level
Note. N = 150 ( n = 50 for each condition). Participants were on average 39.5 years old ( SD = 10.1), and participant age did not differ by condition.
a Reflects the number and percentage of participants answering “yes” to this question.
Results of Curve-Fitting Analysis Examining the Time Course of Fixations to the Target
Logistic parameter | 9-year-olds | 16-year-olds | (40) |
| Cohen's | ||
Maximum asymptote, proportion | .843 | .135 | .877 | .082 | 0.951 | .347 | 0.302 |
Crossover, in ms | 759 | 87 | 694 | 42 | 2.877 | .006 | 0.840 |
Slope, as change in proportion per ms | .001 | .0002 | .002 | .0002 | 2.635 | .012 | 2.078 |
Note. For each subject, the logistic function was fit to target fixations separately. The maximum asymptote is the asymptotic degree of looking at the end of the time course of fixations. The crossover point is the point in time the function crosses the midway point between peak and baseline. The slope represents the rate of change in the function measured at the crossover. Mean parameter values for each of the analyses are shown for the 9-year-olds ( n = 24) and 16-year-olds ( n = 18), as well as the results of t tests (assuming unequal variance) comparing the parameter estimates between the two ages.
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for Study Variables
Variable |
|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |
1. Internal– external status | 3,697 | 0.43 | 0.49 | — | ||||||
2. Manager job performance | 2,134 | 3.14 | 0.62 | −.08 | — | |||||
3. Starting salary | 3,697 | 1.01 | 0.27 | .45 | −.01 | — | ||||
4. Subsequent promotion | 3,697 | 0.33 | 0.47 | .08 | .07 | .04 | — | |||
5. Organizational tenure | 3,697 | 6.45 | 6.62 | −.29 | .09 | .01 | .09 | — | ||
6. Unit service performance | 3,505 | 85.00 | 6.98 | −.25 | −.39 | .24 | .08 | .01 | — | |
7. Unit financial performance | 694 | 42.61 | 5.86 | .00 | −.03 | .12 | −.07 | −.02 | .16 | — |
Means, Standard Deviations, and One-Way Analyses of Variance in Psychological and Social Resources and Cognitive Appraisals
Measure | Urban | Rural | (1, 294) | η | ||
Self-esteem | 2.91 | 0.49 | 3.35 | 0.35 | 68.87 | .19 |
Social support | 4.22 | 1.50 | 5.56 | 1.20 | 62.60 | .17 |
Cognitive appraisals | ||||||
Threat | 2.78 | 0.87 | 1.99 | 0.88 | 56.35 | .20 |
Challenge | 2.48 | 0.88 | 2.83 | 1.20 | 7.87 | .03 |
Self-efficacy | 2.65 | 0.79 | 3.53 | 0.92 | 56.35 | .16 |
*** p < .001.
Results From a Factor Analysis of the Parental Care and Tenderness (PCAT) Questionnaire
PCAT item | Factor loading | ||
1 | 2 | 3 | |
Factor 1: Tenderness—Positive | |||
20. You make a baby laugh over and over again by making silly faces. | .04 | .01 | |
22. A child blows you kisses to say goodbye. | −.02 | −.01 | |
16. A newborn baby curls its hand around your finger. | −.06 | .00 | |
19. You watch as a toddler takes their first step and tumbles gently back down. | .05 | −.07 | |
25. You see a father tossing his giggling baby up into the air as a game. | .10 | −.03 | |
Factor 2: Liking | |||
5. I think that kids are annoying (R) | −.01 | .06 | |
8. I can’t stand how children whine all the time (R) | −.12 | −.03 | |
2. When I hear a child crying, my first thought is “shut up!” (R) | .04 | .01 | |
11. I don’t like to be around babies. (R) | .11 | −.01 | |
14. If I could, I would hire a nanny to take care of my children. (R) | .08 | −.02 | |
Factor 3: Protection | |||
7. I would hurt anyone who was a threat to a child. | −.13 | −.02 | |
12. I would show no mercy to someone who was a danger to a child. | .00 | −.05 | |
15. I would use any means necessary to protect a child, even if I had to hurt others. | .06 | .08 | |
4. I would feel compelled to punish anyone who tried to harm a child. | .07 | .03 | |
9. I would sooner go to bed hungry than let a child go without food. | .46 | −.03 |
Note. N = 307. The extraction method was principal axis factoring with an oblique (Promax with Kaiser Normalization) rotation. Factor loadings above .30 are in bold. Reverse-scored items are denoted with an (R). Adapted from “Individual Differences in Activation of the Parental Care Motivational System: Assessment, Prediction, and Implications,” by E. E. Buckels, A. T. Beall, M. K. Hofer, E. Y. Lin, Z. Zhou, and M. Schaller, 2015, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 108 (3), p. 501 ( https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000023 ). Copyright 2015 by the American Psychological Association.
Moderator Analysis: Types of Measurement and Study Year
Effect | Estimate |
| 95% CI | ||
Fixed effects | |||||
Intercept | .119 | .040 | .041 | .198 | .003 |
Creativity measurement | .097 | .028 | .042 | .153 | .001 |
Academic achievement measurement | −.039 | .018 | −.074 | −.004 | .03 |
Study year | .0002 | .001 | −.001 | .002 | .76 |
Goal | −.003 | .029 | −.060 | .054 | .91 |
Published | .054 | .030 | −.005 | .114 | .07 |
Random effects | |||||
Within-study variance | .009 | .001 | .008 | .011 | <.001 |
Between-study variance | .018 | .003 | .012 | .023 | <.001 |
Note . Number of studies = 120, number of effects = 782, total N = 52,578. CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit.
Master Narrative Voices: Struggle and Success and Emancipation
Discourse and dimension | Example quote |
Struggle and success | |
Self-actualization as member of a larger gay community is the end goal of healthy sexual identity development, or “coming out” | “My path of gayness ... going from denial to saying, well this is it, and then the process of coming out, and the process of just sort of, looking around and seeing, well where do I stand in the world, and sort of having, uh, political feelings.” (Carl, age 50) |
Maintaining healthy sexual identity entails vigilance against internalization of societal discrimination | “When I'm like thinking of criticisms of more mainstream gay culture, I try to ... make sure it's coming from an appropriate place and not like a place of self-loathing.” (Patrick, age 20) |
Emancipation | |
Open exploration of an individually fluid sexual self is the goal of healthy sexual identity development | “[For heterosexuals] the man penetrates the female, whereas with gay people, I feel like there is this potential for really playing around with that model a lot, you know, and just experimenting and exploring.” (Orion, age 31) |
Questioning discrete, monolithic categories of sexual identity | “LGBTQI, you know, and added on so many letters. Um, and it does start to raise the question about what the terms mean and whether ... any term can adequately be descriptive.” (Bill, age 50) |
Integrated Results Matrix for the Effect of Topic Familiarity on Reliance on Author Expertise
Quantitative results | Qualitative results | Example quote |
When the topic was more familiar (climate change) and cards were more relevant, participants placed less value on author expertise. | When an assertion was considered to be more familiar and considered to be general knowledge, participants perceived less need to rely on author expertise. | Participant 144: “I feel that I know more about climate and there are several things on the climate cards that are obvious, and that if I sort of know it already, then the source is not so critical ... whereas with nuclear energy, I don't know so much so then I'm maybe more interested in who says what.” |
When the topic was less familiar (nuclear power) and cards were more relevant, participants placed more value on authors with higher expertise. | When an assertion was considered to be less familiar and not general knowledge, participants perceived more need to rely on author expertise. | Participant 3: “[Nuclear power], which I know much, much less about, I would back up my arguments more with what I trust from the professors.” |
Note . We integrated quantitative data (whether students selected a card about nuclear power or about climate change) and qualitative data (interviews with students) to provide a more comprehensive description of students’ card selections between the two topics.
When students organize their scholarly papers, they need valid guidelines on how to write a results section of a research paper. In this case, a presented article offers critical insights, including a definition of a results section, its format, steps on how to write it, all the parts of a standard research paper and how this element differs from others, the information that should be included, and how to organize it correctly. A discussed guideline also teaches students specific differences between qualitative and quantitative research results sections, including examples and templates indicating how to present the main findings. In turn, an observed article provides recommendations with 8 dos and 8 don’ts of writing a results section, 20 tips that students should follow when organizing this part, and some examples of elements they can include in their research papers.
Students should read scholarly texts habitually to equip themselves with knowledge of specific requirements of high-standard papers. While these requirements are not similar for different types of papers , they have similar unique features. Basically, it is standard for writers of various types of essays to create a clear thesis statement that provides direction on a particular content and a well-organized outline that follows a correct essay structure and allows one to organize ideas logically. In turn, a presented guideline on how to write a results section provides insights into basic details students must address when writing this part, including all the other components of a research paper, the information essential to include, and its organization. Moreover, readers should view this article as an educational tool that empowers them to start writing a high-standard results section of a scientific research paper.
According to its definition, a results section of a research paper is a crucial component where study findings are presented in a clear, concise, and objective manner. Basically, the main purpose of writing a results section is to present the data collected and the outcomes of the analyses performed without any interpretation or bias (Carter et al., 2021). This section typically includes tables, figures, and descriptive text that detail key results, allowing readers to see the evidence that supports research hypotheses or questions. By systematically organizing and reporting the data, this part allows readers to assess a particular validity of study conclusions and an overall reliability of the data, serving as a valid foundation for a discussion section, where an actual significance of the findings is interpreted while broader implications are considered (Wallwork, 2022). In terms of pages and words, the length of a results section depends on academic levels, scopes of research, and assignment requirements, while general writing guidelines are:
High School
University (Undergraduate)
Master’s
Section | Content | Details |
---|---|---|
Title | Brief title summarizing a particular content of a results section. | Should be concise and reflective of main findings. |
Introduction | Briefly introduce a primary purpose of a results section. | Sets a specific context for study outcomes, often a few sentences summarizing research objectives. |
Text Description | Descriptive summary of key findings. | Provides a narrative overview of outputs, highlighting the most important data points. |
Tables and Figures | Visual representation of data (graphs, charts, tables, etc.). | Includes all relevant visual aids to illustrate study findings clearly in writing. |
Statistical Analysis | Presentation of statistical results (mean, median, p-values, confidence intervals, etc.). | Detailed statistical outputs supporting the findings, including any relevant calculations or tests. |
Data Interpretation | Objective presentation of data trends and patterns without interpretation. | Focuses on describing what the data shows without delving into implications or significance. |
Summary of Findings | Concise summary highlighting the main findings. | Briefly recaps key findings, emphasizing the most significant data points in writing. |
References to Figures | References to figures and tables within an entire paper’s text in accordance with APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, Harvard, or other formatting rules. | Inline references (e.g., “as shown in Figure 1”) to guide readers to relevant visual aids. |
Note: Some sections can be added, deleted, or combined with each other, and such a writing depends on a particular purpose of the findings and their representations. Basically, a standard writing format of a results section includes an introduction, presentation of descriptive statistics, visual aids, such as tables and figures, detailed narrative descriptions of key findings, and a summary of significant outputs. For example, to structure a results section in a research paper, scholars start with a brief introduction, followed by presenting their descriptive data, visual aids, and statistical analyses, then detailing key findings in a narrative form, and ending with a summary of the most significant outputs (Carter et al., 2021). In this case, people should write their results section in the past tense, as they are describing what was found in their research papers. Moreover, a results section presents raw data and findings of a study objectively, while an analysis section interprets these findings, discussing their implications, significance, and relevance to research questions (Ross & Willson, 2018). In turn, to start a results section in a research paper, people begin by briefly summarizing a specific purpose of an obtained data and providing an overview of this information being presented.
To write a results section in a research paper, people present their findings clearly and objectively, using descriptive words, tables, and figures to highlight key data, and include statistical analyses to support their outputs without interpreting its implications, which are reserved for a discussion part.
A research paper is unique because it has sections with varying writing details about a specific study topic. For example, these sections include an introduction, literature review, research methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion (Carter et al., 2021). In this respect, a research paper is a comprehensive document that requires students’ total focus and dedication. Writers should use each part to provide information for readers to understand a real essence and significance of research papers. Therefore, to write a quality results section, one must know how it differs from other scientific papers and the information it must provide for readers. In turn, students should focus on a particular uniqueness of each element because it underscores its relevance in a research paper.
1️⃣ Introduction
An introduction is a first section of a research paper. As a title suggests, it aims to introduce a reader to a specific study problem under analysis. In this respect, there are critical details writers must provide in this part, including a research problem, a background of an overall investigation, a significance of a particular study, and a research question or hypothesis (Wallwork, 2022). Typically, scientific paper topics indicate study problems students may use for writing their scholarly papers. In turn, a background information addresses existing research and some gaps writers intend to explore using bridge sentences in their current papers. Moreover, a real significance of a specific study must explain why a current scientific work is essential, and research question(s) or hypothesis(es) address what writers intend to prove through their papers, either answering questions or validating null and alternative hypotheses (Carter et al., 2021). Thus, an introduction section of a research paper gives readers basic information about a writer’s scientific work. In turn, before an introduction, students can include an abstract or executive summary part, which means an overall summary of a research paper, but this writing is optional.
2️⃣ Review of an Existing Literature
A literature review is a second section of a research paper that examines existing evidence relating to a particular research paper problem. Depending on a chosen topic, writing this section is robust because one must demonstrate an in-depth understanding of a researched issue under review (Wallwork, 2022). More importantly, students must convince readers that they have investigated the evidence and found a gap by reviewing credible sources that justify their studies. The most significant detail that students should focus on when writing this part is to examine numerous reliable sources, including books, peer-reviewed academic articles, and reports by government agencies, to cite information and statistics relevant to a specific scientific problem or theoretical framework (Wallwork, 2022). Such information is essential in revealing a particular knowledge gap that justifies writing a current scientific paper.
3️⃣ Research Methodology
Research methodology is a third section of a research paper and focuses on unique methods that students use to conduct their research works. For example, scholars should understand that a scholarly paper takes many writing forms or designs that determine a specific approach to take to execute their tasks (Carter et al., 2021). The two main designs are qualitative and quantitative studies, while research methods include descriptive, experimental, case study, and observation. Therefore, when writing this section, students must know they intend to give readers a roadmap for conducting their scientific papers. Essential details include study participants, how to identify them and their total number, how to collect data, and the data analysis procedure(s) for outputs (Noyes et al., 2019). In turn, a research design is the most important writing detail to consider because it determines all the other components of a methodology part. Besides, this section tends to be longer than an introduction.
4️⃣ Results Section
A results section is a fourth part of a research paper and is where students outline the findings of their scientific works. Typically, this section is shorter than a previous one because its writing purpose is to provide readers with the outcomes of a research paper. Moreover, a results chapter of a dissertation includes a particular presentation of the findings, supported by descriptive statistics, tables, figures, and detailed narratives, without interpretation or discussion of their implications (Carter et al., 2021). As a title suggests, presented details in this part should point to specific findings only. Therefore, a particular issue that makes this element unique is that writers do not provide details that contextualize their work but only those that indicate its outcomes. The information in this section underscores a specific purpose of writing a research paper, including its ultimate objective. In turn, some examples of sentence starters for beginning a results section are:
5️⃣ Discussion
A fifth section of a research paper is a discussion part, where authors link the results with the literature review. To write a results and discussion section, people present their findings clearly with supporting data and statistical analysis, interpret them, discuss their implications, and compare them to previous research in a discussion part (Snyder et al., 2019). Ideally, the information in this writing part acts as a summary of a research paper that requires one to confirm that the findings are relevant to addressing a defined knowledge gap that writers expressed in an introduction and literature review. Typically, people show this linkage by indicating whether the outcomes have answered study question(s) or validated hypothesis(es). Other essential writing details are possible limitations of a research paper.
6️⃣ Conclusion
A conclusion is a last section of a research paper. Basically, writing a concluding paragraph reiterates a research question, how study findings impact an entire practice, such as nursing or psychology, and a particular need for conducting further studies to address unresolved questions (Wallwork, 2022). This last writing part summarizes a research paper and affects a reader’s perspective on a specific study problem.
Join our satisfied customers who have received perfect papers from Wr1ter Team.
A results section is about the findings of a research paper only. As such, students should not address anything that does not relate to the study question(s) or hypothesis(es). Typically, specific details in this section include data that writers present in tables, charts, graphs, or other visual figures as part of a paper’s text or separately on pages at the end of an entire document, such as acknowledgments or appendices (Carter et al., 2021). Another detail is a contextual analysis of a provided data to give readers a better understanding of how it relates to the study question(s) or hypothesis(es), expanding on the meaning of the information presented. In writing, further essential details in this part are data corresponding to the study question(s) or hypothesis(es) and secondary findings, including secondary outcomes and subgroup analyses (Carter et al., 2021). In turn, to deal with negative results, people present them objectively, discuss their potential causes, and highlight their significance or implications for future analysis. All these writing details make a results section unique because it is where readers need to understand a real essence of a scientific paper.
🔸 Study Results
While a results section’s primary purpose is to communicate specific findings of a research paper, students should know they cannot copy-paste raw information without writing a good explanation. For example, the information in this part must have a pattern demonstrating a logical organization of the findings (Ross & Willson, 2018). The best way to organize such findings is to use headings following a logical order of study questions or hypotheses and integrate data through charts, graphs, visuals, or tables thematically. In this respect, when writing a results section, auhtors must refer to an introduction part to ensure the information aligns with what they said. An important detail to note is that a graphical presentation of the outputs’ information is not sufficient. However, students must mention the data by writing statements that allow readers to understand how the results answer the research question(s) or validate or invalidate hypothesis(es) as a final outcome (Ross & Willson, 2018). Besides, figure and table captions are important because they provide essential context and explanations, allowing readers to understand a specific content and relevance of an observed visual information without referring back to a main paper’s text.
🔸 Figures, Charts, or Other Visuals
A logical presentation of data requires students to organize all data figures by numbering them and citing numbers in their paragraphs to link study findings to a research question or hypothesis. In writing, people need to choose a figure when they want to illustrate trends, patterns, or relationships in the data visually, and they opt for a table when they need to present precise numerical values or detailed information for comparison (Carter et al., 2021). A particular numbering format should follow a similar writing order in which an author mentions the data in a main paper’s text. One should also explain a methodology part that led to each figure. For example, students should capture the following writing details:
Figure 1: Racial/ethnic representation of health problems in the United States.
Like figures, tables capture data reflecting a results section of a research paper. However, they differ from charts in how they reflect the information. For example, their unique writing features include columns and rows, each with a subheading (Ross & Willson, 2018). In turn, an obtained data should be presented in figures and tables instead of directly in a main paper’s text when writing involves complex information, trends, or large datasets that are easier to understand visually or require precise comparison. The following writing example shows how students should use tables in a results section:
Table 1. Demographics of Whites in the United States for 2020 showing how obesity affects this population in the country. Young individuals are the most affected, with 38 percent presenting as obese, followed by adult females at 22 percent and then adult males at 18 percent. However, on average, the BMI index for all groups is below the obese level of 30.
Therefore, students should use figures and tables as focal points to communicate a clear and informative narrative about the findings of a research paper. In writing, authors should repeat every detail in a main paper’s text, although they must reference all data in a results section or other body paragraphs by pointing readers to “Table 1.”
When writing a great results section, students should know what to talk about or do and what not to talk about or not do. The things to do to demonstrate a high-standard outputs and those not to do can affect an overall section’s quality. From this perspective, students must habitually read research papers to familiarize themselves with 8 dos and 8 don’ts of writing a results section.
The two primary research paper designs that scholars use for writing their scientific papers are qualitative and quantitative studies. Each design has a unique way of capturing the findings of a research paper (Noyes et al., 2019). The two examples below show how students should write a results section in qualitative and quantitative research papers. However, students must note a specific language and details, such as statistical data.
Example of a Qualitative Results Section
[Introductory context] A total of 98 respondents from different countries gave essential data by answering the survey questionnaire. The representation was as follows: 30 respondents were from the U.S. (30.6% of the total), 26 from China (26.5%), 22 from Russia (22.4%), and 20 from the United Kingdom (20.4%). […] [Important finding] According to the results, the most important cultural identifiers are language (w=0.3402), followed by ethnicity (w=0.2930) and religion (w=0.2279). Most respondents viewed gender as the most insignificant compared to the other three (w=0,1388) (Table 1). […] [Interesting Finding] An interesting finding is that the U.S. and the U.K. respondents considered sexual orientation as a determinant of a country’s cultural vibrancy, while those from China and Russia viewed it as an indicator of negative liberalism. All the respondents had a uniform consistency ratio (C.R.) of less than 0.08 (8%). [Another important finding] According to all the respondents, the three critical drivers of cultural vibrancy are technology (mean value of 4.88), education (4.60), contact with other cultures (4.40), and the media (4.30). Conversely, the factors that influence cultural assimilation the least, according to all the respondents, are cultural artifacts (2.88) and friendships (2.66) (Figure 1). […] [Summary of Key Findings] The findings indicate differences of opinion regarding some cultural topics and convergence of thought in others between countries from the respondents’ perspective. On differences, respondents from the U.S. and U.K. hold more liberal views than their Chinese and Russian counterparts. The point of convergence for all the respondents is the belief that culture is the most instrumental factor for interrogating the attitudes and behaviors of people .
[Introductory Context] The student data system for 2010 through 2020 was the source of the demographic data for the sample. The descriptive statistics include age, gender, grades, and course selection. Table 1 describes the cross-tabulation frequencies of the study sample. The mean age was 28.42 years, with a standard deviation of 8.22 years. The age range of the sample was from 18 to 50 years. [Relevant Finding] Overall, more students selected online than physical courses, with a uniform enrollment rate in online courses in both males and females; however, the proportion of males was high (62.7%) for online instruction than that of females (58.8%) as shown in Figures 1 and 2. […] [Significant Finding (including a significant test result)] A statistically significant difference in grades is reported between students enrolled in online classes and their counterparts in the traditional classroom setting. The mean and standard deviation for grades calculated by delivery type showed no significant difference between online and physical instruction. In contrast, those calculated by the instructor showed no significant difference in the mean grade. […] [Reference to Visual Data] Table 6 shows the impact of the delivery method and the instructor on students’ grades. […] The delivery method did not influence significant grade differences (F = 0.078, p = 0.780, df = 1, 811). The same case was reported for the instructor (F = 0.002, p = .967, df = 1, 811). The two factors had no significant interaction (F = 0.449, p = 0.503, df = 1, 811). [Relevant Finding] There is a statistically significant difference in student course retention between those taking online courses and their counterparts in physical classrooms (Supplementary Appendix Figure 1). Data were included for testing if a final grade was reported for a participant (Supplementary Appendix Figure 2). [Context to a Research Question or Hypothesis] The analysis of the contingency data was essential in confirming the hypothesis. Data organization indicates the row variable as course selection (online or physical classroom) and the column variable as retention in the course. [Explanation of a study Test] The chi-square testing (X2 = 2.524, p = .112, df = 1, 884) indicated no statistically significant difference between retention in online and physical classroom courses. [Significant Findings] The study includes a statistically significant difference in student retention between those who begin the program online and those who begin in the physical classroom. […] [Summary of Key Findings] Results from testing of H1 showed no significant difference between course grades for students enrolled in online courses and their counterparts in physical classroom courses. Chi-square testing of H2 indicated no significant difference in course retention between students taking online courses and those taking courses in the physical classroom environment. Chi-square testing of H3 indicated no significant difference in program retention between students who began the course online and those who began it in the physical classroom.
Enhance your academic performance with our top-notch, plagiarism-free papers.
Qualitative Results Template
Quantitative Results Template
Looking at the two templates, it is evident that crucial writing details appear in all but some only in quantitative research. In both templates, students should introduce this section by stating some facts, such as a study sample, and enumerate the results, using charts, figures, visuals, or tables as necessary. However, only in a quantitative study, one should mention tests and their outcomes.
There are areas of similarity and difference between the results sections of qualitative and quantitative research studies. The main similarities are that both types capture statistical data or reports and do not interpret the meanings of data with long explanations. However, there are many differences in presenting the content. Firstly, a qualitative results section emphasizes non-numerical, descriptive data, focusing on themes and ideas (Cristancho et al., 2021). In contrast, a quantitative results section highlights measurable (or quantifiable) numerical data relevant to interpreting trends, making predictions, running experiments, or testing hypotheses. Another difference is that a qualitative results section adopts descriptive and interpretive approaches to make sense of the collected data. On the other hand, a quantitative results section adopts numbers-based strategies, including statistics, calculations, and data measurements, to make sense of the collected information.
When writing a results section, students must focus on the research question(s) or hypothesis(es) they stated in an introduction part because they underscore a paper’s importance or purpose. Regarding research questions, the data presented in this part must refer to specific questions as they appear in an introduction paragraph, giving outcomes that reflect answers to these queries. Concerning hypotheses, students should ensure a results section confirms or rejects them. In other words, a good results section should help readers to understand a specific scientific problem by answering the study question(s) or validating or invalidating the hypothesis(es). Therefore, when writing a results section, students should know they are answering a specific research question or confirming a study hypothesis. This determination is crucial because it must reflect proper language, concepts, and terms used in a main paper’s text.
Writing a high-standard results section of a research paper is a technical undertaking that requires students to grasp helpful insight. For example, the most common mistake beginner writers make in a results section is including interpretations and discussions of the data rather than strictly presenting study findings objectively (Carter et al., 2021). In writing, some of the useful tips include always using simple and clear language, avoiding irrelevant expressions, discussing the findings objectively without overinterpretation, using sub-sections if there are more study questions or hypotheses, including negative outputs even if they do not support a specific study hypothesis, providing visuals charts, figures, visuals, and tables to document the results, and mentioning the tests and their outcomes for a quantitative study.
10 things to do when writing a results section include:
10 things not to do when writing a results section include:
Element | Description |
---|---|
Descriptive Statistics | Present basic measures, such as means, medians, standard deviations, and ranges, to summarize the data for writing. |
Visual Aids | Include tables, figures, charts, and graphs to represent information visually and clearly, making it easier to identify trends and patterns. |
Comparison of Results | Compare the findings with initial hypotheses or expected outcomes. |
Data Trends and Patterns | Describe any noticeable trends and patterns in the data, such as increases, decreases, or correlations. |
Unexpected Findings | Note any unexpected outputs or anomalies observed during a particular study. |
Subgroup Analysis | Write about the findings for different subgroups within the data to show variations and specific trends. |
Statistical Tests | Include outcomes of statistical analyses, including p-values, confidence intervals, and effect sizes. |
Quantitative Data | Provide numerical data that provides measurable evidence, such as percentages, frequencies, and ratios. |
Qualitative Data | Cover descriptive data that provides insights into patterns and themes observed in the research. |
Error Analysis | Write about information on a particular accuracy of an obtained data, including error margins and sources of potential error. |
Writing a results section of a research paper is crucial for presenting study outcomes in a clear and concise manner. Basically, this section should start with a brief introduction to a corresponding purpose of study findings and a methodology used to obtain the data. Then, presenting obtained outcomes should be done using a descriptive text and supported by tables, figures, and charts for clarity. Moreover, statistical analyses should be reported clearly, indicating significance levels and confidence intervals where appropriate. In writing, such a part of a research paper should focus solely on presenting information without interpretation, which is reserved for a discussion paragraph. Besides, proper organization and logical flow are essential, and visual aids should be numbered and referenced in an entire paper’s text. Finally, this writing approach ensures a results section is easily understandable and directly addresses research questions or hypotheses posed in a given study. In turn, some rules to remember include:
Carter, S., Guerin, C., & Aitchison, C. (2021). Doctoral writing: Practices, processes and pleasures . Springer.
Cristancho, S., Watling, C., & Lingard, L. (2021). Three principles for writing an effective qualitative results section. Focus on Health Professional Education: A Multi-Professional Journal , 22 (3), 110–124. https://doi.org/10.11157/fohpe.v22i3.556
Noyes, J., Booth, A., Moore, G., Flemming, K., Tunçalp, Ö., & Shakibazadeh, E. (2019). Synthesising quantitative and qualitative evidence to inform guidelines on complex interventions: Clarifying the purposes, designs and outlining some methods. BMJ Global Health , 4 (1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2018-000893
Ross, A., & Willson, V. L. (2018). Basic and advanced statistical tests: Writing results sections and creating tables and figures . Sense Publishers.
Snyder, N., Foltz, C., Lendner, M., & Vaccaro, A. R. (2019). How to write an effective results section. Clinical Spine Surgery: A Spine Publication , 32 (7), 295–296. https://doi.org/10.1097/bsd.0000000000000845
Wallwork, A. (2022). Writing an academic paper in English: Intermediate level . Springer International Publishing Springer.
An official website of the United States government
The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.
The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.
Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .
Sang gyu kwak.
1 Department of Medical Statistics, Daegu Catholic University School of Medicine, Daegu, Korea
2 Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
3 Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Daegu Catholic University School of Medicine, Daegu, Korea
4 Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Yangsan Hospital, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Busan, Korea
5 Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Guro Hospital, Korea University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
6 Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Sanggye Paik Hospital, Inje University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
7 Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Haeundae Paik Hospital, Inje University College of Medicine, Busan, Korea
8 Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam, Korea
9 Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Dongguk University Ilsan Hospital, Goyang, Korea
General medical journals such as the Korean Journal of Anesthesiology (KJA) receive numerous manuscripts every year. However, reviewers have noticed that the tables presented in various manuscripts have great diversity in their appearance, resulting in difficulties in the review and publication process. It might be due to the lack of clear written instructions regarding reporting of statistical results for authors. Therefore, the present article aims to briefly outline reporting methods for several table types, which are commonly used to present statistical results. We hope this article will serve as a guideline for reviewers as well as for authors, who wish to submit a manuscript to the KJA.
It has been encouraging to see the growing number of outstanding article submissions and publications in the Korean Journal of Anesthesiology (KJA) over the years. Unfortunately, however, the diversity of result presentation format, alongside the number of manuscripts, has resulted in confusion not only in the review and publication process but also in delivering appropriate information to the readers. Presenting results derived using similar statistical methods in a prescribed tabular format recommended by the journal will not only simplify the review and publication process but also help with readers’ understanding of the published content.
General methods of presenting easy-to-read results can be found in the previous article [ 1 ]. In this article, we present specific examples of the appropriate application of the Instruction for Authors of KJA 1) to the tabular results for various analysis methods commonly used in research.
Various types of tables are used to clearly present various forms of research results. Even if presented independently, tables must contain the essential elements needed to convey the necessary information. For instance, the title must contain sufficient description of the content, while the body and footnotes of the table must describe in detail the statistical method and results of the analysis.
The following are the examples of typical tabular results commonly submitted to this journal. The data used in the examples were generated randomly, unless otherwise indicated, and do not reflect results of a specific study, i.e., the presented results have no clinical significance.
Statistic provided in all the tables follow the guidelines on the representation of significant figures and statistics in the Instructions for authors provided by the KJA. There must be no blank spaces in the table and estimate, sample size (n), and the statistical method used must be appropriately included when presenting results using statistical analysis. Quantitative data can be expressed as a representative value and its distribution, such as ‘mean ± standard deviation’ or ‘median (first quartile, third quartile). Qualitative data can be expressed as ‘frequency (percent, %)’, et al. For statistical analyses involving variable transformation that changes the shape of the distribution (i.e., log transformation), statistic reflective of the original value should be used. An inverse statistic may also be expressed if needed. Description of the transformation method and transformed values must accompany variable transformation. For more information on data transformation, refer to Lee's article [ 2 ].
Based on the statistic derived from the sample data of the study, the population parameters are estimated. It is recommended to display a confidence interval (i.e., 95% CI) that is an interval estimator along with point estimators such as mean, median, proportion, coefficient, et al. The previously derived estimates are described together with the hypothesis test results. P value must be described in three decimal places, and a test statistic should be presented in detail so that statistical inference can be made. Presenting the effect size, if possible, can aid the interpretation of statistical results.
An explanation of the abbreviations must be included in the footnote even if an explanation is provided in the text so that the table can be interpreted independently. The unit of measure of each variable must be accurately described, and the number of samples should be presented in the title or alongside the variable.
In one sample comparisons, the data of the experimental sample are compared to a specific reference value. The example in Table 1 is a comparison between the arterial pressures of the experimental sample with the reference value of 60 mmHg. Based on the distribution of experimental data, a parametric or non-parametric method of statistical analysis was applied, along with the difference between the reference value and that of the experimental sample and its 95% CI.
Example of One Sample Comparison with Reference Value
Variables | Results | Reference value | Difference (95% CI) | P value |
---|---|---|---|---|
MBP (mmHg, n = 30) | 70.0 ± 5.0 | 60 | 10.0 (8.0, 12.0) | < 0.001 |
MBP (mmHg, n = 28) | 70 (64.0, 75.0) | 60 | 10.0 (8.0, 12.0) | < 0.001 |
Values are presented as mean ± SD or median (Q1, Q3). MBP: mean blood pressure.
* One-sample t-test,
† Two-sided P value < 0.05,
‡ Wilcoxon’s signed rank test. These values, including P values, are presented according to the Instructions for Authors of Korean Journal of Anesthesiology for notation below the decimal point.
In the case of categorical data, proportions, etc. can be compared. One sample proportion test can be performed to compare the response rate with the reference value, and when the response rate is close to 0% or 100%, an exact binomial test is sometimes performed. The comparison results are described in Table 2 along with the 95% CI of the response rate.
Example of One Sample Test of Proportions
Variables | Positive response | Reference probability | Response rate (95% CI) | P value |
---|---|---|---|---|
PONV (n = 25) | 9 | 0.20 | 0.36 (0.18, 0.57) | 0.080 |
Itching sense (n=64) | 5 | 0.02 | 0.08 (0.03, 0.17) | 0.009 |
PONV: postoperative nausea and vomiting,
* One sample proportion test with continuity correction,
† Exact binomial test,
‡ Two-sided P value < 0.05. These values, including P values, are presented according to the Instructions for Authors of Korean Journal of Anesthesiology for notation below the decimal point.
Table 3 presents the results of comparing the mean arterial pressure and heart rate after endotracheal intubation when two types of endotracheal intubation devices were used. A parametric or non-parametric method of statistical analysis is applied depending on the distribution of the experimental data. The statistical method used is described in the table along with a representative value suitable for the distribution. To facilitate the interpretation of the results, the difference between the two groups is presented and the corresponding P value is presented to three decimal places.
Example of Independent Two Sample Comparison
Variables | Group S (n = 49) | Group P (n = 53) | Difference (95% CI) | P value |
---|---|---|---|---|
MBP (mmHg) | 72.3 ± 14.3 | 73.1 ± 14.9 | −0.8 (−6.5, 4.9) | 0.781 |
Heart rate | 89.0 (75.0, 103.0) | 82.0 (72.0, 93.0) | 7.0 (0, 14.0) | 0.062 |
* Independent two sample t-test,
† Mann-Whitney U test. These values, including P values, are presented according to the Instructions for Authors of Korean Journal of Anesthesiology for notation below the decimal point.
Table 4 presents data from a study measuring mean blood pressure before and after the administration of a drug. The table presents results of administering the drug in a sample of hypertensive patients and a sample of patients with a body mass index over 30 kg/m 2 . The number of patients in each sample has been presented and the mean or median blood pressure was used as the representative value according to the distribution of measurements. A paired t-test was used to perform a paired comparison using the difference in pre- and post-treatment values for each patient. The statistically estimated differences are presented alongside the its 95% CI. The statistical method and P value is also clearly presented.
Example of Dependent Two Samples Comparison
Underlying factors | MBP | Mean difference (95% CI) | P value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pre-treatment | Post-treatment | |||
Hypertension (n = 20) | 74.0 ± 13.9 | 70.9 ± 13.6 | 3.1 (0.4, 5.8) | 0.026 |
BMI > 30 kg/m (n = 25) | 75.4 (66.8, 81.5) | 73.9 (65.0, 84.5) | 1.5 (-1.0, 4.0) | 0.228 |
Values are presented as mean ± SD or median (Q1, Q3). BMI: body mass index, MBP: mean blood pressure.
* Paired t-test,
Results from a study on pain control following a Cesarean section are presented in Table 5 [ 3 ]. The administered dose of morphine and time taken until the first dose was compared between a control group that received normal saline, a group that received intrathecal morphine and a group that received a quadratus lumborum block. Morphine requirement with a normal distribution was expressed as ‘mean ± standard deviation’, while the time taken until the first dose was expressed as a ‘median (Q1, Q3)’ value as it did not satisfy the normal distribution assumption. An accurate P value, up to 3 decimal places, and the number of samples in each group are presented, while a detailed description of the statistical method including the multiple comparison method for post hoc analysis is provided.
Example of Three Independent Samples Comparison
Variables | Control group (n = 30) | ITM group (n = 30) | QLB group (n = 30) | P value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Morphine requirement (mg) | 61.0 ± 12.9 | 42.8 ± 10.4 | 18.2 ± 9.6 | <0.001 |
Time to first morphine dose (h) | 2 (0.5, 4) | 8 (3, 24) | 17 (6, 36) | 0.002 |
Values are presented as mean ± SD or median (Q1, Q3). ITM: intrathecal morphine, QLB: quadratus lumborum block. P values indicate the statistical inference result of overall comparisons.
* One-way analysis of variance with Tukey’s method,
‡ Kruskal-Wallis H test with Dunn’s procedure. These values, including P values, are presented according to the Instructions for Authors of Korean Journal of Anesthesiology for notation below the decimal point. Excerpt from Salama ER [ 3 ] results showing representative values and P value as examples of comparison of three independent samples.
Table 6 presents results of an investigation analyzing the occurrence of successful endotracheal intubation, sore throat 1 hour following tracheal extubation, and post-surgical vocal cord paralysis in two groups treated with an existing versus newly developed endotracheal tube. Results were reported as the frequency of occurrence and relative frequency and the statistical method and P value are clearly presented.
Example of Categorical Data Comparison
Variables | Group N (n = 49) | Group C (n = 53) | P value |
---|---|---|---|
Successful tracheal intubation | 44 (89.8) | 32 (60.4) | 0.001 |
Sore throat at 1 h | 11 (22.4) | 20 (37.8) | 0.144 |
Vocal cord paralysis | 1 (2.0) | 2 (3.8) | >0.999 |
Values are presented as frequency (%).
* Chi-squared test,
‡ Fisher’s exact test. These values, including P values, are presented according to the Instructions for Authors of Korean Journal of Anesthesiology for notation below the decimal point.
The dependent variable is a nominal scale. This analysis method is widely used when selecting a meaningful variable among various explanatory variables and results are presented in terms of odds ratio, etc. Parts of results of a study published in the KJA is presented in Table 7 [ 4 ]. The study analyzed the risk factors of post-anesthesia emergence agitation in the recovery room. Variables with three or more components were converted into insignificant dummy variables to estimate the odds ratio. The table presents the odds ratio of referenced components and those converted into dummy variables alongside the 95% CI. A detailed description of the statistical methods used to select variables in the logistic regression analysis is also included.
Risk Factors of Emergence Agitation in the PACU (n = 158) [ 4 ]
Variables | Odds ratio (95% CI) | P value |
---|---|---|
Marital status | ||
Divorced | Reference | |
Single | 0.16 (0.04, 0.64) | 0.009 |
Married | 0.16 (0.04, 0.62) | 0.008 |
Pre-existing ND | 6.78 (1.36, 33.80) | 0.020 |
Gynecological surgery | 0.29 (0.12, 0.71) | 0.007 |
Thoracic surgery | 0.23 (0.07, 0.80) | 0.021 |
IO bleeding | 1.00 (1.00, 1.00) | 0.047 |
IO morphine administration | 1.15 (1.03, 1.28) | 0.015 |
Analgesic drugs in PACU | 2.99 (1.56, 5.73) | 0.001 |
The odds ratio of Marital status is estimated with non-weighted dummified variables. IO: intraoperative, ND: neurologic disorders, PACU: post-anesthesia care unit,
* Backward binary stepwise logistic regression,
† Two-sided P value < 0.05. These values, including P values, are presented according to the Instructions for Authors of Korean Journal of Anesthesiology for notation below the decimal point.
This article examined the principles of presenting the statistical results in clinical studies as a table. We hope to see manuscript submissions with standardized tables reflective of the provided framework. Such standardized format will help facilitate the submission and review process for both authors and reviewers.
1) https://ekja.org/authors/authors.php
Conflicts of Interest
All authors are Statistical Round Board Members in KJA.
Author Contributions
Sang Gyu Kwak (Conceptualization; Supervision; Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing)
Hyun Kang (Validation; Writing – review & editing)
Jong Hae Kim (Validation; Writing – review & editing)
Tae Kyun Kim (Validation; Writing – review & editing)
EunJin Ahn (Validation; Writing – review & editing)
Dong Kyu Lee (Validation; Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing)
Sangseok Lee (Project administration; Validation; Writing – review & editing)
Jae Hong Park (Validation; Writing – review & editing)
Francis Sahngun Nahm (Validation; Writing – review & editing)
Junyong In (Conceptualization; Supervision; Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing)
Training videos | Faqs
In this blog, we will look at best practices for presenting tables and figures in your research paper. You must try to present your results in figures and tables wherever possible. This is a fantastic way to summarize large amounts of data in a visually pleasing way.
One of the common questions asked by students is when should they present the data in figures and tables instead of putting it directly in the text. The best way to answer this question is if you cannot present your data in your text in one or two lines, then you should consider putting it in a figure or a table.
Tip: If you cannot present your data in your text in one or two lines then use a Table or Figure.
Another common question that comes up is how to choose between a figure and a table for presenting the data. The best way to answer this question is if you want to illustrate the trends and patterns in the data, then a figure is the best option. If you want to show the actual values or present a lot of numerical information in your paper. Then, a table might be the best way to go.
Here is an example. Look at the way the authors have used tables and figures to describe their results.
✔ The author explains the trend using a figure and points the reader to the table for full data In Figure 1.1, the values are plotted as a function of time. The two peaks in the plot correspond to the maximum and minimum temperature values. The specific values obtained for each experiment are given in Table 2.
In the first couple of lines, they are talking about a trend in their data that relates to the change in temperature over time. They are constantly referring to the figure to get their point across to the readers. And finally, in the last sentence, they are telling the readers that the actual numerical data is provided in the table, and they can refer to it if they want. This is a standard way to use figures and tables in your research paper.
When you are using figures and tables in your paper, you must reference them in your text. You cannot have a figure in your paper and not talk about it in your text.
Best practices All Figures/Tables should be referenced in the text Every Figure/Table should have a caption Caption should be concise and self-explanatory
Another important thing is that your figure should have a caption that clearly explains what is it about. Most people skim through the paper just going through figures and tables without reading any text in the paper. So, captions should be as short as possible but detailed enough for the readers to understand the figure or table without having to read the text.
A common mistake made by both beginner writers and experienced writers is repeating the figure caption in the text when referring to the figure in the paper. Look at the following example, the author repeats exactly what it says in the figure caption in the text. The author is saying that the figure shows the change in temperature over time. This is already mentioned in the figure caption, there is nothing new here.
✖ Bad example – Repetition of figure title in the text when referring to it Figure 1 shows the change in temperature over time.
Now, look at the example below. While referring to the figure, the author provides some additional information to the readers by talking about an interesting trend in the figure instead of just repeating the figure caption.
✔ Good example – Interesting fact provided about the figure when referring to it The temperature fluctuation over time follows a sine wave pattern peaking at 30 degrees (Fig 1).
Tables and figures are important parts of your research work. They are your secret weapon for clearly presenting your data to your readers. We strongly recommend that you prepare the list of figures and tables that you want to include in your work before you start writing the text. Please follow the instructions provided in this blog while adding figures and tables to your research paper. If you have any questions, please drop a comment below, and we will answer as soon as possible. We also recommend you to refer to our other blogs on academic writing tools , academic writing resources , and academic phrase-bank , which are relevant to the topic discussed in this blog.
In this blog, we will see what tense you should use in the literature review section of your research paper.
In this blog, we will go through a few introduction paragraph examples and understand how to construct a great introduction paragraph for your research paper.
In this blog we will see how to create a research paper outline and start writing your research paper.
In this blog, we will go through many discussion examples and understand how to write a great discussion for your research paper.
In this blog we will look at the perfect sequence for drafting a research manuscript.
The title of your paper should be catchy yet informative. Let’s dive into some tips and tricks to ensure your title stands out in the academic crowd.
Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *
Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.
Research Voyage
Research Tips and Infromation
How to summarize the data preprocessing steps in the results section, how to summarize the research findings in the results section, common phrasal verbs used in results section, what are common mistakes observed in the results section, how long should a results section be of a research paper, should the results of a research paper be given in the introduction or in another section.
Why do some scientific papers not include a ‘methods and results’ section, how do you introduce a results section, why do researchers need to avoid making speculations in the results section of a research paper.
The result section is the third major part of the research paper and it’s probably the most important part because it contains actual outcomes about your experiment. The other sections contain a plan, hope and interpretations but the result section is the actual truth of your study.
In the result section, one should aim to narrate his/her finding without trying to interpret or evaluate them. Basically, the result section explains any issues you faced during your data collection, the main results of the experiment and any other interesting trends in the data.
With the results, we want to convey our data in the most accessible way, so we usually use visual elements like graphs and tables to make it easier to understand. The facts, figures, and findings are to be presented in a logical manner leading to the hypothesis and following the sequence of the method section. Mention must be made for the negative results as it would substantiate the discussion section later on. Interpretation of the meaning of the results section is done in the discussion section .
When structuring the results section, it is important that your information is presented in a logical order.
Now, when it comes to the organization of the result section, as a generic rule
The results section gives you the opportunity to:
2. Report on the Findings
3. Summarize the Research Findings
At the beginning of the result section, you can discuss how you have collected, transformed and analyzed your data. This step is usually known as data preprocessing.
The data collection step may involve collecting data from various hardware, software or internet sources.
If your research requires data cleaning, then explain the steps and procedures used for data cleaning. Here, the researchers can describe how they transformed data to facilitate analysis (e.g. converting data from one format to another format). If there was missing data, explain how you have substituted missing values and with what techniques you have substituted your data.
You can mention what software or statistical procedures you have used to analyze and interpret the data. Demonstrate with the help of charts or tables the cleansed data ready to be used for getting results. In a few research papers, you may find these steps appearing at the end of the method section.
Second, present your findings in a structured way (such as thematically or chronologically), bringing the readers’ attention to any important, interesting, or significant findings.
Be sure to include a combination of text and visuals. Data illustrations should not be used to substitute or replace text, but to enhance the narrative of your findings.
Resultant data are to be presented either through text, figures, graphs or tables or in a combination of all of the best suited for leading to the hypothesis. Care should be taken to prevent any duplication of the text, figures, graphs, and tables. If any result is presented in figures or graphs, it need not be explained through text. Similarly, any data presented through the graph should not be repeated in the table.
Each table and graph should be clearly labelled and titled. Each different finding should be made in a separate sub-section under the proper sub-heading following the sequence adopted in Method Section.
If you are not comfortable with data analysis then you can take professional services for research data analysis .
Identify and list the figures which are relevant to your results. For example, if you are working on the problem statement of ” Identifying the pathological issues with pomegranate fruits”, then you can add the figures of pomegranate fruits with good quality and bad quality along with their stage of infection. If you are working on pomegranate cultivar-related issues, put the figures of pomegranate fruits belonging to different cultivars.
The key takeaway here is not to add any figures which may not directly contribute to results. These diagrams may include generic block diagrams, and images conveying generic information like farm fields, plantations etc.
While putting the figures, as much as possible use grayscale images as many users take the photocopies in black and white mode. In certain scenarios you are
In the case of figures, the captions should come below, called Fig. 1, Fig. 2 and so on.
You can visit my article on The Power of Images in Research Papers: How They Enhance the Quality of Your Paper? . This article will help you how images or figures enhances the possibility of selection of your paper to top quality journals and conferences.
Tables are good for showing the exact values or showing much different information in one place. Graphs are good for showing overall trends and are much easier to understand quickly. It also depends on your data.
Tables are labelled at the top as Table 1, Table 2 and so on. Every table must have a caption. It’s good if one can put independent variable conditions on the left side vertically, and the things you have measured horizontally so one can easily compare the measurements across the categories. But you need to decide for each table you make, what is easiest to understand, and what fits on the paper.
Visit article on Best Practices for Designing and Formatting Tables in Research Papers for further details on proper representation of tables at proper places.
You can use various types of graphs in your results like a line graph, bar graph, scatter plot, a line graph with colours, a box with whiskers plot and a histogram.
In general, continuous variables like temperature, growth, age, and time can be better displayed in a line graph on a scatter plot or maybe on histograms.
If you have comparative data that you would like to represent through a chart then a bar chart would be the best option. This type of chart is one of the more familiar options as it is easy to interpret.
These charts are useful for displaying data that is classified into nominal or ordinal categories. In any case, you need to decide which is the best option for each particular example you have, but never put a graph and a table with the same data in your paper.
In the case of graphs, the captions should come below, called Fig. 1, Fig. 2 and so on.
A limited number of professional tools provide you the chance to add some life to your graphs, charts, and figures and present your data in a way that will astound your audience as much as your astounding results.
My article on Maximizing the Impact of Your Research Paper with Graphs and Charts will help you in drawing eye catching and informative graphs and charts for your research paper.
The results section should include a closing paragraph that clearly summarizes the key findings of the study. This paves the way for the discussion section of the research paper, wherein the results are interpreted and put in conversation with existing literature.
Any unusual correlation observed between variables should be noted in the result section. But any speculation about the reason for such an unusual correlation should be avoided. Such speculations are the domains of the discussion section.
Comparisons between samples or controls are to be clearly defined by specifically mentioning the common quality and the degree of difference between the comparable samples or controls. Results should always be presented in the past tense.
Common academic phrases that can be used in the results section of a paper or research article. I have included a table with examples to illustrate how these phrases might be used:
Phrase | Example |
---|---|
This phrase is used to describe the basic statistical properties of the data, such as mean, median, and standard deviation. | “The mean accuracy of the machine learning model was 0.85, with a standard deviation of 0.05.” |
This phrase is used to describe statistical tests used to infer relationships or differences between groups. | “A one-way ANOVA showed a significant difference in performance between the three groups, F(2, 57) = 4.67, p < 0.05.” |
This phrase is used to describe any graphs, charts, or other visual representations of the data. | “Figure 1 shows a scatter plot of the relationship between the number of hidden layers in a neural network and its accuracy on the test dataset.” |
This phrase is used to compare the performance of different machine learning models. | “The random forest classifier outperformed the logistic regression model, achieving an AUC of 0.95 compared to 0.83.” |
This phrase is used to test specific hypotheses about the data or the system being evaluated. | “The null hypothesis that there is no difference in accuracy between the two machine learning models was rejected, t(98) = -3.56, p < 0.01.” |
: This phrase is used to describe any non-numerical analysis of the data, such as text analysis or content analysis. | “The open-ended survey responses were analyzed using a grounded theory approach to identify key themes and patterns in the data.” |
This phrase is used to analyze errors or mistakes in the system or the data. | “The confusion matrix shows that the system had high false negative rates for some classes, indicating a potential bias in the data or the model.” |
Let’s look at some of the common mistakes which can be observed in the result section.
“An Optimized Fuzzy Based Short Term Object Motion Prediction for Real-Life Robot Navigation Environment” ( Paper Link )
Object motions with different motion patterns are generated by a simulator in different directions to generate the initial rule base. The rules generated are clustered based on the direction of the motion pattern into the directional space clusters. Table 1 shows the number of rules that remained in each directional space after removing inconsistencies and redundancies.
D1 | D2 | D3 | D4 | D5 | D6 | D7 | D8 |
143 | 178 | 146 | 152 | 141 | 172 | 144 | 183 |
Our predictor algorithm is tested for a real-life benchmark dataset (EC Funded CAVIAR project/IST 2001 37540) to check for relative error. The data set consists of different human motion patterns observed at INRIA Lab at Grenoble, France and Shop Centre. These motion patterns consist of frames captured at 25 frames/second. A typical scenario of the INRIA Lab and the Shop Centre is shown in the Figure below.
Fig.1: A typical scenario of the INRIA Lab and the Shop Centre
For each test case, the average response time is calculated to find its suitability for a real-life environment. The prediction algorithm is tested by processing the frame data of moving human patterns stored in the database at intervals of 50 frames (02 Seconds).
The navigation environment is presented in the form of a Prediction graph where the x-axis represents the Range parameter and the y-axis represents the Angle parameter. The predicted Angle and Range values are compared with actual values obtained from the real-life environment.
The performance of the predictor is tested when more than one object is sensed by the sensor. The tests are carried out assuming at most 6-8 objects can be visible and can affect the decisions to be made regarding robot traversal.
The results section is an essential component of any research paper, as it provides readers with a detailed understanding of the study’s findings. In this blog post, we discussed three important steps for writing a results section: summarizing the data preprocessing steps, reporting on the findings, and summarizing the research findings.
Firstly, summarizing the data preprocessing steps is crucial in the results section, as it provides readers with an understanding of how the raw data was processed and transformed. This step includes data cleaning, data transformation, and data reduction techniques. By summarizing the data preprocessing steps, readers can understand how the data was prepared for analysis, which is critical for interpreting the study’s findings accurately.
Secondly, reporting on the findings is an important step in the results section. It involves presenting the study’s results in a clear and concise manner, using tables, graphs, and statistical analyses where necessary. This step should be focused on answering the research question or hypothesis and should present the findings in a way that is easily understood by the reader. Reporting on the findings can also include providing detailed interpretations of the results, as well as any potential limitations of the study.
Finally, summarizing the research findings is crucial in the results section, as it provides readers with a concise summary of the study’s main results and conclusions. This step should be written in a clear and straightforward manner, highlighting the most important findings and explaining their significance. Additionally, it should relate the study’s findings to the research question or hypothesis and provide a conclusion that is well-supported by the results.
Overall, the results section of a research paper is a critical component that requires careful attention to detail. By following the guidelines discussed in this blog post, researchers can present their findings in a clear and concise manner, helping readers to understand the research process and the resulting conclusions.
An IMRaD paper format suggests around 35% of the text should be dedicated to the results and discussion section. For a research paper of length 10 pages, the results and discussion section should occupy 3-4 pages.
The results of a research paper should be given in a separate section. However, the highlights of the results can be discussed in the introduction section.
The results section only depicts the results obtained by implementing the methodology used. The results will be in the form of figures, tables, charts or graphs. The discussion section elaborates the analysis of the results obtained in the results section.
The summary can be part of the results section of a research paper. However, the results obtained can be summarized in the form of a table in results section of a research paper.
Survey papers and papers which are focussed on theoretical proofs do not involve separate methods and results sections.
The results section is introduced by the data collection steps and the setting up of equipment in different scenarios for obtaining the results.
Making speculations in the results section may lead to wrong interpretations by the researcher who is planning to replicate the methodology used for obtaining the results. This may further lead to wrong comparative analysis.
You must be logged in to post a comment.
Copyright © 2024 Research Voyage
Design by ThemesDNA.com
Affiliate 💸
Get started free
Literature Review
Discover the 5 best research graphic organizer templates to simplify and streamline your research process.
Aug 27, 2024
Researching a paper can feel overwhelming and chaotic. First, you must sift through countless sources before narrowing them down to a manageable number. Then, you need to extract information from each source while keeping track of everything you've uncovered. Research graphic organizers can help you structure your notes and identify connections between sources to streamline the writing process.
In this guide, we'll explore the ins and outs of research graphic organizers and offer tips for using them effectively. With the right tools and strategies, you'll write your paper quickly. Otio's AI literature search and writing partner can help you organize by summarizing information from your sources, creating research graphic organizers, and much more.
What are research graphics, what is a research graphic organizer, how to create a graphic organizer easily, purpose of research graphic organizer, supercharge your researching ability with otio — try otio for free today.
Research graphics depict data or information connected to a research project. They summarize findings, help present complex data more efficiently, or illustrate relationships between variables.
Research graphics come in many varieties. Here are a few of the most common types:
These visuals compare categories or groups. They feature rectangular bars that represent different categories, with the length of each bar corresponding to its value.
Line charts show trends or changes over time. They plot individual values on an X and Y axis and connect them with a line to illustrate how they relate over a certain period.
These circular visuals represent the proportions or percentages of a whole. Each slice of the pie corresponds to a category’s contribution to the total. Pie charts work well for illustrating data with a limited number of categories.
Scatter plots show relationships between two variables. Each value pair in a data set is plotted as a dot on a two-dimensional graph. By examining the pattern of dots, you can determine whether the two variables have a positive, negative, or no correlation.
Histograms depict the distribution of a single variable. They look similar to bar charts, but instead of comparing categories, they show the frequency of data within ranges or bins.
Infographics present complex information in a visually appealing and easy-to-understand format. They combine visuals with minimal text to communicate a research topic to a broad audience. Infographics can take many forms and are often colorful and engaging.
Research graphic organizers help you effectively structure your research . They visually organize the notes to help you analyze and present your findings. When you outline your research paper, you may discover that certain graphic organizers fit your project better than others. In time, you will figure out which types of research graphic organizers work best for you.
Concept maps in research look like diagrams or webs that show the relationships between different ideas or concepts. They help researchers brainstorm information and organize and visualize their notes. You can create concept maps to grasp the bigger picture of your research topic and assess how different areas of study connect. Doing so will help you narrow your focus and pinpoint specific investigative aspects. Then, as you collect research, you can revise your concept map to reflect new information and how it alters your understanding of the topic.
Venn diagrams use overlapping circles to organize data visually. Each circle represents a different research topic, idea, or concept. As you collect information, you can jot down notes in the appropriate sections to analyze similarities and differences between your subjects. Venn diagrams are handy when your research involves contrasting theories, historical events, or studies with different conclusions.
Flowcharts help researchers visualize both experimental processes and methodologies. They break down complex steps into more uncomplicated, easy-to-follow instructions. Flowcharts can also help identify areas of research that need further exploration. For example, if you create a flowchart to outline the steps of a scientific experiment, you may discover an area that needs more information. This could lead you to conduct further research before proceeding with your experiment.
Timeline charts help researchers visualize how events unfold over time. They can help you organize historical data for research papers or projects, track the development of a particular topic, or map out your research progressions. As you collect data, you can create a timeline chart to help you organize your information and present your findings.
• Systematic Review Vs Meta Analysis • Impact Evaluation • How To Critique A Research Article • How To Synthesize Sources • Annotation Techniques • Skimming And Scanning • Types Of Literature Reviews • Literature Review Table • Literature Review Matrix • How To Increase Reading Speed And Comprehension • How To Read Research Papers • How To Summarize A Research Paper • Literature Gap
To get started, open Google Sheets and create a new blank spreadsheet by clicking on the "+ New/Blank" button in the upper-left corner of the screen.
Next, begin adding your categories to the first row or column. These categories will serve as the column headers for your graphic organizer.
After that, use the formatting tools in Google Sheets to customize the appearance of your graphic organizer. You can change the font, font size, color, and background color of your text to make it more visually appealing. Play around with the format until you find a style that works for you.
Finally, enter your research notes under each category in the corresponding column. You can add text, numbers, and even images to your sheet. Continue to add notes as your research progresses, adding new categories or columns as needed.
Knowledge workers, researchers, and students today suffer from content overload. And they are left to deal with it using fragmented, complex, and manual tooling. Too many of them settle for stitching together complicated bookmarking, read-it-later, and note-taking apps to get through their workflows. Now that anyone can create content with a button, this problem will only worsen.
Otio solves this problem by providing researchers with one AI-native workspace. It helps them collect various data sources, from bookmarks, tweets, and extensive books to YouTube videos. Otio can then extract key takeaways with detailed AI-generated notes and source-grounded Q&A chat. Lastly, it helps you create draft outputs using your collected sources. In short, Otio enables you to go from the reading list to the first draft faster.
Along with this, Otio also helps you write research papers/essays faster . Here are our top features that researchers love: AI-generated notes on all bookmarks (YouTube videos, PDFs, articles, etc.), enabling you to chat with individual links or entire knowledge bases, just like you chat with ChatGPT and AI-assisted writing.
Let Otio be your AI research and writing partner — try Otio for free today !
EdrawMax Online is a cloud-based software that allows users to create various diagrams, charts, drawings, and graphic organizers. By signing up, you can access a canvas to draw any organizer of your choice by dragging and dropping various shapes and symbols from the included library. You can also use EdrawMax Online to create graphic organizers for research papers . You can choose to make one from scratch or just use a template, albeit the latter option relies on the presence of a template in the template gallery.
Help your students classify ideas and communicate more effectively with these free graphic organizer templates, available for download at HMH. They can be used to structure writing projects and help with problem-solving, decision-making, studying, planning research, and brainstorming.
TPT is a platform with over 2000 graphic organizer templates in areas such as animal research , career research, and more. These fillable templates are easy to use and can help students and researchers organize information in one place.
Learn concepts, brainstorm ideas, and gain insights using editable graphic organizer templates you can customize for any topic or purpose on Canva.
• Literature Search Template • ChatGPT Prompts For Research • How To Find Gaps In Research • Research Journal Example • How To Find Limitations Of A Study • How To Do A Literature Search • Research Concept Map • Meta-Analysis Methods • How To Identify Bias In A Source • Search Strategies For Research • Literature Search Template • How To Read A Research Paper Quickly • How To Evaluate An Article • ChatGPT Summarize Paper • How To Take Notes For A Research Paper
Graphic organizers help learners of every age categorize, clarify, or simplify information. They support writing, reading, and research by assisting students to construct knowledge by exploring the relationships between concepts.
Research graphic organizers can be beneficial for students tackling complex texts or topics. Teacher-generated organizers can help students categorize and analyze large amounts of information, introduce a refined lens to examine a complex text, and enable students to recognize patterns and compare perspectives. The visual nature of graphic organizers can also help reduce students’ anxiety about complex learning by providing a structured approach to the work.
Despite their benefits, graphic organizers' structured nature can lead to some unintended consequences. For example, students may need more than the graphic organizer to manage their learning rather than approach the task flexibly. This can cause students to avoid the messy yet essential work of surfacing key insights or conceptual understanding. Instead, they may limit their thinking to just filling in the boxes of the graphic organizer.
When the goal is to support student learning, graphic organizers can provide intellectual guardrails to guide students toward more profound understanding and learning. Well-designed graphic organizers should help students categorize key concepts, surface the interconnection of ideas, or help students construct knowledge. For example, suppose your desired learning objective is to have students explain the paradox that an overly weak and overly strong government can threaten individual liberty. In that case, the graphic organizer must be constructed to generate that level of thinking.
The organizer should ensure that students move beyond the traditional listing of the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation . Instead, the design should lead students to thoughtfully analyze how liberty was impacted under the British monarchy and the Articles of Confederation. The organizer should require students to compare plot elements from the story to the typical rising/falling action, climax, and resolution storyline; determine where and why the author made similar or different choices; and offer a judgment regarding the deliberate craft moves.
If the goal is to have students form well-reasoned opinions, the ubiquitous Venn diagram, although a viable means to make comparisons, doesn’t automatically require students to weigh the relative strengths of the elements depicted, isolate the most significant similarities or differences, or rate or discriminate between elements that would inform a thoughtful point of view. Unless designed with the end in mind, organizers may unintentionally lead students on an intellectual scavenger hunt that generates surface understanding and thinking. The design of the graphic organizer must align with the learning goal and require that students apply the information they deconstructed to make meaning or develop unique insights.
Imagine you’re a researcher. You’ve been given a grant to study the effects of climate change on polar bear populations. You’ll need to write a paper, and you want to produce something with real value. You want to collect and analyze data on the topic and write the best paper you can. The only problem is a massive content overload on climate change and polar bears. If you searched for "climate change and polar bears" today, you'd get over 5 million results.
That’s a lot of content to sift through. Imagine that instead of going through this process alone, you had a research partner. But instead of a human, it was an AI with superpowers specifically designed to help you with academic research. This is what Otio aims to do. It allows researchers and students to deal with academic content overload and produces better research papers.
Otio helps you collect knowledge from anywhere. Whether reading a scientific journal, watching a YouTube video, or sifting through tweets, Otio enables you to gather all this information in one place. Instead of a disorganized collection of bookmarks, you’ll have a clean and organized visual interface that helps you get to the writing faster.
Once you’ve collected enough data, Otio helps you understand it all. Using advanced AI technology, it generates notes for all your collected research. Need to understand what a specific bookmark is about? Just ask Otio. Do you want to chat with the data before you start writing? No problem. With Otio, you’ll extract the vital information you need to produce better research.
Otio doesn’t just help you gather and understand academic research. It enables you to write research papers faster. Using machine learning, Otio can help you draft outputs based on your collected sources. This way, you can go from the reading list to the first draft faster and produce better work.
• Sharly AI Alternatives • AI For Summarizing Research Papers • Literature Review Tools • How To Identify Theoretical Framework In An Article • Graduate School Reading • Research Tools • AI For Academic Research • Research Paper Organizer • Best AI Tools For Research • Zotero Alternatives • Zotero Vs Endnote • ChatGPT For Research Papers • ChatGPT Literature Review • Mendeley Alternative • Unriddle AI Alternatives • Literature Matrix Generator • Research Assistant • Research Tools • Research Rabbit • Research Tools • Good Websites for Research • Best AI for Research • Research Paper Graphic Organizer
Aug 29, 2024
12 Best Tools For Perfect Research Summary Writing
Aug 28, 2024
22 Good Websites For Research Papers and Academic Articles
Join over 50,000 researchers changing the way they read & write
Chrome Extension
© 2024 Frontdoor Labs Ltd.
Terms of Service
Privacy Policy
Refund Policy
Join thousands of other scholars and researchers
Try Otio Free
© 2023 Frontdoor Labs Ltd.
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
The writing of the results section of a scientific paper is very important for the readers for clearly understanding of the study. This review summarizes the rules for writing the results section of a scientific paper and describes the use of tables and ...
Learn how to write a clear and concise results section for your dissertation, with tips and examples to help you present your findings effectively.
You have two options for the placement of tables and figures in APA Style: Option 1: Place tables and figures throughout your text, shortly after the parts of the text that refer to them. Option 2: Place them all together at the end of your text (after the reference list) to avoid breaking up the text.
The results section of a quantitative research paper is where you summarize your data and report the findings of any relevant statistical analyses. The APA manual provides rigorous guidelines for what to report in quantitative research papers in the fields of psychology, education, and other social sciences.
In Research Papers, Tables are a way of presenting data and information in a structured format. Tables can be used to summarize large amounts of data or to highlight important findings. They are often used in scientific or technical papers to display experimental results, statistical analyses, or other quantitative information.
Research Results Research results refer to the findings and conclusions derived from a systematic investigation or study conducted to answer a specific question or hypothesis. These results are typically presented in a written report or paper and can include various forms of data such as numerical data, qualitative data, statistics, charts, graphs, and visual aids.
The results section of your research paper contains a description about the main findings of your research, whereas the discussion section interprets the results for readers and provides the significance of the findings. The discussion should not repeat the results.
The results section of a research paper tells the reader what you found, while the discussion section tells the reader what your findings mean. The results section should present the facts in an academic and unbiased manner, avoiding any attempt at analyzing or interpreting the data. Think of the results section as setting the stage for the ...
An expert guide on how to write the results section of a research paper, including tips on best practices and common mistakes to avoid.
Present the results of the paper, in logical order, using tables and graphs as necessary. Explain the results and show how they help to answer the research questions posed in the Introduction.
The 'Results' section of a research paper, like the 'Introduction' and other key parts, attracts significant attention from editors, reviewers, and readers. The reason lies in its critical role—that of revealing the key findings of a study and demonstrating how your research fills a knowledge gap in your field of study. Given its importance, crafting a clear and logically structured ...
Introduction The "Results section" is a vital organ of a scientific paper, the main reason why readers come and read to find new information in the paper. However, writing the "Results section" demands a rigorous process that discourages many researchers, leaving their work unpublished and uncommunicated in reputable journals. Therefore, this review aims to describe the content ...
Tables and figures are used in research papers to effectively present detailed results and complex relationships, reduce the length of the manuscript, and enhance readers' understanding of the study results. This article explains in detail how to present your data in tables and figures to create an impact.
Tables and figures in research paper help effective data presentation and make it easier for readers to understand research data.
Abstract Developing a well-written research paper is an important step in completing a scientific study. This paper is where the principle investigator and co-authors report the purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions of the study. A key element of writing a research paper is to clearly and objectively report the study's findings in the Results section. The Results section is where the ...
The results section is the core of a research paper where the study data and analyses are presented in an organized, uncluttered manner such that the reader can easily understand and interpret the findings. It is often embellished with self-explanatory tables and figures which assist in presenting data in addition to the text.
An APA results section of your paper should report results without any subjective interpretation. Learn more about how to write a results section in APA format.
These sample tables illustrate how to set up tables in APA Style. When possible, use a canonical, or standard, format for a table rather than inventing your own format. The use of standard formats helps readers know where to look for information.
In this article, learn how to create a well-structured and appropriately detailed results section that incorporates helpful visual aids.
Learn how to write a good results section of a research paper with tips and examples, organizing study findings correctly and clearly.
This article examined the principles of presenting the statistical results in clinical studies as a table. We hope to see manuscript submissions with standardized tables reflective of the provided framework. Such standardized format will help facilitate the submission and review process for both authors and reviewers.
In this blog, we will look at best practices for presenting tables and figures in your research paper. You must try to present your results in figures and tables wherever possible.
Visit article on Best Practices for Designing and Formatting Tables in Research Papers for further details on proper representation of tables at proper places. Graphs You can use various types of graphs in your results like a line graph, bar graph, scatter plot, a line graph with colours, a box with whiskers plot and a histogram.
When you outline your research paper, you may discover that certain graphic organizers fit your project better than others. In time, you will figure out which types of research graphic organizers work best for you. ... • Literature Review Table • Literature Review Matrix ... you'd get over 5 million results. That's a lot of content to ...