (Castelli et al., 2007; Hillman et al., 2009; Kamijo et al., 2011; Welk et al., 2010), moreover, it becomes important for knowledge, attributes, and awareness of fitness to be promoted in educational settings as part of fostering healthy lifestyle choices across the life span. When the primary objectives of physical education or physical activity programming are achieved as intended, such programming can lead to the development of habitual healthy behaviors. The inclusion of fitness testing in physical education provides a forum for supporting and measuring the attainment of learning standards associated with physical fitness (Tremblay and Lloyd, 2010).

Accordingly, physical fitness is a focus of six national standards for physical education that reflect the skills, knowledge, and abilities resulting from participation in effective physical education and physical activity programming in schools (NASPE, 2004). As of June 2011, all 50 states had learning standards centered on health-related fitness (Centeio and Keating, 2011); 14 states mandated direct measurement of physical fitness (NASPE, 2010). Physical education and the implementation of models such as Coordinated School Health and Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs have outcomes concentrated on both the achievement and maintenance of health-enhancing levels of fitness and regular engagement in physical activity, as these variables are independent risk factors associated with health (Plowman, 2005).

To administer fitness testing appropriately in schools, it is necessary to consider such factors as ensuring that the testing has clear ties to improved physical fitness and fostering increased engagement in physical activity among students (Keating, 2003). Although some have questioned how the inclusion of physical fitness testing may influence time for academic learning, there is evidence that fitness may have positive effects on both health and learning (CDC, 2010; Rasberry et al., 2011; Rosas et al., 2009), including evidence for a causal relationship between children’s fitness and cognitive performance (Kamijo et al., 2011).

The committee’s literature review included only studies that involved populations of healthy and obese youth and excluded studies of youth with congenital diseases or disabilities. The fitness testing recommendations in this report, therefore, are driven by the evidence for healthy study populations. Nonetheless, it is important for students with disabilities to be included in fitness testing whenever possible and for the interpretation of test results to be modified accordingly. Specifically, those students with personal fitness goals should be encouraged to participate in fitness testing as a means of tracking progress toward their goals. The Brockport Fitness Test is an example of how specific fitness tests can be modified for students with disabilities, and the Brockport Physical Fitness Technical Manual provides criterion-referenced cut-points (cutoff scores) for a variety of disabilities (Winnick and Short, 1999). While the relationship between health outcomes and physical activity in people with disabilities is not the focus of this report, other reviews, such as the Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee Report (Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2008), specifically examine this issue.

Given the potential benefits of fitness testing, the committee recommends the use of some measures in schools (and other educational settings) even though the evidence for their relationship with health is only promising at this time. The committee recommends these additional measures with the expectation that future research will elucidate whether they are related to health in youth.

This chapter examines factors related to the following issues in school and other educational settings: the selection and implementation of test items, the administration of the test items, the interpretation of test results, and the incorporation of fitness testing into a curriculum or program. It then briefly reviews appropriate and inappropriate fitness testing practices in these settings. The final section presents the committee’s conclusions and recommendations for school-based fitness testing.

FACTORS RELATED TO SELECTING AND IMPLEMENTING TEST ITEMS

Children enrolled in regularly scheduled physical education classes participate in significantly more physical activity than those who attend physical education infrequently (Cawley et al., 2007; Gordon-Larsen et al., 2000; Pate et al., 2007). On the other hand, participation in physical education alone cannot facilitate high levels of fitness in every child (Dale and Corbin, 2000), given heredity effects on fitness (Bouchard and Shephard, 1994), a lack of instructional time dedicated to physical activity (NASPE, 2010; Pate et al., 2011), and low to moderate relationships between physical activity and fitness (Morrow and Freedson, 1994; Pate et al., 1990;

Payne and Morrow, 1993). Furthermore, the lack of national fitness surveys since the 1980s makes it difficult to establish relationships between physical activity and fitness measures over time (Corbin and Pangrazi, 1992; Flegal et al., 1998).

Physical activity leaders and teachers selecting fitness test items for schools need to consider contextual variables such as access to high-quality equipment, space, cost, privacy, and the availability of volunteers, as schools differ greatly on these variables (Martin et al., 2010). Box 3-2 in Chapter 3 includes a general list of criteria for evaluating administrative feasibility. The use of only high-quality equipment is critical to avoid measurement and interpretation errors. To ensure that performance on a fitness test is actually a reflection of physical fitness, it is also necessary to consider the reliability, validity, and feasibility of test items; the standardization of test protocols; and the confidentiality of test results. It is vital as well for administrators to ensure the safety of fitness test participants by being sensitive to such variables as participants’ pre-existing disease(s), body composition, and maturation stage. Age is a particularly critical consideration for ensuring the validity, reliability, and safety of selected test items, as performance on some items may improve with age and maturity. Cultural relevance and potential racial/ethnic bias also are related to test performance and therefore should be considered in the selection of test items (Miech et al., 2006).

The educational value of a test item and its corresponding health-related fitness component should carry weight in the selection process. Specifically, how does the identified test item align with the existing curriculum goals, and to what degree can fitness education be carried out as a valued part of instruction? 1 When such evaluations and corresponding instruction occur, there is a high likelihood that health-related fitness knowledge will increase (Kulinna, 2004; Stewart and Mitchell, 2003) and that youth’s misconceptions about fitness will be addressed (Keating et al., 2009). Further, studies have shown that conceptual physical education may lead to less sedentary behavior after students complete their schooling (Dale and Corbin, 2000; Dale et al., 1998). If educators and physical activity leaders avoid teaching to the test and instead allow the results of fitness tests to drive instruction and create educational opportunities, the potential exists for youth to change their behaviors through self-management and goal setting. It is, however, important for students to know how to perform fitness tests and be given the opportunity to practice the tests prior to the testing session (see Chapter 8 ). Finally, despite evidence that augmented knowledge about health-related fitness may increase engagement in physical activity (Kulinna and Silverman, 2000), it remains unclear whether enhanced knowledge

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1 Available at http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/publications/upload/Instructional-Frameworkfor-Fitness-Education-in-PE-2012-2.pdf (accessed August 17, 2012).

(Ennis, 2007; Placek et al., 2001) and such learning experiences linked to fitness testing (Cale and Harris, 2009) will directly change behavior to a degree that will reduce health risk, as this area is understudied.

FACTORS RELATED TO TEST ADMINISTRATION

In a society where childhood obesity is a growing concern (Ogden et al., 2010), teachers are being asked to fulfill multiple responsibilities related to physical fitness and activity as part of their job description. 2 Since physical education teachers have limited opportunities for professional development (Doutis and Ward, 1999; O’Sullivan and Deglau, 2006; Stroot et al., 1994), learning experiences for these teachers in administering fitness tests are most valuable when they are school based and applicable to the teachers’ daily routine (e.g., how to manage the class while administering the tests), collaborative in nature, and centered on how to achieve the desired student outcomes (i.e., enhancing student understanding and progress toward attaining physical fitness standards) (Armour and Yelling, 2007). Professional development aimed at preparing physical education teachers to administer a battery of fitness tests can include a combination of the following components:

how to integrate fitness testing into the curriculum;
protocols and use of proper equipment for fitness test items;
how to familiarize participants with the test, together with specifications regarding the amount and type of practice;
how to communicate consistently with the students in ways that create a positive and encouraging environment for learners of all ability levels;
teacher burden;
participant burden;
the validity and reliability of test items;
class management during test periods; and
how to interpret and communicate test results.

An extensive body of literature expands on components of effective and sustainable professional development, a topic that is beyond the scope of this report. In general, however, professional development enables physical education teachers to administer physical fitness tests accurately and with minimal bias (Morrow et al., 2010) while providing physical activity oppor-

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2 For example, see the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) Director of Physical Activity Certification Program, available at http://www.aahperd.org/naspe/professionaldevelopment/dpa/index.cfm (accessed June 26, 2012).

tunities that enhance fitness (Kibbe et al., 2011). A recent meta-analysis suggests that in general, students are motivated to participate and to learn in physical education (Chen et al., 2012). Yet student motivation is influenced by the school climate, specifically the task or ego orientation of the activities offered during physical education (Parish and Treasure, 2003; Standage et al., 2003). Teachers who develop a positive and mastery-oriented climate are more likely to have students who perform better on assessments such as fitness testing. When introducing students to fitness testing, for example, the use of instructions that provide personal relevance and meaning for a student can lead to enhanced performance (Simons et al., 2003). Accordingly, it is important for teachers to be consistent in the delivery of content related to fitness testing, as well as to be equally supportive to learners of all ability levels, or the test may be biased. Teachers need professional development to apply these principles of fitness testing in schools (Corbin, 2010; Keating, 2003).

FACTORS RELATED TO INTERPRETATION OF TEST RESULTS

Perhaps the most important element of fitness testing, the interpretation and dissemination of results must be planned for if the goals of the testing are to be achieved. Identifying the level of health risk associated with the established cut-points for a particular age is a way to involve and educate parents as well as children by providing personalized feedback, including comparison of current and previous test results. Note that in communicating test results, it is essential to ensure confidentiality to avoid the reduced self-esteem that can occur if the results (low performance on fitness tests or high body composition numbers) are shared with others (Fox, 1988). In addition to information about health risks, positive feedback and recommendations, including information and resources related to health care, are valuable characteristics of fitness test reports. Fitness education thereby has the potential to build fitness competence, create a sense of the importance of fitness, and provide motivation and opportunities to support the achievement of fitness goals (Fox, 1988). Administrators and those communicating results of fitness tests in schools should be trained in these areas.

Test scores are estimations of health-related fitness at a point in time. To maintain or improve scores, continued participation in physical activity is necessary. The Fitnessgram ® program suggests that, when interpreting performance on fitness tests, the following characteristics are essential in educational settings:

“The physical fitness experience should always be fun and enjoyable.
Physical fitness testing should not become a competitive sport.
The performance of one student should not be compared to that of another student.
The primary reason for testing is to provide the [participant] with personal information that may be used in planning a personal fitness program.
The performance level on fitness tests should not be used as a basis for grading.” (Meredith and Welk, 2010, p. 58)

Test administrators and those interpreting and communicating results should be fully familiar with the meaning of cut-points and the effects of modifiers (e.g., maturation status, race/ethnicity) for each test. Other variables, such as biology, the emotional investment of the participant, tester error, equipment, the amount of practice, and testing conditions, also affect performance on a fitness test. As part of test interpretation, the test administrator and those interpreting and communicating results must decide whether the scores are valid or their deviation from expected results is beyond these sources of error. For example, having some participants engage repeatedly in a shuttle run in an effort to understand the technical protocol and necessary adherence not only allows for more valid and reliable test administration, but also may enable these participants to achieve a higher level of cardiorespiratory fitness than those who have not had the opportunity to practice the test. It is important, then, that an educational component be integrated into the physical education program to provide clear technical performance expectations for fitness testing and minimize practice effects. When physical education teachers and physical activity leaders adhere to these principles, fitness tests can help identify risk for developing chronic disease while helping participants better understand the concepts of fitness through comprehensive fitness education (Freedson et al., 2000).

FACTORS RELATED TO THE INCORPORATION OF FITNESS TESTING INTO A CURRICULUM OR PROGRAM

When fitness testing is integrated into educational programs or curricula, it provides a mechanism for longitudinally tracking and monitoring physical fitness trends and risk for disease among individuals and groups. In an educational setting, individual tracking is most relevant as school is one of the few places where feedback can be provided to both participants and their parents. However, group tracking over time also can be useful for physical education teachers, enabling them to utilize trends to inform instruction by identifying the needs of the current student body.

It has been suggested that, regardless of developmental stage, the benefits of being able to monitor progress, set goals, provide feedback, give

incentives, and design a personalized physical activity plan outweigh the risks of participation in physical fitness testing (Safrit, 1995). Clearly communicating to participants the meaning of each test item and discussing the training principle of specificity (i.e., the activity’s association with an identified joint or muscle group) is important. Participants then can set personalized goals and create an individualized plan for achieving those goals that purposefully links modes of physical activity to health-related fitness components. Learning experiences that apply knowledge to authentic situations increase the likelihood that conceptual learning will lead to enhanced participation in physical activity.

The use of fitness awards in schools has been the subject of ongoing controversy. Although fitness awards were created to motivate youth to be fit, questions have been raised about their motivational value. For example, reports have suggested that the Presidential Physical Fitness Awards may be awarded to youth who are already athletically successful (Corbin et al., 1990), that they are not motivating to youth with low fitness (Corbin et al., 1988), and that they may reduce rather than enhance intrinsic motivation (Whitehead and Corbin, 1991). To date, evidence has not been presented to support the use of fitness awards. While it is beyond the scope of this report to make suggestions about fitness awards, the committee believes a comprehensive study of such awards, similar to this study of fitness test items, should be conducted to determine whether there is sufficient scientific evidence to warrant their use.

APPROPRIATE AND INAPPROPRIATE PRACTICES

If physical fitness tests are to be used effectively in schools and other educational settings, appropriate practices must be employed in their administration. Appropriate practice varies by maturation stage; thus what may be suitable for elementary school students may be inappropriate for adolescents. Numerous authors have outlined appropriate practices (Corbin, 2009; Corbin and Pangrazi, 2008; Ernst et al., 2006), and regardless of stage of maturation, some basic tenets apply, as summarized and supported by national organizations ( Table 9-1 ). These include the following:

Health-related fitness activities are integrated into an existing curriculum.
Fitness test results are used to set individual goals and develop fitness plans.
Fitness assessments are part of the ongoing process of helping students understand, enjoy, improve, and maintain their physical fitness and well-being.
Youth are physically prepared to participate in fitness testing.

TABLE 9-1 Appropriate and Inappropriate Practices Related to Fitness Testing in Schools and Other Educational Settings

SOURCES: Adapted from NASPE, 2009a,b,c.

Two specific unacceptable practices warrant further discussion: the use of fitness test scores for academic grading and for high-stakes accountability. Both of these practices are considered improper applications of fitness test results (NASPE, 2009a,b,c). It is inappropriate to include fitness test scores in academic grades or grade point averages (NASPE, 2009a,b,c). Although physical fitness can be increased through engagement in specific types of physical activity, factors other than physical activity affect a student’s fitness that are beyond the control of the student and physical education teacher. Examples include heredity, caloric consumption, access to opportunities to be physically active both within and beyond the school day, and possibly socioeconomic status. For similar reasons, physical fitness testing for the purpose of teacher and school accountability is also inappropriate. Even though physical fitness may be a primary goal of a given program, confounding, uncontrollable variables remain (e.g., heredity [Bouchard and Shephard, 1994], socioeconomic status, and other school contextual variables [Mitchell et al., 2003]); therefore, this practice is a misstep in the interpretation and utilization of fitness testing (Harris and Cale, 2007).

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In general, active children display healthier physical fitness profiles—including higher cardiorespiratory and musculoskeletal fitness and bone mass and lower body fat—than their inactive peers (Boreham and Riddoch, 2001). Because these trends often track to adulthood (Baranowski et al., 2000; Boreham et al., 2002; Hasselstrom et al., 2002; Janz et al., 2002; Lefevre et al., 2002; Twisk et al., 2002), the committee has highlighted the importance of measuring and monitoring the prevalence and specificity of physical fitness during youth in the preceding chapters. Using many of the factors outlined above, the committee considered the strengths and weaknesses of the test items recommended for a national survey ( Chapter 8 ) with regard to their practicality in schools and other educational settings. The sections below detail the committee’s adaptations for fitness tests when the testing is to be conducted in such settings. Note that, regardless of the setting, it is important to develop and use standardized test protocols so comparisons can be made among surveys and studies.

Body Composition

Since body composition is an important health outcome, the committee recommends that it be measured to track health risk and long-term health relationships in youth (see Chapter 8 ). As a health marker, moreover, body composition—specifically being overweight or obese—is negatively related to academic achievement (Averett and Stifel, 2007; Bagully, 2006; Castelli et al., 2007) and inversely related to reaction time and accuracy of memory tasks (Kamijo et al., 2011).

The committee recommends that in educational settings, standing height and body weight be measured and transformed into body mass index (BMI) as a mediator of physical fitness and a measure of health risk. These data should remain private and be shared only with the child and parent(s). The already established Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) cut-points based on the 2000 CDC growth charts for children and adolescents should be applied when interpreting BMI data.

Although the committee recommends skinfold and waist circumference measurements for a national survey, their implementation in a school setting raises concerns. First, measuring skinfolds and waist circumference requires specific and intense training to avoid the introduction of errors (e.g., intra- and interobserver errors). Second, these two measurements are not free of potential motivational or self-esteem influence; self-esteem may be impacted by the interpretation of results for estimated body composition. Third, it is difficult to ensure the privacy of the measurement process given that measurement of skinfolds and waist circumference is more inva-

sive than measurements for BMI because it requires exposure of the trunk to allow the test administrator to access the subscapular and waist regions. As a result, conducting these tests likely requires the presence of two test administrators, thus increasing the administrative burden. By contrast, less effort is required for measurement of height and weight (see Chapter 4 ).

Cardiorespiratory Endurance

A large body of evidence suggests that cardiorespiratory endurance is related to health outcomes such as adiposity and cardiometabolic risk factors (e.g., blood pressure, blood lipids and glucose, insulin sensitivity) during childhood and adulthood (see Chapter 5 ). Cardiorespiratory endurance is believed to be lower in sedentary and overweight female youth. Approximately one-third of U.S. youth (males and females) aged 12 to 19 fail to meet the standards for cardiorespiratory endurance (Pate et al., 2006). As indicated earlier in this chapter, emerging evidence also identifies a link between cardiorespiratory endurance and academic achievement (Donnelly and Lambourne, 2011; Hillman et al., 2009), as well as working memory and attention—essential antecedents of learning (Kamijo et al., 2011).

Among the valid and reliable tests for which strong evidence indicates a relationship to health, the shuttle run has the feasibility required for implementation in a school setting, requiring no expensive equipment. An alternative to the shuttle run is any of the distance runs that, as noted in Chapter 5 , have been used to measure cardiorespiratory endurance in fitness test batteries since the advent of large-scale fitness testing in the post-World War II era. Numerous studies have assessed the validity of distance run tests by examining the correlation between a criterion measure—directly measured maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) (ml/kg/min)—and time or distance on the run, and have concluded that distance runs of 1 mile or greater demonstrate acceptable validity (Freedson et al., 2000; Safrit, 1990). Also, distance runs have been found to be reliable based on test-retest correlations (Artero et al., 2011; Freedson et al., 2000).

Musculoskeletal Fitness

Musculoskeletal fitness, including muscle strength, muscle endurance, and muscle power, has been positively associated with quality of life and inversely linked to risk for cardiovascular disease in adults (see Chapter 6 ). In children, the link between musculoskeletal fitness and health is less clear given developmental and maturational influences and the paucity of recent normative data. However, the committee concluded that musculoskeletal fitness during childhood is likely linked to health during adulthood; thus,

musculoskeletal fitness tests should be used in schools as a tool for educating about their potential health benefits.

In Chapter 8 , the handgrip strength and standing long jump tests are recommended for a national youth fitness survey as measures of musculoskeletal fitness because of this component’s suggestive relationship to health (particularly in adults), sufficient validity and reliability of both tests in youth, and feasibility (e.g., equipment cost, equipment calibration, administrator training). For schools, in addition to these two tests, the committee considered the value of other musculoskeletal fitness tests that are valid and that may have adequate reliability because of their wide use and familiarity to students and test administrators.

For example, the modified pull-up, which is currently used in school-based fitness test batteries in the United States, has moderate reliability and sound logical construct validity as a measure of upper-body strength (Engelman and Morrow, 1991; Erbaugh, 1990; Kollath et al., 1991; Pate et al., 1995; Saint Romain and Mahar, 2001). While there is scant evidence of this test’s relationship to health in youth, it does provide a valid assessment of an individual’s or group’s musculoskeletal fitness status (see Chapter 6 ) and is feasible for use in schools and other educational settings. Also used frequently in schools, the curl-up and push-up may have value as fitness educational tools. Both have been shown to have reasonable reliability and validity when administered in a large school-based survey; however, these values are lower than for cardiorespiratory endurance and body composition tests (Morrow et al., 2010; Plowman, 2008). Because the curl-up test measures a different construct of musculoskeletal fitness from the handgrip strength and standing long jump tests (i.e., core strength and endurance), it should not be considered as an alternative to those tests. It is important to stress that none of the musculoskeletal fitness tests should be interpreted in a health context until such relationships are more firmly established in the future.

Flexibility

As described in Chapter 7 , information is lacking about the association between flexibility and health outcomes in youth and is inconsistent in adults. For this reason, the committee does not recommend flexibility testing as a foundational item in school-based fitness testing for youth. Although the evidence is not yet clear, however, flexibility may be linked to various health outcomes in youth, such as prevention of back pain, injury, and posture-related problems. Schools may therefore wish to include flexibility testing to help educate youth and their parents about flexibility as a component of overall musculoskeletal health, function, and performance.

Administrators can select flexibility tests to be implemented in schools and physical education settings based on their validity, reliability, and feasibility, for which evidence has been reported (see, e.g., Castro-Piñero et al., 2010; España-Romero et al., 2010; Freedson et al., 2000; Plowman, 2008; Safrit, 1990). Although the degree to which the sit-and-reach test is an indicator of overall systemic flexibility is unclear, only that test, including its alternatives (e.g., backsaver sit-and-reach), among the measures commonly used to assess flexibility in youth has been used widely, and it also has been the most frequently studied. The sit-and-reach test has reasonable validity and reliability when used in school settings.

Recommended Fitness Tests for Schools

The committee found strong evidence linking cardiorespiratory endurance and body composition to health in youth and evidence in adults to support a link between musculoskeletal fitness and health. Given the connections to health and the benefits of promoting a physically active lifestyle through physical fitness education, the committee selected measures of body composition, cardiorespiratory endurance, and musculoskeletal fitness that should be included in a fitness test battery for use in schools and other educational settings. As with national surveys, test administrators should distribute the equipment needed to conduct the recommended test items such that the students have the opportunity to receive sufficient training in the measurement protocols and to practice the tests. Likewise, both those administering the tests and those interpreting and communicating the test results should receive the appropriate training to prevent adverse events, minimize measurement and classification errors, create an encouraging environment for students, and ensure the confidentiality of the results.

RECOMMENDATION 9-1. Developers and administrators of fitness test batteries in schools and other educational settings should consider including the following test items:

standing height (measure of linear growth status) and weight (measure of body mass) to calculate BMI as an indicator of body composition;
handgrip strength and standing long jump tests to measure upper- and lower-body musculoskeletal strength and power, respectively.

Additional tests that have not yet been shown to be related to health but that are valid, reliable, and feasible may also be considered as supplemental educational tools. For cardiorespiratory endurance, alternatives to the shuttle run include distance and/or timed runs, such as the 9-minute or 1-mile run, while the modified pull-up and push-up are possible alternatives for measuring upper-body musculoskeletal strength. The curl-up may be considered in addition to the suggested musculoskeletal fitness tests for measuring core strength and endurance. Although the committee does not recommend a flexibility measure as a core component of a fitness test battery, administrators in schools and other educational settings may wish to include the sit-and-reach test or its alternatives (e.g., backsaver sit-and-reach) to measure flexibility. Experts who establish cut-points for interpreting performance on these fitness test items should follow the guidance provided in Chapter 3 .

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Physical fitness affects our ability to function and be active. At poor levels, it is associated with such health outcomes as diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Physical fitness testing in American youth was established on a large scale in the 1950s with an early focus on performance-related fitness that gradually gave way to an emphasis on health-related fitness. Using appropriately selected measures to collected fitness data in youth will advance our understanding of how fitness among youth translates into better health.

In Fitness Measures and Health Outcomes in Youth , the IOM assesses the relationship between youth fitness test items and health outcomes, recommends the best fitness test items, provides guidance for interpreting fitness scores, and provides an agenda for needed research.

The report concludes that selected cardiorespiratory endurance, musculoskeletal fitness, and body composition measures should be in fitness surveys and in schools. Collecting fitness data nationally and in schools helps with setting and achieving fitness goals and priorities for public health at an individual and national level.

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Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30.

Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School.

Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

4 Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance

Key messages.

Evidence suggests that increasing physical activity and physical fitness may improve academic performance and that time in the school day dedicated to recess, physical education class, and physical activity in the classroom may also facilitate academic performance.
Available evidence suggests that mathematics and reading are the academic topics that are most influenced by physical activity. These topics depend on efficient and effective executive function, which has been linked to physical activity and physical fitness.
Executive function and brain health underlie academic performance. Basic cognitive functions related to attention and memory facilitate learning, and these functions are enhanced by physical activity and higher aerobic fitness.
Single sessions of and long-term participation in physical activity improve cognitive performance and brain health. Children who participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity benefit the most.
Given the importance of time on task to learning, students should be provided with frequent physical activity breaks that are developmentally appropriate.
Although presently understudied, physically active lessons offered in the classroom may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting.

Although academic performance stems from a complex interaction between intellect and contextual variables, health is a vital moderating factor in a child's ability to learn. The idea that healthy children learn better is empirically supported and well accepted ( Basch, 2010 ), and multiple studies have confirmed that health benefits are associated with physical activity, including cardiovascular and muscular fitness, bone health, psychosocial outcomes, and cognitive and brain health ( Strong et al., 2005 ; see Chapter 3 ). The relationship of physical activity and physical fitness to cognitive and brain health and to academic performance is the subject of this chapter.

Given that the brain is responsible for both mental processes and physical actions of the human body, brain health is important across the life span. In adults, brain health, representing absence of disease and optimal structure and function, is measured in terms of quality of life and effective functioning in activities of daily living. In children, brain health can be measured in terms of successful development of attention, on-task behavior, memory, and academic performance in an educational setting. This chapter reviews the findings of recent research regarding the contribution of engagement in physical activity and the attainment of a health-enhancing level of physical fitness to cognitive and brain health in children. Correlational research examining the relationship among academic performance, physical fitness, and physical activity also is described. Because research in older adults has served as a model for understanding the effects of physical activity and fitness on the developing brain during childhood, the adult research is briefly discussed. The short- and long-term cognitive benefits of both a single session of and regular participation in physical activity are summarized.

Before outlining the health benefits of physical activity and fitness, it is important to note that many factors influence academic performance. Among these are socioeconomic status ( Sirin, 2005 ), parental involvement ( Fan and Chen, 2001 ), and a host of other demographic factors. A valuable predictor of student academic performance is a parent having clear expectations for the child's academic success. Attendance is another factor confirmed as having a significant impact on academic performance ( Stanca, 2006 ; Baxter et al., 2011 ). Because children must be present to learn the desired content, attendance should be measured in considering factors related to academic performance.

PHYSICAL FITNESS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: RELATION TO ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

State-mandated academic achievement testing has had the unintended consequence of reducing opportunities for children to be physically active during the school day and beyond. In addition to a general shifting of time in school away from physical education to allow for more time on academic subjects, some children are withheld from physical education classes or recess to participate in remedial or enriched learning experiences designed to increase academic performance ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see Chapter 5 ). Yet little evidence supports the notion that more time allocated to subject matter will translate into better test scores. Indeed, 11 of 14 correlational studies of physical activity during the school day demonstrate a positive relationship to academic performance ( Rasberry et al., 2011 ). Overall, a rapidly growing body of work suggests that time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to a healthier mind ( Hillman et al., 2008 ).

Children respond faster and with greater accuracy to a variety of cognitive tasks after participating in a session of physical activity ( Tomporowski, 2003 ; Budde et al., 2008 ; Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pesce et al., 2009 ; Ellemberg and St-Louis-Deschênes, 2010 ). A single bout of moderate-intensity physical activity has been found to increase neural and behavioral concomitants associated with the allocation of attention to a specific cognitive task ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ). And when children who participated in 30 minutes of aerobic physical activity were compared with children who watched television for the same amount of time, the former children cognitively outperformed the latter ( Ellemberg and St-Louis-Desêhenes, 2010 ). Visual task switching data among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences between cognitive performance after treadmill walking and sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ).

When physical activity is used as a break from academic learning time, postengagement effects include better attention ( Grieco et al., 2009 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ), increased on-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ), and improved academic performance ( Donnelly and Lambourne, 2011 ). Comparisons between 1st-grade students housed in a classroom with stand-sit desks where the child could stand at his/her discretion and in classrooms containing traditional furniture showed that the former children were highly likely to stand, thus expending significantly more energy than those who were seated ( Benden et al., 2011 ). More important, teachers can offer physical activity breaks as part of a supplemental curriculum or simply as a way to reset student attention during a lesson ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ; see Chapter 6 ) and when provided with minimal training can efficaciously produce vigorous or moderate energy expenditure in students ( Stewart et al., 2004 ). Further, after-school physical activity programs have demonstrated the ability to improve cardiovascular endurance, and this increase in aerobic fitness has been shown to mediate improvements in academic performance ( Fredericks et al., 2006 ), as well as the allocation of neural resources underlying performance on a working memory task ( Kamijo et al., 2011 ).

Over the past three decades, several reviews and meta-analyses have described the relationship among physical fitness, physical activity, and cognition (broadly defined as all mental processes). The majority of these reviews have focused on the relationship between academic performance and physical fitness—a physiological trait commonly defined in terms of cardiorespiratory capacity (e.g., maximal oxygen consumption; see Chapter 3 ). More recently, reviews have attempted to describe the effects of an acute or single bout of physical activity, as a behavior, on academic performance. These reviews have focused on brain health in older adults ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ), as well as the effects of acute physical activity on cognition in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). Some have considered age as part of the analysis ( Etnier et al., 1997 , 2006 ). Reviews focusing on research conducted in children ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ) have examined the relationship among physical activity, participation in sports, and academic performance ( Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 , 2010 ; Singh et al., 2012 ); physical activity and mental and cognitive health ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ); and physical activity, nutrition, and academic performance ( Burkhalter and Hillman, 2011 ). The findings of most of these reviews align with the conclusions presented in a meta-analytic review conducted by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) . The studies reviewed by Fedewa and Ahn include experimental/quasi-experimental as well as cross-sectional and correlational designs, with the experimental designs yielding the highest effect sizes. The strongest relationships were found between aerobic fitness and achievement in mathematics, followed by IQ and reading performance. The range of cognitive performance measures, participant characteristics, and types of research design all mediated the relationship among physical activity, fitness, and academic performance. With regard to physical activity interventions, which were carried out both within and beyond the school day, those involving small groups of peers (around 10 youth of a similar age) were associated with the greatest gains in academic performance.

The number of peer-reviewed publications on this topic is growing exponentially. Further evidence of the growth of this line of inquiry is its increased global presence. Positive relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, and academic performance have been found among students from the Netherlands ( Singh et al., 2012 ) and Taiwan ( Chih and Chen, 2011 ). Broadly speaking, however, many of these studies show small to moderate effects and suffer from poor research designs ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ; Singh et al., 2012 ).

Basch (2010) conducted a comprehensive review of how children's health and health disparities influence academic performance and learning. The author's report draws on empirical evidence suggesting that education reform will be ineffective unless children's health is made a priority. Basch concludes that schools may be the only place where health inequities can be addressed and that, if children's basic health needs are not met, they will struggle to learn regardless of the effectiveness of the instructional materials used. More recently, Efrat (2011) conducted a review of physical activity, fitness, and academic performance to examine the achievement gap. He discovered that only seven studies had included socioeconomic status as a variable, despite its known relationship to education ( Sirin, 2005 ).

Physical Fitness as a Learning Outcome of Physical Education and Its Relation to Academic Performance

Achieving and maintaining a healthy level of aerobic fitness, as defined using criterion-referenced standards from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES; Welk et al., 2011 ), is a desired learning outcome of physical education programming. Regular participation in physical activity also is a national learning standard for physical education, a standard intended to facilitate the establishment of habitual and meaningful engagement in physical activity ( NASPE, 2004 ). Yet although physical fitness and participation in physical activity are established as learning outcomes in all 50 states, there is little evidence to suggest that children actually achieve and maintain these standards (see Chapter 2 ).

Statewide and national datasets containing data on youth physical fitness and academic performance have increased access to student-level data on this subject ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Carlson et al., 2008 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Early research in South Australia focused on quantifying the benefits of physical activity and physical education during the school day; the benefits noted included increased physical fitness, decreased body fat, and reduced risk for cardiovascular disease ( Dwyer et al., 1979 , 1983 ). Even today, Dwyer and colleagues are among the few scholars who regularly include in their research measures of physical activity intensity in the school environment, which is believed to be a key reason why they are able to report differentiated effects of different intensities. A longitudinal study in Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada, tracked how the academic performance of children from grades 1 through 6 was related to student health, motor skills, and time spent in physical education. The researchers concluded that additional time dedicated to physical education did not inhibit academic performance ( Shephard et al., 1984 ; Shephard, 1986 ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ).

Longitudinal follow-up investigating the long-term benefits of enhanced physical education experiences is encouraging but largely inconclusive. In a study examining the effects of daily physical education during elementary school on physical activity during adulthood, 720 men and women completed the Québec Health Survey ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ). Findings suggest that physical education was associated with physical activity in later life for females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ); most of the associations were significant but weak ( Trudeau et al., 2004 ). Adult body mass index (BMI) at age 34 was related to childhood BMI at ages 10-12 in females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 2001 ). Longitudinal studies such as those conducted in Sweden and Finland also suggest that physical education experiences may be related to adult engagement in physical activity ( Glenmark, 1994 ; Telama et al., 1997 ). From an academic performance perspective, longitudinal data on men who enlisted for military service imply that cardiovascular fitness at age 18 predicted cognitive performance in later life (Aberg et al., 2009), thereby supporting the idea of offering physical education and physical activity opportunities well into emerging adulthood through secondary and postsecondary education.

Castelli and colleagues (2007) investigated younger children (in 3rd and 5th grades) and the differential contributions of the various subcomponents of the Fitnessgram ® . Specifically, they examined the individual contributions of aerobic capacity, muscle strength, muscle flexibility, and body composition to performance in mathematics and reading on the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test among a sample of 259 children. Their findings corroborate those of the California Department of Education ( Grissom, 2005 ), indicating a general relationship between fitness and achievement test performance. When the individual components of the Fitnessgram were decomposed, the researchers determined that only aerobic capacity was related to test performance. Muscle strength and flexibility showed no relationship, while an inverse association of BMI with test performance was observed, such that higher BMI was associated with lower test performance. Although Baxter and colleagues (2011) confirmed the importance of attending school in relation to academic performance through the use of 4th-grade student recall, correlations with BMI were not significant.

State-mandated implementation of the coordinated school health model requires all schools in Texas to conduct annual fitness testing using the Fitnessgram among students in grades 3-12. In a special issue of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (2010), multiple articles describe the current state of physical fitness among children in Texas; confirm the associations among school performance levels, academic achievement, and physical fitness ( Welk et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ); and demonstrate the ability of qualified physical education teachers to administer physical fitness tests ( Zhu et al., 2010 ). Also using data from Texas schools, Van Dusen and colleagues (2011) found that cardiovascular fitness had the strongest association with academic performance, particularly in mathematics over reading. Unlike previous research, which demonstrated a steady decline in fitness by developmental stage ( Duncan et al., 2007 ), this study found that cardiovascular fitness did decrease but not significantly ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Aerobic fitness, then, may be important to academic performance, as there may be a dose-response relationship ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ).

Using a large sample of students in grades 4-8, Chomitz and colleagues (2008) found that the likelihood of passing both mathematics and English achievement tests increased with the number of fitness tests passed during physical education class, and the odds of passing the mathematics achievement tests were inversely related to higher body weight. Similar to the findings of Castelli and colleagues (2007) , socioeconomic status and demographic factors explained little of the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic performance; however, socioeconomic status may be an explanatory variable for students of low fitness ( London and Castrechini, 2011 ).

In sum, numerous cross-sectional and correlational studies demonstrate small-to-moderate positive or null associations between physical fitness ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Edwards et al., 2009; Eveland-Sayers et al., 2009 ; Cooper et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ), particularly aerobic fitness, and academic performance ( Castelli et al, 2007 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Roberts et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Chih and Chen, 2011 ; London and Castrechini, 2011 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Moreover, the findings may support a dose-response association, suggesting that the more components of physical fitness (e.g., cardiovascular endurance, strength, muscle endurance) considered acceptable for the specific age and gender that are present, the greater the likelihood of successful academic performance. From a public health and policy standpoint, the conclusions these findings support are limited by few causal inferences, a lack of data confirmation, and inadequate reliability because the data were often collected by nonresearchers or through self-report methods. It may also be noted that this research includes no known longitudinal studies and few randomized controlled trials (examples are included later in this chapter in the discussion of the developing brain).

Physical Activity, Physical Education, and Academic Performance

In contrast with the correlational data presented above for physical fitness, more information is needed on the direct effects of participation in physical activity programming and physical education classes on academic performance.

In a meta-analysis, Sibley and Etnier (2003) found a positive relationship between physical activity and cognition in school-age youth (aged 4-18), suggesting that physical activity, as well as physical fitness, may be related to cognitive outcomes during development. Participation in physical activity was related to cognitive performance in eight measurement categories (perceptual skills, IQ, achievement, verbal tests, mathematics tests, memory, developmental level/academic readiness, and “other”), with results indicating a beneficial relationship of physical activity to all cognitive outcomes except memory ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ). Since that meta-analysis, however, several papers have reported robust relationships between aerobic fitness and different aspects of memory in children (e.g., Chaddock et al., 2010a , 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ; Monti et al., 2012 ). Regardless, the comprehensive review of Sibley and Etnier (2003) was important because it helped bring attention to an emerging literature suggesting that physical activity may benefit cognitive development even as it also demonstrated the need for further study to better understand the multifaceted relationship between physical activity and cognitive and brain health.

The regular engagement in physical activity achieved during physical education programming can also be related to academic performance, especially when the class is taught by a physical education teacher. The Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) study examined the effects of a 2-year health-related physical education program on academic performance in children ( Sallis et al., 1999 ). In an experimental design, seven elementary schools were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) a specialist condition in which certified physical education teachers delivered the SPARK curriculum, (2) a trained-teacher condition in which classroom teachers implemented the curriculum, and (3) a control condition in which classroom teachers implemented the local physical education curriculum. No significant differences by condition were found for mathematics testing; however, reading scores were significantly higher in the specialist condition relative to the control condition ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), while language scores were significantly lower in the specialist condition than in the other two conditions. The authors conclude that spending time in physical education with a specialist did not have a negative effect on academic performance. Shortcomings of this research include the amount of data loss from pre- to posttest, the use of results of 2nd-grade testing that exceeded the national average in performance as baseline data, and the use of norm-referenced rather than criterion-based testing.

In seminal research conducted by Gabbard and Barton (1979) , six different conditions of physical activity (no activity; 20, 30, 40, and 50 minutes; and posttest no activity) were completed by 106 2nd graders during physical education. Each physical activity session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion of 36 math problems. The authors found a potential threshold effect whereby only the 50-minute condition improved mathematical performance, with no differences by gender.

A longitudinal study of the kindergarten class of 1998–1999, using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, investigated the association between enrollment in physical education and academic achievement ( Carlson et al., 2008 ). Higher amounts of physical education were correlated with better academic performance in mathematics among females, but this finding did not hold true for males.

Ahamed and colleagues (2007) found in a cluster randomized trial that, after 16 months of a classroom-based physical activity intervention, there was no significant difference between the treatment and control groups in performance on the standardized Cognitive Abilities Test, Third Edition (CAT-3). Others have found, however, that coordinative exercise ( Budde et al., 2008 ) or bouts of vigorous physical activity during free time ( Coe et al., 2006 ) contribute to higher levels of academic performance. Specifically, Coe and colleagues examined the association of enrollment in physical education and self-reported vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside school with performance in core academic courses and on the Terra Nova Standardized Achievement Test among more than 200 6th-grade students. Their findings indicate that academic performance was unaffected by enrollment in physical education classes, which were found to average only 19 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. When time spent engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside of school was considered, however, a significant positive relation to academic performance emerged, with more time engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity being related to better grades but not test scores ( Coe et al., 2006 ).

Studies of participation in sports and academic achievement have found positive associations ( Mechanic and Hansell, 1987 ; Dexter, 1999 ; Crosnoe, 2002 ; Eitle and Eitle, 2002 ; Stephens and Schaben, 2002 ; Eitle, 2005 ; Miller et al., 2005 ; Fox et al., 2010 ; Ruiz et al., 2010 ); higher grade point averages (GPAs) in season than out of season ( Silliker and Quirk, 1997 ); a negative association between cheerleading and science performance ( Hanson and Kraus, 1998 ); and weak and negative associations between the amount of time spent participating in sports and performance in English-language class among 13-, 14-, and 16-year-old students ( Daley and Ryan, 2000 ). Other studies, however, have found no association between participation in sports and academic performance ( Fisher et al., 1996 ). The findings of these studies need to be interpreted with caution as many of their designs failed to account for the level of participation by individuals in the sport (e.g., amount of playing time, type and intensity of physical activity engagement by sport). Further, it is unclear whether policies required students to have higher GPAs to be eligible for participation. Offering sports opportunities is well justified regardless of the cognitive benefits, however, given that adolescents may be less likely to engage in risky behaviors when involved in sports or other extracurricular activities ( Page et al., 1998 ; Elder et al., 2000 ; Taliaferro et al., 2010 ), that participation in sports increases physical fitness, and that affiliation with sports enhances school connectedness.

Although a consensus on the relationship of physical activity to academic achievement has not been reached, the vast majority of available evidence suggests the relationship is either positive or neutral. The meta-analytic review by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) suggests that interventions entailing aerobic physical activity have the greatest impact on academic performance; however, all types of physical activity, except those involving flexibility alone, contribute to enhanced academic performance, as do interventions that use small groups (about 10 students) rather than individuals or large groups. Regardless of the strength of the findings, the literature indicates that time spent engaged in physical activity is beneficial to children because it has not been found to detract from academic performance, and in fact can improve overall health and function ( Sallis et al., 1999 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Tomporowski et al., 2008a ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ; Rasberry et al., 2011 ).

Single Bouts of Physical Activity

Beyond formal physical education, evidence suggests that multi-component approaches are a viable means of providing physical activity opportunities for children across the school curriculum (see also Chapter 6 ). Although health-related fitness lessons taught by certified physical education teachers result in greater student fitness gains relative to such lessons taught by other teachers ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), non-physical education teachers are capable of providing opportunities to be physically active within the classroom ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). Single sessions or bouts of physical activity have independent merit, offering immediate benefits that can enhance the learning experience. Studies have found that single bouts of physical activity result in improved attention ( Hillman et al., 2003 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ), better working memory ( Pontifex et al., 2009 ), and increased academic learning time and reduced off-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ). Yet single bouts of physical activity have differential effects, as very vigorous exercise has been associated with cognitive fatigue and even cognitive decline in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). As seen in Figure 4-1 , high levels of effort, arousal, or activation can influence perception, decision making, response preparation, and actual response. For discussion of the underlying constructs and differential effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognitive performance, see Tomporowski (2003) .

Information processing: Diagram of a simplified version of Sanders's (1983) cognitive-energetic model of human information processing (adapted from Jones and Hardy, 1989). SOURCE: Tomporowski, 2003. Reprinted with permission.

For children, classrooms are busy places where they must distinguish relevant information from distractions that emerge from many different sources occurring simultaneously. A student must listen to the teacher, adhere to classroom procedures, focus on a specific task, hold and retain information, and make connections between novel information and previous experiences. Hillman and colleagues (2009) demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity walking (60 percent of maximum heart rate) resulted in significant improvements in performance on a task requiring attentional inhibition (e.g., the ability to focus on a single task). These findings were accompanied by changes in neuroelectric measures underlying the allocation of attention (see Figure 4-2 ) and significant improvements on the reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test. No such effects were observed following a similar duration of quiet rest. These findings were later replicated and extended to demonstrate benefits for both mathematics and reading performance in healthy children and those diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( Pontifex et al., 2013 ). Further replications of these findings demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise using a treadmill improved performance on a task of attention and inhibition, but similar benefits were not derived from moderate-intensity exercise that involved exergaming ( O'Leary et al., 2011 ). It was also found that such benefits were derived following cessation of, but not during, the bout of exercise ( Drollette et al., 2012 ). The applications of such empirical findings within the school setting remain unclear.

Effects of a single session of exercise in preadolescent children. SOURCE: Hillman et al., 2009. Reprinted with permission.

A randomized controlled trial entitled Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) used cluster randomization among 24 schools to examine the effects of physically active classroom lessons on BMI and academic achievement ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ). The academically oriented physical activities were intended to be of vigorous or moderate intensity (3–6 metabolic equivalents [METs]) and to last approximately 10 minutes and were specifically designed to supplement content in mathematics, language arts, geography, history, spelling, science, and health. The study followed 665 boys and 677 girls for 3 years as they rose from 2nd or 3rd to 4th or 5th grades. Changes in academic achievement, fitness, and blood screening were considered secondary outcomes. During a 3-year period, students who engaged in physically active lessons, on average, improved their academic achievement by 6 percent, while the control groups exhibited a 1 percent decrease. In students who experienced at least 75 minutes of PAAC lessons per week, BMI remained stable (see Figure 4-3 ).

Change in academic scores from baseline after physically active classroom lessons in elementary schools in northeast Kansas (2003–2006). NOTE: All differences between the Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) group ( N = 117) and control (more...)

It is important to note that cognitive tasks completed before, during, and after physical activity show varying effects, but the effects were always positive compared with sedentary behavior. In a study carried out by Drollette and colleagues (2012) , 36 preadolescent children completed two cognitive tasks—a flanker task to assess attention and inhibition and a spatial nback task to assess working memory—before, during, and after seated rest and treadmill walking conditions. The children sat or walked on different days for an average of 19 minutes. The results suggest that the physical activity enhanced cognitive performance for the attention task but not for the task requiring working memory. Accordingly, although more research is needed, the authors suggest that the acute effects of exercise may be selective to certain cognitive processes (i.e., attentional inhibition) while unrelated to others (e.g., working memory). Indeed, data collected using a task-switching paradigm (i.e., a task designed to assess multitasking and requiring the scheduling of attention to multiple aspects of the environment) among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences in cognitive performance following acute bouts of treadmill walking or sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ). Thus, findings to date indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to transient improvements in attention but appear inconsistent for other aspects of cognition.

Academic Learning Time and On- and Off-Task Behaviors

Excessive time on task, inattention to task, off-task behavior, and delinquency are important considerations in the learning environment given the importance of academic learning time to academic performance. These behaviors are observable and of concern to teachers as they detract from the learning environment. Systematic observation by trained observers may yield important insight regarding the effects of short physical activity breaks on these behaviors. Indeed, systematic observations of student behavior have been used as an alternative means of measuring academic performance ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Grieco et al., 2009 ).

After the development of classroom-based physical activities, called Energizers, teachers were trained in how to implement such activities in their lessons at least twice per week ( Mahar et al., 2006 ). Measurements of baseline physical activity and on-task behaviors were collected in two 3rd-grade and two 4th-grade classes, using pedometers and direct observation. The intervention included 243 students, while 108 served as controls by not engaging in the activities. A subgroup of 62 3rd and 4th graders was observed for on-task behavior in the classroom following the physical activity. Children who participated in Energizers took more steps during the school day than those who did not; they also increased their on-task behaviors by more than 20 percent over baseline measures.

A systematic review of a similar in-class, academically oriented, physical activity plan—Take 10!—was conducted to identify the effects of its implementation after it had been in use for 10 years ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). The findings suggest that children who experienced Take 10! in the classroom engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (6.16 to 6.42 METs) and had lower BMIs than those who did not. Further, children in the Take 10! classrooms had better fluid intelligence ( Reed et al., 2010 ) and higher academic achievement scores ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ).

Some have expressed concern that introducing physical activity into the classroom setting may be distracting to students. Yet in one study it was sedentary students who demonstrated a decrease in time on task, while active students returned to the same level of on-task behavior after an active learning task ( Grieco et al., 2009 ). Among the 97 3rd-grade students in this study, a small but nonsignificant increase in on-task behaviors was seen immediately following these active lessons. Additionally, these improvements were not mediated by BMI.

In sum, although presently understudied, physically active lessons may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting. Given the complexity of the typical classroom, the strategy of including content-specific lessons that incorporate physical activity may be justified.

It is recommended that every child have 20 minutes of recess each day and that this time be outdoors whenever possible, in a safe activity ( NASPE, 2006 ). Consistent engagement in recess can help students refine social skills, learn social mediation skills surrounding fair play, obtain additional minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity that contribute toward the recommend 60 minutes or more per day, and have an opportunity to express their imagination through free play ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see also Chapter 6 ). When children participate in recess before lunch, additional benefits accrue, such as less food waste, increased incidence of appropriate behavior in the cafeteria during lunch, and greater student readiness to learn upon returning to the classroom after lunch ( Getlinger et al., 1996 ; Wechsler et al., 2001 ).

To examine the effects of engagement in physical activity during recess on classroom behavior, Barros and colleagues (2009) examined data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study on 10,000 8- to 9-year-old children. Teachers provided the number of minutes of recess as well as a ranking of classroom behavior (ranging from “misbehaves frequently” to “behaves exceptionally well”). Results indicate that children who had at least 15 minutes of recess were more likely to exhibit appropriate behavior in the classroom ( Barros et al., 2009 ). In another study, 43 4th-grade students were randomly assigned to 1 or no days of recess to examine the effects on classroom behavior ( Jarrett et al., 1998 ). The researchers concluded that on-task behavior was better among the children who had recess. A moderate effect size (= 0.51) was observed. In a series of studies examining kindergartners' attention to task following a 20-minute recess, increased time on task was observed during learning centers and story reading ( Pellegrini et al., 1995 ). Despite these positive findings centered on improved attention, it is important to note that few of these studies actually measured the intensity of the physical activity during recess.

From a slightly different perspective, survey data from 547 Virginia elementary school principals suggest that time dedicated to student participation in physical education, art, and music did not negatively influence academic performance ( Wilkins et al., 2003 ). Thus, the strategy of reducing time spent in physical education to increase academic performance may not have the desired effect. The evidence on in-school physical activity supports the provision of physical activity breaks during the school day as a way to increase fluid intelligence, time on task, and attention. However, it remains unclear what portion of these effects can be attributed to a break from academic time and what portion is a direct result of the specific demands/characteristics of the physical activity.

THE DEVELOPING bRAIN, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, AND BRAIN HEALTH

The study of brain health has grown beyond simply measuring behavioral outcomes such as task performance and reaction time (e.g., cognitive processing speed). New technology has emerged that has allowed scientists to understand the impact of lifestyle factors on the brain from the body systems level down to the molecular level. A greater understanding of the cognitive components that subserve academic performance and may be amenable to intervention has thereby been gained. Research conducted in both laboratory and field settings has helped define this line of inquiry and identify some preliminary underlying mechanisms.

The Evidence Base on the Relationship of Physical Activity to Brain Health and Cognition in Older Adults

Despite the current focus on the relationship of physical activity to cognitive development, the evidence base is larger on the association of physical activity with brain health and cognition during aging. Much can be learned about how physical activity affects childhood cognition and scholastic achievement through this work. Despite earlier investigations into the relationship of physical activity to cognitive aging (see Etnier et al., 1997 , for a review), the field was shaped by the findings of Kramer and colleagues (1999) , who examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on older adults using a randomized controlled design. Specifically, 124 older adults aged 60 and 75 were randomly assigned to a 6-month intervention of either walking (i.e., aerobic training) or flexibility (i.e., nonaerobic) training. The walking group but not the flexibility group showed improved cognitive performance, measured as a shorter response time to the presented stimulus. Results from a series of tasks that tapped different aspects of cognitive control indicated that engagement in physical activity is a beneficial means of combating cognitive aging ( Kramer et al., 1999 ).

Cognitive control, or executive control, is involved in the selection, scheduling, and coordination of computational processes underlying perception, memory, and goal-directed action. These processes allow for the optimization of behavioral interactions within the environment through flexible modulation of the ability to control attention ( MacDonald et al., 2000 ; Botvinick et al., 2001 ). Core cognitive processes that make up cognitive control or executive control include inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility ( Diamond, 2006 ), processes mediated by networks that involve the prefrontal cortex. Inhibition (or inhibitory control) refers to the ability to override a strong internal or external pull so as to act appropriately within the demands imposed by the environment ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). For example, one exerts inhibitory control when one stops speaking when the teacher begins lecturing. Working memory refers to the ability to represent information mentally, manipulate stored information, and act on the information ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). In solving a difficult mathematical problem, for example, one must often remember the remainder. Finally, cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch perspectives, focus attention, and adapt behavior quickly and flexibly for the purposes of goal-directed action ( Blair et al., 2005 ; Davidson et al., 2006 ; Diamond, 2006 ). For example, one must shift attention from the teacher who is teaching a lesson to one's notes to write down information for later study.

Based on their earlier findings on changes in cognitive control induced by aerobic training, Colcombe and Kramer (2003) conducted a meta-analysis to examine the relationship between aerobic training and cognition in older adults aged 55-80 using data from 18 randomized controlled exercise interventions. Their findings suggest that aerobic training is associated with general cognitive benefits that are selectively and disproportionately greater for tasks or task components requiring greater amounts of cognitive control. A second and more recent meta-analysis ( Smith et al., 2010 ) corroborates the findings of Colcombe and Kramer, indicating that aerobic exercise is related to attention, processing speed, memory, and cognitive control; however, it should be noted that smaller effect sizes were observed, likely a result of the studies included in the respective meta-analyses. In older adults, then, aerobic training selectively improves cognition.

Hillman and colleagues (2006) examined the relationship between physical activity and inhibition (one aspect of cognitive control) using a computer-based stimulus-response protocol in 241 individuals aged 15-71. Their results indicate that greater amounts of physical activity are related to decreased response speed across task conditions requiring variable amounts of inhibition, suggesting a generalized relationship between physical activity and response speed. In addition, the authors found physical activity to be related to better accuracy across conditions in older adults, while no such relationship was observed for younger adults. Of interest, this relationship was disproportionately larger for the condition requiring greater amounts of inhibition in the older adults, suggesting that physical activity has both a general and selective association with task performance ( Hillman et al., 2006 ).

With advances in neuroimaging techniques, understanding of the effects of physical activity and aerobic fitness on brain structure and function has advanced rapidly over the past decade. In particular, a series of studies ( Colcombe et al., 2003 , 2004 , 2006 ; Kramer and Erickson, 2007 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ) of older individuals has been conducted to elucidate the relation of aerobic fitness to the brain and cognition. Normal aging results in the loss of brain tissue ( Colcombe et al., 2003 ), with markedly larger loss evidenced in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions ( Raz, 2000 ). Thus cognitive functions subserved by these brain regions (such as those involved in cognitive control and aspects of memory) are expected to decay more dramatically than other aspects of cognition.

Colcombe and colleagues (2003) investigated the relationship of aerobic fitness to gray and white matter tissue loss using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 55 healthy older adults aged 55-79. They observed robust age-related decreases in tissue density in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions using voxel-based morphometry, a technique used to assess brain volume. Reductions in the amount of tissue loss in these regions were observed as a function of fitness. Given that the brain structures most affected by aging also demonstrated the greatest fitness-related sparing, these initial findings provide a biological basis for fitness-related benefits to brain health during aging.

In a second study, Colcombe and colleagues (2006) examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on brain structure using a randomized controlled design with 59 sedentary healthy adults aged 60-79. The treatment group received a 6-month aerobic exercise (i.e., walking) intervention, while the control group received a stretching and toning intervention that did not include aerobic exercise. Results indicated that gray and white matter brain volume increased for those who received the aerobic fitness training intervention. No such results were observed for those assigned to the stretching and toning group. Specifically, those assigned to the aerobic training intervention demonstrated increased gray matter in the frontal lobes, including the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, the supplementary motor area, the middle frontal gyrus, the dorsolateral region of the right inferior frontal gyrus, and the left superior temporal lobe. White matter volume changes also were evidenced following the aerobic fitness intervention, with increases in white matter tracts being observed within the anterior third of the corpus callosum. These brain regions are important for cognition, as they have been implicated in the cognitive control of attention and memory processes. These findings suggest that aerobic training not only spares age-related loss of brain structures but also may in fact enhance the structural health of specific brain regions.

In addition to the structural changes noted above, research has investigated the relationship between aerobic fitness and changes in brain function. That is, aerobic fitness training has also been observed to induce changes in patterns of functional activation. Functional MRI (fMRI) measures, which make it possible to image activity in the brain while an individual is performing a cognitive task, have revealed that aerobic training induces changes in patterns of functional activation. This approach involves inferring changes in neuronal activity from alteration in blood flow or metabolic activity in the brain. In a seminal paper, Colcombe and colleagues (2004) examined the relationship of aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition across two studies with older adults. In the first study, 41 older adult participants (mean age ~66) were divided into higher- and lower-fit groups based on their performance on a maximal exercise test. In the second study, 29 participants (aged 58-77) were recruited and randomly assigned to either a fitness training (i.e., walking) or control (i.e., stretching and toning) intervention. In both studies, participants were given a task requiring variable amounts of attention and inhibition. Results indicated that fitness (study 1) and fitness training (study 2) were related to greater activation in the middle frontal gyrus and superior parietal cortex; these regions of the brain are involved in attentional control and inhibitory functioning, processes entailed in the regulation of attention and action. These changes in neural activation were related to significant improvements in performance on the cognitive control task of attention and inhibition.

Taken together, the findings across studies suggest that an increase in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, is related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function and may underlie improvements in cognition across tasks requiring cognitive control. Although developmental differences exist, the general paradigm of this research can be applied to early stages of the life span, and some early attempts to do so have been made, as described below. Given the focus of this chapter on childhood cognition, it should be noted that this section has provided only a brief and arguably narrow look at the research on physical activity and cognitive aging. Considerable work has detailed the relationship of physical activity to other aspects of adult cognition using behavioral and neuroimaging tools (e.g., Boecker, 2011 ). The interested reader is referred to a number of review papers and meta-analyses describing the relationship of physical activity to various aspects of cognitive and brain health ( Etnier et al., 1997 ; Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Tomporowski, 2003 ; Thomas et al., 2012 ).

Child Development, Brain Structure, and Function

Certain aspects of development have been linked with experience, indicating an intricate interplay between genetic programming and environmental influences. Gray matter, and the organization of synaptic connections in particular, appears to be at least partially dependent on experience (NRC/IOM, 2000; Taylor, 2006 ), with the brain exhibiting a remarkable ability to reorganize itself in response to input from sensory systems, other cortical systems, or insult ( Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, 1997 ). During typical development, experience shapes the pruning process through the strengthening of neural networks that support relevant thoughts and actions and the elimination of unnecessary or redundant connections. Accordingly, the brain responds to experience in an adaptive or “plastic” manner, resulting in the efficient and effective adoption of thoughts, skills, and actions relevant to one's interactions within one's environmental surroundings. Examples of neural plasticity in response to unique environmental interaction have been demonstrated in human neuroimaging studies of participation in music ( Elbert et al., 1995 ; Chan et al., 1998 ; Münte et al., 2001 ) and sports ( Hatfield and Hillman, 2001 ; Aglioti et al., 2008 ), thus supporting the educational practice of providing music education and opportunities for physical activity to children.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Structure

Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques have rapidly advanced understanding of the role physical activity and aerobic fitness may have in brain structure. In children a growing body of correlational research suggests differential brain structure related to aerobic fitness. Chaddock and colleagues (2010a , b ) showed a relationship among aerobic fitness, brain volume, and aspects of cognition and memory. Specifically, Chaddock and colleagues (2010a) assigned 9- to 10-year-old preadolescent children to lower- and higher-fitness groups as a function of their scores on a maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) test, which is considered the gold-standard measure of aerobic fitness. They observed larger bilateral hippocampal volume in higher-fit children using MRI, as well as better performance on a task of relational memory. It is important to note that relational memory has been shown to be mediated by the hippocampus ( Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993 ; Cohen et al., 1999 ). Further, no differences emerged for a task condition requiring item memory, which is supported by structures outside the hippocampus, suggesting selectivity among the aspects of memory that benefit from higher amounts of fitness. Lastly, hippocampal volume was positively related to performance on the relational memory task but not the item memory task, and bilateral hippocampal volume was observed to mediate the relationship between fitness and relational memory ( Chaddock et al., 2010a ). Such findings are consistent with behavioral measures of relational memory in children ( Chaddock et al., 2011 ) and neuroimaging findings in older adults ( Erickson et al., 2009 , 2011 ) and support the robust nonhuman animal literature demonstrating the effects of exercise on cell proliferation ( Van Praag et al., 1999 ) and survival ( Neeper et al., 1995 ) in the hippocampus.

In a second investigation ( Chaddock et al., 2010b ), higher- and lower-fit children (aged 9-10) underwent an MRI to determine whether structural differences might be found that relate to performance on a cognitive control task that taps attention and inhibition. The authors observed differential findings in the basal ganglia, a subcortical structure involved in the interplay of cognition and willed action. Specifically, higher-fit children exhibited greater volume in the dorsal striatum (i.e., caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus) relative to lower-fit children, while no differences were observed in the ventral striatum. Such findings are not surprising given the role of the dorsal striatum in cognitive control and response resolution ( Casey et al., 2008 ; Aron et al., 2009 ), as well as the growing body of research in children and adults indicating that higher levels of fitness are associated with better control of attention, memory, and cognition ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Chang and Etnier, 2009 ). Chaddock and colleagues (2010b) further observed that higher-fit children exhibited increased inhibitory control and response resolution and that higher basal ganglia volume was related to better task performance. These findings indicate that the dorsal striatum is involved in these aspects of higher-order cognition and that fitness may influence cognitive control during preadolescent development. It should be noted that both studies described above were correlational in nature, leaving open the possibility that other factors related to fitness and/or the maturation of subcortical structures may account for the observed group differences.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Function

Other research has attempted to characterize fitness-related differences in brain function using fMRI and event-related brain potentials (ERPs), which are neuroelectric indices of functional brain activation in the electro-encephalographic time series. To date, few randomized controlled interventions have been conducted. Notably, Davis and colleagues (2011) conducted one such intervention lasting approximately 14 weeks that randomized 20 sedentary overweight preadolescent children into an after-school physical activity intervention or a nonactivity control group. The fMRI data collected during an antisaccade task, which requires inhibitory control, indicated increased bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex and decreased bilateral activation of the posterior parietal cortex following the physical activity intervention relative to the control group. Such findings illustrate some of the neural substrates influenced by participation in physical activity. Two additional correlational studies ( Voss et al., 2011 ; Chaddock et al., 2012 ) compared higher- and lower-fit preadolescent children and found differential brain activation and superior task performance as a function of fitness. That is, Chaddock and colleagues (2012) observed increased activation in prefrontal and parietal brain regions during early task blocks and decreased activation during later task blocks in higher-fit relative to lower-fit children. Given that higher-fit children outperformed lower-fit children on the aspects of the task requiring the greatest amount of cognitive control, the authors reason that the higher-fit children were more capable of adapting neural activity to meet the demands imposed by tasks that tapped higher-order cognitive processes such as inhibition and goal maintenance. Voss and colleagues (2011) used a similar task to vary cognitive control requirements and found that higher-fit children outperformed their lower-fit counterparts and that such differences became more pronounced during task conditions requiring the upregulation of control. Further, several differences emerged across various brain regions that together make up the network associated with cognitive control. Collectively, these differences suggest that higher-fit children are more efficient in the allocation of resources in support of cognitive control operations.

Other imaging research has examined the neuroelectric system (i.e., ERPs) to investigate which cognitive processes occurring between stimulus engagement and response execution are influenced by fitness. Several studies ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have examined the P3 component of the stimulus-locked ERP and demonstrated that higher-fit children have larger-amplitude and shorter-latency ERPs relative to their lower-fit peers. Classical theory suggests that P3 relates to neuronal activity associated with revision of the mental representation of the previous event within the stimulus environment ( Donchin, 1981 ). P3 amplitude reflects the allocation of attentional resources when working memory is updated ( Donchin and Coles, 1988 ) such that P3 is sensitive to the amount of attentional resources allocated to a stimulus ( Polich, 1997 ; Polich and Heine, 2007 ). P3 latency generally is considered to represent stimulus evaluation and classification speed ( Kutas et al., 1977 ; Duncan-Johnson, 1981 ) and thus may be considered a measure of stimulus detection and evaluation time ( Magliero et al., 1984 ; Ila and Polich, 1999 ). Therefore the above findings suggest that higher-fit children allocate greater attentional resources and have faster cognitive processing speed relative to lower-fit children ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ), with additional research suggesting that higher-fit children also exhibit greater flexibility in the allocation of attentional resources, as indexed by greater modulation of P3 amplitude across tasks that vary in the amount of cognitive control required ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Given that higher-fit children also demonstrate better performance on cognitive control tasks, the P3 component appears to reflect the effectiveness of a subset of cognitive systems that support willed action ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ).

Two ERP studies ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have focused on aspects of cognition involved in action monitoring. That is, the error-related negativity (ERN) component was investigated in higher- and lower-fit children to determine whether differences in evaluation and regulation of cognitive control operations were influenced by fitness level. The ERN component is observed in response-locked ERP averages. It is often elicited by errors of commission during task performance and is believed to represent either the detection of errors during task performance ( Gehring et al., 1993 ; Holroyd and Coles, 2002 ) or more generally the detection of response conflict ( Botvinick et al., 2001 ; Yeung et al., 2004 ), which may be engendered by errors in response production. Several studies have reported that higher-fit children exhibit smaller ERN amplitude during rapid-response tasks (i.e., instructions emphasizing speed of responding; Hillman et al., 2009 ) and more flexibility in the allocation of these resources during tasks entailing variable cognitive control demands, as evidenced by changes in ERN amplitude for higher-fit children and no modulation of ERN in lower-fit children ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Collectively, this pattern of results suggests that children with lower levels of fitness allocate fewer attentional resources during stimulus engagement (P3 amplitude) and exhibit slower cognitive processing speed (P3 latency) but increased activation of neural resources involved in the monitoring of their actions (ERN amplitude). Alternatively, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to environmental stimuli and demonstrate less reliance on action monitoring (increasing resource allocation only to meet the demands of the task). Under more demanding task conditions, the strategy of lower-fit children appears to fail since they perform more poorly under conditions requiring the upregulation of cognitive control.

Finally, only one randomized controlled trial published to date has used ERPs to assess neurocognitive function in children. Kamijo and colleagues (2011) studied performance on a working memory task before and after a 9-month physical activity intervention compared with a wait-list control group. They observed better performance following the physical activity intervention during task conditions that required the upregulation of working memory relative to the task condition requiring lesser amounts of working memory. Further, increased activation of the contingent negative variation (CNV), an ERP component reflecting cognitive and motor preparation, was observed at posttest over frontal scalp sites in the physical activity intervention group. No differences in performance or brain activation were noted for the wait-list control group. These findings suggest an increase in cognitive preparation processes in support of a more effective working memory network resulting from prolonged participation in physical activity. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity as part of an after-school program is particularly beneficial for tasks that require the use of working memory.

Adiposity and Risk for Metabolic Syndrome as It Relates to Cognitive Health

A related and emerging literature that has recently been popularized investigates the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance. Several reports ( Datar et al., 2004 ; Datar and Sturm, 2006 ; Judge and Jahns, 2007 ; Gable et al., 2012 ) on this relationship are based on large-scale datasets derived from the Early Child Longitudinal Study. Further, nonhuman animal research has been used to elucidate the relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health (see Figure 4-4 for an overview of these relationships). Collectively, these studies observed poorer future academic performance among children who entered school overweight or moved from a healthy weight to overweight during the course of development. Corroborating evidence for a negative relationship between adiposity and academic performance may be found in smaller but more tightly controlled studies. As noted above, Castelli and colleagues (2007) observed poorer performance on the mathematics and reading portions of the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test in 3rd- and 5th-grade students as a function of higher BMI, and Donnelly and colleagues (2009) used a cluster randomized trial to demonstrate that physical activity in the classroom decreased BMI and improved academic achievement among pre-adolescent children.

Relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health. NOTE: AD = Alzheimer's disease; PD = Parkinson's disease. SOURCE: Cotman et al., 2007. Reprinted with permission.

Recently published reports describe the relationship between adiposity and cognitive and brain health to advance understanding of the basic cognitive processes and neural substrates that may underlie the adiposity-achievement relationship. Bolstered by findings in adult populations (e.g., Debette et al., 2010 ; Raji et al., 2010 ; Carnell et al., 2011 ), researchers have begun to publish data on preadolescent populations indicating differences in brain function and cognitive performance related to adiposity (however, see Gunstad et al., 2008 , for an instance in which adiposity was unrelated to cognitive outcomes). Specifically, Kamijo and colleagues (2012a) examined the relationship of weight status to cognitive control and academic achievement in 126 children aged 7-9. The children completed a battery of cognitive control tasks, and their body composition was assessed using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The authors found that higher BMI and greater amounts of fat mass (particularly in the midsection) were related to poorer performance on cognitive control tasks involving inhibition, as well as lower academic achievement. In follow-up studies, Kamijo and colleagues (2012b) investigated whether neural markers of the relationship between adiposity and cognition may be found through examination of ERP data. These studies compared healthy-weight and obese children and found a differential distribution of the P3 potential (i.e., less frontally distributed) and larger N2 amplitude, as well as smaller ERN magnitude, in obese children during task conditions that required greater amounts of inhibitory control ( Kamijo et al., 2012c ). Taken together, the above results suggest that obesity is associated with less effective neural processes during stimulus capture and response execution. As a result, obese children perform tasks more slowly ( Kamijo et al., 2012a ) and are less accurate ( Kamijo et al., 2012b , c ) in response to tasks requiring variable amounts of cognitive control. Although these data are correlational, they provide a basis for further study using other neuroimaging tools (e.g., MRI, fMRI), as well as a rationale for the design and implementation of randomized controlled studies that would allow for causal interpretation of the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health. The next decade should provide a great deal of information on this relationship.

LIMITATIONS

Despite the promising findings described in this chapter, it should be noted that the study of the relationship of childhood physical activity, aerobic fitness, and adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance is in its early stages. Accordingly, most studies have used designs that afford correlation rather than causation. To date, in fact, only two randomized controlled trials ( Davis et al., 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ) on this relationship have been published. However, several others are currently ongoing, and it was necessary to provide evidence through correlational studies before investing the effort, time, and funding required for more demanding causal studies. Given that the evidence base in this area has grown exponentially in the past 10 years through correlational studies and that causal evidence has accumulated through adult and nonhuman animal studies, the next step will be to increase the amount of causal evidence available on school-age children.

Accomplishing this will require further consideration of demographic factors that may moderate the physical activity–cognition relationship. For instance, socioeconomic status has a unique relationship with physical activity ( Estabrooks et al., 2003 ) and cognitive control ( Mezzacappa, 2004 ). Although many studies have attempted to control for socioeconomic status (see Hillman et al., 2009 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 , 2012a , b , c ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ), further inquiry into its relationship with physical activity, adiposity, and cognition is warranted to determine whether it may serve as a potential mediator or moderator for the observed relationships. A second demographic factor that warrants further consideration is gender. Most authors have failed to describe gender differences when reporting on the physical activity–cognition literature. However, studies of adiposity and cognition have suggested that such a relationship may exist (see Datar and Sturm, 2006 ). Additionally, further consideration of age is warranted. Most studies have examined a relatively narrow age range, consisting of a few years. Such an approach often is necessary because of maturation and the need to develop comprehensive assessment tools that suit the various stages of development. However, this approach has yielded little understanding of how the physical activity–cognition relationship may change throughout the course of maturation.

Finally, although a number of studies have described the relationship of physical activity, fitness, and adiposity to standardized measures of academic performance, few attempts have been made to observe the relationship within the context of the educational environment. Standardized tests, although necessary to gauge knowledge, may not be the most sensitive measures for (the process of) learning. Future research will need to do a better job of translating promising laboratory findings to the real world to determine the value of this relationship in ecologically valid settings.

From an authentic and practical to a mechanistic perspective, physically active and aerobically fit children consistently outperform their inactive and unfit peers academically on both a short- and a long-term basis. Time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to enriched cognitive development and lifelong brain health. Collectively, the findings across the body of literature in this area suggest that increases in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, are related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function that underlie academic performance. The strongest relationships have been found between aerobic fitness and performance in mathematics, reading, and English. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity is particularly beneficial with respect to tasks that require working memory and problem solving. These findings are corroborated by the results of both authentic correlational studies and experimental randomized controlled trials. Overall, the benefits of additional time dedicated to physical education and other physical activity opportunities before, during, and after school outweigh the benefits of exclusive utilization of school time for academic learning, as physical activity opportunities offered across the curriculum do not inhibit academic performance.

Both habitual and single bouts of physical activity contribute to enhanced academic performance. Findings indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to increased attention, with evidence emerging for a relationship between participation in physical activity and disciplinary behaviors, time on task, and academic performance. Specifically, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to a given task and demonstrate less reliance on environmental cues or teacher prompting.

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Cite this Page Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30. 4, Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance.
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152 Fitness Essay Topics to Write about & Examples

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Physical Fitness in Aviation Aviation is an aspect that highly depends on the judgment of the people on the crew and the pilot for any outcome therefore, necessitating the importance of one to be careful with the health state […]
Business Plan of ABC Fitness Center In the content of advertise, the ABC center will highlight the positive sites, emphasis on the importance of fitness center in public health, environment of this center, and the advantages of the membership.
Business Plan – Fitness Center The aim of this business is to curb the burgeoning problem of a sedentary lifestyle in Saudi Arabia. Close to 30% of the population fall within the criteria, the fitness center is interested in.
Fitness Trends: Group Exercising Provides Better Results Physical exercise is essential for the well being of the individual. The benefits of exercise are more comprehensive than simply physical gains.
Fitness and Its Importance for Health In the multi-tasking world of the 21st century, Every person is expected to be some sort of super being who can manage to function on very little to no sleep in order to perform in […]
Zumba Fitness Strategic Business Plan Because of a communication error between Zumba business owners and Crunch gyms, the Zumba business ended up losing a lot of time and money in legal negotiations concerning the rights of the songs used in […]
The Benefits of Fitness for Physical and Mental Health It is necessary to mention that I have been able to improve my sleep schedule and its quality because of exercise.
Fitness and Sport Learning Most of the theoretical and practical perspectives during the course have expanded my outlook on the role of sport in my life, as well as how it can enhance my professional fulfillment.
Bally Total Fitness: Sports Organizations Industry Once the Bally Fitness Center’s position was improved, the company used an acquisition strategy to expand and strengthen its hold in the industry.
The Positive Effects of Physical Fitness It is essential to understand the components that contribute to proper training to ensure that the chosen program presents benefits. The factor impacts both the heart functioning and the metabolism of an individual.
A Personalized Fitness Program for a 3-Month Period The type of exercise undertaken may vary with individuals but in all cases, the big muscles of the body like the biceps and triceps muscles should be involved in the exercise as they make the […]
Benefits of Exercise and Importance of Overall Fitness Being in the best of health means more than the absence of illness. The American Heart Association recommends keeping track of body composition: how much of your body are fat, bone, and muscle.
Planet Fitness: Strategic Positioning According to the Porter’s Model This focus is the first compromise that Planet Fitness made, deliberately moving away from catering to affluent customers with high demands on the gym and the level of service.
Physical Fitness Training Programs for Athletes In summary, the article provides a general guideline for athletes to build muscle and improve performance by focusing on compound exercises, progressive overload, core strength, and flexibility.
Health and Fitness: Developing a Healthy Community The overall health, physical development, emotional health, and social and emotional maturation of young people can all be impacted by substance use.
Negligence Area in Gyms: Fitness Center Business Sustainability In some cases, due to factors such as the cost of purchasing them, people may opt to improvise them and therefore ignore the standards required.
The True Fitness Company’s Interventions in Singapore In 2019, the company opened the largest commercial fitness center in Singapore at the Millenia Walk to meet the growing fitness and wellness services demand.
Identifying Proper Fitness Resources This online resource serves as a collection of fitness and nutrition advice, as well as posts news related to the well-being industry.
Horned Melon: The Role in Promoting Health and Fitness The presence of dietary fiber in horned melon is beneficial to the digestion process. In conclusion, weight reduction is one of the strategies people use to maintain their fitness and live healthily.
A Get-Real Guide to Building Mental Fitness in Sport and Life Fitzgerald tells stories of how athletes have had to return to the profession, facing the difficult stages of accepting their injuries and finding ways to cope.
Army Soldier’s Fitness in the US and Saudi Arabia In the problem section, the inability of the Army to educate its subjects, along with some of the general trends regarding physical fitness in the US, Saudi Arabia, and the world’s militaries.
Promoting Wellbeing in Homeless People: Group Fitness Intervention The authors of this article conducted the study to give insight into the importance of considering homeless people in the society they belong. The importance of the study was to encourage people to have inclusivity […]
Fitness and Health Workforce Programs The first was the control group, used to compare results to the rest. This article can be used to inform the study about the potential options of intervention and affecting the target population.
Gyms and Fitness Clubs’ Operation During the Covid-19 The best way to prevent the spread of COVID-19 is to take measures and create the necessary conditions for maintaining the health of both customers of fitness clubs and their employees.
COVID-19 Influence on Fitness Industry For this reason, the aim of our study will be to examine the changes in sports habits of people, as well as their intention to visit fitness centers in the near future.
E-Marketing Plan for Fast Fitness Since e- marketing is the procedure of business communication and value generation for the target customers with the purpose to establishing relationship with them and gaining profit from the venture.
Budget for a Health and Fitness Program Medical practitioners have been and should be in the forefront of catering for the health needs of society as a whole as seen in the codes and ethos outlined in the practice e.g.the Hippocratic Oath.
Infant Nutrition and Fitness Infancy is a critical stage in life since a person establishes healthy consumption patterns.This patterns can lead to the infants acquiring optimal growth and healthy development.
Nutritional Needs of an Older Adult: Lifecycle Nutrition and Fitness As a rule, female nutritional needs are considerably lower than the ones of a man unless a woman is pregnant. Men also tend to have a considerably higher calorie requirement.
Fitness First Company Analysis The importance of operations management in forecasting is essential in the fitness industry, where there is the threat of the changes in demand and the newsvendor challenge.
Management Processes and Supply Chain in Fitness Plus According to the owners in the case research, as the popularity of fitness and health grew, so did the need for more people to register for membership at the club.
Olympus Strength and Power Fitness Center’s Business Plan This is a prime location within the outskirts of the Aston metropolitan area and provides a serene, spacious environment for would-be patrons of the gym.
Promotional Strategy for a Chain of Fitness Centers To attract the audience, these people should recite the message that First Fitness could help to “look like this” with a sense of humor.
Small Business Idea for Fitness Workout Gym The advantages and disadvantages of the four different forms of business organization, which include the following: The business is very easy to form considering that no legal requirements are required, except a business license.
Developing a Fitness Program The training will involve an extensive warm-up, a gradual increase of the load, and isolated joint exercises for avoiding inaccurate movements.
Hillingdon Country House Fitness Centre Unfair Standard Terms According to the Office of Fair Trading, “a standard term is unfair if it creates a significant imbalance in the parties rights and obligations under the contract, to the detriment of the consumer, contrary to […]
Exercise and Health Promotion: Chandler Fitness Center I came to recognize that the objectives and the philosophy of the facility were to change people’s lives through fitness enhancement.
Nutrition and Fitness to Raise Healthy Children Ohio Action for Healthy Kids wants to establish a county-wide obesity prevention program for children ages 8-12 and requests a grant of $56,600 to meet this goal.
The Development of a Web Portal Solution for Jupiter Fitness Center The portal will provide the customers of the company more value for the services received, which is expected to contribute to their retention and give the company a competitive advantage.
The Brain Fitness Exercises Having said that we have a dependency also indicates that there is a certain part of our body that we tend to use a lot less because of it.
Bally Total Fitness Accounting The portion of the one-time enrolment fee attributable to the periods occurring beyond the year of receipt should be reflected in the books of the company at the close of the respective accounting period as […]
Genetic Basis of Fitness Differences in Natural Populations In the article to summarize, the authors recognized that one way genomics affect biology is the possibility of identifying and studying how the characteristics affecting fitness, a key issue in natural selection, are genetically based.
Health and Fitness Workout Plan When I created my blog, I used this information to develop the plan and decide how I would explain my meal choices.
Teaching Styles: Fitness Director Therefore, the paper aims to discuss the application of the command style, the practice style, and the divergent production as applied to the profession of a fitness director to demonstrate their usefulness for this specialist’s […]
A Comparative Study of Mental Health Between Players and Non Players In this context, the International Journal of Sports Sciences and Fitness published a study titled “A comparative study of mental health status between players and non-players” to foster awareness regarding the importance of sports activities […]
Fitness and Health Operations as the Chance of Improving Health The programs should be designed in a way that in the end, the customers can be able to see the results or some change as the program goes on.
Motivation Through Holistic Fitness: A Cost-Benefit Analysis Specifically, the costs involved in the process will be discussed, and the projected profitability will be assumed. Since I will increase my team members’ motivation, I expect to receive at least a 20% increase in […]
Employee Motivation Through Holistic Fitness By promoting the emotional, mental, spiritual, and physical fitness of the staff, I will be able to increase their productivity and dedication.
Motivation Through Holistic Fitness: A Risk Analysis Prior to implementing the holistic fitness idea within the organization, it is necessary to conduct a risk analysis of the planned project. Hence, the primary risk of the plan is the resistance of employees to […]
The Concept of Army Combat Fitness Test There is complex and dynamic nature of the modern military and combat activity of the army and navy, the use of the latest information technologies, weapons and military equipment, and the country’s security interests.
Issues With the Army Combat Fitness Test and Why They Should Be Fixed This paper will review the drawbacks of the ACFT, including inadequate requirements for women, injuries associated with the test, the increased complexity of the trial, and the necessity to complete the two-mile run.
The Relevance of the Army Combat Fitness Test for the U.S. Army The new Army Combat Fitness Test will be implemented by October 2020 and is considered as a better concept to forecast a soldier’s readiness for the pressure one will encounter on the modern battlefield.
Anytime Fitness vs. Jetts Firm’s Business Model The paper also analyses the business models of the two firms to determine the firm with a better business model. This is probably one of the strengths of the business that has enabled it to […]
Fitness Training Programs for Men and Women The reason for assessment of client’s fitness is that by acknowledging needs of Steve, the trainer will be able to elaborate a dedicated workout plan.
Fitness Marketing Programs: Key Issues First, the word “guaranteed” is prone to misinterpretation: while the results obviously depend on the human factor, such as the persistence of the customers, the wording of the advertisement will likely be ruled out as […]
Marketing Law Issues in the Fitness Industry For instance, the marketing campaign of the fitness program may include claims of the advantage in time of achieving certain results.
Fitness and Health Terms Definition Health denotes a condition of total physical, psychological, and social welfare and not just the absence of sickness or frailty while fitness represents the capacity to satisfy the requirements of the environment.
Saudi Arabian Spinning Studio in Fitness Industry The trainers will ensure that the clients are safe when they are in the studio and that all the rules and guidelines are followed strictly.
Cardiovascular Fitness Effect on the Rate of Heart Beat The rate of the heart beating is also called the pulse rate and simply refers to the speed at which the heart pumps blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body for […]
The Benefit of Personal Fitness The importance of sports for the promotion of fitness and making one a better, more fulfilled person suggests both an explanation and a justification for the current and growing popularity of sports.
Fitness Australia Organization Integrated Marketing Communication About 10 million people who need this sort of therapy and numbers of adult citizen of the country are classified as “clinically obese” for having the notable impact of stress and disability at a larger […]
China’s Leading Companies Ethical Fitness The mention of corporate ethical responsibility in any part of China naturally draws attention to Adidas and Apple Inc.that had histories of child labor in the country.
Fitness First Clubs Management and Strategy The main accents in the company are made on attracting the members to the clubs because of the company’s activity which is the leader in providing such kind of service.
Australian Fitness Industry Marketing Analysis The industry needs to have fitness programs designed specifically for different segments of the market. Hence, the industry should collaborate with the media to make these programs core to the lives of Australians.
Saudi Arabia Fitness Centre: Company Description The main promoters of the fitness centre comprise of a group of young individuals who are advocating on the importance of healthy living.
Fitness First Clubs Strategies The development of the training programs meets the company’s orientation on the effective structure and rivalry and the peculiarities of market domination model according to which the work of managers is organized.
The La Fitness Centre: Competition Effects on Performance The La Fitness Centre is one of the renowned fitness centres in the Hatfield region. RO4: To purchase and modify the facilities to enable the La Fitness Centre to be competitive in the market.
Fitness Express Company: Progress and Problems The validation outcomes are promising to lead to increased interest of the owner to explore the business and results of the project.
Fitness Express Ltd Business Plan Fitness and sporting market continues to grow in Australia and New Zealand. The vision of the company is premised on delivering fitness and sporting gears to customers as quickly and efficiently as possible in […]
Fitness Obsession and Its Causes Apart from that, physical attractiveness is one of the factors that can contribute to their success in various areas of life.
Analysis of the Fitness First Health and Fitness Centre The purpose of starting the club was to provide health and fitness training services to people belonging to different age groups and income levels under the directorship of the co-founders.
Healthcare Issues: LA Fitness for Students and Healthy Living Through Fitness Programs Inclusion of sports and physical exercise classes in learning institutions justifies the significance of exercise to students. LA Fitness has physical exercise programs that are cost-friendly to college students.
24 Hour Fitness Worldwide Inc. Implementation Plan 24 Hour Fitness Worldwide Inc.is based in California and was established in the year 1983 for the purposes of providing fitness services to the population.
Business Plan for Star Fitness Center Those living and working in the city will have the opportunity to use the facility that is equipped with the latest technology for body fitness.
Strategic Management in Bally Total Fitness These were like friends’ opinions and recommendation, the nature of the place regarding the cleanliness standards, nature and friendliness of the staff, the consistent persuasiveness of marketers and sales pitches, and the convenience and location […]
Academic Achievement and Physical Fitness This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge, which identifies that there is a positive correlation between physical fitness and academic achievement.
Fitness Shoes Marketing Strategy The company’s location in China has created many issues and changes in the company due to the laws and regulations, global changes, data protection and the legislation of the country.
Body Fitness and Health Yuill and Barry argues that “both male and female do different types of exercises so that they can acquire their preferred body shapes and due to complex social relations, especially in the universities, females are […]
Ethics and Professional Standards of Fitness Gym One area where ethics and professional responsibility apply to fitness gym is in the relationship between the trainer and the client in the gym.
Marketing program for a health and fitness club It is the responsibility of the marketing agency of the company to investigate what goes on in the mind of the customers.
The Impact of a Fitness Intervention on People with Developmental and Intellectual Disabilities This is one of the issues that should be singled out. This is one of the issues that should be considered.
Fit and Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness In particular, the authors of the book tried to explain the causes of major diseases and to describe the necessary sport activities to prevent and overcome them.hey expressed the medical point of view in the […]
Recreational Therapy: Fitness Impact on the Disabled The quarterly description has six basic components that guide recreational therapists in providing care and are entered in the patient’s chart: the goal of the treatment/intervention; the intervention plan; the RT practitioner’s views on the […]
Strategies for 24 Hour Fitness However, each of the three kinds of value discipline relies on the type of service or product provided by the organization as well as the culture maintained by the given organization.
Fitness for Use in Operation Management From this perspective, the notion of fitness for use is important when customers draw conclusions about usability of products and services because personal needs are different, and the quality and fitness of the product or […]
Physical Fitness and Sport Policy in the Cold War Johnson presidential administration shifted the priorities in the sports national policy and vision of sports rivalry in the United States.”Addressing the subject in terms of federal initiatives during the 1960s, this article will argue that […]
Fitness for Life: Program Analysis This condition prompted Lincoln University to introduce a ‘Fitness for life Program’, which endeavors to, peg physical fitness of students to academic merit in the attainment of diplomas.
Fitness and Performance in Aviation The physical fitness and vigorous health of aviation workers are critical aspects in their performance, in aviation, because of the nature of some of their jobs that may be physically demanding.
The Genesis Fitness Club The use of the website for information management also serve as an advantage since the company expenses due to the reduced number of personnel required as well as expenses required for stationeries and this in […]
How Can Fitness Overcome Fast Food?
What Does Your Fitness Assessment Tell You?
Does Cardiorespiratory Fitness Influence the Effect of Acute Aerobic Exercise on Executive Function?
How Can Fitness Clubs Leverage Social Media?
Can Exercise Increase Fitness and Reduce Weight in Patients With Schizophrenia and Depression?
How Do Health and Fitness Facilities Affect Communities?
Does Cardiorespiratory Fitness Buffer Stress Reactivity and Stress Recovery in Police Officers?
How Are Consumers Convinced That It Is Necessary to Take Fitness?
Why Is Fitness Important in Our Daily Life?
Does Fitness Bring People Together?
How Does Physical Fitness Improve the Quality of Your Life?
Does Higher Physical Fitness Protect Master Athletes From Consequences of COVID-19 Infection?
How Reliable Are Wearable Fitness Tracking Devices?
Does Physical Fitness Improve Academic Success?
How Does Exercise Reduce Stress?
What Can Regular Fitness Do for You?
Do Warm-up Exercises Play a Role in Developing the Physical Fitness of Players?
Is Physical Fitness Training Beneficial or Dangerous for Stroke Patients?
In What Cases Are There Increases in Physical Activity but No Measurable Gains in Physical Fitness?
Can Physical Fitness Impact Your Research Capabilities?
Is There a Correlation Between Cardiorespiratory Fitness and the Incidence of Sudden Cardiac Death in Athletes?
How to Assess the Stamina and Physical Fitness of an Individual?
Is There a Difference Between Physical Activity and Physical Fitness?
Can Yoga Enhance Both Mental and Physical Fitness?
How Important Is It to Stick to a Routine for Maintaining Health?
What Is the Importance of Fitness in Life?
How Does Physical Activity Affect Your Fitness?
Why Is Fitness Important to You as a Student?
How Do You Stay Fit and Healthy?
Why Are Fitness Standards Higher Than Health Standards?
Pros and Cons of Regular Gym Attendance
Effective Practices for Gym Safety and Injury Prevention
Personal Trainers’ Role in Achieving Fitness Goals
The Psychology of Gym Motivation: How to Overcome Barriers
Social and Psychological Benefits of Group Fitness Classes
Pros and Cons of Working Out at Home Instead of Gyms
Gym Etiquette for a Positive Workout Environment
How Gym Design and Atmosphere Influence Workout Experience
Technological Advancements and Innovative Fitness Concepts
The Evolution of Gym Culture from Greek Gymnasiums to Modern Fitness Centers
Hydration and its Impact on Exercise
Fitness for Different Age Groups
Aerobic Exercise for Cardiovascular Fitness
Pros and Cons High-Intensity Interval Training
Why Physical Activity Is Important for Overall Health
Nutrition and Fitness: How Diet Can Enhance the Effect of Exercise
Exercise for Building Muscles and Increasing Bone Density
How Stretching and Yoga Increase Flexibility and Mobility
The Link Between Quality Rest and Exercise Performance
Mindfulness, Yoga, and Meditation: Holistic Approaches to Health
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

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IvyPanda . "152 Fitness Essay Topics to Write about & Examples." February 24, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/fitness-essay-topics/.

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Home / Essay Samples / Life / Fitness / Achieving Physical Fitness: An Informative Guide

Achieving Physical Fitness: An Informative Guide

Category: Life , Health
Topic: Fitness , Healthy Lifestyle , Physical Exercise

Pages: 2 (1127 words)

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