outline the effects of an overly biased essay

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Cognitive Bias

Anchoring –tendency to overweight the first information received.
Confirmation Bias–placing more emphasis on information that supports currently held views.
Framing–tendency to respond based on how information is presented.
Hindsight Bias–tendency to see things as more predictable than they really are.
Status Quo Bias–inclination to prefer the current state of affairs.
Sunk-cost Bias–tendency to continue with a course of action in an attempt to recoup losses, despite rationale to do otherwise.

a. Confirmation Bias

B. anchoring bias, c. insensitivity to outcome probabilities, d. over confidence bias, motivational bias, affect influenced, desirability of a positive event or consequence, undesirability of a negative event or consequence, base rate fallacy, insensitivity to sample size, bibliography.

Banasiewicz, A. D. (2019). Evidence-Based Decision-Making. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.
Cherry, K. (2019, July 29). Very Well Mind. Retrieved August 05, 2019, from How Cognitive Biases Influence How You Think and Act: https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-cognitive-bias-2794963
Das, T. K., & Teng, B.-S. (1999). Journal of Management Studies. Cognitive Bias and Strategic Decision Process: An Integratedd Prespective, 762-763.
Hersing, W. S. (2017). Journal of Space Engineering. Managing cognitive bias in safety decision making: Application of emotional intelligence competencies, 124-128.
Montibeller, G., & Winterfeldt, D. v. (2015). Cognitive and Motivational Biases in Decision and Risk Analysis, 35, 1231. doi:0.1111/risa.12360

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The Impact of Media Bias Research Paper

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Introduction

Methodology statement, reasons for selecting the above methodology, literature review, types of bias, research process, effects of media bias, works cited.

Media bias is a contravention of professional standards by members of the fourth estate presenting in the form of favoritism of one section of society when it comes to the selection and reporting of events and stories as well as the extent of coverage (Beach 1). According to the code of conduct of the media, practitioners are expected to be neutral, impartial and factual.

Therefore, bias occurs when the journalist/reporter decides to give a twist that is unsubstantiated, with the aim of satisfying the demands of a particular individual. This essay seeks to analyze the impact of media bias in society. To this end, examples from modern day living shall be drawn and coupled with appropriate explanations to adequately evaluate the concept.

A mixed method of both qualitative and quantitative research shall be used to for this task. The research will be based on secondary data collection. According to Creswell (228), the mixed method is most ideal for research as it provides for exhaustive collection and analysis of information. Data will be extracted from various journals, articles and books.

The criteria of selection for the literature will be the relevance to the research topic as well as the year of publication. Both public and private libraries as well as online libraries will be visited in order to access the data. This research will be partly evidence based and partly founded on professional research by professionals in the field. Various articles will be studied in order to provide background information which will essentially give credibility to the final essay.

Information from literature will serve to provide explanation as regards to media bias. This will be very crucial information that will make the research report appeal to both professionals and the general public. For the latter, it may require that some of the information obtained from the books and other publications be broken down into simple language and at the same time illustrations drawn from the commonly applied systems of online identity.

Like with any other professional field of study, political theory studies have to be conducted in such a way that the offer credibility to the practitioner. In such a specialized field, the strength lies in substantiation and particularly the numbers obtained from real life scenarios to support collected evidence. With this knowledge in mind, effort will be made to obtain relevant information to the particular topic in question and this will be accompanied by proper citation.

For any professional study, chances are that extensive research has been carried out by professionals in the field before. Consequently, in order to establish the backbone of a given research project, it is only necessary that extensive review of literature be carried before identifying seeking firsthand information from the field.

The latter, i.e. information collected from the field is also necessary since it helps give professional credibility to the project. Combining results from both sources would serve to foster their symbiotic relationship with one offering background information and the other presenting up-to-date information on the topic.

Some of the stakeholders whose influence leads to media bias include governments which can threaten to impose overt or covert censorship in order to attain a particular objective (Xiang 4). The owners of media houses can also impose their authority over the journalist in order to get them to report in a manner that favors their own interests.

Market forces also determine whether there will be a bias in reporting and coverage. Among these forces include, the demands and preferences of the target audience as well as the needs of advertisers (who are the main source of revenue for media houses).

There four primary forms of bias and these are briefly explained below:

Advertising bias- This is a very common type of bias and it mainly presents in the form of stories and news items being slanted or skewed towards the demands of advertising entities.

Corporate bias-In this type of bias, stories are presented in a manner that aims at pleasing the corporate shareholders of particular media houses. This is common in media companies that are privately owned and which seek to always maintain the names of their associates in good light, even when these individuals are involved in scandalous activities.

Mainstream bias- This bias presents in the form of cautious selection and reporting of stories. In this regard, practitioners focus on what all other media houses are covering in order to steer clear from controversy.

Sensationalism- This presents in the form of media stakeholders giving exceptional events a lot of coverage such that it appears that the event being covered is more common than is assumed.

The first step in conducting the research will come in the form of extensive review of literature from various secondary sources. Information on the topic of internal auditing and its integration processes will be collected from company records, journals, Magazines, conference proceedings and websites.

These procedural steps would make it easy to come up with a survey question which will guide us into the third step of the process. In this stage, an analysis of the data obtained shall be carried out and the facts identified to structure the paper.

The greatest and most commonly reported effect of media bias is on the political front, especially around election time (Knight and Chiang 1-39). It mainly presents in the form of one candidate seeking or buying favor from particular media houses such that the give him intense coverage while obscuring his opponents.

Consequently, the person with the most financial might ends up pitching his candidacy and manifestos in a manner that gives him undeserved advantage over his competition. The end-result of such slanting of coverage is that the public ends up voting for individuals who do not have their interests at heart.

Another effect of media bias is the creation of animosity amongst individuals of different cultural or ethnic groups (Streissguth 98). This is common in Africa and other countries of the third world and especially during national election campaigns.

In these countries, the politicians are always after gaining favor from the largest ethnic communities. As such they end up looking for ways of using the media to make them appear like they are doing their best to give members of these large communities the best of everything.

With this happening, persons from the smaller tribes that are overshadowed by the scramble for big votes feel discriminated and end up developing an unwarranted animosity towards members of the larger community. This was the case in Rwanda in 1994 where media personalities were used to push the agenda of politicians.

As a result, the Tutsi tribe was presented as the enemy of the bigger Hutu tribe. The situation turned into a massacre of the former by the latter and by the time the peace was restored over one million people had lost their lives. This is in consideration of the fact that all the damage was caused in less than three months.

The same happens when individuals from a particular race obtain their own media houses and seek to ensure that coverage is skewed in their favor (Beach 1). For instance, in cosmopolitan United States, if individuals of the Asian race create their own media house with its own television station, radio, magazine and newspaper, it may appear as if they are trying to isolate themselves from other races. As a result, individuals from the other racial origins may end up regarding them as enemies to societal unity and harmonious living.

This paper has assessed the element of media bias on society. It has been shown that greatest impact of the professional vice is presented in the political front where aspirants for political seats seek to gain advantage over opponents by using their financial might to buy media coverage.

Aside from this, the article has illustrated that media bias, especially when it leads to favoritism of certain ethnic and tribal groupings ends up generating animosity amongst individuals.

It is worth noting that this paper has without particular mention concluded that media bias cannot have positive effects. This is particularly because for any positivity to be attained, especially in the media, all the relevant stakeholders must be allowed involvement on an equal platform.

Beach, Justin. General effects of bias in the media. Ehow.com. 25 March 2011. Web.

Creswell, J. W. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2003. Print.

Knight, Brian G and Chun-Fang Chiang. “Media Bias and Influence: Evidence from Newspaper Endorsements” . NBER . Working Paper No. 14445. Web. Streissguth, Thomas. Media bias . Marshall Cavendish, 2006. Print.

Xiang, Yi. Media Bias, competition and efficiency . INSEAD. September 2005. Web.

Religion in del Castillo's and de las Casas' Books
Bao Yu: A Chinese Concubine
History of Religion in Britain
Envisioning the media ten years from now
Mass Media Impact on Society
The Effects of Media Violence on People
“Mind over Mass Media” Steven Pinker Article in New York Times
ESPN Sports Media Social Response
Chicago (A-D)
Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2018, October 12). The Impact of Media Bias. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-impact-of-media-bias/

"The Impact of Media Bias." IvyPanda , 12 Oct. 2018, ivypanda.com/essays/the-impact-of-media-bias/.

IvyPanda . (2018) 'The Impact of Media Bias'. 12 October.

IvyPanda . 2018. "The Impact of Media Bias." October 12, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-impact-of-media-bias/.

1. IvyPanda . "The Impact of Media Bias." October 12, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-impact-of-media-bias/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "The Impact of Media Bias." October 12, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-impact-of-media-bias/.

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Chapter 6: Bias in Writing and Research

Reading and writing critically, style and tone of language.

Just as with any essay, the way you write and the tone that you use is very important to consider. If you are talking with a person who uses aggressive and inflammatory words, are you more or less likely to listen to the whole argument and ultimately be convinced? If someone is waving his hands and swearing or yelling, the gestures and raised voice may actually distract you from what is being said. Also, when people are extremely animated in their discussions, their audience may become defensive if they do not agree with the ideas presented. In such a case, the audience may then respond in the same way, and no one ends up really hearing other points of view and will definitely not be convinced.

In short, remember to choose your words carefully. While you will need to use assertive language to support your ideas, you need to choose objective words. How you make your argument more convincing is by: Using strong, peer-reviewed, and reliable evidence to back up your ideas; presenting and rebutting at least one opposing idea

Acknowledging Opposing Ideas and Limits to Your Argument

Because an argument implies differing points of view on the subject, you must be sure to acknowledge those opposing ideas. Avoiding ideas that conflict with your own gives the reader the impression that you may be uncertain, fearful, or unaware of opposing ideas. Thus, it is essential that you not only address counterarguments but also do so respectfully.

Try to address opposing arguments earlier rather than later in your essay. Rhetorically speaking, ordering your positive arguments last allows you to better address ideas that conflict with your own, so you can spend the rest of the essay countering those arguments. This way, you leave your reader thinking about your argument rather than someone else’s. You have the last word.

Acknowledging different points of view also fosters more credibility between you and the audience. They know from the outset that you are aware of opposing ideas and that you are not afraid to give them space.

It is also helpful to establish the limits of your argument and what you are trying to accomplish. In effect, you are conceding early on that your argument is not the ultimate authority on a given topic. Such humility can go a long way toward earning credibility and trust with an audience. Your readers will know from the beginning that you are a reasonable writer, and they will trust your argument as a result. For example, in the following concessionary statement, the writer advocates for stricter gun control laws, but admits it will not solve all of our problems with crime:

Although tougher gun control laws are a powerful first step in decreasing violence in our streets, such legislation alone cannot end these problems since guns are not the only problem we face.

Phrases of Concession are those such as:

granted that

Bias in Writing

Everyone has various biases on any number of topics. For example, you might have a bias toward wearing black instead of brightly coloured clothes, or wearing jeans rather than formal wear. You might have a bias toward working at night rather than in the morning, or working by deadlines rather than getting tasks done in advance. These examples identify minor biases, of course, but they still indicate preferences and opinions.

Bias and angles can easily appear even through the smallest words you choose to use in your writing. Choosing each word carefully is even more significant in a persuasive paper because, as already mentioned, you want your reader to view your presentation of ideas as logical and not just a tirade. Using objective and neutral language and evidence and acknowledging you have a possible bias will help you present a well-rounded and developed argument.

Handling bias in writing and in daily life can be a useful skill. It will allow you to articulate your own points of view while also defending yourself against unreasonable points of view. The ideal in persuasive writing is to let your reader know your bias, but do not let that bias blind you to the primary components of good argumentation: sound, thoughtful evidence and a respectful and reasonable address of opposing sides.

The strength of a personal bias is that it can motivate you to construct a strong argument. If you are invested in the topic, you are more likely to care about the piece of writing. Similarly, the more you care, the more time and effort you are apt to put forth and the better the final product will be.
The weakness of personal bias is that it can take over the essay—when, for example, you neglect opposing ideas, exaggerate your points, or repeatedly insert yourself ahead of the subject by using I too often. Being aware of all three of these pitfalls will help you avoid them.

Video source: https://youtu.be/ccK9TTA6xiw

Fact versus Opinion

Facts are statements that can be definitely proven using objective data. The statement that is a fact is absolutely valid. In other words, the statement can be pronounced as true or false. For example, 2 + 2 = 4. This expression identifies a true statement, or a fact, because it can be proved objectively .

Opinions are subjective and include personal views, or judgments. An opinion is what an individual believes about a particular subject. However, an opinion in argumentation must have legitimate backing; adequate evidence and credibility should support the opinion. Consider the credibility of expert opinions, as experts in a given field have the knowledge and credentials to make their opinion meaningful to a larger audience.

For example, you seek the opinion of your dentist when it comes to the health of your gums, and you seek the opinion of your mechanic when it comes to the maintenance of your car. Both have knowledge and credentials in those respective fields, which is why their opinions matter to you. But the authority of your dentist may be greatly diminished should he or she offer an opinion about your car, and vice versa.

In your writing, you want to strike a balance between credible facts and authoritative opinions. Relying on one or the other will likely lose more of your audience than it gains.

The Use of THE FIRST PERSON (“i”) in Writing

The use of I in writing is often a topic of debate, and the acceptance of its usage varies from instructor to instructor. It is difficult to predict the preferences for all your present and future instructors, but consider the effects it can potentially have on your writing.

Be mindful of the use of I in your writing because it can make your argument sound overly biased, for two primary reasons:

Excessive repetition of any word will eventually catch the reader’s attention—and usually not in a good way. The use of I is no different.

The insertion of I into a sentence alters not only the way a sentence might sound but also the composition of the sentence itself. I is often the subject of a sentence. If the subject of the essay is supposed to be, say, smoking, then by inserting yourself into the sentence, you are effectively displacing the subject of the essay into a secondary position. In the following example, the subject of the sentence is bolded and underlined:

Smoking is bad. vs. I think smoking is bad.

In the first sentence, the rightful subject, smoking , is in the subject position in the sentence. In the second sentence, the insertion of I and think replaces smoking as the subject, which draws attention to I and away from the topic that is supposed to be discussed. Remember to keep the message (the subject) and the messenger (the writer) separate.

You can use the following checklist for good arguments as you work on your persuasive essay:

Developing Sound Arguments

Does my essay contain the following elements?
An engaging introduction
A reasonable, specific thesis that is able to be supported by evidence
A varied range of evidence from credible sources
Respectful acknowledgment and explanation of opposing ideas
A style and tone of language that is appropriate for the subject and audience
Acknowledgment of the argument’s limits
A conclusion that will adequately summarize the essay and reinforce the thesis

Using Visual Elements to Strengthen Arguments

Adding visual elements to a persuasive argument can often strengthen its persuasive effect. However, remember you want to use them to make a bigger impact for your reader, so you need to make sure they are:

Relevant and essential. They should help your reader visualize your point.
Easy to follow. The reader should not have to work too hard to understand.
Appropriate to audience, tone, and purpose. Always keep the audience in mind.
Appropriately cited and referenced. If you borrow from a source, be sure to include proper citations.
NOT disrespectful. You want your writing to been seen as fair and non-biased.
NOT used too often. They will become more of a distraction than a focal point if they are used too often

There are two main types of visual elements: quantitative visuals and qualitative visuals.

Quantitative visuals present data graphically. They allow the audience to see statistics spatially. The purpose of using quantitative visuals is to make logical appeals to the audience. For example, sometimes it is easier to understand the disparity in certain statistics if it is displayed graphically. Bar graphs, pie charts, Venn diagrams, histograms, and line graphs are all ways of presenting quantitative data in spatial dimensions.
Qualitative visuals present images that appeal to the audience’s emotions. Photographs and pictorial images are examples of qualitative visuals. Such images often try to convey a story, and seeing an actual example can carry more power than hearing or reading about the example. For example, one image of a child suffering from malnutrition will likely have more of an emotional impact than pages dedicated to describing that same condition in writing.

Writing at Work

When making a business presentation, you typically have limited time to get your idea across. Providing visual elements for your audience can be an effective timesaving tool. Quantitative visuals in business presentations serve the same purpose as they do in persuasive writing. They should make logical appeals by showing numerical data in a spatial design. Quantitative visuals should be pictures that might appeal to your audience’s emotions. You will find that many of the rhetorical devices used in writing are the same ones used in the workplace.

Writing for Academic and Professional Contexts: An Introduction Copyright © 2023 by Sheridan College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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III. Rhetorical Situation

3.8 Bias in Writing

Kathryn Crowther; Lauren Curtright; Nancy Gilbert; Barbara Hall; Tracienne Ravita; and Kirk Swenson

Everyone has various biases on any number of topics. For example, you might have a bias toward listening to music radio stations rather than talk radio or news programs. You might have a bias toward working at night rather than in the morning, or working by deadlines rather than getting tasks done in advance. These examples identify minor biases, of course, but they still indicate preferences and opinions.

The strength of a personal bias is that it can motivate you to construct a strong argument. If you are invested in the topic, you are more likely to care about the piece of writing. Similarly, the more you care, the more time and effort you will put forth and the better the final product will be. The weakness of bias is when the bias begins to take over the essay—when, for example, you neglect opposing ideas, exaggerate your points, or repeatedly insert yourself ahead of the subject by using “I” too often. Being aware of all three of these pitfalls will help you avoid them.

This section contains material from:

Crowther, Kathryn, Lauren Curtright, Nancy Gilbert, Barbara Hall, Tracienne Ravita, and Kirk Swenson. Successful College Composition . 2nd edition. Book 8. Georgia: English Open Textbooks, 2016. http://oer.galileo.usg.edu/english-textbooks/8 . Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License .

To have a particular opinion or attitude about a subject that is based in feeling, inclination, or tendency rather than researched facts; preconceived notions.

Informed Arguments: A Guide to Writing and Research Copyright © 2022 by Kathryn Crowther; Lauren Curtright; Nancy Gilbert; Barbara Hall; Tracienne Ravita; and Kirk Swenson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

The Effects of Bias Essay Example: “Twelve Angry Men”

📌Category:	,
📌Words:	823
📌Pages:	3
📌Published:	22 August 2020

Favor of one thing over another, usually in an unfair way is bias. Bias can be seen everywhere, from the books we read to everyday life like picking the neighborhood we want to live in. Sometimes bias isn’t shown intentionally, though. Bias normally affects people in a negative way by isolating minorities. Bias affects a person’s choices and behavior, leading to sometimes unforeseen outcomes in society. This bias is developed by how people are raised and their experiences in life.

How ‘Twelve Angry Men’ Depict It

In the book Twelve Angry Men, Juror 10 has a bias against the defendant. “These people are multiplying. That kid on trial, his type, they’re multiplying five times as fast as we are. That’s the statistic. Five times. And they are wild animals. They’re against us, they hate us, they want to destroy us (Rose, 65).” Even though the race of the defendant is never mentioned, it can be inferred. With that in mind, the reader can see that Juror 10 has a bias against the defendant.

This will make the trial of the boy unfair since the juror isn’t just judging the facts of the case. The bias that Juror 10 has probably didn’t form overnight. “Many biases are formed throughout life and held at the subconscious level, mainly through societal and parental conditioning (Agarwal, 1).” This supports the point that most biases aren’t formed overnight, that they instead take a long time. Juror 10’s bias was most likely formed by his experiences in life and the way his parents raised him. His bias led to a prolonged trial that almost wrongfully convicted an innocent man of murder.

Bias doesn’t necessarily have to be against a group of people. “This better be fast. I got tickets to a ballgame tonight. Yankees -- Cleveland (Rose, 9).” This, said by Juror 7, shows that he favors the ballgame over the trial. This leads him to not care what happens in the trial, even if someone gets wrongfully convicted, just because he wants to be at the ballgame. Juror 7 makes his bias very well known to the other jurors and the readers.

“We need to examine our biases and be mindful of our hidden prejudices and the way they manifest themselves in words and actions (Agarwal, 2).” Exhibited by the previous quote, people should be careful of the biases they make because it can harm others. This directly relates to what Juror 7 was doing in the trial. The reader could clearly see that he didn’t care what happened to the boy, whether the verdict was right or wrong; all he cared about was getting out of that jury room. “Listen, I'll tell you something. I'm a little sick of this whole thing already. We're getting nowhere fast.

Let's break it up and go home. I'm changing my vote to not guilty (Rose, 26).” Juror 7 changed his vote to not guilty, not based on the evidence of the case, but based on the fact that he wanted to go home.

The bias that people have isn’t always evident to them that they have it. For example, Juror 3 had bias in the trial, but he didn’t realize he had that bias until someone else pointed it out to him. “The phrase was ‘I’m gonna kill you.’ That’s what he said. To his own father. I don’t care what kind of man that was. It was his father. That goddamn rotten kid. I know him. What they’re like. What they do to you. How they kill you everyday. My god, don’t you see? How come I’m the only one who sees? Jeez, I can feel that knife goin’ in (Rose, 72).”

The past experiences that Juror 3 went through with his son help to shape the bias that he has. Juror 3 hasn’t had a great relationship with his son so this carries over into what he thinks of the boy on trial. Juror 3 blames his son for a lot of the problems that he has. Juror 3 thinks the boy on trial is just like his boy, a problem causer. “Implicit bias refers to attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions and decisions in an unconscious matter (Grinberg, 1).” As apparent from the previous quote, implicit bias is a bias that someone has, but doesn’t know they have. This is the type of bias that Juror 3 has because it affected everything he said and did in the jury room, but he was unaware until it was pointed out.

Bias affects everything a person does, from their choices to their behavior. This bias isn’t developed on its own or quickly, though. Bias is developed over a long time influenced by how someone was raised and their life experiences. Bias tends to be a negative thing because it generally involves excluding a minority. Even though some people are aware of their biases, others are not. These biases, whether realized or not, affect everything people do.

Works Cited

Agarwal, Pragya. “Unconscious Bias: How It Affects Us More than We Know.” Business - Forbes.com, 3 Dec. 2018.

Grinsberg, Emanuella. “4 Ways You Might Be Displaying Hidden Bias in Everyday Life.” CNN, 25 Nov. 2015.

Rose, Reginald. Twelve Angry Men. W. Ross MacDonald School Resource Services Library, 2017.

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Home — Essay Samples — Psychology — Bias — Understanding Cognitive Bias: Impact and Debiasing Strategies

Understanding Cognitive Bias: Impact and Debiasing Strategies

Categories: Bias

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Words: 807 |

Published: Sep 25, 2018

Words: 807 | Pages: 2 | 5 min read

References:

Should follow an “upside down” triangle format, meaning, the writer should start off broad and introduce the text and author or topic being discussed, and then get more specific to the thesis statement.

Provides a foundational overview, outlining the historical context and introducing key information that will be further explored in the essay, setting the stage for the argument to follow.

Cornerstone of the essay, presenting the central argument that will be elaborated upon and supported with evidence and analysis throughout the rest of the paper.

The topic sentence serves as the main point or focus of a paragraph in an essay, summarizing the key idea that will be discussed in that paragraph.

The body of each paragraph builds an argument in support of the topic sentence, citing information from sources as evidence.

After each piece of evidence is provided, the author should explain HOW and WHY the evidence supports the claim.

Should follow a right side up triangle format, meaning, specifics should be mentioned first such as restating the thesis, and then get more broad about the topic at hand. Lastly, leave the reader with something to think about and ponder once they are done reading.

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The Purpose of Argument in Writing

The idea of an argument often conjures up images of two people yelling and screaming in anger. In writing, however, an argument is very different. An argument is a reasoned opinion supported and explained by evidence. To argue in writing is to advance knowledge and ideas in a positive way. Written arguments often fail when they employ ranting rather than reasoning.

The Structure of an Argumentative Essay

The following five features make up the structure of an argumentative essay:

Introduction and thesis
Opposing and qualifying ideas
Strong evidence in support of claim
Style and tone of language
A compelling conclusion

Creating an Introduction and Thesis

The argumentative essay begins with an engaging introduction that presents the general topic. The thesis typically appears somewhere in the introduction and states the writer’s point of view.

Acknowledging Opposing Ideas and Limits to Your Argument

Because an argument implies differing points of view on the subject, you must be sure to acknowledge those opposing ideas. Avoiding ideas that conflict with your own gives the reader the impression that you may be uncertain, fearful, or unaware of opposing ideas. Thus it is essential that you not only address counterarguments but also do so respectfully.

Acknowledging points of view different from your own also has the effect of fostering more credibility between you and the audience. They know from the outset that you are aware of opposing ideas and that you are not afraid to give them space.

It is also helpful to establish the limits of your argument and what you are trying to accomplish. In effect, you are conceding early on that your argument is not the ultimate authority on a given topic. Such humility can go a long way toward earning credibility and trust with an audience. Audience members will know from the beginning that you are a reasonable writer, and audience members will trust your argument as a result. For example, in the following concessionary statement, the writer advocates for stricter gun control laws, but she admits it will not solve all of our problems with crime:

Such a concession will be welcome by those who might disagree with this writer’s argument in the first place. To effectively persuade their readers, writers need to be modest in their goals and humble in their approach to get readers to listen to the ideas. Certain transitional words and phrases aid in keeping the reader oriented in the sequencing of a story. Some of these phrases are listed here:

Phrases of Concession

although	granted that
of course	still
though	yet

Bias in Writing

Everyone has various biases on any number of topics. For example, you might have a bias toward wearing black instead of brightly colored clothes or wearing jeans rather than formal wear. You might have a bias toward working at night rather than in the morning, or working by deadlines rather than getting tasks done in advance. These examples identify minor biases, of course, but they still indicate preferences and opinions.

The weakness of bias is when the bias begins to take over the essay—when, for example, you neglect opposing ideas, exaggerate your points, or repeatedly insert yourself ahead of the subject by using Itoo often. Being aware of all three of these pitfalls will help you avoid them.

The Use of I in Writing

Be mindful of the use of I in your writing because it can make your argument sound overly biased. There are two primary reasons:

Excessive repetition of any word will eventually catch the reader’s attention—and usually not in a good way. The use of I is no different.
The insertion of I into a sentence alters not only the way a sentence might sound but also the composition of the sentence itself. I is often the subject of a sentence. If the subject of the essay is supposed to be, say, smoking, then by inserting yourself into the sentence, you are effectively displacing the subject of the essay into a secondary position. In the following example, the subject of the sentence is underlined:

Smoking is bad. I think smoking is bad.

Developing Sound Arguments

Use the following checklist to develop sound arguments in your essay:

An engaging introduction
A reasonable, specific thesis that is able to be supported by evidence
A varied range of evidence from credible sources
Respectful acknowledgement and explanation of opposing ideas
A style and tone of language that is appropriate for the subject and audience
Acknowledgement of the argument’s limits
A conclusion that will adequately summarize the essay and reinforce the thesis

Fact and Opinion

Opinions are personal views, or judgments. An opinion is what an individual believes about a particular subject. However, an opinion in argumentation must have legitimate backing; adequate evidence and credibility should support the opinion. Consider the credibility of expert opinions. Experts in a given field have the knowledge and credentials to make their opinion meaningful to a larger audience.

In writing, you want to strike a balance between credible facts and authoritative opinions. Relying on one or the other will likely lose more of your audience than it gains.

The word prove is frequently used in the discussion of argumentative writing. Writers may claim that one piece of evidence or another proves the argument, but proving an argument is often not possible. No evidence proves a debatable topic one way or the other; that is why the topic is debatable. Facts can be proved, but opinions can only be supported, explained, and persuaded.

Using Visual Elements to Strengthen Arguments

Adding visual elements to a persuasive argument can often strengthen its persuasive effect. There are two main types of visual elements: quantitative visuals and qualitative visuals.

Quantitative visuals present data graphically and visually. They allow the audience to see statistics spatially. The purpose of using quantitative visuals is to make logical appeals to the audience. For example, sometimes it is easier to understand the disparity in certain statistics if you can see how the disparity looks graphically. Bar graphs, pie charts, Venn diagrams, histograms, line graphs and infographics are all ways of presenting quantitative data in visual and/or spatial dimensions.

Qualitative visuals present images that appeal to the audience’s emotions. Photographs and pictorial images are examples of qualitative visuals. Such images often try to convey a story, and seeing an actual example can carry more power than hearing or reading about the example. For example, one image of a child suffering from malnutrition will likely have more of an emotional impact than pages dedicated to describing that same condition in writing.

Writing an Argumentative Essay

Choose a topic that you feel passionate about. If your instructor requires you to write about a specific topic, approach the subject from an angle that interests you. Begin your essay with an engaging introduction. Your thesis should typically appear somewhere in your introduction.

Start by acknowledging and explaining points of view that may conflict with your own to build credibility and trust with your audience. Also state the limits of your argument. This too helps you sound more reasonable and honest to those who may naturally be inclined to disagree with your view. By respectfully acknowledging opposing arguments and conceding limitations to your own view, you set a measured and responsible tone for the essay.

Make your appeals in support of your thesis by using sound, credible evidence. Use a balance of facts and opinions from a wide range of sources, such as scientific studies, expert testimony, statistics, and personal anecdotes. Each piece of evidence should be fully explained and clearly stated.

Make sure that your style and tone are appropriate for your subject and audience. Tailor your language and word choice to these two factors, while still being true to your own voice.

Finally, write a conclusion that effectively summarizes the main argument and reinforces your thesis.

Argumentative Essay Example

Universal Health Care Coverage for the United States

By Scott McLean

The United States is the only modernized Western nation that does not offer publicly funded health care to all its citizens; the costs of health care for the uninsured in the United States are prohibitive, and the practices of insurance companies are often more interested in profit margins than providing health care. These conditions are incompatible with US ideals and standards, and it is time for the US government to provide universal health care coverage for all its citizens. Like education, health care should be considered a fundamental right of all US citizens, not simply a privilege for the upper and middle classes.

One of the most common arguments against providing universal health care coverage (UHC) is that it will cost too much money. In other words, UHC would raise taxes too much. While providing health care for all US citizens would cost a lot of money for every tax-paying citizen, citizens need to examine exactly how much money it would cost, and more important, how much money is “too much” when it comes to opening up health care for all. Those who have health insurance already pay too much money, and those without coverage are charged unfathomable amounts. The cost of publicly funded health care versus the cost of current insurance premiums is unclear. In fact, some Americans, especially those in lower income brackets, could stand to pay less than their current premiums.

However, even if UHC would cost Americans a bit more money each year, we ought to reflect on what type of country we would like to live in, and what types of morals we represent if we are more willing to deny health care to others on the basis of saving a couple hundred dollars per year. In a system that privileges capitalism and rugged individualism, little room remains for compassion and love. It is time that Americans realize the amorality of US hospitals forced to turn away the sick and poor. UHC is a health care system that aligns more closely with the core values that so many Americans espouse and respect, and it is time to realize its potential.

Another common argument against UHC in the United States is that other comparable national health care systems, like that of England, France, or Canada, are bankrupt or rife with problems. UHC opponents claim that sick patients in these countries often wait in long lines or long wait lists for basic health care. Opponents also commonly accuse these systems of being unable to pay for themselves, racking up huge deficits year after year. A fair amount of truth lies in these claims, but Americans must remember to put those problems in context with the problems of the current US system as well. It is true that people often wait to see a doctor in countries with UHC, but we in the United States wait as well, and we often schedule appointments weeks in advance, only to have onerous waits in the doctor’s “waiting rooms.”

Critical and urgent care abroad is always treated urgently, much the same as it is treated in the United States. The main difference there, however, is cost. Even health insurance policy holders are not safe from the costs of health care in the United States. Each day an American acquires a form of cancer, and the only effective treatment might be considered “experimental” by an insurance company and thus is not covered. Without medical coverage, the patient must pay for the treatment out of pocket. But these costs may be so prohibitive that the patient will either opt for a less effective, but covered, treatment; opt for no treatment at all; or attempt to pay the costs of treatment and experience unimaginable financial consequences. Medical bills in these cases can easily rise into the hundreds of thousands of dollars, which is enough to force even wealthy families out of their homes and into perpetual debt. Even though each American could someday face this unfortunate situation, many still choose to take the financial risk. Instead of gambling with health and financial welfare, US citizens should press their representatives to set up UHC, where their coverage will be guaranteed and affordable.

Despite the opponents’ claims against UHC, a universal system will save lives and encourage the health of all Americans. Why has public education been so easily accepted, but not public health care? It is time for Americans to start thinking socially about health in the same ways they think about education and police services: as rights of US citizens.

Key Takeaways

The purpose of argument in writing is to convince or move readers toward a certain point of view, or opinion.
An argument is a reasoned opinion supported and explained by evidence. To argue, in writing, is to advance knowledge and ideas in a positive way.
A thesis that expresses the opinion of the writer in more specific terms is better than one that is vague.
It is essential that you not only address counterarguments but also do so respectfully.
It is also helpful to establish the limits of your argument and what you are trying to accomplish through a concession statement.
To persuade a skeptical audience, you will need to use a wide range of evidence. Scientific studies, opinions from experts, historical precedent, statistics, personal anecdotes, and current events are all types of evidence that you might use in explaining your point.
Make sure that your word choice and writing style is appropriate for both your subject and your audience.
You should let your reader know your bias, but do not let that bias blind you to the primary components of good argumentation: sound, thoughtful evidence and respectfully and reasonably addressing opposing ideas.
You should be mindful of the use of I in your writing because it can make your argument sound more biased than it needs to.
Facts are statements that can be proven using objective data.
Opinions are personal views, or judgments, that cannot be proven.
In writing, you want to strike a balance between credible facts and authoritative opinions.
Quantitative visuals present data graphically. The purpose of using quantitative visuals is to make logical appeals to the audience.
Qualitative visuals present images that appeal to the audience’s emotions.
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Table of Contents

Instructor Resources (Access Requires Login)

Overview of Instructor Resources

An Overview of the Writing Process

Introduction to the Writing Process
Introduction to Writing
Your Role as a Learner
What is an Essay?
Reading to Write
Defining the Writing Process
Videos: Prewriting Techniques
Thesis Statements
Organizing an Essay
Creating Paragraphs
Conclusions
Editing and Proofreading
Matters of Grammar, Mechanics, and Style
Peer Review Checklist
Comparative Chart of Writing Strategies

Using Sources

Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Avoiding Plagiarism
Formatting the Works Cited Page (MLA)
Citing Paraphrases and Summaries (APA)
APA Citation Style, 6th edition: General Style Guidelines

Definition Essay

Definitional Argument Essay
How to Write a Definition Essay
Critical Thinking
Video: Thesis Explained
Effective Thesis Statements
Student Sample: Definition Essay

Narrative Essay

Introduction to Narrative Essay
Student Sample: Narrative Essay
"Shooting an Elephant" by George Orwell
"Sixty-nine Cents" by Gary Shteyngart
Video: The Danger of a Single Story
How to Write an Annotation
How to Write a Summary
Writing for Success: Narration

Illustration/Example Essay

Introduction to Illustration/Example Essay
"She's Your Basic L.O.L. in N.A.D" by Perri Klass
"April & Paris" by David Sedaris
Writing for Success: Illustration/Example
Student Sample: Illustration/Example Essay

Compare/Contrast Essay

Introduction to Compare/Contrast Essay
"Disability" by Nancy Mairs
"Friending, Ancient or Otherwise" by Alex Wright
"A South African Storm" by Allison Howard
Writing for Success: Compare/Contrast
Student Sample: Compare/Contrast Essay

Cause-and-Effect Essay

Introduction to Cause-and-Effect Essay
"Cultural Baggage" by Barbara Ehrenreich
"Women in Science" by K.C. Cole
Writing for Success: Cause and Effect
Student Sample: Cause-and-Effect Essay

Argument Essay

Introduction to Argument Essay
Rogerian Argument
"The Case Against Torture," by Alisa Soloman
"The Case for Torture" by Michael Levin
How to Write a Summary by Paraphrasing Source Material
Student Sample: Argument Essay
Grammar/Mechanics Mini-lessons
Mini-lesson: Subjects and Verbs, Irregular Verbs, Subject Verb Agreement
Mini-lesson: Sentence Types
Mini-lesson: Fragments I
Mini-lesson: Run-ons and Comma Splices I
Mini-lesson: Comma Usage
Mini-lesson: Parallelism
Mini-lesson: The Apostrophe
Mini-lesson: Capital Letters
Grammar Practice - Interactive Quizzes
De Copia - Demonstration of the Variety of Language
Style Exercise: Voice

University Libraries

Research Guides
Blackboard Learn
Interlibrary Loan
Study Rooms
University of Arkansas

Confronting Bias

Reducing bias in your writing.

Bias in Media
Bias in Research
Bias in Search Tools
Discovering Your Own Biases
Writing Tips

Additional Reading

Scholarly Voice: Avoiding Bias Walden University Writing Center
Using Appropriate Language: Stereotypes and Biased Language Purdue Online Writing Lab
General Principles for Reducing Bias APA Style
Avoiding Bias Ashford University Writing Center

Words to Know

Colloquial -- Used in informal or local conversation Generalizations -- Vague or indefinite statements Gender -- the behavioral, cultural, and psychological traits associated with a sex Sex -- Sum of the major biological characteristics that distinguish organisms as male or female

Definitions from Merriam-Webster. (2020). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary . https://www.merriam-webster.com/

Everything we write comes from the lens through which we see the world. To help reduce our own biases from being expressed in our writing we must be intentional about reducing our own biases and strive for objective writing. Below are a few ways to reduce the bias that might express itself in your writing.

Tips for Reducing Bias in Your Writing

Avoid generalizations.

Written statements should not state or imply that all or none (or always or never) assertions.

Arkansans are very eco-conscious and vote to pass laws and regulations that help protect the earth.

This sentence implies that all people living in Arkansas share this trait, which is untrue.

Some Arkansans are eco-conscious and have voted to help several laws and regulations pass that help protect the earth.

This sentence better acknowledges that the writer is not assuming that all Arkansans share this trait.

Provide evidence

Support your assertions with resources and research. Do not rely on your beliefs or experiences.

Although fishing can be a fun activity for the whole family, almost no women I know went fishing last year.

This sentence relies on the authors experiences and is not supported by evidence.

Although fishing can be a fun activity for the whole family, women participated in fishing activities at a lower rate than men in 2019. The 2019 Special Report on Fishing by the Recreational Boating 7 Fishing foundation found that 35.8% of fishing participants were women.

These sentences provide evidence to support the author's claims.

Be objective

Bias can be both negative and positive. Try to write in a balanced and avoid being critical or complimentary of a given topic or entity.

Electric cars are superior to combustion engine vehicles in every way. Increased registration fees on electric vehicles unfairly burden electric car owners.

Being overly complimentary of a electric cars is creating a bias in this piece of writing.

Electric cars have some advantages over typical vehicles, including low maintenance costs. While it is true that electric vehicle owners avoid contributing to road improvement taxes that are associated with gasoline purchases, the current registration tax cost is higher than what a typical driver would pay in gas taxes on a comparable vehicle.

This version is more balanced.

Describe people at appropriate levels of specificity

When referring to people, only use descriptive terms when they are necessary for conveying meaning. Be precise without being overly specific. Pay close attention to your language choices when writing about age, disability, gender identity, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic groups, or socioeconomic terms. The APA Style Guide has an extensive section covering language choices for these groups of participants/patients/clients.

Older adults scored higher on the test than younger adults.

It is unclear from this sentence what age the participants were.

Participants aged 65 to 80 years older scored higher on the test than participants aged 18 to 30 years old.

Participant groups are more clearly and specifically described in this sentence.

Use language sensitively

Use language that respects the terms people use for themselves, while acknowledging that language changes over time and there is often disagreement within groups about best practices for language. Avoid using descriptive terms as collective nouns to describe broad groups of people (“the poor”). Be careful when comparing groups so as not to create a false hierarchy. Do not compare groups to “normal” people or “the general public.”

Compared to the general public, the gays are more likely to participate in social activism activities.

This sentence uses an adjective (gay) as a noun to describe a group of people. It also compares that group to the "general public" implying that people who are gay are in some way less than.

Lesbians and gay men in our sample were more likely to participate in social activism activities than similarly aged straight women and men.

In this example lesbians and gay men are referred to with appropriate terms and compared to a distinct group in a way that does not create a hierarchy.

Carefully order groups of people

Note that when listing more than one group the first-mentioned group is implied to be the standard. Carefully consider the order you use to refer to groups of people, considering options such as alphabetical order or sample size order.


English	93
Spanish	2015
Chinese	42
French	7
Arabic	18
Tagalog	3

The above chart appears to order participants' languages by the societal default, implying that English is the "standard" language.


Arabic	18
Chinese	42
English	93
French	7
Spanish	105
Tagalog	3

By ordering participants' languages alphabetically the implication that English is the "default" language is removed.

This content inspired and informed by the following resources: Scholarly Voice: Avoiding Bias (Walden University Writing Center) ; General Principles for Reducing Bias (APA Style)

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How Does Implicit Bias Influence Behavior?

Strategies to Reduce the Impact of Implicit Bias

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Akeem Marsh, MD, is a board-certified child, adolescent, and adult psychiatrist who has dedicated his career to working with medically underserved communities.

Getty Images

Measurement
Discrimination

An implicit bias is an unconscious association, belief, or attitude toward any social group. Implicit biases are one reason why people often attribute certain qualities or characteristics to all members of a particular group, a phenomenon known as stereotyping .

It is important to remember that implicit biases operate almost entirely on an unconscious level . While explicit biases and prejudices are intentional and controllable, implicit biases are less so.

A person may even express explicit disapproval of a certain attitude or belief while still harboring similar biases on a more unconscious level. Such biases do not necessarily align with our own sense of self and personal identity. People can also hold positive or negative associations about their own race, gender, religion, sexuality, or other personal characteristics.

Causes of Implicit Bias

While people might like to believe that they are not susceptible to these implicit biases and stereotypes, the reality is that everyone engages in them whether they like it or not. This reality, however, does not mean that you are necessarily prejudiced or inclined to discriminate against other people. It simply means that your brain is working in a way that makes associations and generalizations.

In addition to the fact that we are influenced by our environment and stereotypes that already exist in the society into which we were born, it is generally impossible to separate ourselves from the influence of society.

You can, however, become more aware of your unconscious thinking and the ways in which society influences you.

It is the natural tendency of the brain to sift, sort, and categorize information about the world that leads to the formation of these implicit biases. We're susceptible to bias because of these tendencies:

We tend to seek out patterns . Implicit bias occurs because of the brain's natural tendency to look for patterns and associations in the world. Social cognition , or our ability to store, process, and apply information about people in social situations, is dependent on this ability to form associations about the world.
We like to take shortcuts . Like other cognitive biases , implicit bias is a result of the brain's tendency to try to simplify the world. Because the brain is constantly inundated with more information than it could conceivably process, mental shortcuts make it faster and easier for the brain to sort through all of this data.
Our experiences and social conditioning play a role . Implicit biases are influenced by experiences, although these attitudes may not be the result of direct personal experience. Cultural conditioning, media portrayals, and upbringing can all contribute to the implicit associations that people form about the members of other social groups.

How Implicit Bias Is Measured

The term implicit bias was first coined by social psychologists Mahzarin Banaji and Tony Greenwald in 1995. In an influential paper introducing their theory of implicit social cognition, they proposed that social behavior was largely influenced by unconscious associations and judgments.

In 1998, Banaji and Greenwald published their now-famous Implicit Association Test (IAT) to support their hypothesis . The test utilizes a computer program to show respondents a series of images and words to determine how long it takes someone to choose between two things.

Subjects might be shown images of faces of different racial backgrounds, for example, in conjunction with either a positive word or a negative word. Subjects would then be asked to click on a positive word when they saw an image of someone from one race and to click on a negative word when they saw someone of another race.

Interpreting the Results

The researchers suggest that when someone clicks quickly, it means that they possess a stronger unconscious association. If a person quickly clicks on a negative word every time they see a person of a particular race, the researchers suggest that this would indicate that they hold an implicit negative bias toward individuals of that race.

In addition to a test of implicit racial attitudes, the IAT has also been utilized to measure unconscious biases related to gender, weight, sexuality, disability, and other areas. The IAT has grown in popularity and use over the last decade, yet has recently come under fire.

Among the main criticisms are findings that the test results may lack reliability . Respondents may score high on racial bias on one test, and low the next time they are tested.

Also of concern is that scores on the test may not necessarily correlate with individual behavior. People may score high for a type of bias on the IAT, but those results may not accurately predict how they would relate to members of a specific social group.

Link Between Implicit Bias and Discrimination

It is important to understand that implicit bias is not the same thing as racism, although the two concepts are related. Overt racism involves conscious prejudice against members of a particular racial group and can be influenced by both explicit and implicit biases.

Other forms of discrimination that can be influenced by unconscious biases include ageism , sexism, homophobia, and ableism.

One of the benefits of being aware of the potential impact of implicit social biases is that you can take a more active role in overcoming social stereotypes, discrimination, and prejudice.

Effects of Implicit Bias

Implicit biases can influence how people behave toward the members of different social groups. Researchers have found that such bias can have effects in a number of settings, including in school, work, and legal proceedings.

Implicit Bias in School

Implicit bias can lead to a phenomenon known as stereotype threat in which people internalize negative stereotypes about themselves based upon group associations. Research has shown, for example, that young girls often internalize implicit attitudes related to gender and math performance.

By the age of 9, girls have been shown to exhibit the unconscious beliefs that females have a preference for language over math. The stronger these implicit beliefs are, the less likely girls and women are to pursue math performance in school. Such unconscious beliefs are also believed to play a role in inhibiting women from pursuing careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.

Studies have also demonstrated that implicit attitudes can also influence how teachers respond to student behavior, suggesting that implicit bias can have a powerful impact on educational access and academic achievement.

One study, for example, found that Black children—and Black boys in particular—were more likely to be expelled from school for behavioral issues. When teachers were told to watch for challenging behaviors, they were more likely to focus on Black children than on White children.

Implicit Bias In the Workplace

While the Implicit Attitude Test itself may have pitfalls, these problems do not negate the existence of implicit bias. Or the existence and effects of bias, prejudice, and discrimination in the real world. Such prejudices can have very real and potentially devastating consequences.

One study, for example, found that when Black and White job seekers sent out similar resumes to employers, Black applicants were half as likely to be called in for interviews as White job seekers with equal qualifications.

Such discrimination is likely the result of both explicit and implicit biases toward racial groups.

Even when employers strive to eliminate potential bias in hiring, subtle implicit biases may still have an impact on how people are selected for jobs or promoted to advanced positions. Avoiding such biases entirely can be difficult, but being aware of their existence and striving to minimize them can help.

Implicit Bias in Healthcare Settings

Certainly, age, race, or health condition should not play a role in how patients get treated, however, implicit bias can influence quality healthcare and have long-term impacts including suboptimal care, adverse outcomes, and even death.

For example, one study published in the American Journal of Public Health found that physicians with high scores in implicit bias tended to dominate conversations with Black patients and, as a result, the Black patients had less confidence and trust in the provider and rated the quality of their care lower.

Researchers continue to investigate implicit bias in relation to other ethnic groups as well as specific health conditions, including type 2 diabetes, obesity, mental health, and substance use disorders.

Implicit Bias in Legal Settings

Implicit biases can also have troubling implications in legal proceedings, influencing everything from initial police contact all the way through sentencing. Research has found that there is an overwhelming racial disparity in how Black defendants are treated in criminal sentencing.

Not only are Black defendants less likely to be offered plea bargains than White defendants charged with similar crimes, but they are also more likely to receive longer and harsher sentences than White defendants.

Strategies to Reduce the Impact of Implict Bias

Implicit biases impact behavior, but there are things that you can do to reduce your own bias. Some ways that you can reduce the influence of implicit bias:

Focus on seeing people as individuals . Rather than focusing on stereotypes to define people, spend time considering them on a more personal, individual level.
Work on consciously changing your stereotypes . If you do recognize that your response to a person might be rooted in biases or stereotypes, make an effort to consciously adjust your response.
Take time to pause and reflect . In order to reduce reflexive reactions, take time to reflect on potential biases and replace them with positive examples of the stereotyped group.
Adjust your perspective . Try seeing things from another person's point of view. How would you respond if you were in the same position? What factors might contribute to how a person acts in a particular setting or situation?
Increase your exposure . Spend more time with people of different racial backgrounds. Learn about their culture by attending community events or exhibits.
Practice mindfulness . Try meditation, yoga, or focused breathing to increase mindfulness and become more aware of your thoughts and actions.

While implicit bias is difficult to eliminate altogether, there are strategies that you can utilize to reduce its impact. Taking steps such as actively working to overcome your biases , taking other people's perspectives, seeking greater diversity in your life, and building your awareness about your own thoughts are a few ways to reduce the impact of implicit bias.

A Word From Verywell

Implicit biases can be troubling, but they are also a pervasive part of life. Perhaps more troubling, your unconscious attitudes may not necessarily align with your declared beliefs. While people are more likely to hold implicit biases that favor their own in-group, it is not uncommon for people to hold biases against their own social group as well.

The good news is that these implicit biases are not set in stone. Even if you do hold unconscious biases against other groups of people, it is possible to adopt new attitudes, even on the unconscious level. This process is not necessarily quick or easy, but being aware of the existence of these biases is a good place to start making a change.

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Cooper LA, Roter DL, Carson KA, et al. The associations of clinicians' implicit attitudes about race with medical visit communication and patient ratings of interpersonal care . Am J Public Health . 2012;102(5):979-87. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300558

Leiber MJ, Fox KC. Race and the impact of detention on juvenile justice decision making . Crime & Delinquency. 2005;51(4):470-497. doi:10.1177/0011128705275976

Van Ryn M, Hardeman R, Phelan SM, et al. Medical school experiences associated with change in implicit racial bias among 3547 students: A medical student CHANGES study report . J Gen Intern Med. 2015;30(12):1748-1756. doi:10.1007/s11606-015-3447-7

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Unconscious preferences can limit choices, stifle growth, professor says

Unconscious bias has been recognized as a root cause of prejudice, but research says it has another insidious effect as well: It robs us of free will.

Harvard psychologist Mahzarin Banaji , the Richard Clarke Cabot Professor of Social Ethics, highlighted the potentially pernicious effects of the hidden biases that people carry, telling members of the new freshman class Thursday that being aware of one’s own biases is the first step toward making fair judgments and decisions.

Banaji, delivering a lecture before about 200 freshmen in Harvard’s Science Center, spoke as part of the Opening Days activities to help new students get acclimated to campus.

While racism, sexism, and other overt forms of bias draw a lot of attention, Banaji used a series of exercises to alert students to other types of bias, such as our unconscious preference for people similar to ourselves and how our decisions may be influenced not just by logic and reason, but by the prominence — rather than the significance — of information. Even our preconceived notions of how things are supposed to be can blind us to contrary evidence.

“Once you have that awareness, all things become possible,” Banaji said.

Banaji’s lecture, “Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good People,” was just one of many activities during the week for the freshmen, which included social functions, campus tours, meetings with advisers, a campfire, a talent show, and the Freshman Convocation on Monday.

Dean of Undergraduate Education Jay Harris introduced Banaji, saying that after days of hearing people tell them what Harvard classes are like, Banaji’s talk would give incoming students a taste of what’s to come.

“This is an effort to provide you with some sense of what a Harvard course is all about,” Harris said.

It was a taste that many in the audience enjoyed. Though she dealt with a serious subject, Banaji was humorous, too. Dylan Tam, a freshman from Toledo, Ohio, said the talk opened his mind about everyday biases, such as whom you sit with in Annenberg dining hall.

“If you have a superficial connection with [someone], you start talking to them more than others,” Tam said.

Another freshman, Kevin Ma, also enjoyed the lecture, and said that after days of getting ready for classes, he and others were ready for the academics to begin.

“Everyone seems ready to engage,” Ma said. “We’re ready to do some work.”

Along those lines, Banaji cautioned students against relying too heavily on Harvard’s “shopping period” in selecting classes, since unconscious biases can come into play.

She added that biases aren’t always bad. Some, such as preferences for specific schools or sports teams, are benign. Even biases against race or color may have been important at one point in evolutionary history, she said, as early humans had to be wary of strangers. In today’s world, however, unconscious biases should be uncovered because they can cause everything from missed opportunities to bad business decisions to an insular social circle.

Banaji also discussed seemingly benign ways in which biases can be perpetuated, through simple decisions such as who people choose to help. She cautioned students against surrounding themselves with people just like themselves.

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Issues & Debates: Evaluating Culture Bias

Last updated 22 Mar 2021

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Culturally biased research can have significant real-world effects by, for example, amplifying and validating damaging stereotypes. The US Army used an IQ test before WWI which was culturally biased toward the dominant white majority. Unsurprisingly, the test showed that African-Americans were at the bottom of the IQ scale and this had a negative effect on the attitudes of Americans’ toward this group of people, which highlights the negative impact that culturally biased research can have.

One way to deal with cultural bias is to recognise it when it occurs. Smith and Bond found, in their 1998 survey of European textbooks on social psychology, that 66% of the studies were American, 32% European, and only 2% from the rest of the world. This suggests that much psychological research is severely unrepresentative and can be greatly improved by simply selecting different cultural groups to study.

Contemporary psychologists are significantly more open-minded and well-travelled than previously, and have an increased understanding of other cultures at both a personal and professional level. For example, international psychology conferences increase the exchange of ideas between psychologists which has helped to reduce ethnocentrism in psychology and enabled a more nuanced understanding and appreciation of cultural relativism.

This heightened awareness of cultural diversity has led to the development of ‘indigenous psychologies’ : theories drawing explicitly on the particular experiences of people in different cultural contexts. One example is Afrocentrism , a movement which suggests that because all black people have their roots in Africa, theories about them must recognise the African context of behaviours and attitudes. This is an example of an emic approach, which emphasises the uniqueness of every culture and looks at behaviour from the inside of a particular cultural system. This matters because it has led to the emergence of theories that are more relevant to the lives and cultures of people not only in Africa, but also to those far removed from their African origins. The development of indigenous psychologies is often seen as a strength of cultural relativism, but there are limitations as well: Are Afrocentric theories not as culturally biased as those they claim to replace?

There has also been some progress in the field of diagnosing mental disorders. Early versions of the American DSM system virtually ignored mental disorders that are found mainly or exclusively in non-American cultures. DSM-IV in 1994 acknowledged the inadequacy of that approach and included a short appendix on culture-bound syndromes found in other parts of the world. However, Kleinman and Cohen (1997) dismissed this appendix as “little more than a sop thrown to cultural psychiatrists and psychiatric anthropologists” and pointed out that detailed work in several non-Western cultures had uncovered many disorders totally ignored by DSM-IV. Examples include: pa-fend (fear of wind) found in China; amafufunyana (violent behaviour caused by spirit possession) found in South Africa and brain fag (problems in concentrating and thinking produced by excessive study) found in West Africa.

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Argument Essay

Writing for success: argument.

This section will help you determine the purpose and structure of an argumentative essay.

The Purpose of Argument in Writing

The Structure of an Argumentative Essay

The following five features make up the structure of an argumentative essay:

Introduction and thesis
Opposing and qualifying ideas
Strong evidence in support of claim
Style and tone of language
A compelling conclusion

Creating an Introduction and Thesis

The argumentative essay begins with an engaging introduction that presents the general topic. The thesis typically appears somewhere in the introduction and states the writer’s point of view.

Acknowledging Opposing Ideas and Limits to Your Argument

Because an argument implies differing points of view on the subject, you must be sure to acknowledge those opposing ideas. Avoiding ideas that conflict with your own gives the reader the impression that you may be uncertain, fearful, or unaware of opposing ideas. Thus it is essential that you not only address counterarguments but also do so respectfully.

It is also helpful to establish the limits of your argument and what you are trying to accomplish. In effect, you are conceding early on that your argument is not the ultimate authority on a given topic. Such humility can go a long way toward earning credibility and trust with an audience. Audience members will know from the beginning that you are a reasonable writer, and audience members will trust your argument as a result. For example, in the following concessionary statement, the writer advocates for stricter gun control laws, but she admits it will not solve all of our problems with crime:

Phrases of Concession

although	granted that
of course	still
though	yet

Bias in Writing

The Use of I in Writing

Be mindful of the use of I in your writing because it can make your argument sound overly biased. There are two primary reasons:

Excessive repetition of any word will eventually catch the reader’s attention—and usually not in a good way. The use of I is no different.
The insertion of I into a sentence alters not only the way a sentence might sound but also the composition of the sentence itself. I is often the subject of a sentence. If the subject of the essay is supposed to be, say, smoking, then by inserting yourself into the sentence, you are effectively displacing the subject of the essay into a secondary position. In the following example, the subject of the sentence is underlined:

Smoking is bad. I think smoking is bad.

Developing Sound Arguments

Use the following checklist to develop sound arguments in your essay:

An engaging introduction
A reasonable, specific thesis that is able to be supported by evidence
A varied range of evidence from credible sources
Respectful acknowledgement and explanation of opposing ideas
A style and tone of language that is appropriate for the subject and audience
Acknowledgement of the argument’s limits
A conclusion that will adequately summarize the essay and reinforce the thesis

Fact and Opinion

In writing, you want to strike a balance between credible facts and authoritative opinions. Relying on one or the other will likely lose more of your audience than it gains.

Using Visual Elements to Strengthen Arguments

Adding visual elements to a persuasive argument can often strengthen its persuasive effect. There are two main types of visual elements: quantitative visuals and qualitative visuals.

Writing an Argumentative Essay

Make sure that your style and tone are appropriate for your subject and audience. Tailor your language and word choice to these two factors, while still being true to your own voice.

Finally, write a conclusion that effectively summarizes the main argument and reinforces your thesis.

Argumentative Essay Example

Universal Health Care Coverage for the United States

By Scott McLean

Key Takeaways

The purpose of argument in writing is to convince or move readers toward a certain point of view, or opinion.
An argument is a reasoned opinion supported and explained by evidence. To argue, in writing, is to advance knowledge and ideas in a positive way.
A thesis that expresses the opinion of the writer in more specific terms is better than one that is vague.
It is essential that you not only address counterarguments but also do so respectfully.
It is also helpful to establish the limits of your argument and what you are trying to accomplish through a concession statement.
To persuade a skeptical audience, you will need to use a wide range of evidence. Scientific studies, opinions from experts, historical precedent, statistics, personal anecdotes, and current events are all types of evidence that you might use in explaining your point.
Make sure that your word choice and writing style is appropriate for both your subject and your audience.
You should let your reader know your bias, but do not let that bias blind you to the primary components of good argumentation: sound, thoughtful evidence and respectfully and reasonably addressing opposing ideas.
You should be mindful of the use of I in your writing because it can make your argument sound more biased than it needs to.
Facts are statements that can be proven using objective data.
Opinions are personal views, or judgments, that cannot be proven.
In writing, you want to strike a balance between credible facts and authoritative opinions.
Quantitative visuals present data graphically. The purpose of using quantitative visuals is to make logical appeals to the audience.
Qualitative visuals present images that appeal to the audience’s emotions.
Provided by : Lumen Learning. Located at : http://lumenlearning.com/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
Successful Writing. Provided by : Anonymous. Located at : http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/successful-writing/s14-09-persuasion.html . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
Successful Writing. Authored by : Anonymous. Provided by : Anonymous. Located at : http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/successful-writing/ . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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Effects of mhealth practice patterns on improving metabolic syndrome using the information–motivation–behavioral skills model †.

1. Introduction

1.1. background, 1.2. theoretical framework.

Click here to enlarge figure

1.3. Objectives

2. materials and methods, 2.1. study participants, 2.2. contents of mhealth intervention, 2.3. analysis model and variables, 2.3.1. dependent variables, 2.3.2. independent variables related to mhealth intervention, 2.4. statistical analysis, 3.1. general characteristics, 3.2. practice patterns of mhealth intervention, 3.3. validation of the analytical model and practice patterns, 3.4. practice patterns by imb components, 3.4.1. information, 3.4.2. motivation, 3.4.3. behavior skills, 3.5. health risk factors and health behavior, 3.6. health promotion effects by practice patterns of mhealth, 4. discussion, 4.1. principal findings, 4.2. limitations and implications, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Analyzed Variables		N	%	Analyzed Variables		N	%
Sex	Male	1562	44.6	Smoking	Yes	442	12.6
	Male	1562	44.6	Smoking	No	3063	87.4
	Female	1943	55.4	Alcohol consumption (monthly)	Yes	2092	59.7
	Female	1943	55.4	Alcohol consumption (monthly)	No	1413	40.3
Age group	20s	161	4.6	Stages of change in healthy eating	Precontemplation	97	2.8
	30s	853	24.3		Contemplation	435	12.4
	40s	1263	36		Preparation	2088	59.6
	50s	1031	29.4		Action	352	10
	60s	197	5.6		Maintenance	533	15.2
Education level	High school graduate or less	981	28	Stages of change in exercise	Precontemplation	155	4.4
Education level	College degree or higher	2524	72		Contemplation	325	9.3
Occupation	Managers/professionals	788	22.5		Preparation	1549	44.2
	Office workers	1070	30.5		Action	707	20.2
	Service/sales workers	492	14		Maintenance	769	21.9
	Other workers	349	10	No. of health risk factors	Average (S.D)	2.4 (1.1)
	Homemakers/unemployed	806	23		Average (S.D)	2.4 (1.1)
Municipality	Large city	1430	40.8		One	950	27.1
	Large city	1430	40.8		Two	1072	30.6
	Small- to medium-sized city	1492	42.6		Three	835	23.8
	Small- to medium-sized city	1492	42.6		Four	508	14.5
	Rural area	583	16.6		Five	140	4

Analyzed Variables		Group	BIC † (N = 3505)	AIC (N = 3505)	Group1 (%)	Group2 (%)	Group3 (%)
Information	Multi-information	Two	−24,516.42	−24,464.04	74.1	25.9
Information	Multi-information	Three	−2206.72	−21,986.62	69.7	16.3	14.0
Motivation	Activity tracker	Two	−125,497.55	−125,466.74	75.7	24.3
	Activity tracker	Three	−122,140.39	−122,094.18	66.4	23.9	9.8
	Integrated intensive counseling	Two	−11,009.87	−10,957.50	69.3	30.7
	Integrated intensive counseling	Three	−9910.26	−9830.16	16.9	71.4	11.7
Behavior Skills	Integrated self-recording	Two	−198,589.07	−198,530.53	34.3	65.6
Behavior Skills	Integrated self-recording	Three	−188,488.45	−188,402.19	18.3	33.3	48.4

Variable		Initial		Intermediate (3 Months)		Final (6 Months)		Intermediate Change (%p)	Final Change (%p)	F
Variable		N	%	N	%	N	%	Intermediate Change (%p)	Final Change (%p)	F
No. of health risk factors	Average (S.D)	2.4 (1.1)		1.7 (1.3)		1.4 (1.2)		−0.7	−1	557.77 *
	None	-	-	644	18.4	859	24.5	18.4	24.5
	One	950	27.1	1009	28.8	1134	32.4	1.7	5.3
	Two	1072	30.6	898	25.6	840	24	−5	−6.6
	Three	835	23.8	593	16.9	476	13.6	−6.9	−10.2
	Four	508	14.5	298	8.5	174	5	−6	−9.5
	Five	140	4	63	1.8	22	0.6	−2.2	−3.4
Healthy eating score † Average (S.D)		5.0 (2.1)		6.0 (1.9)		6.4 (1.9)		1	1.4	448.22 *
Physical activity rate ††	walking and moderate exercise	324	9.2	421	12	493	14.1	2.8	4.9	91.91 *
	moderate exercise	76	2.2	49	1.4	42	1.2	−0.8	−1
	walking	1056	30.1	1439	41.1	1532	43.7	11	13.6
	do nothing	2049	58.5	1596	45.5	1438	41	−13	−17.5

Analyzed Variables			Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
			Practice Patterns of I,M,B → Healthy Eating		Practice Patterns of I,M,B → Physical Activity		Health Behavior → Health Risk Factors		All → Health Risk Factors
			β	S.E	β	S.E	β	S.E	β	S.E
Sociodemographic characteristics		Sex (ref = Male)
		Female	0.250 ***	−0.053	−0.040 *	−0.017	−0.475 ***	−0.04	−0.482 ***	−0.04
		Age Group (ref = 20s)
		30s	0.286 **	−0.11	−0.122 ***	−0.035	0.242 **	−0.084	0.259 **	−0.084
		40s	0.775 ***	−0.109	−0.201 ***	−0.035	0.358 ***	−0.082	0.394 ***	−0.083
		50s	1.147 ***	−0.111	−0.142 ***	−0.036	0.452***	−0.084	0.492 ***	−0.085
		60s	1.634 ***	−0.141	−0.032	−0.045	0.454 ***	−0.106	0.503 ***	−0.107
		Education (ref = High school graduate or less)
		College degree or higher	0.057	−0.054	−0.049 **	−0.017	−0.118 **	−0.041	−0.113 **	−0.041
		Occupation (ref = managers/professionals)
		Office workers	−0.139 *	−0.06	−0.055 **	−0.019	−0.068	−0.046	−0.063	−0.046
		Service/sales workers	−0.211 **	−0.075	−0.004	−0.024	0.091	−0.057	0.086	−0.057
		Other workers	−0.190 *	−0.085	0.032	−0.027	−0.084	−0.065	−0.065	−0.065
		Housewives/unemployed	−0.155 *	−0.07	−0.024	−0.022	0.073	−0.053	0.09	−0.053
		Municipality (ref = Bic city)
		Small- to medium-sized city	−0.02	−0.048	−0.056 ***	−0.015	−0.04	−0.036	−0.028	−0.036
		Rural area	−0.104	−0.063	−0.167 ***	−0.02	0.003	−0.048	0.008	−0.048
Risk behaviors		Smoking (ref = No) Yes	−0.336 ***	−0.066	0.023	−0.022	0.159 ***	−0.047	0.147 **	−0.047
Risk behaviors		Monthly alcohol consumption (ref = No) Yes	−0.208 ***	−0.041	−0.067 ***	−0.014	−0.016	−0.028	−0.017	−0.028
Stages of behavior change		Stages of change in Healthy eating (Precontemplation = 1, continuous variable)	0.612 ***	−0.017	0.035 ***	−0.006	−0.034 **	−0.011	−0.045 ***	−0.011
Stages of behavior change		Stages of change in exercise (Precontemplation = 1, continuous variable)	0.080 ***	−0.017	0.133 ***	−0.006	−0.049 ***	−0.011	−0.034 **	−0.011
Participation period		(ref = Initial)
		Intermediate (3 months)	0.727 ***	−0.032	0.091 ***	−0.011	−0.585 ***	−0.02	−0.588 ***	−0.02
		Final (6 months)	0.976 ***	−0.032	0.120 ***	−0.012	−0.856 ***	−0.021	−0.860 ***	−0.021
Integrated information		(ref = Early decline type)
		Late decline type	0.089	−0.083	0.037	−0.027			0.064	−0.063
		Continuous type	0.217 *	−0.085	0.021	−0.027			−0.034	−0.065
Motivation	Personal	Activity tracker (ref = Early decline type)
		Late decline type	0.055	−0.083	0.004	−0.026			−0.029	−0.063
		Continuous type	0.156 *	−0.08	0.043	−0.025			−0.097	−0.06
	Social	Integrated Intensive counseling (ref = Early decline type)
		Late decline type	−0.063	−0.088	−0.049	−0.028			0.016	−0.067
		Continuous type	−0.105	−0.094	−0.013	−0.03			0.021	−0.071
Behavior skills		Integrated Self-recording (ref = Early decline type)
		Late decline type	0.015	−0.051	0.011	−0.016			−0.023	−0.039
		Continuous type	0.156 *	−0.066	0.165 ***	−0.021			−0.116 *	−0.05
Health behavior		Healthy eating					−0.021 **	−0.006	−0.019 **	−0.006
Health behavior		Physical activity					−0.072 ***	−0.018	−0.067 ***	−0.018
Intercept			1.919 ***	−0.165	0.115 *	−0.053	2.767 ***	−0.11	2.800 ***	−0.122

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Park, N.-Y.; Jang, S. Effects of mHealth Practice Patterns on Improving Metabolic Syndrome Using the Information–Motivation–Behavioral Skills Model. Nutrients 2024 , 16 , 2099. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16132099

Park N-Y, Jang S. Effects of mHealth Practice Patterns on Improving Metabolic Syndrome Using the Information–Motivation–Behavioral Skills Model. Nutrients . 2024; 16(13):2099. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16132099

Park, Na-Young, and Sarang Jang. 2024. "Effects of mHealth Practice Patterns on Improving Metabolic Syndrome Using the Information–Motivation–Behavioral Skills Model" Nutrients 16, no. 13: 2099. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16132099

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