annotation of a quantitative research article example

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How to Write an Annotated Bibliography

Writing annotations.

• Introduction
• New RefWorks
• Formatting Citations
• Sample Annotated Bibliographies

An annotation is a brief note following each citation listed on an annotated bibliography.  The goal is to briefly summarize the source and/or explain why it is important for a topic.  They are typically a single concise paragraph, but might be longer if you are summarizing and evaluating.

Annotations can be written in a variety of different ways and it’s important to consider the style you are going to use.  Are you simply summarizing the sources, or evaluating them?  How does the source influence your understanding of the topic?  You can follow any style you want if you are writing for your own personal research process, but consult with your professor if this is an assignment for a class.

Annotation Styles

• Combined Informative/Evaluative Style - This style is recommended by the library as it combines all the styles to provide a more complete view of a source.  The annotation should explain the value of the source for the overall research topic by providing a summary combined with an analysis of the source.  

Aluedse, O. (2006). Bullying in schools: A form of child abuse in schools.  Educational Research Quarterly ,  30 (1), 37.

The author classifies bullying in schools as a “form of child abuse,” and goes well beyond the notion that schoolyard bullying is “just child’s play.” The article provides an in-depth definition of bullying, and explores the likelihood that school-aged bullies may also experience difficult lives as adults. The author discusses the modern prevalence of bullying in school systems, the effects of bullying, intervention strategies, and provides an extensive list of resources and references.

Statistics included provide an alarming realization that bullying is prevalent not only in the United States, but also worldwide. According to the author, “American schools harbor approximately 2.1 million bullies and 2.7 million victims.” The author references the National Association of School Psychologists and quotes, “Thus, one in seven children is a bully or a target of bullying.” A major point of emphasis centers around what has always been considered a “normal part of growing up” versus the levels of actual abuse reached in today’s society.

The author concludes with a section that addresses intervention strategies for school administrators, teachers, counselors, and school staff. The concept of school staff helping build students’ “social competence” is showcased as a prevalent means of preventing and reducing this growing social menace. Overall, the article is worthwhile for anyone interested in the subject matter, and provides a wealth of resources for researching this topic of growing concern.

(Renfrow & Teuton, 2008)

• Informative Style -  Similar to an abstract, this style focuses on the summarizing the source.  The annotation should identify the hypothesis, results, and conclusions presented by the source.

Plester, B., Wood, C, & Bell, V. (2008). Txt msg n school literacy: Does texting and knowledge of text abbreviations adversely affect children's literacy attainment? Literacy , 42(3), 137-144.

Reports on two studies that investigated the relationship between children's texting behavior, their knowledge of text abbreviations, and their school attainment in written language skills. In Study One, 11 to 12 year-old children reported their texting behavior and translated a standard English sentence into a text message and vice versa. In Study Two, children's performance on writing measures were examined more specifically, spelling proficiency was also assessed, and KS2 Writing scores were obtained. Positive correlations between spelling ability and performance on the translation exercise were found, and group-based comparisons based on the children's writing scores also showed that good writing attainment was associated with greater use of texting abbreviations (textisms), although the direction of this association is not clear. Overall, these findings suggest that children's knowledge of textisms is not associated with poor written language outcomes for children in this age range. 

(Beach et al., 2009)

• Evaluative Style - This style analyzes and critically evaluates the source.  The annotation should comment on the source's the strengths, weaknesses, and how it relates to the overall research topic.

Amott, T. (1993). Caught in the Crisis: Women in the U.S. Economy Today . New York: Monthly Review Press.

A very readable (140 pp) economic analysis and information book which I am currently considering as a required collateral assignment in Economics 201. Among its many strengths is a lucid connection of "The Crisis at Home" with the broader, macroeconomic crisis of the U.S. working class (which various other authors have described as the shrinking middle class or the crisis of de-industrialization).

(Papadantonakis, 1996)

• Indicative Style - This style of annotation identifies the main theme and lists the significant topics included in the source.  Usually no specific details are given beyond the topic list . 

Example: 

Gambell, T.J., & Hunter, D. M. (1999). Rethinking gender differences in literacy. Canadian Journal of Education , 24(1) 1-16.

Five explanations are offered for recently assessed gender differences in the literacy achievement of male and female students in Canada and other countries. The explanations revolve around evaluative bias, home socialization, role and societal expectations, male psychology, and equity policy.

(Kerka & Imel, 2004)

Beach, R., Bigelow, M., Dillon, D., Dockter, J., Galda, L., Helman, L., . . . Janssen, T. (2009). Annotated Bibliography of Research in the Teaching of English.  Research in the Teaching of English,   44 (2), 210-241. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27784357

Kerka, S., & Imel, S. (2004). Annotated bibliography: Women and literacy.  Women's Studies Quarterly,  32 (1), 258-271. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/233645656?accountid=2909

Papadantonakis, K. (1996). Selected Annotated Bibliography for Economists and Other Social Scientists.  Women's Studies Quarterly,   24 (3/4), 233-238. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40004384

Renfrow, T.G., & Teuton, L.M. (2008). Schoolyard bullying: Peer victimization an annotated bibliography. Community & Junior College Libraries, 14(4), 251-­275. doi:10.1080/02763910802336407

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• v.37(16); 2022 Apr 25

A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

How to Prepare an Annotated Bibliography

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Sample Annotations

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SAMPLE DESCRIPTIVE ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRY FOR A JOURNAL ARTICLE

The following example uses the APA format for the journal citation.

Waite, L. J., Goldschneider, F. K., & Witsberger, C. (1986). Nonfamily living and the erosion of traditional family orientations among young adults. American Sociological Review, 51 (4), 541-554.

This example uses the MLA format for the journal citation. NOTE: Standard MLA practice requires double spacing within citations.

Waite, Linda J., Frances Kobrin Goldscheider, and Christina Witsberger. "Nonfamily Living and the Erosion of Traditional Family Orientations Among Young Adults." American Sociological Review 51.4 (1986): 541-554. Print.

More Sample Annotations

• ​​ Annotated Bibliography Examples
• ​ Annotated Bibliography Samples

The University of Toronto offers  an example  that illustrates how to summarize a study's research methods and argument.

The Memorial University of Newfoundland presents  these examples of both descriptive and critical annotations.

The Writing Center at the University of Wisconsin gives examples  of the some of the most common forms of annotated bibliographies.

The Writing Center at the University of North Carolina gives examples of several different forms of annotated bibliographies in 3 popular citation formats: 

• MLA Example
• APA Example
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What is an Annotated Bibliography?

An annotated bibliography is a summary and evaluation of a resource. According to Merriam-Webster, a bibliography is “the works or a list of the works referred to in a text or consulted by the author in its production.” Your references (APA) or Works Cited (MLA) can be considered a bibliography. A bibliography follows a documentation style and usually includes bibliographic information (i.e., the author(s), title, publication date, place of publication, publisher, etc.). An annotation refers to explanatory notes or comments on a source.

An annotated bibliography, therefore, typically consists of:

Documentation for each source you have used, following the required documentation style.

For each entry, one to three paragraphs that:

Begins  with a summary ,

Evaluates  the reliability of the information,

Demonstrates  how the information relates to previous and future research.

Entries in an annotated bibliography should be in alphabetical order.

** Please note: This may vary depending on your professor’s requirements.

Why Write an Annotated Bibliography?

Why Write an Annotated Bibliography

Writing an annotated bibliography will help you understand your topics in-depth.

An annotated bibliography is useful for organizing and cataloging resources when developing an argument.

Formatting an Annotated Bibliography

Formatting Annotated Bibliographies

• Use 1-inch margins all around
• Indent annotations ½ inch from the left margin.
• Use double spacing.
• Entries should be in alphabetical order.

Structure of an Annotated Bibliography

This table provides a high-level outline of the structure of a research article and how each section relates to important information for developing an annotated bibliography.

Annotated Bibliography Sample Outline

Author, S. A. (date of publication). Title of the article.  Title of Periodical, vol.  (issue), page-page.  https://doi.org/XXXXXX

Write one or two paragraphs that focus on the study and its findings.

• Two or more sentences that outline the thesis, hypothesis, and population of the study.
• Two or more sentences that discuss the methodology.
• Two or more sentences that discuss the study findings.  
• One or more sentences evaluating the study and its relationship to other studies.

Sample Annotated Bibliographies

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Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Improving quantitative writing one sentence at a time

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Biology Department, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California, United States of America

Roles Formal analysis, Writing – original draft

Roles Data curation, Funding acquisition, Validation, Writing – review & editing

• Tracy Ruscetti, 
• Katherine Krueger, 
• Christelle Sabatier

• Published: September 12, 2018
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109
• Reader Comments

Scientific writing, particularly quantitative writing, is difficult to master. To help undergraduate students write more clearly about data, we sought to deconstruct writing into discrete, specific elements. We focused on statements typically used to describe data found in the results sections of research articles (quantitative comparative statements, QC). In this paper, we define the essential components of a QC statement and the rules that govern those components. Clearly defined rules allowed us to quantify writing quality of QC statements (4C scoring). Using 4C scoring, we measured student writing gains in a post-test at the end of the term compared to a pre-test (37% improvement). In addition to overall score, 4C scoring provided insight into common writing mistakes by measuring presence/absence of each essential component. Student writing quality in lab reports improved when they practiced writing isolated QC statements. Although we observed a significant increase in writing quality in lab reports describing a simple experiment, we noted a decrease in writing quality when the complexity of the experimental system increased. Our data suggest a negative correlation of writing quality with complexity. We discuss how our data aligns with existing cognitive theories of writing and how science instructors might improve the scientific writing of their students.

Citation: Ruscetti T, Krueger K, Sabatier C (2018) Improving quantitative writing one sentence at a time. PLoS ONE 13(9): e0203109. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109

Editor: Mitchell Rabinowitz, Fordham University, UNITED STATES

Received: August 26, 2017; Accepted: August 15, 2018; Published: September 12, 2018

Copyright: © 2018 Ruscetti et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: The authors received financial support from Santa Clara University through the Faculty Development Office (T.R.) and the Office of Assessment (T.R. and C.S.).

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Written communication of data is at the core of scholarly discourse among scientists and is an important learning goal for science students in undergraduate education [ 1 ]. For scientists, the currency of scientific dialogue is the research article, which presents essential information required to convince an audience that data are compelling, findings are relevant, and interpretations are valid [ 2 , 3 ]. Writing lab reports that contain the elements of a research article is a widely used method to help students develop critical thinking and quantitative reasoning skills. In our introductory, lab-intensive Cell and Molecular Biology course, we focus on helping students develop the “results” section of their lab report. Students integrate tables, graphs, and text to present and interpret data they have generated in the laboratory. In the text portion, students cannot simply restate previously learned information (“knowledge telling;” [ 4 , 5 ]) or narrate through the data presented visually. Rather, students must mimic the actions of professional researchers by transforming data into knowledge and structuring their arguments to support specific claims/conclusions. This type of inquiry-based writing encourages active participation in the scientific process, enhancing engagement and learning [ 6 , 7 ].

While science instructors recognize the importance of writing in their courses, many do not provide explicit writing instruction [ 8 ]. Instructors may fear that teaching writing skills diverts time from teaching required science concepts, expect that writing is covered in composition courses, or lack the tools and resources to teach writing [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. We wanted to support writing in our course without diverting focus from the conceptual and discipline-specific content of the course. We examined available writing resources (e.g., books, websites) and found substantial resources regarding the macro structure of the report (e.g., describing the sections and broad organization of the lab reports, [ 11 , 12 ]. We also found resources for sentence level support related to emphasis and voice [ 13 ]. However, these resources do not give students explicit guidance as to how to write about quantitative information. Thus, it is not surprising that many students struggle to both construct appropriate quantitative evidence statements and express them in writing [ 14 ].

There are, however, a few important resources that explore the structure of writing about quantitative information. Each describe comparisons as a primary mode of providing quantitative evidence, (e.g., The lifespan of cells grown in the presence of drug is 25% shorter than the lifespan of control cells .). In her book about writing about numbers, Miller discusses “quantitative comparisons” as a fundamental skill in quantitative writing [ 15 ]. Jessica Polito states that many disciplines use comparisons as the basis of quantitative evidence statements that support conclusions [ 14 ], and Grawe uses the presence of a comparison as a measure of sophisticated quantitative writing [ 16 ]. We focused on these types of comparative evidence statements and called them Quantitative Comparative statements (QC). We found this type of statement was commonly used to describe data in the scientific literature, and we decided to emphasize the correct construction of these statements in student writing.

We analyzed over a thousand QC statements from student and professional scientific writing to discover the critical elements of a QC statement and the rules that govern those elements. We found that a QC statement needs to have a comparison, a quantitative relational phrase, and at least one contextual element. These essential elements of the QC statement can be thought of as sentence-level syntax. We then developed a metric to measure writing syntax of the QC statement and by proxy, quantitative writing quality. We examined the effectiveness of different approaches to support writing in a course setting and show that practice writing QC statements with feedback can improve student writing. We also investigated how the circumstances of the writing assignment can change the quality of quantitative writing. Together, these data provide insight into how we might improve undergraduate science writing instruction and the clarity of scientific writing.

Methods and materials

Student population and course structure.

We collected data at Santa Clara University (SCU), a private liberal arts university that is a primarily undergraduate institution. Participants were recruited from BIOL25 –Investigations in Cell and Molecular Biology, a lower-division biology course. Prerequisites include a quarter of introductory physiology, a year (3 quarters) of general chemistry and one quarter of organic chemistry. BIOL25 consists of three interactive lecture periods (65 minutes) and one laboratory period (165 minutes) per week. The lecture periods focus on preparing for the laboratory experience, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. Laboratory sessions focus on data collection, data analysis and peer feedback activities. During the 10-week quarter, two experimental modules (Enzyme Kinetics and Transcription Regulation) culminate in a lab report. Students organize and communicate their analyzed data in tables and graphs and communicate their conclusions and reasoning in written form. We provide a detailed rubric for the lab reports and a set of explicit instructions for each lab report ( S2 Fig ). In addition, students participate in peer feedback activities with an opportunity to revise prior to submission.

The basic structure of the course was unchanged between 2014 and 2016. The students were distributed among two lecture sections taught by the same instructors and 13 laboratory sections led by 5 different instructors. All students included in this study signed an informed consent form (213 of 214). This study was reviewed and approved by the Santa Clara University Institutional Review Board (project #15-09-700).

Instructional support

General writing feedback (2014–2016)..

In all iterations of the course discussed in this article, students received general writing feedback after each lab report. In each lab report, students wrote paragraphs in response to prompting questions regarding the data. Writing feedback was holistic and included phrases such as “not quantitative”, or “inappropriate comparison,” but was not specific to any type of sentence.

Calculation support (2015–2016).

In 2015 and 2016, students were explicitly introduced to strategies for quantifying relational differences between data points such as percent difference and fold change. Students were given opportunities to practice calculating these values during in class activities prior to writing their lab reports. We stressed that phrases such as more than, drastically higher, and vanishingly small were not quantitative.

Explicit QC statement writing support (2016).

In 2016, we introduced and practiced using quantitative comparative statement as the means to communicate quantitative results. In class, we discussed including an explicit comparison of two conditions and the quantitative relationship between them. Before each lab report, we asked students to write quantitative comparative statements related to the data. We provided formative feedback on the accuracy of the statement and general feedback such as, “not quantitative”, or “inappropriate comparison”. Students in this study were never exposed to the concept of 4C annotation or scoring. We used the scoring strategy exclusively to measure their writing progress.

Identification of quantitative comparative statements (QC)

Quantitative comparative statements are a subset of evidence statements. In native writing (scientific articles or student lab reports), we identified QC statements by the presence of 1) a relational preposition (between, among, etc.), or 2) prepositional phrase ("compared to", "faster/slower than", etc.), 3) a statistical reference (p value), or 4) the presence of quantified change (3 fold, 10% different).

Syntactic elements of QC statements

We examined a corpus of over 1000 QC statements to identify and characterize the essential elements of a QC statement and the rules that govern those elements. Quantitative comparative statements generally take the form of “ The activity of the enzyme is 30% higher in condition X compared to condition Y ”. We identified three critical elements of the quantitative comparative statement: the things being compared (Comparison, condition X and condition Y ), the quantitative relationship between those conditions (Calculation, 30% higher ), and the measurement that gave rise to the compared values (Context, enzyme activity ). Finally, all three elements must be in the same sentence with no redundancy or contradiction (Clarity). These rules are collectively called “4C”.

Syntactic rules for quantitative comparative statements

The Calculation must quantify the relationship between the two compared elements and include both magnitude and direction. Fold change or percent difference are common methods of describing quantitative relationships [ 15 ]. Using absolute or raw values are not sufficient to describe the relationship between the compared elements and are not sufficient. If there is no significant difference between the compared elements, then statistical data must be cited. Context provides additional information about the measurement from which the quantitative comparison was derived, such as growth rate, enzyme activity, etc., or the time at which the comparison was made. The context should be the same for both of the compared elements. Comparisons are usually between like elements (e.g. time vs. time, condition vs. condition) and there should be two and only two in a single sentence. Both compared elements must be explicitly stated so that the reader is not guessing the intended comparison of the writer. A QC statement has Clarity when all three elements are present and in the same sentence. We consider a statement to be “unclear” if it contains inconsistencies or redundancies.

Annotation and scoring of QC statements

We use “annotation” to describe the visual marking of the critical elements of the quantitative comparative statement. We use “scoring” to mean the assignment of a score to a quantitative comparative statement. 4C annotation and 4C scoring do not reflect whether the statement or any of its components are correct, but rather they highlight the syntactic structure of the quantitative comparative statement ( Fig 1 ).

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

(A) Original quantitative comparative statement. (B) Identify and box the relational phrase with both magnitude and direction. (C) Circle what the relational phrase refers to (context). (D) Underline the comparison. (E) Fully 4C annotated quantitative comparative statement.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.g001

Annotation process.

We scanned the results sections of published primary journal articles or student lab reports for relational phrases such as faster than, increased, more than, lower than, etc., and drew a box around the relational phrase , or calculation ( Fig 1B ). If the calculation is an absolute value, a raw value, refers to no particular value, or is missing the magnitude or direction, we would strike through the box. Context . Once the relational phrase, or calculation, was identified, we drew a circle around the information, or context , referred to by the relational phrase ( Fig 1C ). Comparison . The relational phrase and the context helped us identify the comparison and we underlined the compared elements ( Fig 1D ).

4C scoring strategy.

To score an annotated statement, a “1” or a “0” is given to each of the three critical components of the quantitative comparative statement. If all the elements are present in a single sentence, there are no redundancies or inconsistencies, a fourth “1” is awarded for clarity. We call this annotation and scoring strategy “4C” to reflect each of the three critical components and the overall clarity of the statement ( Table 1 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.t001

Student writing samples

Pre-test/post-test..

In 2016, student writing was assessed using identical pre- and post-tests. The pre-test was administered on the first day of class prior to any writing support. The post-test was administered as part of the final exam. The pre/post assessment consisted of a graph and data table ( S1 Fig ). The prompts asked the students to analyze the data to answer a specific question related to the data and to use quantitative comparative statements.

Student sampling for lab report analysis.

For the lab reports in 2016, we sampled 40 students from a stratified student population (based on overall grade in the course) and 4C scored all of their quantitative comparative statements in each lab report. On average, students wrote 5–6 quantitative comparative statements per results section for a total of over 200 4C scored statements for each lab report. We scored over 100 statements from 17–20 lab reports in 2014 and 2015.

Complexity index

We based complexity on the number of values (data points) students would have to parse to develop a QC statement. The complexity of a given experiment is in part determined by number of conditions tested in an experiment and the different types of measurements used. For example, in lab report #1 (Enzyme Kinetics) students consider 3 experimental conditions (control and two separate variables) and 2 measurements (K m and V max ). Thus we calculated a complexity index of 6 (3 conditions x 2 measurements) for lab report #1. In this measure of complexity index, we assumed that all parameters contributed equally to the complexity of the experiment, and that all parameters were equally likely to be considered by students as they developed their written conclusions. However, by designing specific writing prompts, we could guide students to examine a smaller subset of data points and reduce complexity of the situation. In lab report #1 for example, we can prompt students to consider only the effect of the treatment on a single variable such that they only consider 2 conditions (the control and the single experimental variable described in the prompt) and 2 measurements. Now, students are focused on a subset of data and the complexity of the situation could be considered “4”.

Quantitative comparative statements are universally used to describe data

Having decided to focus on QC statements in student writing, we first wanted to quantify their occurrence in professional writing. We examined the results sections in all the research articles from three issues of pan-scientific journals: Science, Nature, PLOS-One, and PNAS. We identified an average of 7–15 QC statements in each research article, with no significant difference in the mean number of QC statements among the different journals ( Fig 2 , ANOVA, p = 0.194). There was also no difference of the number of QC statements among the different disciplines (Kruskal-Wallis, p = 0.302). Out of the 60 articles examined, we found only one article that did not have a single QC statement to describe the data ( Fig 2 , Nature). These data suggest that QC statements are used in professional forms of quantitative writing to describe data in many different disciplines.

The mean (middle vertical line) ± SD are shown. Physical science papers are denoted in red, Biological sciences are in blue, and Social sciences are in green.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.g002

4C scoring used to measure quantitative writing

In 2016, students practiced writing QC statements related to their data and we provided feedback (see Methods ). We measured the effectiveness of the focused writing practice using 4C scoring of QC statements from a pre- and post-test (see Methods and Table 1 ). We observed a 37% increase in student 4C scores on the post-test assessment compared to the pre-test (p < 0.001, Fig 3A ). In addition, we used 4C scoring to interrogate the impact of the writing intervention on each of the required components of the QC statement ( Fig 3B ). We observed improvements in each of the components of QC statements ( Fig 3C ). In the post-test, over 80% of students included a calculation (magnitude and direction), referred explicitly to both items being compared, and referenced the measurement context for their comparison. Only 25% of students produced completely clear statements, meaning that they were not missing any elements, and did not contain redundant or contradictory phrases. Despite the low post-test clarity score, we observed a 40% improvement in students writing completely clear statements in the post-test compared to the pre-test score ( Fig 3C ).

( A) Mean 4C scores of quantitative comparative statements on an identical pre- and post- test. (B) Percent of statements that contain each of the essential components of a QC statement. (C) Percent difference between the pre-test and post-test broken down by essential components of QC statements. (***t-test, p < 0.001) Error bars in A represent Standard Error of the Mean (SEM).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.g003

We next asked if we could measure student learning gains in quantitative writing within the context of a lab report. Students write 2 lab reports per term and we provided varying forms of writing feedback over several iterations of the course (see Methods ). We scored QC statements in two lab reports from 2014 (general writing feedback only), 2015 (general writing feedback and calculation support) and 2016 (general writing feedback, calculation support, and sentence-level writing practice) ( Fig 4A ). There was no appreciable impact on writing quality when we added calculation support to general feedback in 2015 compared to feedback alone in 2014 (t test, p = 0.55, Fig 4A ). However, the addition of sentence-level QC writing support in 2016 resulted in a 22% increase in student mean 4C scores on lab report #1 compared to the same report in 2015 ( Fig 4A , t test, p < 0.05). We noticed the same trends in lab report #2 ( Fig 4B ): general writing feedback and calculation support did not improve scores as compared to general feedback alone (t test, p = 0.88). However, we observed an 80% increase in 4C scores on lab report #2 when we provided sentence-level writing practice compared to feedback alone ( Fig 4B , t test, p < 0.001). The mean 4C scores in each year for each assessment, as well as the forms of writing support employed, are summarized in Table 2 . Overall, these data suggest that sentence-level writing practice with feedback is important in helping students improve the syntax of quantitative writing.

(A) Mean 4C scores of QC statements from lab reports (enzyme kinetics). (B) Mean 4C scores of QC statements from second lab reports (transcriptional regulation). (C) Percent difference between the two lab reports within a given year, broken down by essential components (*p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001) Error bars in A and B represent SEM.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.g004

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.t002

We were surprised to find that although the trends in the data were similar between the two lab reports, the mean 4C scores of QC statements in lab report #2 were 40% lower than in lab report #1 in both 2014 and 2015 (t test, p < 0.0001, Fig 4A versus 4B ). We predicted that writing skills would either improve with focused practice, or not change over the course of the quarter. To understand which components of the quantitative comparative statement were differentially impacted in the two lab reports, we calculated the relative frequency with which each component was included in a QC statement. Then, we calculated the difference of those frequencies between the first and second lab report for each year ( Fig 4C ). A column below the x-axis indicates that students made particular mistakes more often in lab report #2 ( Fig 4C ). In 2014, students were able to make comparisons equally well between both lab reports, but students struggled to include a quantitative difference or provide context in their evidence statements ( Fig 4C ). In 2015, in addition to general writing feedback, we also provided instructional support to calculate relative differences. We noted that students were able to incorporate both comparisons and calculations into their QC statements in both reports. However, they often omitted the context ( Fig 4C ). The frequency of mistakes made by students is significantly different between lab report #1 and lab report #2 (Chi squared, p < 0.001). These data suggest that feedback alone is not sufficient to improve quantitative writing. In 2016, we provided targeted practice at the sentence level and observed no significant difference in mean 4C scores between the two lab reports ( Fig 4B , t test, p = 0.0596), suggesting that the writing skills of students did not decrease from one lab report to the next. Additionally, students included the four elements of the QC statement equally well between the two lab reports (Chi squared, p = 0.6530, Fig 4C , 2016). Thus, when students receive targeted, sentence-level writing practice, their ability to write QC statements improves.

Quantitative writing quality is negatively impacted by complexity

We were perplexed as to why quantitative writing syntax (as measured by mean 4C scores) declined in lab report #2 compared to lab report #1 in both 2014 and 2015 ( Fig 4A and 4B ). Because we view the essential components of QC statements as analogous to syntactic rules that govern writing of QC statements, we can apply principles and theories that govern writing skills writ large. Research from writing in English Composition shows that writing ability, as measured by sentence level syntax, deteriorates when the writer is struggling with basic comprehension [ 17 , 18 ]. We hypothesized that students’ ability to write about data also might be negatively impacted when students struggled to comprehend the conceptual system they were asked to interrogate. However, we found no correlation between mean 4C scores and any assessment of conceptual material (data not shown). Nor was there an association between mean 4C scores on the lab reports and the related sections of the final (data not shown). Together, these data suggest that conceptual comprehension does not impact writing of a QC statement.

In addition to conceptual understanding, QC statements require that the writer parse through the data set to select the relevant data points to interrogate. We hypothesized that the number of data points (values) in the data set may negatively impact QC statement syntax. We calculated the complexity of different assignments (see methods ) and plotted mean 4C scores as a function of complexity index. We performed linear regression analysis on those mean 4C scores from writing samples occurring prior to formal writing intervention (2014 and 2015 lab reports, and the 2016 pre-test, Fig 5A , closed circles) and those that occur after specific writing intervention (2016 lab reports and 2016 post-test, Fig 5A , open circles). There is a strong inverse correlation between writing as measured by mean 4C scores and complexity (r 2 = 0.9471 for supported and r 2 = 0.9644 for unsupported writing, Fig 5A ). Moreover, the slopes of the lines generated from the regression analysis of mean 4C scores do not vary significantly despite writing interventions (p = 0.3449). Although the task complexity in 2016 was reduced relative to 2015, the negative impact of complexity on writing persisted. Thus, as the complexity of experimental data sets increases, the ability to write clearly decreases regardless of the writing intervention.

(A) Writing syntax as a function of complexity measured by 4C scoring and reported as either unsupported (closed circles) or supported (open circles) by instructional intervention. Linear regression lines are shown (unsupported, R 2 = 0.9644, supported R 2 = 0.9471). (B) Students were stratified based on overall performance in the course. Statements from students within the group were averaged and reported. Error bars represent SEM.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.g005

Complexity differentially impacts specific populations of students

Part of the developmental process of analytical reasoning is parsing relevant from irrelevant data [ 1 ]. We asked if subpopulations of our students were more capable of parsing information from larger data sets than others. We stratified 2016 students into quartiles based on overall performance in the course. We measured the mean 4C scores from the post-test and both lab reports, and plotted mean 4C score as a function of “constrained” complexity ( Fig 5B ). At lower complexity levels, there is no significant difference between the highest performing students and the lowest performing students (t test, p >0.05). Increasing complexity also had a negative impact on most of our students. However, students in the top quartile were less affected by increased complexity than the lower 75% of the class (t test, p <0.05, Fig 5B ). These data suggest there are students who are developmentally capable of controlling the complexity of the task to focus on the skill of writing.

We set out to help STEM students write more clearly and we focused on writing a specific but universal form of evidence statement, the quantitative comparative statement ([ 14 , 15 ], Fig 2 ). By analyzing text from student lab reports and professional scientific articles, we defined the syntax of quantitative comparative statements ( Fig 1 , Table 1 ). Based on the syntactic rules we established, we scored individual quantitative comparative statements and measured writing quality (Figs 3 – 5 ). Our data show that writing quality (measured by 4C scoring) can be improved with focused practice and feedback (Figs 3 and 4 ). Finally, our data show that the circumstance, i.e., the complexity of the writing task, influences writing quality. For example, writing quality decreased when students interrogated larger data sets (Figs 4 and 5 ), but was improved when students were directed by the writing prompt to focus on a subset of the data ( Fig 5 and data not shown).

Our findings are consistent with previous research in Writing Studies and English Composition showing that syntax suffers when writers are confronted with complex and unfamiliar conceptual material [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. The Cognitive Process Theory of Writing states that writing is a cognitive endeavor and that three main cognitive activities impact writing, the process of writing (syntax, grammar, spelling, organization, etc.), the task environment (the purpose of the writing task), and knowledge of the writing topic [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. The theory posits that cognitive overload in any of these areas will negatively impact writing quality [ 17 , 18 ]. Consistent with the theory, our data show that writing quality is a function of explicit writing practice ( Fig 3 ), the size of the data set ( Fig 4A compared to 4B ) and scope of the writing prompts ( Fig 4B 2015 compared to 2016).

Explicit sentence level practice improves writing quality

Our data suggest that practicing isolated sentence construction improves writing quality (Figs 3 and 4 ). In every year of this study, we provided students with generalized feedback about their quantitative comparative statements (e.g., “needs quantitation” or “needs a comparison”) within the context of their lab report. In 2016, students practiced writing a QC statement related to their data but separate from the lab report. Although our feedback was the same, we observed improvement only when the feedback was given to QC statements practiced out of the lab report context ( Fig 4A compared to 4B ). Consistent with our data, the Cognitive Process Theory of Writing predicts that practicing specific syntax will increase fluency, lower the cognitive load on the writer’s working memory, and improve writing [ 17 , 18 ]. Our data are also consistent with research in English Composition demonstrating that when instructors support sentence-level syntax, they observe improved sentence level construction, improved overall composition, and higher level critical thinking [ 20 ]. In addition to improved sentence level syntax, we also observed overall quality of lab reports improved 12% in 2016 compared to the same lab report in 2015 (based on rubric scores, data not shown). If students develop a greater facility with the process of writing by practicing sentence level syntax, they have more cognitive resources available to develop and communicate their reasoning (our data, [ 20 , 21 ]).

Complexity of the writing task affects writing quality

We defined the complexity of the writing assignment as the landscape of information students must sample to interpret and communicate their data. In the case of lab reports, that information is the collected and analyzed data set ( Table 2 ). Students interrogating a larger data set produced lower quality QC statements than when they interrogated a smaller data set (compare lab report #2 to lab report #1 in both 2014 and 2015 cohorts, Fig 4 ). In lab report #2, students not only contended with a larger number of values in the dataset compared to lab report #1, but also with two different measurements. These data are consistent with the Cognitive Process Theory of Writing that suggests that when demands on the writer’s knowledge of the topic increase, the writer cannot devote as many cognitive resources to the task environment or process of writing [ 17 , 18 ]. However, we observed that the negative effect of experimental complexity on writing quality can be mitigated by writing prompts that focus students on a smaller, specific subset of the data ( Fig 5A ). More focused writing prompts and smaller data sets reduce the task environment of the assignment and allow more cognitive load to be devoted to the process of writing.

Model for writing quality as a function of complexity

Interestingly, the writing quality of students who finished the course with higher final grades (top quartile) was more resistant to increases in complexity compared to their classmates ( Fig 5B ). These data are consistent with the ideas of McCutchen who posits that as writers become more expert in their field, they have more cognitive resources to devote to clear communication. McCutchen suggests that expert writers have 1) more knowledge of their discipline, 2) more familiarity with the genres of science writing (task environment), and 3) more practice with the process of writing [ 19 ]. Based on research in Writing Studies, the Cognitive Process Theory of Writing, and the data presented here, we developed a predictive model of the impact of complexity (cognitive load) on writing quality ( Fig 6 ). We have hypothesized a linear model in which any increase in complexity negatively impacts writing quality ( Fig 6A ) and a “breakpoint” model in which writers maintain a constant level of writing quality at lower complexity levels writing quality but decline at higher levels of complexity ( Fig 6B ). We hypothesize that our top performing students have moved into a more expert space in the model by developing strategies to parse a complex task environment and ignore irrelevant information. Effectively, these skills allow them to minimize the impact of complexity on their cognitive load and maintain their writing quality even in the face of complex data sets ( Fig 5B ).

(A) Simple linear model of the relationship between writing quality and complexity (cognitive load). (B) Model of the relationship between writing quality and complexity in which low complexity has minimal impact on writing quality but higher complexity negatively impacts writing quality.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.g006

4C instruction as a writing intervention

In addition to altering the writing assignment to decrease cognitive load on the students, we also think it will be important to provide students with syntactic structures at the sentence level. In this study, we did not use 4C annotation as an instructional intervention so that 4C scoring would be a more objective measure of writing quality. But, subsequent to this study, we and others have used 4C annotation as an instructional tool and found that student writing improves dramatically (data not shown). Although some argue that using overly structured or templated sentences can stifle creativity, providing basic structure does not necessarily lead to pedantic writing [ 22 ]. A commonly used text in college writing, “They say, I say,” determined that providing templates for constructing opinions and arguments gives students a greater ability to express their thoughts [ 23 ]. Specifically, weaker writers who lack intuitive understanding of how to employ these writing structures benefit from the use of explicit templates, while more advanced writers already employ these writing structures in a fluid and nuanced manner [ 23 ].

4C template as a foundation of quantitative writing

As students become more expert writers and write more complex and sophisticated sentences, they may choose to deviate from the proscribed sentence structure and make editorial decisions about the elements of the quantitative comparison in the context of their argument [ 23 ]. In fact, when we examined the 4C scores of quantitative comparative statements in published literature, we found that, on average, professional scientists write comparisons that are missing one of the three elements (4C score = 1.89 +/- 0.05, n = 281). The expert writer may eliminate an element of the evidence statement because he/she presumes a more sophisticated audience is capable of inferring the missing element from prior knowledge or within the context of the argument. Or, the author may provide all elements of quantitative comparison in their argument but not within a single sentence.

Helping students become expert writers

Based on our research, we think novice writers should write for novice readers and include all of the syntactic elements of a QC statement. As students develop their professional voice, the 4C template will serve as a touchstone to frame their quantitative arguments, and the editorial choices they make will depend on the sophistication of their audience. Students will write clear arguments even if those elements no longer reside within the rigid structure of a single QC statement with a perfect 4C score. We are confident that by supporting student writing at the level of syntax, we are building a solid foundation that will give students greater capacity for reasoning in the face of increasing experimental complexity.

Supporting information

S1 fig. pre test / post test..

Example of the pre- and post-test used to assess the ability to interpret graphical and tabular data and write a quantitative comparative statement.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.s001

S2 Fig. Lab Report Rubric.

A detailed rubric provides students with explicit guidance for each lab report. This rubric corresponds with the experiment exploring enzyme kinetics of β-galactosidase.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203109.s002

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Dr. Jessica Santangelo for critical feedback on the manuscript and unwavering support for this project. This study was initially developed as part of the Biology Scholars Program (Research Residency) through the American Society for Microbiology and the National Science Foundation (T.R.)

• 1. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Vision and change in undergraduate biology education: a call to action. Brewer Cand Smith D., Eds. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 2011. 1–100. http://visionandchange.org/files/2013/11/aaas-VISchange-web1113.pdf
• View Article
• Google Scholar
• 3. Bazerman C. Shaping Written Knowledge: The Genre and Activity of the Experimental Article in Science. University of Wisconsin Press; 1988.
• PubMed/NCBI
• 15. Miller JE. The Chicago Guide to Writing about Numbers, Second Edition. 2nd ed. Chicago: Chicago University Press; 2015
• 20. Languis ML, Buffer JJ Martin D, Naour PJ. Cognitive Science: Contributions to Educational Practice Routledge; 2012. 304 p.
• 23. Graff G, Cathy Birkenstein. They say / I say: the moves that matter in academic writing. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.; 2010.

Getting Started With Library Research: Summarizing Research Articles & Annotated Bibliographies

• How to Search for KU Library Resources
• Library Resources
• Standards & Resources
• Institutional Resources
• Patent Research
• Materials on Demand (MoD)
• How to Find Materials
• Area Libraries
• Source Evaluation
• Literature Review
• Summarizing Research Articles & Annotated Bibliographies
• Research Questions & Hypothesis
• Reference Management

Writing An Article Summary

• Trent University - Writing Article Summaries An article summary is a short, focused paper about one scholarly article that is informed by a critical reading of that article.
• UCONN Writing Center: How to Summarize a Research Article A helpful 3-page guide.

APA 7th Edition Book

Annotated Bibliography Resources

• Purdue OWL - Annotated Bibliographies
• EasyBib - Annotated Bibliographies
• Bethel - Sample Annotated Bibliography

TIPS for Reading & Summarizing Research Articles with Professor Josiah Fehlauer

Annotated Bibliographies

Annotated bibliographies from Information Literacy by Elsa Loftis

Annotated Bibliography

What is an annotated bibliography?

An annotated bibliography is a list of citations to books, articles, and documents. Each citation is followed by a brief (usually 150-200 words) descriptive and evaluative paragraph, the annotation . The purpose of the annotation is to inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy, and quality of the sources cited.  ( Source )

Why write an annotated bibliography?

Writing an annotated bibliography can help you gain a good perspective on what is being said about your topic. By reading and responding to a variety of sources on a topic, you'll start to see what the issues are, what people are arguing about, and you'll then be able to develop your own point of view.

Source: Purdue OWL

Annotated Bibliography - Example

Purdue Owl Annotated Bibliography Examples

Rules for the Annotated Bibliography

• The complete citation comes first followed by the analysis or summary (see example)
• The beginning of each citation entry uses a hanging indent, flush left
• After the first line of each citation, the rest of the entry is indented 1" from the left
• Generally summary/analysis should be about 150-200 words but follow your instructor's guidelines
• Summary/analysis does require in-text citation
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• Next: Research Questions & Hypothesis >>
• Last Updated: Sep 3, 2024 3:44 PM
• URL: https://libguides.kettering.edu/Library_Research

Quantitative Research Design (JARS–Quant)

The current JARS–Quant standards, released in 2018, expand and revise the types of research methodologies covered in the original JARS, which were published in 2008.

JARS–Quant include guidance for manuscripts that report

• Primary quantitative research
• Experimental designs
• Nonexperimental designs

Special designs

Analytic methods, meta-analyses.

In addition, JARS–Quant now divides hypotheses, analyses, and conclusions into primary, secondary, and exploratory groups. This should enhance the readability and replicability of the research.

Providing the information specified in JARS–Quant should become routine and minimally burdensome, thereby increasing the transparency of reporting in psychological research.

For more information on how the revised standards were created, read Journal Article Reporting Standards for Quantitative Research in Psychology .

General quantitative reporting standards

• Quantitative Design Reporting Standards (JARS-Quant) (PDF, 137KB) Information recommended for inclusion in manuscripts that report new data collections regardless of research design

Experimental and nonexperimental designs

• Experimental Designs (PDF, 109KB) Reporting standards for studies with an experimental manipulation
• Random Assignment (PDF, 101KB) Reporting standards for studies using random assignment
• Nonrandom Assignment (PDF, 92KB) Reporting standards for studies using nonrandom assignment
• Clinical Trials (PDF, 106KB) Reporting standards for studies involving clinical trials
• Nonexperimental Designs (PDF, 103KB) Reporting standards for studies using no experimental manipulation
• Longitudinal Studies (PDF, 103KB) Reporting standards for longitudinal studies
• N -of-1 Studies (PDF, 102KB) Reporting standards for N -of-1 studies
• Replication Studies (PDF, 95KB) Reporting standards for replication studies
• Structural Equation Modeling (PDF, 111KB) Reporting standards for studies using structural equation modeling
• Bayesian Statistics (PDF, 104KB) Reporting standards for studies using Bayesian techniques
• Quantitative Meta-Analysis Reporting Standards (PDF, 116KB) Information recommended for inclusion in manuscripts that report quantitative meta-analyses
• Qualitative design standards
• Mixed methods standards
• Race, Ethnicity, and Culture standards

Return to Journal Article Reporting Standards homepage

Jars resources

• History of APA’s journal article reporting standards
• APA Style JARS supplemental glossary
• Supplemental resource on the ethic of transparency in JARS
• Frequently asked questions
• JARS-Quant Decision Flowchart (PDF, 98KB)
• JARS-Quant Participant Flowchart (PDF, 98KB)

Jars articles

• Jars –Quant article
• Jars –Qual / Mixed article
• Jars – rec executive summary

Questions / feedback

Email an APA Style Expert if you have questions, feedback, or suggestions for modules to be included in future JARS updates.

APA resources

• APA Databases and Electronic Resources
• APA Journals
• Journal Author Resource Center
• Education and Career
• Psychological Science
• Open Science at APA
• How to Review a Manuscript

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Annotated Bibliography Samples

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Below you will find sample annotations from annotated bibliographies, each with a different research project. Remember that the annotations you include in your own bibliography should reflect your research project and/or the guidelines of your assignment.

As mentioned elsewhere in this resource, depending on the purpose of your bibliography, some annotations may summarize, some may assess or evaluate a source, and some may reflect on the source’s possible uses for the project at hand. Some annotations may address all three of these steps. Consider the purpose of your annotated bibliography and/or your instructor’s directions when deciding how much information to include in your annotations.

Please keep in mind that all your text, including the write-up beneath the citation, must be indented so that the author's last name is the only text that is flush left.

Sample MLA Annotation

Lamott, Anne. Bird by Bird: Some Instructions on Writing and Life . Anchor Books, 1995.

Lamott's book offers honest advice on the nature of a writing life, complete with its insecurities and failures. Taking a humorous approach to the realities of being a writer, the chapters in Lamott's book are wry and anecdotal and offer advice on everything from plot development to jealousy, from perfectionism to struggling with one's own internal critic.

In the process, Lamott includes writing exercises designed to be both productive and fun. Lamott offers sane advice for those struggling with the anxieties of writing, but her main project seems to be offering the reader a reality check regarding writing, publishing, and struggling with one's own imperfect humanity in the process. Rather than a practical handbook to producing and/or publishing, this text is indispensable because of its honest perspective, its down-to-earth humor, and its encouraging approach.

Chapters in this text could easily be included in the curriculum for a writing class. Several of the chapters in Part 1 address the writing process and would serve to generate discussion on students' own drafting and revising processes. Some of the writing exercises would also be appropriate for generating classroom writing exercises. Students should find Lamott's style both engaging and enjoyable.

In the sample annotation above, the writer includes three paragraphs: a summary, an evaluation of the text, and a reflection on its applicability to his/her own research, respectively.

For information on formatting MLA citations, see our MLA 9th Edition (2021) Formatting and Style Guide .

Sample APA Annotation

Ehrenreich, B. (2001). Nickel and dimed: On (not) getting by in America . Henry Holt and Company.

In this book of nonfiction based on the journalist's experiential research, Ehrenreich attempts to ascertain whether it is currently possible for an individual to live on a minimum-wage in America. Taking jobs as a waitress, a maid in a cleaning service, and a Walmart sales employee, the author summarizes and reflects on her work, her relationships with fellow workers, and her financial struggles in each situation.

An experienced journalist, Ehrenreich is aware of the limitations of her experiment and the ethical implications of her experiential research tactics and reflects on these issues in the text. The author is forthcoming about her methods and supplements her experiences with scholarly research on her places of employment, the economy, and the rising cost of living in America. Ehrenreich’s project is timely, descriptive, and well-researched.

The annotation above both summarizes and assesses the book in the citation. The first paragraph provides a brief summary of the author's project in the book, covering the main points of the work. The second paragraph points out the project’s strengths and evaluates its methods and presentation. This particular annotation does not reflect on the source’s potential importance or usefulness for this person’s own research.

For information on formatting APA citations, see our APA Formatting and Style Guide .

Sample Chicago Manual of Style Annotation

Davidson, Hilda Ellis. Roles of the Northern Goddess . London: Routledge, 1998.

Davidson's book provides a thorough examination of the major roles filled by the numerous pagan goddesses of Northern Europe in everyday life, including their roles in hunting, agriculture, domestic arts like weaving, the household, and death. The author discusses relevant archaeological evidence, patterns of symbol and ritual, and previous research. The book includes a number of black and white photographs of relevant artifacts.

This annotation includes only one paragraph, a summary of the book. It provides a concise description of the project and the book's project and its major features.

For information on formatting Chicago Style citations, see our Chicago Manual of Style resources.

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How to Annotate Texts

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Annotation Fundamentals

How to start annotating , how to annotate digital texts, how to annotate a textbook, how to annotate a scholarly article or book, how to annotate literature, how to annotate images, videos, and performances, additional resources for teachers.

Writing in your books can make you smarter. Or, at least (according to education experts), annotation–an umbrella term for underlining, highlighting, circling, and, most importantly, leaving comments in the margins–helps students to remember and comprehend what they read. Annotation is like a conversation between reader and text. Proper annotation allows students to record their own opinions and reactions, which can serve as the inspiration for research questions and theses. So, whether you're reading a novel, poem, news article, or science textbook, taking notes along the way can give you an advantage in preparing for tests or writing essays. This guide contains resources that explain the benefits of annotating texts, provide annotation tools, and suggest approaches for diverse kinds of texts; the last section includes lesson plans and exercises for teachers.

Why annotate? As the resources below explain, annotation allows students to emphasize connections to material covered elsewhere in the text (or in other texts), material covered previously in the course, or material covered in lectures and discussion. In other words, proper annotation is an organizing tool and a time saver. The links in this section will introduce you to the theory, practice, and purpose of annotation. 

How to Mark a Book, by Mortimer Adler

This famous, charming essay lays out the case for marking up books, and provides practical suggestions at the end including underlining, highlighting, circling key words, using vertical lines to mark shifts in tone/subject, numbering points in an argument, and keeping track of questions that occur to you as you read. 

How Annotation Reshapes Student Thinking (TeacherHUB)

In this article, a high school teacher discusses the importance of annotation and how annotation encourages more effective critical thinking.

The Future of Annotation (Journal of Business and Technical Communication)

This scholarly article summarizes research on the benefits of annotation in the classroom and in business. It also discusses how technology and digital texts might affect the future of annotation. 

Annotating to Deepen Understanding (Texas Education Agency)

This website provides another introduction to annotation (designed for 11th graders). It includes a helpful section that teaches students how to annotate reading comprehension passages on tests.

Once you understand what annotation is, you're ready to begin. But what tools do you need? How do you prepare? The resources linked in this section list strategies and techniques you can use to start annotating. 

What is Annotating? (Charleston County School District)

This resource gives an overview of annotation styles, including useful shorthands and symbols. This is a good place for a student who has never annotated before to begin.

How to Annotate Text While Reading (YouTube)

This video tutorial (appropriate for grades 6–10) explains the basic ins and outs of annotation and gives examples of the type of information students should be looking for.

Annotation Practices: Reading a Play-text vs. Watching Film (U Calgary)

This blog post, written by a student, talks about how the goals and approaches of annotation might change depending on the type of text or performance being observed. 

Annotating Texts with Sticky Notes (Lyndhurst Schools)

Sometimes students are asked to annotate books they don't own or can't write in for other reasons. This resource provides some strategies for using sticky notes instead.

Teaching Students to Close Read...When You Can't Mark the Text (Performing in Education)

Here, a sixth grade teacher demonstrates the strategies she uses for getting her students to annotate with sticky notes. This resource includes a link to the teacher's free Annotation Bookmark (via Teachers Pay Teachers).

Digital texts can present a special challenge when it comes to annotation; emerging research suggests that many students struggle to critically read and retain information from digital texts. However, proper annotation can solve the problem. This section contains links to the most highly-utilized platforms for electronic annotation.

Evernote is one of the two big players in the "digital annotation apps" game. In addition to allowing users to annotate digital documents, the service (for a fee) allows users to group multiple formats (PDF, webpages, scanned hand-written notes) into separate notebooks, create voice recordings, and sync across all sorts of devices. 

OneNote is Evernote's main competitor. Reviews suggest that OneNote allows for more freedom for digital note-taking than Evernote, but that it is slightly more awkward to import and annotate a PDF, especially on certain platforms. However, OneNote's free version is slightly more feature-filled, and OneNote allows you to link your notes to time stamps on an audio recording.

Diigo is a basic browser extension that allows a user to annotate webpages. Diigo also offers a Screenshot app that allows for direct saving to Google Drive.

While the creators of Hypothesis like to focus on their app's social dimension, students are more likely to be interested in the private highlighting and annotating functions of this program.

Foxit PDF Reader

Foxit is one of the leading PDF readers. Though the full suite must be purchased, Foxit offers a number of annotation and highlighting tools for free.

Nitro PDF Reader

This is another well-reviewed, free PDF reader that includes annotation and highlighting. Annotation, text editing, and other tools are included in the free version.

Goodreader is a very popular Mac-only app that includes annotation and editing tools for PDFs, Word documents, Powerpoint, and other formats.

Although textbooks have vocabulary lists, summaries, and other features to emphasize important material, annotation can allow students to process information and discover their own connections. This section links to guides and video tutorials that introduce you to textbook annotation. 

Annotating Textbooks (Niagara University)

This PDF provides a basic introduction as well as strategies including focusing on main ideas, working by section or chapter, annotating in your own words, and turning section headings into questions.

A Simple Guide to Text Annotation (Catawba College)

The simple, practical strategies laid out in this step-by-step guide will help students learn how to break down chapters in their textbooks using main ideas, definitions, lists, summaries, and potential test questions.

Annotating (Mercer Community College)

This packet, an excerpt from a literature textbook, provides a short exercise and some examples of how to do textbook annotation, including using shorthand and symbols.

Reading Your Healthcare Textbook: Annotation (Saddleback College)

This powerpoint contains a number of helpful suggestions, especially for students who are new to annotation. It emphasizes limited highlighting, lots of student writing, and using key words to find the most important information in a textbook. Despite the title, it is useful to a student in any discipline.

Annotating a Textbook (Excelsior College OWL)

This video (with included transcript) discusses how to use textbook features like boxes and sidebars to help guide annotation. It's an extremely helpful, detailed discussion of how textbooks are organized.

Because scholarly articles and books have complex arguments and often depend on technical vocabulary, they present particular challenges for an annotating student. The resources in this section help students get to the heart of scholarly texts in order to annotate and, by extension, understand the reading.

Annotating a Text (Hunter College)

This resource is designed for college students and shows how to annotate a scholarly article using highlighting, paraphrase, a descriptive outline, and a two-margin approach. It ends with a sample passage marked up using the strategies provided. 

Guide to Annotating the Scholarly Article (ReadWriteThink.org)

This is an effective introduction to annotating scholarly articles across all disciplines. This resource encourages students to break down how the article uses primary and secondary sources and to annotate the types of arguments and persuasive strategies (synthesis, analysis, compare/contrast).

How to Highlight and Annotate Your Research Articles (CHHS Media Center)

This video, developed by a high school media specialist, provides an effective beginner-level introduction to annotating research articles. 

How to Read a Scholarly Book (AndrewJacobs.org)

In this essay, a college professor lets readers in on the secrets of scholarly monographs. Though he does not discuss annotation, he explains how to find a scholarly book's thesis, methodology, and often even a brief literature review in the introduction. This is a key place for students to focus when creating annotations. 

A 5-step Approach to Reading Scholarly Literature and Taking Notes (Heather Young Leslie)

This resource, written by a professor of anthropology, is an even more comprehensive and detailed guide to reading scholarly literature. Combining the annotation techniques above with the reading strategy here allows students to process scholarly book efficiently. 

Annotation is also an important part of close reading works of literature. Annotating helps students recognize symbolism, double meanings, and other literary devices. These resources provide additional guidelines on annotating literature.

AP English Language Annotation Guide (YouTube)

In this ~10 minute video, an AP Language teacher provides tips and suggestions for using annotations to point out rhetorical strategies and other important information.

Annotating Text Lesson (YouTube)

In this video tutorial, an English teacher shows how she uses the white board to guide students through annotation and close reading. This resource uses an in-depth example to model annotation step-by-step.

Close Reading a Text and Avoiding Pitfalls (Purdue OWL)

This resources demonstrates how annotation is a central part of a solid close reading strategy; it also lists common mistakes to avoid in the annotation process.

AP Literature Assignment: Annotating Literature (Mount Notre Dame H.S.)

This brief assignment sheet contains suggestions for what to annotate in a novel, including building connections between parts of the book, among multiple books you are reading/have read, and between the book and your own experience. It also includes samples of quality annotations.

AP Handout: Annotation Guide (Covington Catholic H.S.)

This annotation guide shows how to keep track of symbolism, figurative language, and other devices in a novel using a highlighter, a pencil, and every part of a book (including the front and back covers).

In addition to written resources, it's possible to annotate visual "texts" like theatrical performances, movies, sculptures, and paintings. Taking notes on visual texts allows students to recall details after viewing a resource which, unlike a book, can't be re-read or re-visited ( for example, a play that has finished its run, or an art exhibition that is far away). These resources draw attention to the special questions and techniques that students should use when dealing with visual texts.

How to Take Notes on Videos (U of Southern California)

This resource is a good place to start for a student who has never had to take notes on film before. It briefly outlines three general approaches to note-taking on a film. 

How to Analyze a Movie, Step-by-Step (San Diego Film Festival)

This detailed guide provides lots of tips for film criticism and analysis. It contains a list of specific questions to ask with respect to plot, character development, direction, musical score, cinematography, special effects, and more. 

How to "Read" a Film (UPenn)

This resource provides an academic perspective on the art of annotating and analyzing a film. Like other resources, it provides students a checklist of things to watch out for as they watch the film.

Art Annotation Guide (Gosford Hill School)

This resource focuses on how to annotate a piece of art with respect to its formal elements like line, tone, mood, and composition. It contains a number of helpful questions and relevant examples. 

Photography Annotation (Arts at Trinity)

This resource is designed specifically for photography students. Like some of the other resources on this list, it primarily focuses on formal elements, but also shows students how to integrate the specific technical vocabulary of modern photography. This resource also contains a number of helpful sample annotations.

How to Review a Play (U of Wisconsin)

This resource from the University of Wisconsin Writing Center is designed to help students write a review of a play. It contains suggested questions for students to keep in mind as they watch a given production. This resource helps students think about staging, props, script alterations, and many other key elements of a performance.

This section contains links to lessons plans and exercises suitable for high school and college instructors.

Beyond the Yellow Highlighter: Teaching Annotation Skills to Improve Reading Comprehension (English Journal)

In this journal article, a high school teacher talks about her approach to teaching annotation. This article makes a clear distinction between annotation and mere highlighting.

Lesson Plan for Teaching Annotation, Grades 9–12 (readwritethink.org)

This lesson plan, published by the National Council of Teachers of English, contains four complete lessons that help introduce high school students to annotation.

Teaching Theme Using Close Reading (Performing in Education)

This lesson plan was developed by a middle school teacher, and is aligned to Common Core. The teacher presents her strategies and resources in comprehensive fashion.

Analyzing a Speech Using Annotation (UNC-TV/PBS Learning Media)

This complete lesson plan, which includes a guide for the teacher and relevant handouts for students, will prepare students to analyze both the written and presentation components of a speech. This lesson plan is best for students in 6th–10th grade.

Writing to Learn History: Annotation and Mini-Writes (teachinghistory.org)

This teaching guide, developed for high school History classes, provides handouts and suggested exercises that can help students become more comfortable with annotating historical sources.

Writing About Art (The College Board)

This Prezi presentation is useful to any teacher introducing students to the basics of annotating art. The presentation covers annotating for both formal elements and historical/cultural significance.

Film Study Worksheets (TeachWithMovies.org)

This resource contains links to a general film study worksheet, as well as specific worksheets for novel adaptations, historical films, documentaries, and more. These resources are appropriate for advanced middle school students and some high school students. 

Annotation Practice Worksheet (La Guardia Community College)

This worksheet has a sample text and instructions for students to annotate it. It is a useful resource for teachers who want to give their students a chance to practice, but don't have the time to select an appropriate piece of text. 

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Annotating Texts

What is annotation.

Annotation can be:

• A systematic summary of the text that you create within the document
• A key tool for close reading that helps you uncover patterns, notice important words, and identify main points
• An active learning strategy that improves comprehension and retention of information

Why annotate?

• Isolate and organize important material
• Identify key concepts
• Monitor your learning as you read
• Make exam prep effective and streamlined
• Can be more efficient than creating a separate set of reading notes

How do you annotate?

Summarize key points in your own words .

• Use headers and words in bold to guide you
• Look for main ideas, arguments, and points of evidence
• Notice how the text organizes itself. Chronological order? Idea trees? Etc.

Circle key concepts and phrases

• What words would it be helpful to look-up at the end?
• What terms show up in lecture? When are different words used for similar concepts? Why?

Write brief comments and questions in the margins

• Be as specific or broad as you would like—use these questions to activate your thinking about the content
• See our handout on reading comprehension tips for some examples

Use abbreviations and symbols

• Try ? when you have a question or something you need to explore further
• Try ! When something is interesting, a connection, or otherwise worthy of note
• Try * For anything that you might use as an example or evidence when you use this information.
• Ask yourself what other system of symbols would make sense to you.

Highlight/underline

• Highlight or underline, but mindfully. Check out our resource on strategic highlighting for tips on when and how to highlight.

Use comment and highlight features built into pdfs, online/digital textbooks, or other apps and browser add-ons

• Are you using a pdf? Explore its highlight, edit, and comment functions to support your annotations
• Some browsers have add-ons or extensions that allow you to annotate web pages or web-based documents
• Does your digital or online textbook come with an annotation feature?
• Can your digital text be imported into a note-taking tool like OneNote, EverNote, or Google Keep? If so, you might be able to annotate texts in those apps

What are the most important takeaways?

• Annotation is about increasing your engagement with a text
• Increased engagement, where you think about and process the material then expand on your learning, is how you achieve mastery in a subject
• As you annotate a text, ask yourself: how would I explain this to a friend?
• Put things in your own words and draw connections to what you know and wonder

The table below demonstrates this process using a geography textbook excerpt (Press 2004):

A common concern about annotating texts: It takes time!

Yes, it can, but that time isn’t lost—it’s invested.

Spending the time to annotate on the front end does two important things:

• It saves you time later when you’re studying. Your annotated notes will help speed up exam prep, because you can review critical concepts quickly and efficiently.
• It increases the likelihood that you will retain the information after the course is completed. This is especially important when you are supplying the building blocks of your mind and future career.

One last tip: Try separating the reading and annotating processes! Quickly read through a section of the text first, then go back and annotate.

Works consulted:

Nist, S., & Holschuh, J. (2000). Active learning: strategies for college success. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 202-218.

Simpson, M., & Nist, S. (1990). Textbook annotation: An effective and efficient study strategy for college students. Journal of Reading, 34: 122-129.

Press, F. (2004). Understanding earth (4th ed). New York: W.H. Freeman. 208-210.

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What is Quantitative Research? Definition, Methods, Types, and Examples

If you’re wondering what is quantitative research and whether this methodology works for your research study, you’re not alone. If you want a simple quantitative research definition , then it’s enough to say that this is a method undertaken by researchers based on their study requirements. However, to select the most appropriate research for their study type, researchers should know all the methods available. 

Selecting the right research method depends on a few important criteria, such as the research question, study type, time, costs, data availability, and availability of respondents. There are two main types of research methods— quantitative research  and qualitative research. The purpose of quantitative research is to validate or test a theory or hypothesis and that of qualitative research is to understand a subject or event or identify reasons for observed patterns.   

Quantitative research methods  are used to observe events that affect a particular group of individuals, which is the sample population. In this type of research, diverse numerical data are collected through various methods and then statistically analyzed to aggregate the data, compare them, or show relationships among the data. Quantitative research methods broadly include questionnaires, structured observations, and experiments.  

Here are two quantitative research examples:  

• Satisfaction surveys sent out by a company regarding their revamped customer service initiatives. Customers are asked to rate their experience on a rating scale of 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent).  
• A school has introduced a new after-school program for children, and a few months after commencement, the school sends out feedback questionnaires to the parents of the enrolled children. Such questionnaires usually include close-ended questions that require either definite answers or a Yes/No option. This helps in a quick, overall assessment of the program’s outreach and success.  

Table of Contents

What is quantitative research ? 1,2

The steps shown in the figure can be grouped into the following broad steps:  

• Theory : Define the problem area or area of interest and create a research question.  
• Hypothesis : Develop a hypothesis based on the research question. This hypothesis will be tested in the remaining steps.  
• Research design : In this step, the most appropriate quantitative research design will be selected, including deciding on the sample size, selecting respondents, identifying research sites, if any, etc.
• Data collection : This process could be extensive based on your research objective and sample size.  
• Data analysis : Statistical analysis is used to analyze the data collected. The results from the analysis help in either supporting or rejecting your hypothesis.  
• Present results : Based on the data analysis, conclusions are drawn, and results are presented as accurately as possible.  

Quantitative research characteristics 4

• Large sample size : This ensures reliability because this sample represents the target population or market. Due to the large sample size, the outcomes can be generalized to the entire population as well, making this one of the important characteristics of quantitative research .  
• Structured data and measurable variables: The data are numeric and can be analyzed easily. Quantitative research involves the use of measurable variables such as age, salary range, highest education, etc.  
• Easy-to-use data collection methods : The methods include experiments, controlled observations, and questionnaires and surveys with a rating scale or close-ended questions, which require simple and to-the-point answers; are not bound by geographical regions; and are easy to administer.  
• Data analysis : Structured and accurate statistical analysis methods using software applications such as Excel, SPSS, R. The analysis is fast, accurate, and less effort intensive.  
• Reliable : The respondents answer close-ended questions, their responses are direct without ambiguity and yield numeric outcomes, which are therefore highly reliable.  
• Reusable outcomes : This is one of the key characteristics – outcomes of one research can be used and replicated in other research as well and is not exclusive to only one study.  

Quantitative research methods 5

Quantitative research methods are classified into two types—primary and secondary.  

Primary quantitative research method:

In this type of quantitative research , data are directly collected by the researchers using the following methods.

– Survey research : Surveys are the easiest and most commonly used quantitative research method . They are of two types— cross-sectional and longitudinal.   

->Cross-sectional surveys are specifically conducted on a target population for a specified period, that is, these surveys have a specific starting and ending time and researchers study the events during this period to arrive at conclusions. The main purpose of these surveys is to describe and assess the characteristics of a population. There is one independent variable in this study, which is a common factor applicable to all participants in the population, for example, living in a specific city, diagnosed with a specific disease, of a certain age group, etc. An example of a cross-sectional survey is a study to understand why individuals residing in houses built before 1979 in the US are more susceptible to lead contamination.  

->Longitudinal surveys are conducted at different time durations. These surveys involve observing the interactions among different variables in the target population, exposing them to various causal factors, and understanding their effects across a longer period. These studies are helpful to analyze a problem in the long term. An example of a longitudinal study is the study of the relationship between smoking and lung cancer over a long period.  

– Descriptive research : Explains the current status of an identified and measurable variable. Unlike other types of quantitative research , a hypothesis is not needed at the beginning of the study and can be developed even after data collection. This type of quantitative research describes the characteristics of a problem and answers the what, when, where of a problem. However, it doesn’t answer the why of the problem and doesn’t explore cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Data from this research could be used as preliminary data for another study. Example: A researcher undertakes a study to examine the growth strategy of a company. This sample data can be used by other companies to determine their own growth strategy.  

– Correlational research : This quantitative research method is used to establish a relationship between two variables using statistical analysis and analyze how one affects the other. The research is non-experimental because the researcher doesn’t control or manipulate any of the variables. At least two separate sample groups are needed for this research. Example: Researchers studying a correlation between regular exercise and diabetes.  

– Causal-comparative research : This type of quantitative research examines the cause-effect relationships in retrospect between a dependent and independent variable and determines the causes of the already existing differences between groups of people. This is not a true experiment because it doesn’t assign participants to groups randomly. Example: To study the wage differences between men and women in the same role. For this, already existing wage information is analyzed to understand the relationship.  

– Experimental research : This quantitative research method uses true experiments or scientific methods for determining a cause-effect relation between variables. It involves testing a hypothesis through experiments, in which one or more independent variables are manipulated and then their effect on dependent variables are studied. Example: A researcher studies the importance of a drug in treating a disease by administering the drug in few patients and not administering in a few.  

The following data collection methods are commonly used in primary quantitative research :  

• Sampling : The most common type is probability sampling, in which a sample is chosen from a larger population using some form of random selection, that is, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. The different types of probability sampling are—simple random, systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling.  
• Interviews : These are commonly telephonic or face-to-face.  
• Observations : Structured observations are most commonly used in quantitative research . In this method, researchers make observations about specific behaviors of individuals in a structured setting.  
• Document review : Reviewing existing research or documents to collect evidence for supporting the quantitative research .  
• Surveys and questionnaires : Surveys can be administered both online and offline depending on the requirement and sample size.

The data collected can be analyzed in several ways in quantitative research , as listed below:  

• Cross-tabulation —Uses a tabular format to draw inferences among collected data  
• MaxDiff analysis —Gauges the preferences of the respondents  
• TURF analysis —Total Unduplicated Reach and Frequency Analysis; helps in determining the market strategy for a business  
• Gap analysis —Identify gaps in attaining the desired results  
• SWOT analysis —Helps identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of a product, service, or organization  
• Text analysis —Used for interpreting unstructured data  

Secondary quantitative research methods :

This method involves conducting research using already existing or secondary data. This method is less effort intensive and requires lesser time. However, researchers should verify the authenticity and recency of the sources being used and ensure their accuracy.  

The main sources of secondary data are: 

• The Internet  
• Government and non-government sources  
• Public libraries  
• Educational institutions  
• Commercial information sources such as newspapers, journals, radio, TV  

When to use quantitative research 6  

Here are some simple ways to decide when to use quantitative research . Use quantitative research to:  

• recommend a final course of action  
• find whether a consensus exists regarding a particular subject  
• generalize results to a larger population  
• determine a cause-and-effect relationship between variables  
• describe characteristics of specific groups of people  
• test hypotheses and examine specific relationships  
• identify and establish size of market segments  

A research case study to understand when to use quantitative research 7  

Context: A study was undertaken to evaluate a major innovation in a hospital’s design, in terms of workforce implications and impact on patient and staff experiences of all single-room hospital accommodations. The researchers undertook a mixed methods approach to answer their research questions. Here, we focus on the quantitative research aspect.  

Research questions : What are the advantages and disadvantages for the staff as a result of the hospital’s move to the new design with all single-room accommodations? Did the move affect staff experience and well-being and improve their ability to deliver high-quality care?  

Method: The researchers obtained quantitative data from three sources:  

• Staff activity (task time distribution): Each staff member was shadowed by a researcher who observed each task undertaken by the staff, and logged the time spent on each activity.  
• Staff travel distances : The staff were requested to wear pedometers, which recorded the distances covered.  
• Staff experience surveys : Staff were surveyed before and after the move to the new hospital design.  

Results of quantitative research : The following observations were made based on quantitative data analysis:  

• The move to the new design did not result in a significant change in the proportion of time spent on different activities.  
• Staff activity events observed per session were higher after the move, and direct care and professional communication events per hour decreased significantly, suggesting fewer interruptions and less fragmented care.  
• A significant increase in medication tasks among the recorded events suggests that medication administration was integrated into patient care activities.  
• Travel distances increased for all staff, with highest increases for staff in the older people’s ward and surgical wards.  
• Ratings for staff toilet facilities, locker facilities, and space at staff bases were higher but those for social interaction and natural light were lower.  

Advantages of quantitative research 1,2

When choosing the right research methodology, also consider the advantages of quantitative research and how it can impact your study.  

• Quantitative research methods are more scientific and rational. They use quantifiable data leading to objectivity in the results and avoid any chances of ambiguity.  
• This type of research uses numeric data so analysis is relatively easier .  
• In most cases, a hypothesis is already developed and quantitative research helps in testing and validatin g these constructed theories based on which researchers can make an informed decision about accepting or rejecting their theory.  
• The use of statistical analysis software ensures quick analysis of large volumes of data and is less effort intensive.  
• Higher levels of control can be applied to the research so the chances of bias can be reduced.  
• Quantitative research is based on measured value s, facts, and verifiable information so it can be easily checked or replicated by other researchers leading to continuity in scientific research.  

Disadvantages of quantitative research 1,2

Quantitative research may also be limiting; take a look at the disadvantages of quantitative research. 

• Experiments are conducted in controlled settings instead of natural settings and it is possible for researchers to either intentionally or unintentionally manipulate the experiment settings to suit the results they desire.  
• Participants must necessarily give objective answers (either one- or two-word, or yes or no answers) and the reasons for their selection or the context are not considered.   
• Inadequate knowledge of statistical analysis methods may affect the results and their interpretation.  
• Although statistical analysis indicates the trends or patterns among variables, the reasons for these observed patterns cannot be interpreted and the research may not give a complete picture.  
• Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate and generalizable analysis .  
• Quantitative research cannot be used to address complex issues.  

Frequently asked questions on  quantitative research    

Q:  What is the difference between quantitative research and qualitative research? 1  

A:  The following table lists the key differences between quantitative research and qualitative research, some of which may have been mentioned earlier in the article.  

Q:  What is the difference between reliability and validity? 8,9    

A:  The term reliability refers to the consistency of a research study. For instance, if a food-measuring weighing scale gives different readings every time the same quantity of food is measured then that weighing scale is not reliable. If the findings in a research study are consistent every time a measurement is made, then the study is considered reliable. However, it is usually unlikely to obtain the exact same results every time because some contributing variables may change. In such cases, a correlation coefficient is used to assess the degree of reliability. A strong positive correlation between the results indicates reliability.  

Validity can be defined as the degree to which a tool actually measures what it claims to measure. It helps confirm the credibility of your research and suggests that the results may be generalizable. In other words, it measures the accuracy of the research.  

The following table gives the key differences between reliability and validity.  

Q:  What is mixed methods research? 10

A:  A mixed methods approach combines the characteristics of both quantitative research and qualitative research in the same study. This method allows researchers to validate their findings, verify if the results observed using both methods are complementary, and explain any unexpected results obtained from one method by using the other method. A mixed methods research design is useful in case of research questions that cannot be answered by either quantitative research or qualitative research alone. However, this method could be more effort- and cost-intensive because of the requirement of more resources. The figure 3 shows some basic mixed methods research designs that could be used.  

Thus, quantitative research is the appropriate method for testing your hypotheses and can be used either alone or in combination with qualitative research per your study requirements. We hope this article has provided an insight into the various facets of quantitative research , including its different characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages, and a few tips to quickly understand when to use this research method.  

References  

• Qualitative vs quantitative research: Differences, examples, & methods. Simply Psychology. Accessed Feb 28, 2023. https://simplypsychology.org/qualitative-quantitative.html#Quantitative-Research  
• Your ultimate guide to quantitative research. Qualtrics. Accessed February 28, 2023. https://www.qualtrics.com/uk/experience-management/research/quantitative-research/  
• The steps of quantitative research. Revise Sociology. Accessed March 1, 2023. https://revisesociology.com/2017/11/26/the-steps-of-quantitative-research/  
• What are the characteristics of quantitative research? Marketing91. Accessed March 1, 2023. https://www.marketing91.com/characteristics-of-quantitative-research/  
• Quantitative research: Types, characteristics, methods, & examples. ProProfs Survey Maker. Accessed February 28, 2023. https://www.proprofssurvey.com/blog/quantitative-research/#Characteristics_of_Quantitative_Research  
• Qualitative research isn’t as scientific as quantitative methods. Kmusial blog. Accessed March 5, 2023. https://kmusial.wordpress.com/2011/11/25/qualitative-research-isnt-as-scientific-as-quantitative-methods/  
• Maben J, Griffiths P, Penfold C, et al. Evaluating a major innovation in hospital design: workforce implications and impact on patient and staff experiences of all single room hospital accommodation. Southampton (UK): NIHR Journals Library; 2015 Feb. (Health Services and Delivery Research, No. 3.3.) Chapter 5, Case study quantitative data findings. Accessed March 6, 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK274429/  
• McLeod, S. A. (2007).  What is reliability?  Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/reliability.html  
• Reliability vs validity: Differences & examples. Accessed March 5, 2023. https://statisticsbyjim.com/basics/reliability-vs-validity/  
• Mixed methods research. Community Engagement Program. Harvard Catalyst. Accessed February 28, 2023. https://catalyst.harvard.edu/community-engagement/mmr  

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How to Annotate an Article

Last Updated: August 1, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Emily Listmann, MA . Emily Listmann is a Private Tutor and Life Coach in Santa Cruz, California. In 2018, she founded Mindful & Well, a natural healing and wellness coaching service. She has worked as a Social Studies Teacher, Curriculum Coordinator, and an SAT Prep Teacher. She received her MA in Education from the Stanford Graduate School of Education in 2014. Emily also received her Wellness Coach Certificate from Cornell University and completed the Mindfulness Training by Mindful Schools. There are 9 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 409,456 times.

Annotating a text means that you take notes in the margins and make other markings for reading comprehension. Many people use annotation as part of academic research or to further their understanding of a certain work. To annotate an article, you'll need to ask questions as you go through the text, focus on themes, circle terms you don't understand, and write your opinions on the text's claims. You can annotate an article by hand or with an online note-taking program.

Following General Annotation Procedures

• Background on the author
• Themes throughout the text
• The author’s purpose for writing the text
• The author’s thesis
• Points of confusion
• How the text compares to other texts you are analyzing on the same topic
• Questions to ask your teacher or questions to bring up in class discussions

• Later on, you can gather all of these citations together to form a bibliography or works cited page, if required.
• If you are working with a source that frequently changes, such as a newspaper or website, make sure to mark down the accession date or number (the year the piece was acquired and/or where it came from).

• If you were given an assignment sheet with listed objectives, you might look over your completed annotation and check off each objective when finished. This will ensure that you’ve met all of the requirements.

• You can also write down questions that you plan to bring up during a class discussion. For example, you might write, “What does everyone think about this sentence?” Or, if your reading connects to a future writing assignment, you can ask questions that connect to that work.

• You could write, “Connects to the theme of hope and redemption discussed in class.”

• Use whatever symbol marking system works for you. Just make sure that you are consistent in your use of certain symbols.
• As you review your notes, you can create a list of all of the particular words that are circled. This may make it easier to look them up.
• For example, if the tone of the work changes mid-paragraph, you might write a question mark next to that section.

• To increase your reading comprehension even more, you might want to write down the thesis statement in the margins in your own words.
• The thesis sentence might start with a statement, such as, “I argue…”

• For example, reading online reviews can help you to determine whether or not the work is controversial or has been received without much fanfare.
• If there are multiple authors for the work, start by researching the first name listed.

• You might write, “This may contradict any earlier section.” Or, “I don’t agree with this.”

Annotating an Article by Hand

• You can also file away this paper copy for future reference as you continue your research.

• If you are visual learner, you might consider developing a notation system involving various colors of highlighters and flags.

• Depending on how you’ve taken your notes, you could also remove these Post-its to create an outline prior to writing.

• This rough annotation can then be used to create a larger annotated bibliography. This will help you to see any gaps in your research as well. [11] X Research source

Annotating an Article on a Webpage

• You could also use a program, such as Evernote, MarkUp.io, Bounce, Shared Copy, WebKlipper, or Springnote. Be aware that some of these programs may require a payment for access.

• Depending on your program, you may be able to respond to other people’s comments. You can also designate your notes as private or public.

Community Q&A

• Annotating takes extra time, so make sure to set aside enough time for you to complete your work. [15] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• If traditional annotation doesn’t appeal to you, then create a dialectical journal where you write down any quotes that speak to you. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 0

• If you end up integrating your notes into a written project, make sure to keep your citation information connected. Otherwise, you run the risk of committing plagiarism. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://research.ewu.edu/writers_c_read_study_strategies
• ↑ http://penandthepad.com/annotate-newspaper-article-7730073.html
• ↑ https://www.hunter.cuny.edu/rwc/handouts/the-writing-process-1/invention/Annotating-a-Text/
• ↑ https://learningcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/annotating-texts/
• ↑ https://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/annotate.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/common_writing_assignments/annotated_bibliographies/annotated_bibliography_samples.html
• ↑ https://elearningindustry.com/the-5-best-free-annotation-tools-for-teachers
• ↑ http://www.macworld.com/article/1162946/software-productivity/how-to-annotate-pdfs.html
• ↑ http://www.une.edu/sites/default/files/Reading-and-Annotating.pdf

About This Article

To annotate an article, start by underlining the thesis, or the main argument that the author is making. Next, underline the topic sentences for each paragraph to help you focus on the themes throughout the text. Then, in the margins, write down any questions that you have or those that you’d like your teacher to help you answer. Additionally, jot down your opinions, such as “I don’t agree with this section” to create personal connections to your reading and make it easier to remember the information. For more advice from our Education reviewer, including how to annotate an article on a web page, keep reading. Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How To Annotate An Article: Learn Annotation Strategies

Understand how to Annotate an Article through this tutorial. Learn efficient strategies for effective annotation using online tools, etc:

Whether you are a student or a professional, knowing how to annotate will surely be a valuable tool in your repertoire. Annotation is an active learning strategy that will help you get the most out of any text in terms of both comprehension and retention.

Learning how to annotate will give you a way to better engage with various types of complex reading material, such as articles, essays, literary texts, research papers. But what does ‘annotate’ mean, and how do you do it?

Read this tutorial to find out what annotation is, why it is useful, and how to annotate an article or a bibliography. We’ve also added some useful strategies for effective annotation.

Table of Contents:

What Does ‘Annotate’ Mean

Why is annotation useful, how do you annotate, what is an annotated bibliography, #1) using a key/legend, #2) using stationery, #3) using online tools, frequently asked questions, was this helpful, recommended reading, how to annotate an article.

To ‘annotate’ is, simply, to ‘add notes’. These could be comments, explanations, criticisms, or questions pertaining to whatever text you’re reading.

To annotate a text, you generally highlight or underline important pieces of information and make notes in the margin. You can annotate different texts.

As a student, you can annotate articles , essays , or even textbooks . Research students who compile and reference a long list of sources for their thesis will find it useful to know how to annotate a bibliography .

As a professional, knowing how to annotate will help you easily comprehend and retain any important information from reports  or other official documents  that you might have to read in the course of your work.

Suggested reading =>>  Top 10 Essay Checker And Corrector

A well-annotated text can give you a better understanding of complex information. There are several reasons you should annotate a text.

Few of them are enlisted below:

• Annotating an article lets you become familiar with the location and organization of its content. Thus, it becomes easier and faster to find important information when reviewing .
• When you annotate a text, you clearly identify and distinguish the key points from the supporting details or evidence, which makes it easier to follow the development of ideas and arguments .
• You can also use annotations to build an organized knowledge base, by structuring or categorizing information in an easy-to-access way. Annotating is particularly handy when you need to extract important information , such as relevant quotes or statistics.
• Annotating is an excellent way of actively engaging with a text , by adding your own comments, observations, opinions, questions, associations, or any other reactions you have as you read the text.
• Annotations are especially useful when you need to work on a shared document . You can use annotations to draw your team’s attention towards certain important or interesting information, or even to initiate group discussions on a particular concept, problem, or question.

Annotating a text involves a ‘close reading’ of it. In this section, you will find some examples of annotated texts.

Example of an annotated article: Does ‘‘Science’’ Make You Moral?

Example of an annotated literary text: Annotations on a poem – The Road Not Taken

Follow these key steps when annotating any text:

Step 1: Scan

This is really a pre-reading technique.

• At first glance, make a note of the title of the text, and subheadings, if any, to identify the topic of the text.
• Analyze the source, i.e. the author or the publisher, to evaluate its reliability and usefulness.
• Look for an abstract if there is one, as well as any bold or italicized words and phrases, which might offer further clues about the text’s purpose and intended audience.

Step 2: Skim

Use this first read-through to quickly find the focus of the text, i.e. its main idea or argument. Do this by reading just the first few lines of each paragraph.

• Identify and highlight/underline the main idea.
• Write a summary (only a sentence or two) of the topic in your own words, in the margins, or up top near the title.

Step 3: Read

The second read-through of the text is a slower, more thorough reading. Now that you know what the text is about, as well as what information you can expect to encounter, you can read it more deliberately, and pay attention to details that are important and/or interesting.

• Identify and highlight/underline the supporting points or arguments in the body paragraphs, including relevant evidence or examples.
• Paraphrase and summarize key information in the margins.
• Make a note of any unfamiliar or technical vocabulary.
• Note down questions that come to your mind as you read, any confusion, or your agreement or disagreement with ideas in the text.
• Make personal notes – write your opinion, your thoughts, and reactions to the information in the text.
• Draw connections between different ideas, either within the text itself, or to ideas in other texts, or discussions.

Step 4: Outline

To really solidify your understanding of the content and organization of the text, write an outline tracking the points at which new ideas are introduced, as well as the points where these ideas are developed.

An effective outline will include:

• A summary of the text’s main idea.
• Supporting arguments/evidence.
• Opposing viewpoints (if relevant)

A Bibliography is a list of the books (or other texts) referred to, or cited, in academic texts such as essays, thesis, and research papers, and is usually included at the end of the text. It is also known as a Reference List , or a List of Works Cited , depending on the style of formatting.

The APA (American Psychological Association) and MLA (Modern Language Association) styles of formatting are most commonly used. The format may vary depending on the institution or publication, however, the same basic information is required for each individual reference or citation in a bibliography.

This includes:

• Author’s name
• Title of the text
• Date of publication
• Source of publication i.e. the journal, magazine, or website where the text is published

An Annotated Bibliography contains, in addition to the basic information above, a descriptive summary, as well as and an evaluation of each individual entry. The purpose of this is to inform the reader about the relevance, accuracy, and reliability of each reference or citation.

An annotated bibliography is titled ‘ Annotated Reference List ’ or ‘ Annotated List of Works Cited ’, which can be listed alphabetically by author, title, date of publication, or even by subject.

Let us see an example of an entry in an annotated bibliography, formatted in both the APA and MLA styles.

Example of an APA-style annotated bibliography:

Example of an MLA-style annotated bibliography:

Strategies For Annotation

Depending on whether you are reading printed or online text, you can either annotate by hand, using stationery and/or symbols or by using document programs.

The following strategies will help you annotate as you read:

Create a key or legend for annotating your text with different types of markings and specify what kind of information each marking indicates. This will help to easily identify and access relevant pieces of content.

For example, you can underline key points, highlight quotes or statistics, and circle unfamiliar words/phrases. You can also use punctuation – question marks for things that spark your curiosity as you read; exclamation points for something that catches your attention, or maybe surprises you; arrows that link the content to other points or ideas within the text, or outside of it.

Pens and markers are most commonly used to highlight or underline key points in the text. These are, however, the least active ways of engaging with any text, and you might end up highlighting or underlining more of the text than is necessary.

It also isn’t always possible to use pens and markers on printed text. You might have to return the book or magazine to the library. For example,  you can always use post-its in such cases.

If you are using markers and/or post-its, use different colors for different types of annotations in the text. For example, use green for definitions and explanations, yellow for questions, and pink for personal notes.

Once you know how to annotate a text, you can do this online too! There are different mobile apps and online softwares that can help you annotate digital documents such as PDFs, online articles, and web pages.

Digital annotation tools allow you to mark up online text by adding notes and comments, highlighting key information, and capturing screenshots. They also let you perform various other tasks, including draw on, bookmark, and share webpages. They are particularly useful when you need to work on shared documents with a team.

Here is a list of the most commonly used digital annotation tools:

• hypothes.is

Some of these digital annotation tools are free, such as Diigo and A.nnotate , while others like Filestage and Cronycle are paid tools. You can also download extensions that will allow you to annotate webpages, such as hypothes.is , which is a free browser extension, or Grackle , an add-on tool for Google Docs.

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Q #1) How do you annotate step by step?

Answer: Here is how to annotate an article in three simple steps:

• First, before reading the article in full, look for some basic important information such as the title and author, subheadings if relevant. This will give you an idea as to the topic and intended audience of the article.
• Second, skim through the article to identify the main idea, along with supporting arguments or evidence.
• Third, read the article thoroughly while noting down more details such as comments, questions, and your personal responses to the article.

Q #2) What are the benefits of annotation?

• If you know how to annotate a text, you can actively engage with, and make sense of, the information presented in any text.
• Annotation familiarizes you with the organization of information, so you can follow the development of ideas in the text.
• Knowing how to annotate an article of text is helpful when you review, as you can access relevant pieces of information more easily and quickly.
• Annotating also makes it easier and more efficient to work with others on shared documents.

Q #3) What are 5 different ways to annotate?

Answer: There are many ways to annotate a text or article. Such as:

• Highlight and/or underline important information.
• Paraphrase and/or summarize key points.
• Make notes in the margin.
• Write an outline of the text.
• Use online tools to annotate web pages, online articles, and PDFs.

Q #4) What are some annotation strategies?

Answer: You can get the most out of annotating a text by adding a key or legend, which uses different markings for different types of information. You can also use pens, markers, and post-its effectively by assigning different colors to different purposes.

If you are working with online documents, you can use digital annotation softwares such as Diigo and A.nnotate , or free extensions/add-ons like hypothes.is or Grackle .

Q #5) What should you look for while annotating?

Answer: When annotating any text, look for and make note of the following:

• Key points i.e. the main or important ideas.
• Questions that occur to you as you read.
• Recurring themes or symbols.
• Quotes or statistics.
• Unfamiliar and technical concepts or terminology.
• Links to ideas in texts or related to experiences.

There are several benefits to learning how to annotate an article as you read. The more you practice, the more effective you will become at annotation, which will improve how easily and quickly you can make sense of texts that you read.

• Read the text once to gain an insight into the topic of the article, marking only essential information, such as the focus of the text and the main idea, based on the title and subheadings.
• Read the text again, highlighting or underlining as you read, to identify and summarize relevant information, such as supporting arguments or evidence.
• Make notes, add comments and questions, including personal responses to the text.
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Example of Annotated Bibliography

Below is a sample annotated bibliography written during a workshop attended by students in an introductory English class. The annotated bibliography is on grammar books they examined during class. The annotations are SHORTER than would normally be handed in for a real course project. They are also 1.5 spaced (should be DOUBLE SPACED for a real project).

Grammar Books: Annotated Bibliography

Elliott, R. (2006).  Painless grammar  (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Barron’s Educational Series.

This book is a practical and hands-on book with exercises for the reader. The coverage includes everything from the eight parts of speech to tips for writing. The book is very helpful for students of English, especially because it shares what to do and what not to do and provides examples of mistakes.

Fogarty, M. (2008).  Grammar Girl’s quick and dirty tips for better writing . New York, NY: Henry Holt.

This book includes a wide variety of information on both basic and challenging grammar topics. It is good because it is easy to read and it has cartoons to illustrate the grammar principles it shares. For example, there is a great cartoon that helps explain the difference between “affect” and “effect” on page nine.

Hacker, D. (2009).  Rules for writers  (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Bedford/‌St. Martin’s.

This excellent grammar text outlines all the grammar rules that all writers need to know. From its excellent examples to its many exercises to its clear and powerful layout, this book is a standout. This is the text of choice for most college English teachers and writing centers. In that vein, it is the best choice for the college student and life-long learner.

Straus, J. (2008).  The blue book of grammar and punctuation  (10th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

This book shares information about grammar for a wide audience ranging from high school students to college instructors. The book however is written at a high level and may not be easy to read for everyone. Expectations for readers are high and readers will learn their grammar if they put in the effort. Quizzes for self-assessment are a highlight.

What is it?

An annotated bibliography is the full citation of a source followed by notes and commentary about a source. The word “annotate” means “critical or explanatory notes” and the word “bibliography” means “a list of sources”.  Annotations are meant to be critical in addition to being descriptive. Annotated bibliographies are useful because they present a list of resources that others can use for research, and each resource has information that describes what is in it and that evaluates it (describes what makes it unique, useful, or helpful).

You should have a topic you want to search on to create an annotated bibliography.

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How to do it?

Note:  there is   NO official  APA format for an annotated bibliography .  Our directions, below, rely on what NoodleBib (our APA citation software) does automatically.

The format for an annotated bibliography is similar to that of a research paper. Use one-inch margins on all sides, double space your entries, and alphabetize each entry. Hanging indents are required for citations. On the line after the citation, indent approximately two additional spaces and write the annotation. Indentations for annotations are consistent, even if a citation is one line.  

If your assignment does not provide something more specific, follow the following guidance on annotations:

·     2 to 4 sentences to summarize the main idea(s) of the source.

o  What are the main arguments?

o  What is the point of this book/article?

o  What topics are covered?

·     1 or 2 sentences to assess and evaluate the source.

o  How does it compare with other sources in your bibliography?

o  Is this information reliable?

o  Is the source objective or biased?

·      1 or 2 sentences to reflect on the source.

o  Was this source helpful to you?

o  How can you use this source for your research project?

o  Has it changed how you think about your topic?

Note: the descriptions and evaluations you provide  must be your own writing . Do NOT copy and paste abstracts or summaries from other sources because that would constitute plagiarism.

Below is a sample annotation for a single journal article:

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• What Is an Annotated Bibliography? | Examples & Format

What Is an Annotated Bibliography? | Examples & Format

Published on March 9, 2021 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on August 23, 2022.

An annotated bibliography is a list of source references that includes a short descriptive text (an annotation) for each source. It may be assigned as part of the research process for a paper , or as an individual assignment to gather and read relevant sources on a topic.

Scribbr’s free Citation Generator allows you to easily create and manage your annotated bibliography in APA or MLA style. To generate a perfectly formatted annotated bibliography, select the source type, fill out the relevant fields, and add your annotation.

An example of an annotated source is shown below:

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Table of contents

Annotated bibliography format: apa, mla, chicago, how to write an annotated bibliography, descriptive annotation example, evaluative annotation example, reflective annotation example, finding sources for your annotated bibliography, frequently asked questions about annotated bibliographies.

Make sure your annotated bibliography is formatted according to the guidelines of the style guide you’re working with. Three common styles are covered below:

In APA Style , both the reference entry and the annotation should be double-spaced and left-aligned.

The reference entry itself should have a hanging indent . The annotation follows on the next line, and the whole annotation should be indented to match the hanging indent. The first line of any additional paragraphs should be indented an additional time.

In an MLA style annotated bibliography , the Works Cited entry and the annotation are both double-spaced and left-aligned.

The Works Cited entry has a hanging indent. The annotation itself is indented 1 inch (twice as far as the hanging indent). If there are two or more paragraphs in the annotation, the first line of each paragraph is indented an additional half-inch, but not if there is only one paragraph.

Chicago style

In a  Chicago style annotated bibliography , the bibliography entry itself should be single-spaced and feature a hanging indent.

The annotation should be indented, double-spaced, and left-aligned. The first line of any additional paragraphs should be indented an additional time.

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For each source, start by writing (or generating ) a full reference entry that gives the author, title, date, and other information. The annotated bibliography format varies based on the citation style you’re using.

The annotations themselves are usually between 50 and 200 words in length, typically formatted as a single paragraph. This can vary depending on the word count of the assignment, the relative length and importance of different sources, and the number of sources you include.

Consider the instructions you’ve been given or consult your instructor to determine what kind of annotations they’re looking for:

• Descriptive annotations : When the assignment is just about gathering and summarizing information, focus on the key arguments and methods of each source.
• Evaluative annotations : When the assignment is about evaluating the sources , you should also assess the validity and effectiveness of these arguments and methods.
• Reflective annotations : When the assignment is part of a larger research process, you need to consider the relevance and usefulness of the sources to your own research.

These specific terms won’t necessarily be used. The important thing is to understand the purpose of your assignment and pick the approach that matches it best. Interactive examples of the different styles of annotation are shown below.

A descriptive annotation summarizes the approach and arguments of a source in an objective way, without attempting to assess their validity.

In this way, it resembles an abstract , but you should never just copy text from a source’s abstract, as this would be considered plagiarism . You’ll naturally cover similar ground, but you should also consider whether the abstract omits any important points from the full text.

The interactive example shown below describes an article about the relationship between business regulations and CO 2 emissions.

Rieger, A. (2019). Doing business and increasing emissions? An exploratory analysis of the impact of business regulation on CO 2 emissions. Human Ecology Review , 25 (1), 69–86. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26964340

An evaluative annotation also describes the content of a source, but it goes on to evaluate elements like the validity of the source’s arguments and the appropriateness of its methods .

For example, the following annotation describes, and evaluates the effectiveness of, a book about the history of Western philosophy.

Kenny, A. (2010). A new history of Western philosophy: In four parts . Oxford University Press.

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A reflective annotation is similar to an evaluative one, but it focuses on the source’s usefulness or relevance to your own research.

Reflective annotations are often required when the point is to gather sources for a future research project, or to assess how they were used in a project you already completed.

The annotation below assesses the usefulness of a particular article for the author’s own research in the field of media studies.

Manovich, Lev. (2009). The practice of everyday (media) life: From mass consumption to mass cultural production? Critical Inquiry , 35 (2), 319–331. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/596645

Manovich’s article assesses the shift from a consumption-based media culture (in which media content is produced by a small number of professionals and consumed by a mass audience) to a production-based media culture (in which this mass audience is just as active in producing content as in consuming it). He is skeptical of some of the claims made about this cultural shift; specifically, he argues that the shift towards user-made content must be regarded as more reliant upon commercial media production than it is typically acknowledged to be. However, he regards web 2.0 as an exciting ongoing development for art and media production, citing its innovation and unpredictability.

The article is outdated in certain ways (it dates from 2009, before the launch of Instagram, to give just one example). Nevertheless, its critical engagement with the possibilities opened up for media production by the growth of social media is valuable in a general sense, and its conceptualization of these changes frequently applies just as well to more current social media platforms as it does to Myspace. Conceptually, I intend to draw on this article in my own analysis of the social dynamics of Twitter and Instagram.

Before you can write your annotations, you’ll need to find sources . If the annotated bibliography is part of the research process for a paper, your sources will be those you consult and cite as you prepare the paper. Otherwise, your assignment and your choice of topic will guide you in what kind of sources to look for.

Make sure that you’ve clearly defined your topic , and then consider what keywords are relevant to it, including variants of the terms. Use these keywords to search databases (e.g., Google Scholar ), using Boolean operators to refine your search.

Sources can include journal articles, books, and other source types , depending on the scope of the assignment. Read the abstracts or blurbs of the sources you find to see whether they’re relevant, and try exploring their bibliographies to discover more. If a particular source keeps showing up, it’s probably important.

Once you’ve selected an appropriate range of sources, read through them, taking notes that you can use to build up your annotations. You may even prefer to write your annotations as you go, while each source is fresh in your mind.

An annotated bibliography is an assignment where you collect sources on a specific topic and write an annotation for each source. An annotation is a short text that describes and sometimes evaluates the source.

Any credible sources on your topic can be included in an annotated bibliography . The exact sources you cover will vary depending on the assignment, but you should usually focus on collecting journal articles and scholarly books . When in doubt, utilize the CRAAP test !

Each annotation in an annotated bibliography is usually between 50 and 200 words long. Longer annotations may be divided into paragraphs .

The content of the annotation varies according to your assignment. An annotation can be descriptive, meaning it just describes the source objectively; evaluative, meaning it assesses its usefulness; or reflective, meaning it explains how the source will be used in your own research .

A source annotation in an annotated bibliography fulfills a similar purpose to an abstract : they’re both intended to summarize the approach and key points of a source.

However, an annotation may also evaluate the source , discussing the validity and effectiveness of its arguments. Even if your annotation is purely descriptive , you may have a different perspective on the source from the author and highlight different key points.

You should never just copy text from the abstract for your annotation, as doing so constitutes plagiarism .

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If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2022, August 23). What Is an Annotated Bibliography? | Examples & Format. Scribbr. Retrieved September 16, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/annotated-bibliography/

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Using the annotating strategy to improve students' academic achievement in social studies

Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning

ISSN : 2397-7604

Article publication date: 7 February 2022

Issue publication date: 20 October 2022

This experimental study aimed to examine the effects of annotating a historical text as a reading comprehension strategy on student academic achievement in an eighth-grade social studies class.

Design/methodology/approach

A mixed-method design was used to collect quantitative and qualitative data sequentially. First, the authors collected quantitative data with a series of pre- and post-tests from all student participants during a six-week instructional time frame. Next, the authors collected quantitative and qualitative data with a survey from teacher and intervention group student participants. Quantitative data were analyzed to evaluate the mean differences in participants' test scores and survey responses. Finally, qualitative data from open-ended survey questions were transcribed and analyzed using an inductive approach to supplement the quantitative findings and develop a holistic picture of the participants' learning experiences.

The results showed that the annotating strategy increased student engagement, reading comprehension and thus academic achievement in social studies. Annotating helped students visualize key points, break down complex texts and slow down when reading complex historical texts. As a result, it helped students focus, think critically and discourse to understand complex content.

Research limitations/implications

The study was conducted with eighth-grade students in one middle school in South Georgia.

Practical implications

The findings of this study provide evidence that the reading comprehension strategy of annotating is a valuable teaching and learning tool for daily use in social studies classrooms.

Social implications

Educators must prepare students to use reading comprehension strategies such as annotating in all content areas and not only in a traditional academic setting.

Originality/value

This study adds to the current body of research and undergirds reading comprehension strategies used to improve the learning outcomes in content other than reading.

• Reading comprehension strategy
• Academic achievement
• Social studies

Lloyd, Z.T. , Kim, D. , Cox, J.T. , Doepker, G.M. and Downey, S.E. (2022), "Using the annotating strategy to improve students' academic achievement in social studies", Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning , Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 218-231. https://doi.org/10.1108/JRIT-09-2021-0065

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2022, Zena T. Lloyd, Daesang Kim, J.T. Cox, Gina M. Doepker and Steven E. Downey

Published in Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode .

Introduction

The idea that “ Every teacher is a reading teacher ” is commonly accepted in the education world. In elementary and middle-school classrooms, it would not be easy to find teachers who do not believe this statement to be true ( Alvermann and Moje, 2019 ). Convincing educators to use various reading comprehension strategies across other content areas to increase learning is not an issue. Rather, the challenge for teachers is to understand how to utilize purposeful reading comprehension strategies in instructional settings ( Vaughn and Massey, 2019 ).

It is important to teach reading comprehension strategies to recognize words and comprehend what the words being read actually mean; learning must go deeper than a connection between written words and the eyes identifying those words. A reader may not possess this ability naturally and must be taught to cognitively process the words read and then take what was processed and draw a meaning based upon the reader's prior knowledge and personal experience. Teachers must provide students with reading comprehension strategies that can be applied repeatedly in all learning settings. Macceca (2014) states, “Comprehension strategies best serve students when they are employed across the curricula and in the context of their actual meaning” (p. 4).

Students are expected to have already acquired foundational reading skills by the time they reach middle school. In middle school, these basics are the foundation on which students learn to apply literacy skills to foster understanding in specified content areas such as in social studies. Social studies curricula at the middle-school level place great importance on the reading comprehension of informational texts. Not only are students required to learn the basics of the social studies content, but they must also work toward literacy mastery of the social studies texts. Social studies content and standards require students to be dual learners: they must master the actual content knowledge as well as learn how to comprehend social studies texts ( McCulley and Osman, 2015 ). However, social studies is often the last content to be addressed with new interventions and changes, so it is important that teachers of this subject be provided with effective learning tools, strategies and methods that can better their instruction and in turn better the students' understanding of the instruction ( Dobbs, 2003 ; Evans and Clark, 2015 ). Students must be equipped with learning strategies they can apply to think critically and master the social studies curriculum ( Claravall, 2017 ).

Does annotating a historical text improve eighth-grade students' academic achievement in social studies classes?

What are students' and teachers' perceptions regarding using the annotating strategy to increase student achievement?

Literature review

This study adopted the cognitive approach to explore how teachers and students perceive the reading comprehension strategy of annotating to increase student academic achievement in social studies. This cognitive approach is based on Piaget's work, focusing on the internal constructions of knowledge within the individual learner ( Eggen and Kauchak, 2004 ). The individual applies their own environment and past experiences to a current learning situation to construct their own interpretation and meaning. This approach supports the idea that a teacher's role in a student's learning experience is to inspire students to take possession of their own learning experience by teaching, instructing, directing and overseeing learning strategies ( Schreiber and Valle, 2013 ).

Snow (2002) defined reading comprehension as “the process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language” (p. 11). The three foundational components of comprehension are the reader, text and activity. Each function in a specific capacity in the overall process of reading comprehension. The reader brings his or her own prior knowledge/experiences and previously acquired abilities/skills to the text and activity. The text simply provides the material to be read and interacted with. The activity itself is the interaction by the reader, using the text to identify purpose, meaning and consequences. Reading comprehension occurs when the reader can take a piece of text, identify the main idea and other important information in the text and then categorize/associate it with prior knowledge regarding the overall meaning of the text ( Ness, 2011 ).

Students' understanding and comprehension in social studies increase when they make connections between prior knowledge and new knowledge being studied ( McCulley and Osman, 2015 ). However, teaching students to connect material and knowledge they have already been taught combined with new material and content from texts is easier when they already have strong reading comprehension skills. In addition, students must possess and be able to use critical thinking skills to gain a better and fuller understanding of the content of their social studies texts ( Reidel and Draper, 2011 ). The use of more complex texts could help develop a learner's ability to think more critically ( Evans and Clark, 2015 ). Since the need for students to be able to think critically has intensified with the Common Core curriculum, there has been a continual demand for increasing text complexity. This has been a recurring theme in mastering the Common Core curriculum ( Fisher and Frey, 2015 ). The embedded literacy standards address text complexity. Evans and Clark (2015) stated that text complexity increased with new standards and curriculum and concluded that if content texts in social studies were more complex than in the past, then using reading strategies in social studies could increase comprehension.

However, comprehension of complex expository texts is especially difficult for students who struggle with reading because it requires them to utilize reading comprehension skills, which go beyond the foundational understandings. Instead, students are required to dig into a text to identify major and minor points while connecting those points to prior knowledge and patterns within the text. For students to be able to perform these tasks while reading expository texts in social studies, they must be taught reading comprehension skills, which can aid them in learning the content. Barber et al. (2015) noted that because social studies content is often composed of a lot of reading of complex texts, it is vital to the success of learners that they become engaged with the content. They noted that comprehension increases when literacy intervention strategies are used to increase engagement in social studies content. Stimulating student interest through reading strategies that involve the student with the content could increase engagement. Key et al. (2010) found that when reading strategies were used to facilitate engagement in social studies, learning improved.

Many studies have been conducted on reading comprehension strategies and how to improve knowledge, understanding and overall learning using these strategies ( Alexander-Shea, 2011 ; Angulo, 2019 ; Chiariello, 2018 ; Dobler, 2013 ; Fisher and Frey, 2015 ; Hattie, 2019 ; Key et al. , 2010 ; Neugebauer and Lia, 2018 ; Turner and Himmel, 2019 ; Vaughn and Massey, 2019 ). However, researchers have rarely mentioned annotating as a standalone reading strategy. The importance and significance of annotating have been presented through its inclusion in the close reading strategy ( Fisher and Frey, 2014a ; Zywica and Gomez, 2008 ). Much of the research conducted on annotating has focused on its role in the close reading strategy process, making it important to include literature on close reading as part of the foundation for the importance of annotating as an effective reading strategy. For example, in Fisher and Frey's (2014a) study, annotating was a part of the overall close reading intervention along with re-reading, think-alouds, questioning and discussions. They concluded that students who received the intervention of close reading showed significant increases in their academic achievement. It also instilled motivation and engagement in the active learner when these strategies, including close reading, were utilized, increasing comprehension and learning ( Cole, 2014 ). Annotating required the learners to become engaged in their reading by dissecting the text, which, according to Barber et al. (2015) , increased their understanding and comprehension.

Boyles (2013) expressed the importance of teaching students what annotating is and how to use it earlier in their education. This early instruction in annotating would better prepare students for the complex texts they are required to master in middle school. Obtaining this skill would equip the students early on with the tools they needed to be successful when they reach higher grades. Furthermore, students would encounter more complex texts, which would mandate more skills to comprehend the text successfully.

We adopted a mixed-methods design ( Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011 ) to sequentially collect quantitative and qualitative data. First, we collected quantitative data with a series of pre- and post-tests from all student participants during a six-week instructional time frame. We then collected quantitative and qualitative data with a survey from teacher and intervention group student participants. Quantitative data were analyzed to evaluate the mean differences in participants' test scores and survey responses, and qualitative data from open-ended survey questions were transcribed and analyzed using an inductive approach ( Miles et al. , 2014 ) to supplement the quantitative findings and develop a holistic picture of the students' learning experiences ( Kim et al. , 2013 , 2017 ).

Participants

The participants for this study included 256 students and five teachers in eighth-grade social studies classes at a middle school in the southern USA. Over 90% of the students at the school were economically disadvantaged. The classes included regular education students, students with disabilities, advanced students and gifted students. Each teacher participant had two separate sections of eighth-grade social studies classes. Each section was randomly assigned to either the intervention or the control group. Thus, a total of ten sections from five classes were allocated in Group A (intervention group, 129 students) and Group B (control group, 127 students).

Pre- and post-tests

Two series of pre- and post-tests (pre-test-1, post-test-1, pre-test-2 and post-test-2) were created using the Illuminate online instructional resource ( Illuminate Education, 2018 ). Though teachers could use various daily assessment strategies, the school administrators expected them to utilize Illuminate for the formative and summative assessments. Illuminate offers school districts a plan for creating and implementing a comprehensive, balanced assessment system that is aligned with national and state standards. Due to the length of time needed to teach the unit (six weeks), the unit was divided as evenly as possible based on its number of standards/elements. Each series (e.g. pre-test-1 and post-test-1) test had the same 20 multiple-choice questions with four possible answer choices for each question.

We developed a survey for students and teachers that used a similar overall format, including demographic, Likert-scale and open-ended questions Table 4-1 . Overall, the Likert scale questions were used to elicit participants' perceptions or experiences of annotating historical texts for teaching and learning. Open-ended questions gave participants the opportunity to provide additional reasoning and/or explanations to buttress their responses. A pilot test was conducted with one sixth-grade ELA/SS teacher with 28 students to help establish the content validity of the survey instrument used in the study ( Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011 ). We ensured that the quantitative and qualitative questions on the survey were easy to understand and appropriate for acquiring respondents' perceptions about using the strategy of annotating.

Implementation

First, we provided two different 1-h training sessions on annotating as a reading comprehension strategy to all five teachers. The first training session was an overall introduction to the study focused on annotating texts. The second training session taught the teachers how to annotate using different symbols, highlighters or sticky notes. After training, the teachers were able to instruct their own students on how to annotate. We also provided teachers with articles/passages from ReadWorks and Newsela to use during instruction in addition to texts from the traditional eighth-grade social studies textbook. Finally, to keep the consistency of implementation from classroom to classroom, we conducted short classroom observations to ensure that teachers and students correctly followed the predetermined guidelines of the annotating strategy.

The teachers' role in the study was to instruct and model how to annotate and then monitor the students' use of annotating in their classrooms. The students' role was to use the intervention for six weeks, during which they applied annotating while they were learning in the social studies content area. The intervention was used a minimum of two times a week, extending throughout the six weeks. It provided a minimum of ten class experiences with the annotating strategy as a reading comprehension strategy. Each time the strategy was used, it was employed for no less than 10 min, providing a minimum of 100 min with the strategy. The strategy was used mostly to introduce new content material, so it might have been used more than the minimum 100-min intervention time. Figure 1 is a sample of one student's annotations on a provided ReadWorks document.

Students in the control classes were given reading texts independently and comprehension questions to complete. Teachers were asked to continue their traditional forms of instruction with each text. All students/classes were required to read the same texts and complete the same questions.

All test data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics 26 software to determine the significance of the results. All qualitative data from the survey were analyzed using MAXQDA. The qualitative data were used for further explanation and interpretation to support the quantitative data to help triangulate the overall findings.

Test results

Students in Group A (intervention) and Group B (control) took two different series of pre- and post-tests throughout a six-week unit of study. Each of the five teachers (Teachers Z, Y, X, W and V) who participated in this study taught two sections of eighth-grade social studies classes. The results of the pre- and post-tests are shown in Table 1 .

The gain score from the pre-test to post-test was computed for each participant (e.g. post-test score–pre-test score). As shown in Table 2 , all mean scores increased between the pre- and post-test in both Series 1 and 2. It appears that despite the difference in starting scores, all gain scores showed similar improvement within their groups. An interesting finding was that students in Group B ( M  = 38.7) had a higher mean than Group A ( M  = 36.51) on the pre-test, but the students in Group A ( M  = 80) scored higher than Group B ( M  = 79.09) on the post-test in Series 2.

Independent samples t -tests were conducted to analyze the differences in gain scores between Groups A and B, as shown in Table 3 . The results indicated a statistically significant difference between students who were in the intervention group classes (Group A) that used annotating and the control group classes (Group B) that used traditional instructional strategies. These results support that the students who used the strategy of annotating texts for reading comprehension performed better than other students on the tests.

In addition, a two-way ANOVA was conducted to examine the effect of gender and student achievement from Series 1 and 2 pre- and post-tests. However, the main impact of the gender variable (male or female) was not significant.

Survey results

Group A students and all five teachers completed the survey after the six-week unit of study. The survey results provide both quantitative and qualitative data about their perceptions and experiences regarding using the annotating strategy to increase the learning outcomes on the tests. The demographic data collected from the survey are presented in Appendix . The Likert scale questions (1a–5a) in the survey provided the quantitative data, while open-ended questions (1b–5b) provided the qualitative data.

The responses on the five Likert scale questions indicate that both students and teachers had similar positive views (Student M  = 4.54 and Teacher M  = 4.92) about the impact of annotating on teaching and learning, as shown in Table 4 . For example, both teachers and students strongly agreed that annotating as a reading comprehension strategy was easy to implement in the social studies classroom, and that they would likely implement it in future social studies instruction. Furthermore, there was strong agreement that annotating increased students' engagement while reading and working to comprehend historical texts and ultimately learning in the social studies classroom.

The open-ended questions provided the students an opportunity to offer further explanation of their responses to the Likert scale questions. However, answering these questions was not mandatory, and the actual number of participant responses varied by question.

The qualitative findings were derived from coding and theme generation. Repeated close readings of the open-ended responses were conducted. Each question's initial findings generated categories and codes so that keywords/statements could be identified and labeled. Themes were then generated based on central patterns among the data, as shown in Table 5 .

Using the annotating strategy to improve students' academic achievement

Our achievement test results indicate statistically significant differences in the average growth of Group A ( M  = 44.19, SD  = 7.23) and Group B ( M  = 40.95, SD  = 6.90), t (254) = 3.668, p  = 0.000. Cohen's d produced a medium effect size ( d  = 0.458). These preliminary findings support that Group A students who used annotating to improve their reading comprehension performed better than Group B students on the tests, as shown in Figure 2 .

Fisher and Frey's findings ( 2012 , 2013 , 2014a , b , c , 2015 , 2018 ) support that close reading, including annotating, can deepen understanding and increase overall learning when used in content area texts. Our study presented how annotating as a reading comprehension strategy improves middle-school students' learning, specifically of history content. The findings showed that annotating increased students' academic achievement, and there were no significant differences between male and female students.

When a chart was hard to understand, writing stuff on it and around it helped me understand it better.

When something had a bunch of different parts that were hard to understand, annotating help me break it down into smaller pieces that I could understand.

It allowed the students to make their work their own. They didn't seem as bored because they were not just sitting there reading a piece of text. They actually had something to do to the text.

Students could successfully annotate historical texts to improve their reading comprehension. Thus, the students became more willing to use it in future social studies classes ( M  = 4.29 and M  = 5.0) and even in other classes ( M  = 4.71 and M  = 5.0) because of their positive perceptions and experiences.

The benefits of learning with annotating

The summary of participants' responses to five Likert scale questions in the surveys revealed the benefits of learning by annotating historical texts in social studies classes. Both students and teachers agreed that annotating was easy to use in class, increased engagement and even improved their learning. Therefore, they were willing to continue to use annotating as a reading comprehension strategy in future social studies classes and other content area classes.

When I first began teaching them how to use it, they all caught on really fast because they were already familiar with it from past reading classes.

Thus, students had applicable tools that helped immerse them into what they were reading. This finding supports that learning activities can be very effective if they are designed to be easy to use for learning, as Kim and his colleagues suggested.

Students really struggle with understanding complex texts. I feel like they get overwhelmed and do not know where even to start. Annotating gives them a strategy that will help them to break it into pieces and understand all the different parts to a complex text.

This comment supports Newkirk's (2012) finding that the reading strategy of close reading including annotating could help to increase engagement.

So how did annotating help students? The findings from the other open-end questions revealed the practical and pedagogical benefits of learning with annotating. Specifically, this strategy helped students to visualize key points, break down complex texts, slow down their reading, increase focus, encourage critical thinking and increase discourse. Table 6 presents some illustrative comments on the generated themes shown in Table 5 . These benefits support students in increasing engagement and reading comprehension on complex texts and, most importantly, increasing their academic achievements.

Thus, it helped students focus, think critically and discourse to understand complex content. Annotating can be a powerful tool for both teachers and students to keep students engaged and improve their understanding and comprehension of what they have read.

Social studies content can no longer be mastered simply by memorizing facts or identifying locations on a map ( Gilles et al. , 2013 ; National Council for the Social Studies, 2017 ; Tanner, 2008 ). It now includes not only acquiring understandings of history, geography, government and economics, but also being able to analyze issues, think critically, solve problems and become informed citizens ( Georgia Department of Education, 2017 ; Macceca, 2014 ; Reidel and Draper, 2011 ). Annotating could help students to do all of these things as they form their own connections and understandings of complex texts while providing hands-on and visual learning experiences. As a result, students learn to read more effectively and learn content area topics more deeply ( Zywica and Gomez, 2008 ).

This study adds to the current body of research and undergirds reading comprehension strategies used to improve the learning outcome in content other than reading. Furthermore, the findings from this study provide evidence that the reading comprehension strategy of annotating is a valuable teaching and learning strategy for daily use in the context of historical content in the social studies classroom. However, adding new annotating activities can create a high extraneous cognitive load with negative experiences. This challenge can be reduced by (1) adopting appropriate instructional strategies to design and implement practical learning activities with annotating and (2) offering training sessions or professional development workshops with resources (e.g. annotating guide, highlighters and sticky notes). In addition, classroom teachers should understand their students' pedagogical needs to ensure that students learn with the benefits of annotating strategy.

Limitations

Limitations occur in research when shortcomings appear in the research design or methodology that can impact or influence the interpretation of the findings ( Patton, 2002 ). Although the authors took precautions when designing the study, the study contained limitations that may have adversely influenced the overall findings, including lack of generalizability due to the limited number and location of participants, possible inadequacies of the instruments, bias based on personal experiences with annotating and issues related to self-reporting measures on the surveys.

The overall purpose of this study was to examine the effects of annotating a historical text as a reading comprehension strategy on student academic achievement in an eighth-grade social studies class. The quantitative and qualitative data results showed that annotating increases student engagement, reading comprehension and thus academic achievement. Annotating helped students visualize key points, break down complex texts and slow down when reading complex historical texts. As a result, it helped students focus, think critically and discourse to understand complex content. Annotating can be a powerful tool for both teachers and students to keep students engaged and improve their understanding and comprehension of what they have read.

Competency in reading comprehension is not natural for all students ( Mahdavi and Tensfeldt, 2013 ; Ness, 2018 ). When learners struggle with understanding and comprehending what they have read, it can be due to a lack of knowledge of appropriate comprehension strategies or uncertainty about how to use the reading comprehension strategies they have been taught ( Mariage et al. , 2020 ). Therefore, educators must prepare students to use reading comprehension strategies such as annotating in all content areas and not only in a traditional academic setting.

Student work sample

The average growth of group students' test scores

Test results for Groups A and B

Gain scores for Groups A and B

Independent samples t -test results for Groups A and B

Summary of participants' responses to five Likert scale questions in the surveys