essay about english is a global language

Essay on English as a Global Language

500 Words Essay On English as a Global Language

A global language is one that is spoken and understood at an international level by a wide variety of people. Moreover, no language in the world better fits this description than the English language. This essay on English as a global language will shed more light on this issue.

                                                                                                  Essay on English as a Global Language

Why English is a Global Language

When it comes to languages, one can make a strong argument that a strong link exists between dominance and cultural power. Furthermore, the main factor that the languages become popular is due to a powerful power-base, whether economic or political or military.

The derivation of the English language took place from languages like French, Latin, German, and other European languages. This can be a reason why many Europeans don’t find English a difficult language to learn. Furthermore, linguists argue whether the simplicity of the English language is the main reason for it becoming a global language.

The Latin script of the English language appears less complicated for people to recognize and learn. Also, the pronunciation of the English language is not as complex as other languages like Korean or Turkish for example.

Generally, the difficulty level of a language varies from person to person and it also depends on the culture to which one may belong. For example, a Korean person would find less difficulty in mastering the Japanese language in comparison to a German person. This is because of the close proximity of the Korean and Japanese cultures.

Due to the massive British colonial conquests , no culture is in complete oblivion of the English language or words. As such, English is a language that should not appear as too alien or strange to any community. Consequently, learning English is not such big of a deal for most people as they can find a certain level of familiarity with the language.

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The Effectiveness of the English Language

English is a very effective language and this is evident due to the presence of various native and non-native speakers on a global scale. Furthermore, according to statistics, one-fourth of the world is either fluent in the English language or content with it. While it’s true that the number of native Mandarin speakers is the greatest in the world, Mandarin is not the global language due to its complex spellings, grammar , and letter system.

The English language, on the other hand, does not suffer from such complexity problems. Furthermore, the English language has a lot of words and synonyms to express something. As such, any word or its meaning can be expressed with a high level of accuracy.

Conclusion of the Essay on English as a Global Language

English is certainly the most widely spoken language in the world by far. On a global scale, English has the most number of speakers, who speak English either as a first or second language. Without a doubt, no other language in the world can come close to English in terms of its immense popularity.

FAQs For Essay on English as a Global Language

Question 1: Why English is referred to as the global language?

Answer 1:  Many consider English as a global language because it is the one language that the majority of the population in almost every region of the world can speak and understand. Furthermore, the language enjoys worldwide acceptance and usage by every nation of the world. Therefore, it is an extremely essential global language.

Question 2: How English became the global language in the world?

Answer 2: By the late 18th century, the British Empire had made a lot of colonies. Moreover, they had established their geopolitical dominance all over the world. Consequently, the English language quickly spread in the British colonies.

There was also the contribution of technology, science, diplomacy, commerce, art, and formal education which led to English becoming a truly global language of the world.

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• Essay On English As A Global Language

English as a Global Language Essay

500 words essay on english as a global language.

Globally, English is the most popular language, spoken in almost all countries. According to the statistics, nearly half of the world’s population is well-versed in this language. It is proved by many native and non-native speakers that English is an efficient language worldwide. Moreover, compared to other languages, English is easier to learn. For example, unlike Chinese, the English alphabet has only 26 letters that form words, and several English words are borrowed from other languages.

English is the language of technology, so knowing English is necessary to make the best use of the internet. It also makes tourism easy, as it helps better understand the people. Also, any international meeting will probably be done in English. This essay will discuss why English is considered a global language.

Why Is English a Global Language?

English is considered a global language because it is spoken and understood at an international level by a wide variety of people. Globally, English has the most speakers who speak it either as a first or second language.

We can see a strong link between dominance and cultural power in languages. English, as a language, became famous because of its power base, whether political, economic or military.

English language derivation occurred from German, Latin, and other European languages. Due to this, Europeans don’t consider English a complex language to learn. Also, according to linguists, English became a global language due to its simplicity.

English script in Latin appears less complicated to learn and recognise by people. Also, like other languages such as Turkish or Korean, English pronunciation is not so complex and is easy to understand.

Generally, if we observe closely, the difficulty level of a particular language varies from person to person. It also depends on the culture the individual belongs to. For example, A person from Korea will find the Japanese language less complicated than a Britisher because of the similarities between Korean and Japanese cultures.

The language, English, should not be alien or unknown to any community. Learning English was not a big deal during British rule, as most people from different cultures became familiar with the language.

Future of English as a Global Language

Nowadays, primary-level to higher-level education mostly uses English as the medium of instruction.

The English language is considered a global language. So, in most countries, education will be delivered in English. Students will read and write their field of interest in English. The English language will replace the arts, culture and science stream of education.

Globally, education is provided in the English language, due to which all variations of research-based education and projects are based on this language. Scientific, technical and medical research all depend on the English language. Nowadays, research-based learning is imperative in all education streams, and the medium should be English.

To Access Knowledge

In the modern era of technology, people approach the internet to get information about the smallest things possible. So, gradually, the English language has proved its strong presence globally, and people have started to access related content written in the English language.

Informative Sources

All kinds of information are available in the form of books, newspapers, specific topic-based print content, etc. There are various resources available online as well, and they can be accessed for free.

Conclusion of the Essay on English as a Global Language

English is the most helpful language globally, and its “universal language” status proves that fact. Learning anything new can be time-consuming. However, irrespective of where you come from, learning English will open an array of opportunities for you.

It’s always good to learn a new language. English is the business language, so learning English will make the road ahead more accessible for you if you want to start a business. We can safely say that learning English will add value to your life with all that in mind.

From our BYJU’S website, students can learn CBSE Essays related to different topics. It will help students to get good marks in their upcoming exams.

Frequently Asked Questions on English as a Global Language Essay

Why is english considered a global language.

The majority of the world’s population can speak and understand the English language. Also, this language is considered easy to learn when compared to other languages.

How many countries have recognised English as the official language?

English is recognised as the official language in 67 different countries, as well as in 27 non-sovereign entities.

Who is the Father of the English language?

Geoffrey Chaucer, born sometime between the year 1340-1344, is known to be the Father of the English language.

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How the English Language Conquered the World

By Amy Chua

• Jan. 18, 2022

THE RISE OF ENGLISH Global Politics and the Power of Language By Rosemary Salomone

“Every time the question of language surfaces,” the Italian Marxist philosopher Antonio Gramsci wrote, “in one way or another a series of other problems are coming to the fore,” like “the enlargement of the governing class,” the “relationships between the governing groups and the national–popular mass” and the fight over “cultural hegemony.” Vindicating Gramsci, Rosemary Salomone’s “The Rise of English” explores the language wars being fought all over the world, revealing the political, economic and cultural stakes behind these wars, and showing that so far English is winning. It is a panoramic, endlessly fascinating and eye-opening book, with an arresting fact on nearly every page.

English is the world’s most widely spoken language, with some 1.5 billion speakers even though it’s native for fewer than 400 million. English accounts for 60 percent of world internet content and is the lingua franca of pop culture and the global economy. All 100 of the world’s most influential science journals publish in English. “Across Europe, close to 100 percent of students study English at some point in their education.”

Even in France, where countering the hegemony of English is an official obsession, English is winning. French bureaucrats constantly try to ban Anglicisms “such as gamer , dark web and fake news ,” Salomone writes, but their edicts are “quietly ignored.” Although a French statute called the Toubon Law “requires radio stations to play 35 percent French songs,” “the remaining 65 percent is flooded with American music.” Many young French artists sing in English. By law, French schoolchildren must study a foreign language, and while eight languages are available, 90 percent choose English.

Salomone, the Kenneth Wang professor of law at St. John’s University School of Law, tends to glide over why English won, simply stating that English is the language of neoliberalism and globalization, which seems to beg the question. But she is meticulous and nuanced in chronicling the battles being fought over language policy in countries ranging from Italy to Congo, and analyzing the unexpected winners and losers.

Exactly whom English benefits is complicated. Obviously it benefits native Anglophones. Americans, with what Salomone calls their “smug monolingualism,” are often blissfully unaware of the advantage they have because of the worldwide dominance of their native tongue. English also benefits globally connected market-dominant minorities in non-Western countries, like English-speaking whites in South Africa or the Anglophone Tutsi elite in Rwanda. In former French colonies like Algeria and Morocco, shifting from French to English is seen not just as the key to modernization, but as a form of resistance against their colonial past.

In India, the role of English is spectacularly complex. The ruling Hindu nationalist Indian People’s Party prefers to depict English as the colonizers’ language, impeding the vision of an India unified by Hindu culture and Hindi. By contrast, for speakers of non-Hindi languages and members of lower castes, English is often seen as a shield against majority domination. Some reformers see English as an “egalitarian language” in contrast to Indian languages, which carry “the legacy of caste.” English is also a symbol of social status. As a character in a recent Bollywood hit says: “English isn’t just a language in this country. It’s a class.” Meanwhile, Indian tiger parents, “from the wealthiest to the poorest,” press for their children to be taught in English, seeing it as the ticket to upward mobility.

Salomone’s South Africa chapter is among the most interesting in the book. Along with Afrikaans, English is one of South Africa’s 11 official languages, and even though only 9.6 percent of the population speak English as their first language, it “dominates every sector,” including government, the internet, business, broadcasting, the press, street signs and popular music. But English is not only the language of South Africa’s commercial and political elite. It was also the language of Black resistance to the Afrikaner-dominated apartheid regime, giving it enormous symbolic importance. Thus, recent years have seen poor and working-class Black activists pushing for English-only instruction in universities, even though many of them are not proficient in the language. Opponents of English, however, argue that shifting away from Afrikaans instruction disproportionately hurts the poor of all races, including lower-income Blacks, whites and mixed-race “colored” South Africans. Meanwhile, younger “colored activists are challenging the English-Afrikaans binary and exploring alternate forms of expression, like AfriKaaps,” a form of Afrikaans promoted by hip-hop artists. For now, though, “the constitutional commitment to language equality in South Africa is aspirational at best,” and “English reigns supreme for its economic power.”

Learning English pays, with “positive labor market returns across the globe.” Throughout academia today, even in Europe and Asia, “the rule no longer is ‘Publish or perish’ but rather ‘Publish in English … or perish.’” In the Middle East, “employees who were more proficient in English earned salaries from 5 percent (Tunisia) to a stunning 200 percent (Iraq) more than their non-English-speaking counterparts.” In Argentina, 90 percent of employers “believed that English was an indispensable skill for managers and directors.” In every country she surveys, higher income is correlated with English proficiency.

Salomone concludes with a brief discussion of American monolingualism, describing the waves of political angst over threats to English as the national language, while advocating for more multilingualism in Anglophone countries. Beyond the economic benefits of speaking multiple languages in a globalized world, Salomone cites studies that show learning new languages improves overall cognitive function. In addition, she argues, “observing life through a wide linguistic and cultural lens leads to greater creativity and innovation.”

“The Rise of English” has its weaknesses. Most important, the book lacks any clear thesis beyond suggesting “language is political; it’s complicated.” In addition, the book doesn’t tie together or reflect on the divergence of its case studies; I frequently found myself wondering why the experiences of (say) France or Italy or Denmark were different, and what we should take from that fact.

Finally, the book offers no clear evaluative framework. Salomone focuses primarily on straightforward economic factors (which often boil down to the same thing: access to global markets), but there is a smattering of underdeveloped discussion of other, more elusive themes too, like race, equity, colonialism and imperialism. This hodgepodge of incommensurables may trace back to the book’s origins. In her preface, Salomone writes, “My initial plan was to write a book on the value of language in the global economy.” But “the deeper I dug … the more I viewed the issues through a wider global lens and the clearer the connections to educational equity, identity and democratic participation appeared.” Unfortunately, she never quite gets a handle on these deeper issues.

Will Mandarin, with its 1.11 billion speakers, eventually replace English as the world’s lingua franca? Will Google or Microsoft Translate moot the issue? Salomone’s painstakingly thorough book addresses these questions too (concluding probably not).

The justifications for English — or any language — as a global lingua franca are based primarily in economic efficiency. By contrast, the reasons to protect local languages mostly sound in different registers — the importance of cultural heritage; the geopolitics of resistance to great powers; the value of Indigenous art; the beauty of idiosyncratic words in other languages that describe all the different types of snow or the different flavors of melancholia. As Gramsci reminded us, the question of who speaks what language invariably puts all this on the table.

Amy Chua is the John M. Duff Jr. professor of law at Yale Law School and the author of “World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability” and “Political Tribes: Group Instinct and the Fate of Nations.”

THE RISE OF ENGLISH Global Politics and the Power of Language By Rosemary Salomone 488 pp. Oxford University Press. $35.

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English As A Global Language Essay

In today's interconnected world, English has become the dominant global language. It's the language of business, diplomacy, and international relations. It's also the language of science and technology. Here are some sample essays on English as a global language.

100 Words Essay On English As A Global Language

English has become the global language because it has the ability to connect people from all corners of the world. When it comes to language, the world is changing. English has quickly become the global language of business, travel, and communication, and its importance is only expected to grow in the years to come.

One of the most important benefits of speaking English nowadays is that it enables you to be part of a global conversation. When you can understand and communicate with people from different backgrounds, cultures and countries, you open new doors to business opportunities, personal connections and more. It is the language of opportunity.

200 Words Essay On English As A Global Language

English has also become an essential tool for success in job markets around the world. Having good language skills often gives you a competitive edge over other candidates, as it allows you to communicate with customers or colleagues better. Additionally, many prestigious universities have begun offering courses taught entirely in English in order to attract international students from all over the world.

Overview of the Growing Significance of English

There are a number of reasons for the overgrowing significance of English as a language. For starters, English is the most widely spoken language in the world. It's spoken by more than 1.5 billion people, making it the most common second language in the world. And as more and more countries become connected through trade and technology, the demand for English speakers continues to rise.

But it's not just about numbers. English is also a very versatile language. It's capable of expressing a wide range of emotions and ideas, making it perfect for both business and travel. And thanks to its history as a colonial language, English also has a number of dialects and variants that make it easy to learn and be used in different parts of the world.

500 Words Essay On English As A Global Language

It is important for students to learn English and for people to continue to study and learn the English language. English is the language of the future.

Historical Influence of English

English has played an important role in world history, and its influence can be seen in many different aspects of society. This can be seen particularly in the field of business, where English is often the language of choice for conducting international transactions.

But English's role as a global language is not limited to the business world. It is also widely used in education, science, technology and entertainment. This growing significance of English has led to a number of debates on its impact on other languages and cultures. Some people argue that English is a threat to linguistic diversity, while others claim that it has actually helped to promote international understanding.

Benefits of Learning English As A Language

There are plenty of reasons to learn English, but here are some of the most important:

English is the most common global language. That means that if you know English, you can communicate with more people than any other language.

English is the language of business. If you want to work in a global company or do business with people from other countries, you need to be able to speak English.

English is the language of diplomacy. If you want to work in international relations or become a diplomat, you need to be fluent in English.

English is the language of science and technology. If you want to work in a technical field or study science, you need to know English.

The Positive Impact of English on Today’s Society

English is being used by more people in everyday communication than ever before. It also serves as a unifying factor between different cultural backgrounds and can pave the way for greater social understanding. In short, English has become ingrained in most aspects of our lives, regardless of where we are from or what language we may speak at home.

Challenges Faced by Non-Native English Speakers

When it comes to the challenges that non-native English speakers face, there are several. One is that some words and phrases may still be challenging to understand, even after extensive studying. Additionally, being able to properly pronounce and intonate these words and phrases can be even more difficult.

Maintaining an appropriate level of grammar and syntax while also using proper sentence structure and coherence is often difficult as well. Even with proper guidance, working around cultural and language barriers can be a challenge; this is especially true when it comes to translating ideas accurately in a language other than one’s native tongue.

Non-native English speakers may also struggle to find their own style of writing in order to make their work stand out from others. Different countries have different styles of expression, so finding a style that truly reflects your own unique voice can be difficult no matter how well-versed someone may be in the English language.

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History of English

English as a Global Language

What is a Global Language?

There is no official definition of “global” or “world” language, but it essentially refers to a language that is learned and spoken internationally, and is characterized not only by the number of its native and second language speakers, but also by its geographical distribution, and its use in international organizations and in diplomatic relations. A global language acts as a “lingua franca”, a common language that enables people from diverse backgrounds and ethnicities to communicate on a more or less equitable basis.

Historically, the essential factor for the establishment of a global language is that it is spoken by those who wield power. Latin was the lingua franca of its time, although it was only ever a minority language within the Roman Empire as a whole. Crucially, though, it was the language of the powerful leaders and administrators and of the Roman military – and, later, of the ecclesiastical power of the Roman Catholic Church – and this is what drove its rise to (arguably) global language status. Thus, language can be said to have no independent existence of its own, and a particular language only dominates when its speakers dominate (and, by extension, fails when the people who speak it fail).

The influence of any language is a combination of three main things: the number of countries using it as their first language or mother-tongue, the number of countries adopting it as their official language, and the number of countries teaching it as their foreign language of choice in schools. The intrinsic structural qualities of a language, the size of its vocabulary, the quality of its literature throughout history, and its association with great cultures or religions, are all important factors in the popularity of any language. But, at base, history shows us that a language becomes a global language mainly due to the political power of its native speakers, and the economic power with which it is able to maintain and expand its position.

Why is a Global Language Needed?

It is often argued that the modern “global village” needs a “global language”, and that (particularly in a world of modern communications, globalized trade and easy international travel) a single lingua franca has never been more important. With the advent since 1945 of large international bodies such as the United Nations and its various offshoots – the UN now has over 50 different agencies and programs from the World Bank, World Health Organization and UNICEF to more obscure arms like the Universal Postal Union – as well as collective organizations such as the Commonwealth and the European Union, the pressure to establish a worldwide lingua franca has never been greater. As just one example of why a lingua franca is useful, consider that up to one-third of the administration costs of the European Community is taken up by translations into the various member languages.

Some have seen a planned or constructed language as a solution to this need. In the short period between 1880 and 1907, no less than 53 such “universal artificial languages” were developed. By 1889, the constructed language Volapük claimed nearly a million adherents, although it is all but unknown to day. Today the best known is Esperanto, a deliberately simplified language, with just 16 rules, no definite articles, no irregular endings and no illogical spellings. A sentence like “It is often argued that the modern world needs a common language with which to communicate” would be rendered in Esperanto as “Oni ofte argumentas ke la moderna mondo bezonas komuna linguon por komunikado”, not difficult to understand for anyone with even a smattering of Romance languages.

Many of these universal languages (including Esperanto) were specifically developed with the view in mind that a single world language would automatically lead to world peace and unity. Setting aside for now the fact that such languages have never gained much traction, it has to be said this assumption is not necessarily well-founded. For instance, historically, many wars have broken out within communities of the same language (e.g. the British and American Civil Wars, the Spanish Civil War, Vietnam, former Yugoslavia, etc) and, on the other hand, the citizens of some countries with multiple languages (e.g. Switzerland, Canada, Singapore, etc) manage to coexist, on the whole, quite peaceably.

Is a Global Language Necessarily “A Good Thing”?

While its advantages are self-evident, there are some legitimate concerns that a dominant global language could also have some built-in drawbacks. Among these may be the following:

• There is a risk that the increased adoption of a global language may lead to the weakening and eventually the disappearance of some minority languages (and, ultimately, it is feared, ALL other languages). It is estimated that up to 80% of the world’s 6,000 or so living languages may die out within the next century, and some commentators believe that a too-dominant global language may be a major contributing factor in this trend. However, it seem likely that this is really only a direct threat in areas where the global language is the natural first language (e.g. North America, Australia, Celtic parts of Britain, etc). Conversely, there is also some evidence that the very threat of subjugation by a dominant language can actually galvanize and strengthen movements to support and protect minority languages (e.g. Welsh in Wales, French in Canada).
• There is concern that natural speakers of the global language may be at an unfair advantage over those who are operating in their second, or even third, language.
• The insistence on one language to the exclusion of others may also be seen as a threat to freedom of speech and to the ideals of multiculturalism.
• Another potential pitfall is linguistic complacency on the part of natural speakers of a global language, a laziness and arrogance resulting from the lack of motivation to learn other languages. Arguably, this can already be observed in many Britons and Americans.

Is English a Global Language?

As can be seen in more detail in the section on English Today , on almost any basis, English is the nearest thing there has ever been to a global language. Its worldwide reach is much greater than anything achieved historically by Latin or French, and there has never been a language as widely spoken as English. Many would reasonably claim that, in the fields of business, academics, science, computing, education, transportation, politics and entertainment, English is already established as the de facto lingua franca.

The UN, the nearest thing we have, or have ever had, to a global community, currently uses five official languages: English, French, Spanish, Russian and Chinese, and an estimated 85% of international organizations have English as at least one of their official languages (French comes next with less than 50%). Even more starkly, though, about one third of international organizations (including OPEC, EFTA and ASEAN) use English only, and this figure rises to almost 90% among Asian international organizations.

As we have seen, a global language arises mainly due to the political and economic power of its native speakers. It was British imperial and industrial power that sent English around the globe between the 17th and 20th Century. The legacy of British imperialism has left many counties with the language thoroughly institutionalized in their courts, parliament, civil service, schools and higher education establishments. In other counties, English provides a neutral means of communication between different ethnic groups.

But it has been largely American economic and cultural supremacy – in music, film and television; business and finance; computing, information technology and the Internet; even drugs and pornography – that has consolidated the position of the English language and continues to maintain it today. American dominance and influence worldwide makes English crucially important for developing international markets, especially in the areas of tourism and advertising, and mastery of English also provides access to scientific, technological and academic resources which would otherwise be denied developing countries.

Is English Appropriate for a Global Language?

Some have also argued that there are other intrinsic features of the English language that set it apart, and make it an appropriate choice as a global language, and it may be worthwhile investigating some of these claims:

• The richness and depth of English’s vocabulary sets it apart from other languages. The 1989 revised “Oxford English Dictionary” lists 615,000 words in 20 volumes, officially the world’s largest dictionary. If technical and scientific words were to be included, the total would rise to well over a million. By some estimates, the English lexicon is currently increasing by over 8,500 words a year, although other estimates put this as high as 15,000 to 20,000. It is estimated that about 200,000 English words are in common use, as compared to 184,000 in German, and mere 100,000 in French. The availability of large numbers of synonyms allows shades of distinction that are just not available to non-English speakers and, although other languages have books of synonyms, none has anything on quite the scale of “Roget’s Thesaurus” . Add to this the wealth of English idioms and phrases, and the available material with which to express meaning is truly prodigious, whether the intention is poetry, business or just everyday conversation.
• It is a very flexible language. One example of this is in respect of word order and the ability to phrase sentences as active or passive (e.g. I kicked the ball , or the ball was kicked by me ). Another is in the ability to use the same word as both a noun and a verb (such as drink , fight , silence , etc). New words can easily be created by the addition of prefixes or suffixes (e.g. brightness , fixation , unintelligible , etc), or by compounding or fusing existing words together (e.g. airport , seashore , footwear , etc). Just how far English’s much-vaunted flexibility should go (or should be allowed to go) is a hotly-debated topic, though. For example, should common but incorrect usages (e.g. disinterested to mean uninterested ; infer to mean imply ; forego to mean forgo ; flout to mean flaunt ; fortuitous to mean fortunate ; etc) be accepted as part of the natural evolution of the language, or reviled as inexcusable sloppiness which should be summarily nipped in the bud?
• Its grammar is generally simpler than most languages. It dispenses completely with noun genders (hence, no dithering between le plume or la plume , or between el mano or la mano ), and often dispenses with the article completely (e.g. It is time to go to bed ). The distinction between familiar and formal addresses were abandoned centuries ago (the single English word you has seven distinct choices in German: du , dich , dir , Sie , Ihnen , Ihr and euch ). Case forms for nouns are almost non-existent (with the exception of some personal pronouns like I / me / mine , he / him / his , etc), as compared to Finnish, for example, which has fifteen forms for every noun, or Russian which has 12. In German, each verb has 16 different forms (Latin has a possible 120!), while English only retains 5 at most (e.g. ride , rides , rode , riding , ridden ) and often only requires 3 (e.g. hit , hits , hitting ).
• Some would also claim that it is also a relatively simple language in terms of spelling and pronunciation, although this claim is perhaps more contentious. While it does not require mastery of the subtle tonal variations of Cantonese, nor the bewildering consonant clusters of Welsh or Gaelic, it does have more than its fair share of apparently random spellings, silent letters and phonetic inconsistencies (consider, for example, the pronunciation of the “ou” in thou , though , thought , through , thorough , tough , plough and hiccough , or the “ea” in head , heard , bean , beau and beauty ). There are somewhere between 44 and 52 unique sounds used in English pronunciation (depending on the authority consulted), almost equally divided between vowel sounds and consonants, as compared to 26 in Italian, for example, or just 13 in Hawaiian. This includes some sounds which are notoriously difficult for foreigners to pronounce (such as “th”, which also comes in two varieties, as in thought and though , or in mouth as a noun and mouth as a verb), and some sounds which have a huge variety of possible spellings (such as the sound “sh”, which can be written as in shoe , sugar , passion , ambitious , ocean , champagne , etc, or the long “o” which can be spelled as in go , show , beau , sew , doe , though , depot , etc). In its defence, though, its consonants at least are fairly regular in pronunciation, and it is blessedly free of the accents and diacritical marks which festoon many other languages. Also, its borrowings of foreign words tend to preserve the original spelling (rather than attempting to spell them phonetically). It has been estimated that 84% of English spellings conform to general patterns or rules, while only 3% are completely unpredictable (3% of a very large vocabulary is, however, still quite a large number, and this includes such extraordinary examples as colonel , ache , eight , etc). Arguably, some of the inconsistencies do help to distinguish between homophones like fissure and fisher ; seas and seize ; air and heir ; aloud and allowed ; weather and whether ; chants and chance ; flu , flue and flew ; reign , rein and rain ; etc.
• Some argue that the cosmopolitan character of English (from its adoption of thousands of words from other languages with which it came into contact) gives it a feeling of familiarity and welcoming compared to many other languages (such as French, for example, which has tried its best to keep out other languages).
• Despite a tendency towards jargon, English is generally reasonably concise compared to many languages, as can be seen in the length of translations (a notable exception is Hebrew translations, which are usually shorter than their English equivalents by up to a third). It is also less prone to misunderstandings due to cultural subtleties than, say, Japanese, which is almost impossible to simultaneously translate for that reason.
• The absence of coding for social differences (common in many other languages which distinguish between formal and informal verb forms and sometimes other more complex social distinctions) may make English seem more democratic and remove some of the potential stress associated with language-generated social blunders.
• The extent and quality of English literature throughout history marks it as a language of culture and class. As a result, it carries with it a certain legitimacy, substance and gravitas that few other languages can match.

On balance, though, the intrinsic appeal of English as a world language is probably overblown and specious, and largely based on chauvinism or naïveté . It is unlikely that linguistic factors are of great importance in a language’s rise to the status of world language, and English’s position today is almost entirely due to the aforementioned political and economic factors.

What About The Future?

Although English currently appears to be in an unassailable position in the modern world, its future as a global language is not necessarily assured. In the Middle Ages, Latin seemed forever set as the language of education and culture, as did French in the 18th Century. But circumstances change, and there are several factors which might precipitate such a change once again.

There are two competing drives to take into account: the pressure for international intelligibility, and the pressure to preserve national identity. It is possible that a natural balance may be achieved between the two, but it should also be recognized that the historical loyalties of British ex-colonies have been largely replaced by pragmatic utilitarian reasoning.

The very dominance of an outside language or culture can lead to a backlash or reaction against it. People do not take kindly to having a language imposed on them, whatever advantage and value that language may bring to them. As long ago as 1908, Mahatma Gandhi said, in the context of colonial India: “To give millions a knowledge of English is to enslave them”. Although most former British colonies retained English as an official language after independence, some (e.g. Tanzania, Kenya, Malaysia) later deliberately rejected the old colonial language as a legacy of oppression and subjugation, disestablishing English as even a joint official language. Even today, there is a certain amount of resentment in some countries towards the cultural dominance of English, and particularly of the USA.

As has been discussed, there is a close link between language and power. The USA, with its huge dominance in economic, technical and cultural terms, is the driving force behind English in the world today. However, if the USA were to lose its position of economic and technical dominance, then the “language loyalties” of other countries may well shift to the new dominant power. Currently, perhaps the only possible candidate for such a replacement would be China, but it is not that difficult to imagine circumstances in which it could happen.

A change in population (and population growth) trends may prove to be an influential factor. The increasing Hispanic population of the USA has, in the opinion of some commentators, already begun a dilution of the “Englishness” of the country, which may in turn have repercussions for the status of the English language abroad. Hispanic and Latino Americans have accounted for almost half of America’s population growth in recent years, and their share of the population is expected to increase from about 16% today to around 30% by 2050. Some even see the future possibility of a credible secessionist movement, similar to that for an independent Quebec in Canada, and there has been movements within the US Republican party (variously called “English First” or “Official English” or “US English”) to make English the nation’s official language in an attempt to reduce the significance of Spanish. Official policies of bilingualism or multilingualism in countries with large minority language groups, such as are in place in countries like Canada, Belgium and Switzerland, are an expensive option and fraught with political difficulties, which the USA would prefer to avoid.

A 2006 report by the British Council suggests that the number of people learning English is likely to continue to increase over the next 10-15 years, peaking at around 2 billion, after which a decline is predicted. Various attempts have been made to develop a simpler “controlled” English language suitable for international usage (e.g. Basic English, Plain English, Globish, International English, Special English, Essential World English, etc). Increasingly, the long-term future of English as a global language probably lies in the hands of Asia, and especially the huge populations of India and China.

Having said that, though, there may now be a critical mass of English speakers throughout the world which may make its continued growth impossible to stop or even slow. There are no comparable historical precedents on which to base predictions, but it well may be that the emergence of English as a global language is a unique, even an irreversible, event.

Richard is an English teacher with over 25 years of experience. He has dedicated his life and career to his passion for English, literature, and pedagogy, guiding multiple generations of students on their journey to discovery.

English as a Global Language

Global English, World English, and the Rise of English as a Lingua Franca

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

In Shakespeare 's time, the number of English speakers in the world is thought to have been between five and seven million. According to linguist David Crystal, "Between the end of the reign of Elizabeth I (1603) and the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth II (1952), this figure increased almost fiftyfold, to around 250 million" ( The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language , 2003). It's a common language used in international business, which makes it a popular second language for many.

How Many Languages Are There?

There are roughly 6,500 languages spoken in the world today. About 2,000 of them have fewer than 1,000 speakers. While the British empire did help spread the language globally it's only the third most commonly spoken language in the world. Mandarin and Spanish are the two most commonly spoken languages on Earth. 

From How Many Other Languages Has English Borrowed Words?

English is jokingly referred to as a language thief because of it has incorporated words from over 350 other languages into it. The majority of these "borrowed" words are latin or from one of the Romance languages.

How Many People in the World Today Speak English?

Roughly 500 million people in the world are native English speakers . Another 510 million people speak English as a second language , which means that there are more people who speak English along with their native language than there are native English speakers.

In How Many Countries Is English Taught as a Foreign Language?

English is taught as a foreign language in over 100 countries. It's considered the language of business which makes it a popular choice for a second language. English language teachers are often paid very well in countries like China and Dubai.

What Is the Most Widely Used English Word?

"The form OK or okay is probably the most intensively and widely used (and borrowed) word in the history of the language. Its many would-be etymologists have traced it variously to Cockney, French, Finnish, German, Greek, Norwegian, Scots, several African languages, and the Native American language Choctaw, as well as a number of personal names. All are imaginative feats without documentary support." (Tom McArthur, The Oxford Guide to World English . Oxford University Press, 2002)

How Many Countries in the World Have English as Their First Language?

"This is a complicated question, as the definition of 'first language' differs from place to place, according to each country’s history and local circumstances. The following facts illustrate the complexities:

"Australia, Botswana, the Commonwealth Caribbean nations, Gambia, Ghana, Guyana, Ireland, Namibia, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States have English as either a de facto or statutory official language. In Cameroon and Canada, English shares this status with French; and in the Nigerian states, English and the main local language are official. In Fiji, English is the official language with Fijian; in Lesotho with Sesotho; in Pakistan with Urdu; in the Philippines with Filipino; and in Swaziland with Siswati. In India, English is an associate official language (after Hindi), and in Singapore English is one of four statutory official languages. In South Africa, English [is] the main national language—but just one of eleven official languages.

"In all, English has official or special status in at least 75 countries (with a combined population of two billion people). It is estimated that one out of four people worldwide speak English with some degree of competence." (Penny Silva, "Global English." AskOxford.com, 2009)

• What Does it Mean to Have English as a Native Language?
• Top 10 Most Popular Languages
• What Countries Have English as an Official Language?
• Definition of English as a Second Language (ESL)
• Global English
• English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
• Non-Native English Teachers
• 10 Myths About Spanish and the People Who Speak It
• English Language: History, Definition, and Examples
• What Is a Contact Language?
• Facts and Figures About the French Language
• What Is a Second Language (L2)?
• How Do You Rate as an Expert of the English Language?
• Where Is Spanish Spoken?
• 5 Countries Where Spanish Is Spoken but Not Official
• How Many People Learn English?

British Council

In our rapidly changing world what is the future of the English language?

By mina patel, assessment research manager, british council, 18 april 2023 - 16:54.

English is one of the most spoken languages in the world, but what will English look like in the future? Here Mina Patel, one of the authors of the new British Council publication ‘The Future of English: Global Perspectives’, looks at how English, its teaching, assessment and use in business will be affected in a rapidly changing world.

People ask: what’s so important about English? The answer is simple, English connects people and changes lives. English changed my life. I arrived in England at the age of four as a refugee from Uganda. I couldn’t speak a word of English. Today I am one of the authors of the British Council’s newest publication, The Future of English: Global Perspectives. I was lucky. I was inspired at school, had wonderful teachers, and they instilled in me a passion for learning and teaching. I have been in English language education for many years and English has connected me to thousands of people around the world. 

The Future of English: Global Perspectives is part of a long-term research programme, which identifies key trends that will define the role of English as a global language in the coming decade. It also examines the issues and opportunities for countries around the world in achieving their goals for the use of English. 

The publication describes the programme and presents the findings from discussions with 92 policy makers and influencers from 49 countries and territories during 14 roundtables, about what they see as the future of English. From these conversations, eight themes emerged, themes that we believe will have an impact on the future of English in the coming years. So, what are the global perspectives about the future of English and what does the data tell us?

Will English remain the world’s most sought-after language?

For the foreseeable future English will remain the dominant global lingua franca (a language used by people with different native languages to communicate with each other), but the role it plays in the lives of individuals or in policies will begin to change. 

Numbers of learners will remain stable or rise in the next ten years. The main drivers for this are education, employment, technology and global mobility. Employers, parents and learners themselves are driving the need for English language education. They see it as a necessity for success in life, learning and employment. 

What role will English play in our multilingual world?

Multilingualism is the norm in most contexts around the world. Exploration, colonialisation, migration, and globalisation have all contributed to today’s multilingual world. 

English is often one of the languages used in multilingual situations where everyday communication is managed by individuals using their full range of languages organically and fluidly – a practice known as ‘translanguaging’.

One implication for English is that it increasingly ‘belongs’ (in the sense that any language can belong to anybody) to whoever uses it, in whatever form, to interact successfully in any given context. 

What is the future of English as a medium of education?

English as a medium of education (EME), also called English as a medium of instruction is when students are taught subjects in English, regardless of their first language. It is hugely popular in some contexts and is driven by governments and parents that see it as a good way to achieve fluency in English, so improving the chances of students getting a good job in the future.  

Universities which teach courses in English - with lectures, course materials and tutorials all given in English - are now very common. Primary and secondary schools where English is the main language of teaching and learning are also becoming more popular.  However, EME is a topic of much discussion and debate.

How will teachers remain relevant in future English language learning systems?

Our data tells us that teachers are very much at the heart of the teaching and learning process and the education system. Regardless of the technological shifts during the Pandemic, teachers are very important. However, in some places in the world, there are concerns about capacity with two main questions being asked. Are there enough English teachers and are there enough skilled English teachers?

Linked to this is teacher motivation and well-being. If English is considered a valuable and important skill for a nation’s educational, professional and economic success, then it follows that English language teachers should be looked after, supported, developed and rewarded to reflect the significance of their contribution to society. 

Public and private English language provision - who has the answers?

This is an interesting question, and although private language education provision can be better, our participants were concerned about the lack of monitoring and evaluation of private language provision.  

That said, public-sector provision of English language teaching is inadequate in many countries, often featuring inappropriate or outdated curricula.

It is likely that the answers to better quality provision in both sectors lie in greater cross-sector communication and collaboration.

Can English language assessment meet stakeholders’ changing needs?

People require different types of proficiency for different tasks in different contexts. This has implications for teaching, learning and assessment (TLA), particularly as we expect that aligning these components will continue to be of interest in the future.

English is no longer seen in isolation. Instead, it is seen as part of a range of knowledge, skills and expertise, captured by the concept of 21st-century skills and required for a dynamic globalised world. This presents two challenges for current assessment practices:

• Assessment needs to be more creative and innovative to develop and measure individuals more holistically.

• Language Assessment Literacy (LAL) needs to be considered more seriously and concepts of LAL need to adapt to be relevant in this changing assessment landscape.

Can technology narrow the equity gap in English language education?

While there are significant advantages to using technology to aid learning, both in and outside the classroom, these advantages have not always been built upon. This is because uptake and success depend on several factors:

• Access to hardware, such as TV, radio, computers, smartphones and the Internet.

• Teacher skills and motivation to support learning.

• Stakeholder support (within the education system and at home).

• Inclusion in modern curricula of recognition of informal learning (typically online).

The reality is that in many cases there are significant disparities in access across communities. This ‘digital divide’ can have social, educational and economic repercussions for those affected.

It is important to note that in many developing or rural places, technology doesn’t just mean mobile devices, it also means televisions and radios.

To what extent is employment driving the future of English?

The world of work has changed. Globalisation, together with advances in technology, has changed the way many companies operate and the skills required by employees. Previously technical skills in specific areas were highly sought after, now employers are looking for ‘all-round’ employees who can combine technical expertise with additional skills, including teamworking, problem-solving, negotiation, intercultural awareness and digital literacy. 

Multilingual and multicultural workforces are not uncommon, whether people are working remotely or in the same location. English is often the lingua franca and sometimes the official language of business as chosen by organisations. The very concept of international, dispersed teams changes and expands the parameters of English for work. 

English is becoming a requirement for all sectors of industry. At all levels in organisations and all over the world, English at work is no longer only for professional jobs or senior management roles – it has increasingly become necessary for lower-skilled jobs in the tourism and retail sectors. As cited in a previous British Council study, ‘even if English is one of the working languages in a major multinational company, the English proficiency requirement differs from role to role’ 

All these factors have led to the notion of proficiency, as we know it, being re-defined.

As the data shows, the future of English is interesting, dynamic and contextual but there are still many questions. The future of English programme is an invitation for colleagues and partners to collaborate to try and answer some of these questions.  We’re living in exciting times, change is the norm, but for the foreseeable future, English will continue to connect people and change lives. 

Find out more about our Future of English programme and download a free copy of the book Future of English: Global Perspectives.

You might also be interested in:.

• Ten statements about the Future of ELT - the hidden messages from the ELTons finalists
• The British and their secret language regrets
• How to help your students speak with clarity

View the discussion thread.

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English as a Global Language

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English as a global language

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English as a Global Language and Its Supremacy Essay (Literature Review)

Introduction.

Over the past years, the English language has grown to become a de facto language of global communication. Fields of literature, humanities and science are published in the English. In fact, even international conferences are held in English.

Crystal David: English as a Global Language. Cambridge, Mass: Cambridge University Press

English language has very strong history. Crystal begins his book by questioning what it means for a language to be global and also the merits and demerits that come with it. This book has managed to trace the rise of English as a language to international recognition. The first chapter takes a survey of the use of English around the world and the extent to which the language is increasingly finding use. The language was in existence as early as the 5 th century when German tribes from Denmark invaded Angles in Britain. This tribe spoke Englisc which has evolved to English. The second chapter looks at the ideas concerning the position of English on the globe and the foundations of its victory as put down by the powerful British Empire and the early civilization and subsequent industrial Revolution.

The third chapter looks at the cultural legacy that has strengthened the current supremacy of English; its wider use in diplomatic and international level communication. This is very evident in media particularly the music industry, internet and learning. The book also discusses the future of this language since it has made considerable impact on the world today.

The universality of English is a drawback to cultural empowerment. Kushner begins by asserting that English is on the verge of becoming the global language if not universal. English is finding use in many multilingual nations as the language of socialization. On the global level, the language has imposed itself as a major means of communication in business and scientific research. Kushner possess the question as to whether this is purely beneficial on humanity grounds or does it have other dangerous risks. Americanization is greatly feared and the spread of English seems to boost this perception.

Kushner states that embracing globalization and the idea of a global village is the main reason why English is spreading so fast. People rejoice when they are able to access new technology, travel all over the world and are able to communicate effectively. People can get information that enables them to achieve cosmopolitan dreams whereby humankind is one.

This article however claims that the English language as used at a global level limits cultural identity. Many people encourage cultural empowerment yet the imposition of universal language undermines this. Evidently, embracing the global village phenomenon does not guarantee an adequately sensitive and wide-ranging frame for thought in spite of the attractiveness o the idea.

English is symbolic of the west and good impression. This book begins by using an illustration that is very common for people to tend to speak to strangers in English. Noronha asserts that when speaking to friends or family members in English, they tend to pay more attention. Regardless of the opposition to use English in areas where the majority understand the local language, it commands respect than other languages. One is considered to be elite

English show confidence and has allowed wider career freedom as it appeals to many people. The amount of English spoken has greatly increased in areas of Asia especially India. Many people now use English to communicate at workplaces.

This book emphasizes the complaints about the rampant English use as just an unfounded effort to save other languages which consider themselves part of cultural empowerment more than they actually are.

English is a de facto language for science and research. Ammon estimated that 80% to 90% of scientific papers are written in the English language. This is an increase from 60 percent in the 1980s. There is a growing distinct consciousness in several states about English dominance in science, both in developed and developing nations. There is also some resistance in several countries in Europe like Germany and some Scandinavian nations. There are similarities between Asian and European nations in the way they implicate English and science. The Asian and European nation’s types of English are based on both developing varieties of English like bi- or multi-language. The result is that many people become bilingual speakers.

The English language has unquestionably benefited appreciably from this new era, progressively penetrating into different cultures in education and music and most importantly in science. There are several reports that show there is increased penetration of English in biomedical sciences evidently in Germany. English has penetrated in Germany enough that even the Medical Conference German National is held in English science.

English has become a language of publishing. This article addresses the benefits of English in education, especially at tertiary levels. Most instructors now use English even in non-native speakers-dominated areas. The Chinese have embraced this idea and many of them study English and attend American colleges. The spread of English in Science is so rapid that it’s estimated that about half of the world’s population will be using English by the year 2015 and the ratio is even much higher in the field of science.

There is also concern that the non-English speaking people in Europe and Asia could be discriminated against from scientific knowledge and cannot therefore competitively participate and enjoy the shared knowledge made available by science. Most of the people who find English more convenient for use in science support its use on the basis of its practicality and efficiency

Ammon, U. (2001). The Dominance of English as a Language of Science – Effects on Other Languages. New York: Mouton de Gruyter.

Crystal, D. (1997). English as a Global Language. Cambridge, Mass: Cambridge University Press

Kushner, E. (2003). English as Global Language: Problems, Dangers, Opportunities. The University of Toronto Diogenes, 50 (2): 18 – 24

Master, P. (1998). Positive and Negative Aspects of the Dominance of English. TESOL Quarterly , 32(4): 715 – 728

Noronha, S. (2005). Supremacy of the English Language. London: Routledge

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IvyPanda. (2021, December 13). English as a Global Language and Its Supremacy. https://ivypanda.com/essays/is-english-a-global-language-review-of-articles/

"English as a Global Language and Its Supremacy." IvyPanda , 13 Dec. 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/is-english-a-global-language-review-of-articles/.

IvyPanda . (2021) 'English as a Global Language and Its Supremacy'. 13 December.

IvyPanda . 2021. "English as a Global Language and Its Supremacy." December 13, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/is-english-a-global-language-review-of-articles/.

1. IvyPanda . "English as a Global Language and Its Supremacy." December 13, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/is-english-a-global-language-review-of-articles/.

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IvyPanda . "English as a Global Language and Its Supremacy." December 13, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/is-english-a-global-language-review-of-articles/.

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• Published: 26 February 2024

English language hegemony: retrospect and prospect

• Jie Zeng   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0983-9075 1 , 2 &
• Jianbu Yang 3  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  317 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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This paper explores the ascent of English as a global lingua franca within the context of linguistic hegemony, following Phillipson’s 1992 framework. It scrutinizes English’s role in the rapidly globalizing world, emphasizing its dominance across economic, governance, and scientific sectors and its impact on non-native English-speaking countries. Utilizing a sociolinguistic approach, combined with historical and interdisciplinary analysis, the study evaluates the influence of English hegemony in cultural, educational, and technological domains, with a focus on post-colonial and expanding circle nations. Additionally, the paper provides critical insights for developing language policies in these areas, considering the intricate role of English in the global linguistic landscape. It concludes by considering the prospects of English language hegemony.

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Introduction.

The dominance of English in the 21st century has exerted a profound influence on the global economic landscape, political configurations, and cultural systems of nations worldwide. The global promulgation of English, however, did not materialize abruptly; it is the culmination of a protracted process of development and evolution (Gordin, 2015 ). Tracing back to around the 5th century, invasions by the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes onto the British Isles initiated the linguistic amalgamation of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic tongues, giving rise to what is known as Old English. The advent of Standard English in the Elizabethan era of the 16th century owes much to the Norman Conquest’s introduction of Norman French influences. The 17th century witnessed the surge of the Industrial Revolution, which augmented Britain’s economic and military prowess, ushering in its era as a global hegemon and the “Empire on which the sun never sets” (Allen, 2017 ). Concurrent with its imperial expansion into Africa and Asia, Britain disseminated the English language across these continents. Subsequently, in the aftermath of World War II, the United States emerged with substantial economic growth and a concentration of capital and wealth. The U.S.‘s rapidly ascending political, military, economic, and technological clout facilitated the widespread adoption of English, further entrenched by its pervasiveness in media, film, television, and advertising. Presently, with over 1.2 billion English speakers globally (Rao, 2019 ), the reach and ubiquity of the English language are evident.

Phillipson’s theory of “Linguistic Imperialism” (1992) provides a critical examination of language rights, policies, the endangerment of languages, and linguistic hegemony, with a specific focus on English’s role as an international lingua franca . This theory enhances our understanding of modern English hegemony. In today’s globalized context, English is not only an essential tool for international discourse but also the premier foreign language in numerous countries, with its symbolic stature and status as the international lingua franca being incontrovertible. The hegemony of English has significantly shaped the language policies and political economies of many nations. Several countries in Asia and Africa, having experienced British and American colonial dominion, encountered the dual-edged sword of English hegemony—both facilitating and eroding indigenous languages, leaving an indelible imprint on their societies, economies, and cultures. Thus, acknowledging the considerable impact of English on the linguistic policies and political economies of post-colonial nations, we must also critically assess the positive dissemination of English culture alongside a reflection on the global ramifications of English linguistic hegemony.

In the current epoch of the fourth industrial revolution, which is distinguished by the convergence of digital, biological, and physical advancements, it seems likely that the dominance of the English language will not only endure but even extend its reach. English, being the primary element of worldwide communication and the predominant language used on the internet, is expected to continue being the favored means for international discussions, advancements in technology, and the sharing of information. The prominence of Silicon Valley and the prevailing influence of American and British institutions in the fields of science and technology serve to solidify the position of the English language as a leading force in the realm of innovation. Furthermore, it is anticipated that English, with its extensive datasets and linguistic resources, will become increasingly dominant as the primary language for programming and engaging with technology, as artificial intelligence and machine learning systems progress. Therefore, it is anticipated that the dominance of the English language in this emerging period would enable and maybe expedite international partnerships, therefore expanding the frontiers of invention and fostering unparalleled global interconnectedness.

The research methodology for this study on English Language Hegemony combines a sociolinguistic approach with historical and interdisciplinary analysis. Using Phillipson’s ( 1992 ) framework, we examine English’s historical development and current status as a global lingua franca . Our approach includes a thorough historical literature review and qualitative methods such as textual analysis and case studies, focusing on English’s influence in sectors like the economy, governance, science, and education, particularly in post-colonial and expanding circle nations. The integration of insights from linguistics, history, sociology, and education allows for a comprehensive exploration of English hegemony’s cultural, educational, and technological effects, while also addressing future language policies and the ongoing evolution of English dominance.

Related studies

The hegemony of the English language has developed into a core research topic in the field of sociolinguistics since the end of the 20th century. Scholars such as Phillipson (Phillipson, 1997 , 2004 , 2008 , 2009 , 2018 ), Tsuda ( 2008 ), Ives ( 2009 ), Macedo et al. ( 2015 ), Choi ( 2010 ), and Borden ( 2014 ) have made significant contributions to the construction and development of the theoretical framework of English hegemony/linguistic imperialism studies. This research field involves the historical evolution of English in the context of globalization, its political, economic, and cultural impacts, and its effects on language diversity. It particularly focuses on issues such as linguistic power, linguistic identity, and linguistic justice, all of which constitute key areas in the struggle for ideologies and power.

The burgeoning interest in post-colonialism and new imperialism within Western social sciences since the 1980s has cast the English language into the spotlight. It was Robert Phillipson and Tove Skutnabb-Kangas who, from an ideological stance, first articulated the notion of language hierarchies. In his pivotal 1992 work “ Linguistic Imperialism ”, Phillipson, a prominent linguist, addressed critical issues surrounding language rights, policies, endangerment, and hegemony, specifically in the context of English as a lingua franca . Scholars like Pennycook ( 2021 ), Canagarajah ( 1999 ), and Graddol ( 2006 ) have since contributed to the discourse, spotlighting the challenges of English dominance in third-world countries. Canagarajah, particularly, underscored the profound dilemma post-colonial societies face in reconciling Western culture and values with indigenous ones, a challenge compounded by the deep-rooted presence of English within their cultural and ideological frameworks (Canagarajah, 1999 ). The linguistic influence of colonial powers has not only bolstered the status of their languages but also inflicted detrimental effects across various spheres including economics, politics, society, culture, and education (Ricento, 2015 ).

Current research on English language hegemony is multi-dimensional, examining its ascent to the primary medium of global communication and the ensuing cultural and educational ramifications. Studies indicate that English’s privileged status bolsters the cultural exports of English-speaking nations and may engender linguistic disparities within non-native English-speaking countries, influencing individual socio-economic prospects and societal attitudes toward language and cultural preservation (Haidar, 2019 ).

Scholars have conducted in-depth investigations into English dominance from various perspectives. The critical inquiry has spotlighted the adverse effects of English dominance on educational policy, language planning, and the viability of minoritized language groups, advocating for initiatives that foster linguistic diversity and parity (Davis & Phyak, 2017 ). Conversely, pragmatic research investigates strategies to uphold linguistic diversity alongside the widespread use of English, such as through bilingual or multilingual educational models, or by emphasizing native languages in public domains and media (Flores & Rosa, 2015 ; Phillipson, 2004 ). These analyses suggest that, while English’s global influence is likely to persist, maintaining vibrant language practices and policies remains both viable and imperative at local and regional levels.

Ongoing investigations strive to strike a balance between leveraging the economic and communicative advantages of English as a lingua franca and safeguarding indigenous linguistic heritages (Dewey, 2007 ; Grant, 2012 ). This has prompted interdisciplinary research that intersects sociology, education, linguistics, and policy studies, aiming to decipher how languages transform under the pressures of globalization and to craft apt strategies for intercultural communication and language pedagogy (Jackson, 2019 ; Modiano, 2020 ). Concurrently, national and local governments, educational bodies, and international entities are engaged in finding means to cherish and nurture linguistic diversity, whilst also considering the role of English as a facilitative tool rather than an instrument of cultural or economic imposition.

Contemporary academic discussions around the dominance of the English language have adopted a comprehensive perspective, examining this problem from several angles such as globalization, educational policies, and cultural impact. One notable tendency seen in scholarly literature is the comprehensive analysis of the prevailing dominance of the English language and its consequential effects on the preservation and promotion of linguistic variety. The phenomenon of ‘linguistic imperialism’ in the new globalization era has been examined by various studies (e.g., Lai, 2021 ; Mackenzie, 2022 ; Smith & Kim, 2015 ) and the researchers have provided critical analysis on the marginalization of indigenous languages and cultures resulting from the widespread use of English in academic and professional domains. These scholarly works contend that the dominance of the English language reinforces a monolingual mindset in worldwide communication, often disregarding the importance of multilingualism and diversity.

Scholars have extensively investigated the techniques of resistance and adaptation used by non-English-speaking populations in reaction to hegemonic forces. In the contemporary period characterized by the fourth industrial revolution, there has been a notable emergence of scholarly investigations that explore the convergence of technology and language. Canagarajah ( 2020 ) conducted a study examining how digital platforms provide opportunities for individuals to engage in ‘translingual practises,’ which include the blending of English with other languages. This phenomenon serves as a means of contesting the dominant position of the English language. Furthermore, there has been a recent emphasis in empirical research on how educational policies worldwide are responding to this dominant influence. One common approach is the promotion of bilingual education and the cultivation of English language skills alongside native languages, intending to prepare students for the demands of a globalized labor market (Wang & Zheng, 2021 ).

The dominance of the English language and its cultural impacts have become a focal point of interest in academic circles. This phenomenon has elicited a scholarly response that oscillates between critical analysis and pragmatic acceptance of English hegemony. A growing body of research has focused on investigating the influence of English as a worldwide lingua franca on cultural identities and practices. Scholars such as Melchers et al. ( 2019 ), Kirkpatrick ( 2023 ), and Smith and Nelson ( 2019 ) have directed their attention towards the notion of ‘World Englishes’, examining how English has been modified in many sociocultural settings, leading to the emergence of novel English variations and subsequently, novel manifestations of cultural expression. This corpus of literature highlights an increasing acknowledgement of the dynamic and adaptable characteristics of language, suggesting that the dominance of the English language does not just exert a one-way influence on culture, but rather involves a mutual process of cultural interchange and alteration.

In brief, the existing body of literature about the English language hegemony is undergoing continuous development. Recent research encompasses a wide variety of viewpoints, spanning from a critical examination of English’s prevailing position to an investigation of the flexible and oppositional approaches used in multilingual communication within the context of the digital era. There is a growing inclination to acknowledge the intricate nature of language hegemony, as it intersects with cultural identity, education, and the relentless progression of technology.

The formation and development of English language hegemony

The ascendancy of English as a global lingua franca is a phenomenon intricately woven into the fabric of British colonial history. Its roots can be traced to the 16th century when British explorations and subsequent colonization laid the groundwork for the nation’s maritime dominance (Kennedy, 2017 ). These early expeditions, exemplified by the conquest of Newfoundland, marked the beginning of Britain’s imperial expansion. Over time, this expansion led to the establishment of a vast colonial empire where the sun famously never set, and with it, the dissemination of the English language.

The dissemination of the English language was not only coincidental but rather a purposeful tactic used to solidify British hegemony. The use of English language was employed as a strategy to centralize authority within colonial areas, resulting in the subordination of indigenous people and fostering a perception of inadequacy towards their languages and traditions. The enduring consequence was the establishment of English as the official language in several former colonies, a legacy that endures in contemporary times.

The post-World War II era saw a collapse in British colonial status, which in turn led to the rise of the United States as a prominent economic and political powerhouse (Kramer, 2016 ). As British power declined, the United States took on the responsibility of advancing the English language, establishing a strong connection between its spread and the dissemination of its own cultural, political, and economic principles. Employing educational endeavors and cultural diplomacy, the United States enhanced the prominence of the English language on a worldwide scale, assuring its association with contemporary progress and influence.

Thus, while the United Kingdom laid the early foundations of what would become linguistic imperialism, it was the United States that carried the torch into the latter half of the 20th century and beyond, ensuring that English maintained its hegemonic status. The evolution of English as a tool of imperialism is a testament to the geopolitical shifts of the past centuries, with the United States playing a crucial role in the language’s continued global prevalence (Crystal, 2009 ).

We conducted a literature review spanning from 1992 to the present, using Google Scholar and Web of Science with the keywords “English language hegemony” and “English linguistic imperialism” on January 9, 2024. This search yielded approximately 1325 records, from which we selected around 120 key papers specifically relevant to the formation and evolution of English Language Hegemony. Table 1 presents a comprehensive timeline of key events in the rise of English hegemony, tracing its journey from the early British colonial period to its current global prominence under the United States’ influence. This table also highlights various strategic efforts to promote English and the political shifts that have contributed to its widespread adoption.

The influence of English hegemony

The pervasive role of English as the “world language” in scientific, economic, academic, and political discourse is now widely acknowledged amidst intensifying globalization (Genç & Bada, 2010 ; Pennycook, 2017 ). The entrenchment of English hegemony has complex ramifications for the linguistic ecosystems of non-Anglophone nations, particularly those with a history of colonization. Language serves not only as a communicative tool but as a hallmark of identity, and the rise of English has deeply influenced the linguistic landscapes of countries around the globe. Phillipson ( 2018 ) introduces this dynamic, delineating a divide between core English-speaking countries—such as the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and Australia—and peripheral English-speaking nations, where English is official or widely spoken, such as India, the Philippines, and China.

The acquisition of English in these peripheral countries often transcends mere language learning; it becomes a conduit for social and cultural ideologies emanating from the Anglophone core (Canagarajah, 2007 ). This influence fosters a power imbalance where local languages may be sidelined or diminished, sometimes facing the threat of obsolescence. The post-colonial countries exemplify this trend, where English has remained a dominant force post-independence, impacting the local vernacular and cultural norms (Buschfeld & Kautzsch, 2017 ). Language not only expresses but also preserves culture. Hence, the erosion of linguistic diversity due to English imperialism risks the extinction of rich cultural heritages. Colonial policies that mandated English learning were not just pedagogical but also tools of ideological and cultural subjugation.

In the current era of globalization, the omnipresence of English continues to exert its influence on former colonial states and beyond. Phillipson ( 2017 ) highlighted the tendency of African university graduates to adopt Western cultural perspectives through their English proficiency, often becoming the most Westernized segment in their societies. This reflects a broader trend where cultural and ideological affiliations with English-speaking nations are reinforced through language.

While the drawbacks of English dominance are clear, its role in globalization cannot be entirely dismissed as negative. For many non-native speakers, English is a lingua franca facilitating communication across diverse linguistic backgrounds, catalyzing scientific advancement, and enabling access to global commerce. It’s a vehicle for cultural exchange and economic opportunity. The proliferation of English has allowed previously colonized and other non-Anglophone countries to partake in international discourse and trade.

The significance of English’s dominance in the fields of science and technology cannot be exaggerated. English is widely used as the predominant language in several academic and scientific institutes worldwide. Xu ( 2010 ) points out that the distribution and extension of information are profoundly influenced by the strategic relevance of the English language. The prominence of Anglophone nations in the realms of science and technology has contributed to the elevation of English’s position within these domains, facilitating the dissemination of cutting-edge information to less developed countries.

Furthermore, English serves as a crucial intermediary, enabling emerging economies to assimilate and innovate in science and technology. It is omnipresent in various media, facilitating a global understanding that transcends national borders. Consequently, proficiency in English equips non-Anglophone countries with the tools to engage with, and potentially transform, their own social and technological landscapes.

A prospect of English language hegemony

The current worldwide dominance of the English language in discourse is anticipated to encounter substantial upheavals and difficulties shortly. The international language hierarchy may be significantly impacted by the emergence of economies in light of the dynamic global political and economic environment (Warschauer, 2000 ). The increasing economic power of China, coupled with its growing worldwide impact, has the potential to enhance the prominence of Mandarin, especially in Asia and elsewhere where Chinese investment is substantial. Likewise, languages such as Spanish, Arabic, and French have the potential to attain importance as a result of enhanced economic partnerships, political connections, or cultural exchanges. The anticipated multipolar linguistic shift has the potential to transform the previously dominant English-centric paradigm, leading to a global movement towards genuine multilingualism and diversity.

The potential use of technological breakthroughs, namely in the domains of artificial intelligence and machine translation, can diminish the dependence on English as a universally accepted means of facilitating communication across other languages (Crossley, 2018 ). The increasing prevalence of real-time translation software has facilitated the ability of non-native English speakers to participate in worldwide discourse using their original languages while understanding others. If this technology attains a satisfactory level of precision and dependability, it has the potential to reduce the urgency for acquiring English language skills, hence reducing the perceived need for it.

On the other hand, these technical advancements might unintentionally contribute to linguistic hegemony, given that the tech sector is mostly led by English-speaking organizations. This could result in the promotion of goods and services that further strengthen the dominance of the English language on a worldwide scale. Notwithstanding these issues, globalization has the potential to solidify the position of English as the dominant language for communication, especially in domains such as academia, international business, and digital platforms (Zeng et al., 2023 ). The enduring need for English as a worldwide language is sustained by its prevalence in academic publications, business communication, and online content development.

Nevertheless, the increasing recognition and value placed on cultural variety may catalyze endeavors aimed at fostering and safeguarding indigenous languages and traditions. There is a growing trend in national language strategies to prioritize the preservation of linguistic variety and mitigate the excessive dominance of any one language (Lo Bianco, 2010 ). Educational institutions may endorse bilingual or multilingual instructional approaches, which aim to strengthen students’ ties to their local languages while simultaneously introducing them to English or other globally recognized languages (Lasagabaster, 2015 ). The implementation of such policies has the potential to both protect cultural assets and prepare individuals for active participation in global affairs.

In the foreseeable future, we may see a shift towards a more diverse and equitable global linguistic environment, where English will be integrated into a polycentric language system rather than maintaining its position as the only global vernacular. Furthermore, the future impact of the English language will probably fluctuate following the political and economic circumstances of the countries where English is mostly spoken. The potential decrease in the soft power or worldwide prestige of the United States or the United Kingdom may have an indirect impact on the global prominence of the English language. On the other hand, the worldwide increase in English education, particularly in areas where it is associated with socio-economic progress, has the potential to sustain its global importance.

The future course of English dominance will be influenced by a variety of complex global issues, including economic, technical, political, educational, and cultural elements. The resuscitation of minority and regional languages via localization and cultural movements has the potential to rejuvenate these languages (Pennycook, 2017 ). However, it is anticipated that English will continue to maintain its crucial function as a means of facilitating worldwide communication. However, with the increasing number of voices from across the world, the dominance of the English language may adopt a more accommodating and inclusive form, becoming part of a multilingual global conversation rather than maintaining its position as the only means of international communication. Table 2 provides a thorough description of the future trajectory of English linguistic hegemony.

Implications for language policy and planning in non-English speaking countries

The widespread diffusion of the English language has had a detrimental impact on linguistic variety at a worldwide level, resulting in the marginalisation and possible eradication of indigenous languages in regions where English is used as a secondary or non-native language. The impact of English influence is seen in the modified linguistic and cultural environments of several countries where English is not the primary language (Piekkari et al., 2015 ). Therefore, these nations need to take into account their distinct linguistic and cultural legacies while formulating and executing language-related strategies. These policies need to facilitate the acknowledgement and promotion of indigenous languages at an international level.

It is of utmost importance for states to uphold the ideal of linguistic equality and to resist any kind of linguistic hegemony, both domestically and on the global stage. It is imperative to undertake a collective effort aimed at fostering an atmosphere that values language parity and resolutely safeguards the linguistic and cultural diversity of every ethnic community.

National foreign language policies should prioritize the cultivation of competency in both widely spoken languages and less often taught languages. English, while acknowledged as a prominent international language in countries such as China, Japan, South Korea, and many European nations, is not the exclusive focal point within elementary and secondary school curricula (Ji et al., 2004 ). There exists a significant need for educational resources that may enhance the learning of less often spoken languages such as Arabic, Russian, French, and others. Consequently, there is a need to strengthen these educational resources (Piekkari et al., 2015 ).

When developing current language policy, it is crucial for nations where English is not the primary language to thoroughly assess the impact of foreign languages on their local tongues and the dynamics that exist between them. This evaluation is necessary to prevent a revival of English dominance. The widespread prevalence of the English language has undeniably impacted the teaching of other languages in these nations, with instructional materials and pronunciation mostly drawing from British and American origins. As a result, throughout the process of obtaining English language proficiency, students inevitably encounter Anglophone cultures, which might unintentionally foster a preference for Western civilization while neglecting their own indigenous cultures.

To tackle this issue, instructors of the English language in environments where English is not the primary language have the opportunity to include aspects of indigenous culture in their curriculum decisions. This approach allows students to effectively communicate their cultural history via the medium of English. Educators have the role of imparting well-rounded ideas and ideals.

The issue of conforming to either British or American pronunciation rules frequently gives rise to debate (Barrett et al., 2022 ). It is important to highlight that the primary goal of developing English language competence is to improve global communication effectiveness. When considering the historical progression of English dominance, several individuals argue that the rise of nations where English is not the primary language might provide valuable perspectives for these countries and their citizens, perhaps enhancing their ability to compete and their overall national strength.

The growing fascination among English-speaking nations that belong to the ‘inner circle’ with non-English-speaking cultures has increased the acquisition of languages such as Chinese and the exploration of professional opportunities in areas like China. To mitigate misinterpretations and effectively communicate non-English-speaking customs, instructors from other countries must possess a proficient command of the language spoken in the host country.

The acknowledgement of the intrinsic uniqueness of different languages and cultures requires careful interpretation to prevent misunderstandings. In the context of presenting non-English-speaking languages and cultures to a global audience, educators need to use suitable resources and exhibit a profound comprehension of the traditional civilizations they are portraying (Heininen, 2021 ). The strategic identification and targeting of receptive areas and nations play a pivotal role in the effective promotion of non-English-speaking cultures on a worldwide scale.

Promoting a common linguistic platform is a vital undertaking for countries where English is not the primary language. This program has the potential to meet the linguistic needs of many countries, while also safeguarding and promoting the cultural legacies of cultures where English is not the primary language. This methodology has the potential to augment cross-cultural understanding and improve efficient communication.

The increasing fascination with other cultures among those living in the core English-speaking countries has resulted in a growing demand for bilingual education and cultural exchange initiatives. The increasing desire of people from many nations to participate in markets such as China necessitates the presence of multilingual specialists who can effectively navigate the complexities of varied language and cultural contexts. These individuals who possess fluency in two languages not only assist in the facilitation of commercial exchanges but also contribute to a more profound degree of cultural absorption and comprehension. The individuals’ high level of expertise in both English and the target language allows them to accurately perceive subtle cultural nuances. This ensures that international interactions maintain both linguistic accuracy and cultural authenticity. The ability to navigate and comprehend several cultures is becoming more advantageous in professional settings that operate on a global scale since it is sometimes just as important to comprehend local customs and practices as it is to grasp financial statements.

Simultaneously, there exists a collective endeavor within nations where English is not the primary language to enhance the level of English language ability among their citizens. This strategic manoeuvre is not only focused on bolstering global competitiveness but also on assuring the proper dissemination of their cultural narratives and values on the international platform. Language learning programs are being enhanced by the inclusion of cultural competence training, which equips learners with the skills to effectively comprehend and convey complex concepts across diverse cultural contexts. Educational investments of this kind play a crucial role in cultivating a group of individuals with a global perspective, possessing both language proficiency and cultural sensitivity. These individuals are capable of not only preserving their cultural heritage but also successfully interacting with international society. The simultaneous emphasis on linguistic competence and cultural knowledge highlights the complex interplay between preserving cultural legacy and embracing global interconnectivity. This equilibrium will significantly influence the dynamics of cultural interchange throughout the period of the fourth industrial revolution.

The profound impact of English hegemony on non-English-speaking regions is twofold: while it has been a catalyst for growth and development, it has simultaneously posed threats to indigenous languages and cultures, potentially driving them to the periphery or extinction. This dominance also results in a biased international academic community where non-English-speaking researchers may face discrimination. However, the advent of multilingual policies has begun to erode the monolithic nature of English hegemony. The emergence of distinct English varieties—such as Japanese English, Indian English, and other localized iterations—epitomizes the language’s adaptability to diverse civilizational contexts.

In conclusion, the implementation of language policy in countries where English is not the primary language requires a deep understanding of the complex implications of English dominance. The prevailing worldwide influence of the English language, while facilitating global communication, poses a potential threat to the preservation and recognition of indigenous languages and cultures. Therefore, it is important to carefully navigate the strategic formulation of these policies, ensuring that they effectively promote the progress and global integration of national languages while preserving their distinct cultural identities, which are integral to their inherent worth.

To achieve this objective, it is essential to implement the promotion of national languages at the global level while considering and incorporating the prevailing linguistic and cultural frameworks in the targeted areas. The use of customized approaches that are tailored to the particular sociolinguistic contexts of the intended recipients is necessary, as opposed to relying on generic procedures. Hence, language policy needs to be firmly rooted in culturally sensitive methodologies that prioritize the safeguarding of linguistic variety, while simultaneously recognizing the pervasive existence and practicality of English as a global means of communication.

Furthermore, these policies must include the development and distribution of information in several languages, the promotion of translation and interpretation services, and the nurturing of intercultural communication skills. It is essential to promote educational systems that prioritize the significance of acquiring proficiency in several languages. This approach will effectively equip forthcoming generations with the necessary skills to effectively navigate and actively participate in an ever more linked global society. To effectively expand the influence of national languages and enhance the diversity of global linguistics, language policymakers must engage in collaborative efforts with educators, linguists, and cultural specialists, prioritizing the development of language policies that promote linguistic plurality and intercultural comprehension.

It is imperative that these policies effectively acknowledge and promote the vast array of global languages, fostering an environment that encourages active participation and genuine appreciation within the worldwide community. This recognition of linguistic variety serves as a gateway to accessing a multitude of information and views, enriching the collective understanding. Employing these collective efforts, it is conceivable to envisage a global scenario wherein English dominance coexists harmoniously with, and indeed fosters, a diverse and thriving tapestry of languages and cultures.

To effectively harness English while preserving linguistic diversity in the context of globalization, countries like China, France, Japan, and Brazil can adopt tailored strategies. China could integrate English into its education system to foster bilingualism, while France might boost its cultural exchange programs with English-speaking nations for improved language skills and cultural insights. Japan could benefit from language policy reforms enhancing English education, balancing it with Japanese cultural preservation. Brazil, with its linguistic richness, might develop media in both Portuguese and English to maintain language balance. These countries can also encourage research and publications in both English and native languages for global outreach and local relevance. Community language programs, particularly vital in linguistically diverse nations like Brazil, can aid in preserving indigenous languages. Additionally, advocating for multilingualism in international platforms can help these countries navigate the complexities of English’s global dominance.

In this paper, we examined Phillipson’s concept of English linguistic imperialism, as well as the dynamic development of the theory and practices of English language hegemony, through a sociolinguistic perspective. It emphasizes the interconnection between the growth of English dominance and the expansion of the British Empire and the United States. It examines the role of the British imperial outreach in embedding English across Asia and Africa, where it served as a tool for colonial rule. The paper then transitions to discussing how the United States, with its significant political and economic influence, further propelled English into the status of a global lingua franca . The focus shifts to the paradoxical effects of English dominance, especially its role in advancing science, technology, and economics in non-English-speaking regions. Additionally, the paper considers the unifying role of English in linguistically diverse countries, while acknowledging that this serves as a temporary solution in the face of complex linguistic dynamics.

This inquiry into English hegemony’s duality concludes that, although English serves as a vehicle for advancement, it also threatens the survival of local languages and cultures, thus embodying a dualistic nature. For non-English-speaking countries to leverage English beneficially, they must navigate this dichotomy with strategic cultural and linguistic preservation efforts. Examples include multilingual policies in the Philippines, Malaysia, and China, which aim to bolster indigenous languages while also mitigating English dependence in education and other sectors. A shift away from an overemphasis on British and American pronunciation norms—often misperceived as the gold standard—is advisable, reinforcing the primary objective of language acquisition: effective communication.

The fundamental shortcoming of the research is its inadequate analysis of the complexities behind the dominance of current English, highlighting the need for a more comprehensive academic investigation. The drawback of this research stems from its narrow emphasis on multilingual policies, which, while important, do not fully cover the many complexities imposed by globalization and cultural interactions. This approach fails to acknowledge the unique obstacles and circumstances faced by various nations and areas when it comes to adjusting to the prevalence of English. To bridge these knowledge gaps, it is recommended that future research endeavors explore the intricate relationship between globalization and linguistic dynamics. Additionally, it is imperative to investigate the multifaceted function of the English language in international arenas such as diplomacy and commerce. Furthermore, a comprehensive assessment of the repercussions of English on local cultures and languages is needed. The proposed extended inquiry would provide a more thorough comprehension of the intricacies surrounding English hegemony, considering many worldwide viewpoints and ramifications. Additionally, it would offer valuable insights to guide more knowledgeable language policy and educational approaches.

As globalization advances, the role of English is expected to evolve due to technological progress and geopolitical changes. The digital age and widespread internet access have made English central to global communication and information exchange. The impending Fourth Industrial Revolution, with developments in AI and machine learning, could further amplify English’s importance in global economic, scientific, and technological spheres (Skilton & Hovsepian, 2018 ). However, the rise of non-Western powers, especially China, may lead to a more diverse linguistic landscape. Additionally, the significance of regional economic groups like RCEP and CPTPP, alongside a focus on preserving indigenous cultures, could encourage the use of local languages along with English (Pomfret, 2021 ). While English is expected to maintain its global dominance, it faces increasing challenges from emerging powers and the push for linguistic diversity due to cultural and regional dynamics.

Recent scholarship has provided new insights into the complexities of English hegemony in the modern era, revealing its multifaceted impacts on global communication, cultural identity, and power structures. Scholars like Phillipson ( 2022 ) highlight the challenges to linguistic diversity posed by English’s pervasive influence as a global communication tool. Meanwhile, critiques of dual language bilingual education, such as those by Freire et al. ( 2022 ), expose how neoliberal ideologies and ‘white streaming’ reinforce English dominance, often to the detriment of other languages. Additionally, O’Regan’s ( 2021 ) work delves into how global English is intertwined with capitalist structures, shaping global power dynamics. These insights collectively underscore the cultural, economic, and educational consequences of English’s global dominance and the challenges it poses for maintaining linguistic diversity.

Furthermore, the nuances of English hegemony reflect a dynamic interplay between globalization, cultural identity, and power. English has evolved from merely a language to a symbol of global connectivity, essential for economic and educational opportunities. Its role in international business, technology, and academia marks it as a crucial gateway for global participation. However, this dominance also leads to the marginalization of local languages and cultures, raising concerns about linguistic imperialism and cultural homogenization. The emergence of “World Englishes” challenges the traditional native-speaker model, advocating for the legitimacy of diverse English varieties (Kirkpatrick, 2023 ; Melchers et al., 2019 ; Schneider, 2018 ). This shift represents a broader perspective on English as a tool for cross-cultural communication, rather than a symbol of cultural superiority. Consequently, the hegemony of English is not just about the language itself but also its intersection with identity, power, and access in an increasingly globalised world.

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Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

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Acknowledgements

The authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to the Humanities and Social Sciences Youth Foundation of the Ministry of Education of China as this paper was supported by it under the project “A dialectical study of English linguistic imperialism in the Philippines from the perspective of the Belt and Road Initiative”, Grant Number: 18YJC740006.

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Zeng, J., Yang, J. English language hegemony: retrospect and prospect. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 317 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02821-z

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‘Lamb’ Scribe Sjón Boards Gothic Drama ‘The Wolf Will Tear Your Immaculate Hands’ From ‘Clara Sola’’s Nathalie Álvarez Mesén ‘(EXCLUSIVE)

By Annika Pham

Annika Pham

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Maverick Icelandic scribe Sjón, Oscar-nominated for the lyrics of Lars von Trier’s “Dancer in the Dark” and co-writer of the eerie Cannes Un Certain Regard title “Lamb,” has teamed up with multi-awarded Swedish-Costa-Rican Nathalie Álvarez-Mesén (“Clara Sola”) on her sophomore feature “The Wolf Will Tear Your Immaculate Hands,”,  Variety  has learned.

The English-language gothic period drama is backed by Hobab ’s Nima Yousefi, Swedish co-producer on this year’s Cannes competition entry “The Apprentice” and Critics’ Week’s “Julie Keeps Quiet”.

Popular on Variety

“The Wolf…” marks Yousefi and the young auteur’s second collaboration after her breakthrough movie “Clara Sola,” one of the most buzziest titles in Cannes 2021’s Directors’ Fortnight which sold worldwide, including to Oscilloscope for the U.S. It went on to represent Costa Rica at the Oscars. Álvarez-Mesén’s “spellbinding debut” is “a strange and mesmerizing tale of mysticism and sexual awakening in rural Costa Rica,”  Variety  said in its review.

According to Yousefi, Álvarez-Mesén’s follow up pic will be a  “ period drama which plays with the gothic genre and digs deeper into a more eerie magical realism than ‘Clara Sola.’”

According to a description, set in the 1860s, the period piece turns on a Native American woman, educated in a Christian mission school, then sent to a remote area of the U.S. Pacific Northwest to work as a governess. Her task is to educate the two daughters of a British widower. With the arranged marriage of the eldest daughter looming closer, household tensions arise and expose a deep connection between the women and the forest, despite the father’s attempt at keeping nature at bay.

“With this film,” she continues, “I’m interested in exploring the effects of colonization, how bridges are broken between generations, and if those bridges can be rebuilt.”

Four-Handed Script

Álvarez-Mesén’s original script, initiated before the making of “Clara Sola,” has now ended up as a four-handed piece, co-authored by Iceland’s prominent poet, novelist, lyricist, and screenwriter Sjón.

Asked how he came onboard, the co-writer of Robert Eggers’s “The Northman” and Valdimar Jóhannsson’s “Lamb” said: “I saw ‘Clara Sola’ in 2019, when it premiered in Cannes at the same time as ‘Lamb,’ and it became my favourite film of that year.”

“As someone who’s worked with myths and folk stories in novels, songs and screenplays, I was immediately fascinated by Nathalie’s command of bringing to the screen something as difficult as the shifting borders between the inner and outer reality of her film’s protagonist,” he says. “So, when Nima [Yousefi] approached me and offered me to join them on her next film, I saw it as a wonderful invitation to work with a fellow mythographer.”

About his personal touch to the narrative, Sjón adds: “I hope I have brought to it some of my knowledge of how to depict the past while staying true to the beliefs of the people who lived there. In this case, it is a worldview that will be unsettling to contemporary sensibilities, and that is something that makes for a good story. I may also have added some dark Northern lyricism to Nathalie’s warm Latin American poetry,” he says.

Yousefi whose motto is “to combine arthouse sensitivity with mainstream appeal,”  said “The Wolf…” will be his biggest project ever. “It will be challenging but perfectly manageable,” he said, mentioning Álvarez-Mesén’s recent experience as episodic director on the U.S. show “Three Women,” starring Shailene Woodley.

Next to Alvarez-Mesén, up-and-coming talent on Hobab’s roster include Sweden’s Mika Gustafson, multi-prized for her debut “Paradise is Burning,” and Belgium’s Leonardo van Dijl, picked for Critics’ Week with “Julie Keeps Quiet.” The former Cannes ‘Producer on the Move’ is also co-producing  Ali Abbasi’s much-anticipated Palme d’or contender “The Apprentice,” set to world premiere May 20 in Cannes. 

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