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Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

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Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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2.3 Methods of Researching Media Effects

Learning objectives.

• Identify the prominent media research methods.
• Explain the uses of media research methods in a research project.

Media theories provide the framework for approaching questions about media effects ranging from as simple as how 10-year-old boys react to cereal advertisements to as broad as how Internet use affects literacy. Once researchers visualize a project and determine a theoretical framework, they must choose actual research methods. Contemporary research methods are greatly varied and can range from analyzing old newspapers to performing controlled experiments.

Content Analysis

Content analysis is a research technique that involves analyzing the content of various forms of media. Through content analysis, researchers hope to understand both the people who created the content and the people who consumed it. A typical content analysis project does not require elaborate experiments. Instead, it simply requires access to the appropriate media to analyze, making this type of research an easier and inexpensive alternative to other forms of research involving complex surveys or human subjects.

Content analysis studies require researchers to define what types of media to study. For example, researchers studying violence in the media would need to decide which types of media to analyze, such as television, and the types of formats to examine, such as children’s cartoons. The researchers would then need to define the terms used in the study; media violence can be classified according to the characters involved in the violence (strangers, family members, or racial groups), the type of violence (self-inflicted, slapstick, or against others), or the context of the violence (revenge, random, or duty-related). These are just a few of the ways that media violence could be studied with content-analysis techniques (Berger, 1998).

Archival Research

Any study that analyzes older media must employ archival research, which is a type of research that focuses on reviewing historical documents such as old newspapers and past publications. Old local newspapers are often available on microfilm at local libraries or at the newspaper offices. University libraries generally provide access to archives of national publications such as The New York Times or Time ; publications can also increasingly be found in online databases or on websites.

Older radio programs are available for free or by paid download through a number of online sources. Many television programs and films have also been made available for free download, or for rent or sale through online distributors. Performing an online search for a particular title will reveal the options available.

Resources such as the Internet Archive ( www.archive.org ) work to archive a number of media sources. One important role of the Internet Archive is website archiving. Internet archives are invaluable for a study of online media because they store websites that have been deleted or changed. These archives have made it possible for Internet content analyses that would have otherwise been impossible.

Surveys are ubiquitous in modern life. Questionaires record data on anything from political preferences to personal hygiene habits. Media surveys generally take one of the following two forms.

A descriptive survey aims to find the current state of things, such as public opinion or consumer preferences. In media, descriptive surveys establish television and radio ratings by finding the number of people who watch or listen to particular programs. An analytical survey, however, does more than simply document a current situation. Instead, it attempts to find out why a particular situation exists. Researchers pose questions or hypotheses about media, and then conduct analytical surveys to answer these questions. Analytical surveys can determine the relationship between different forms of media consumption and the lifestyles and habits of media consumers.

Surveys can employ either open-ended or closed-ended questions. Open-ended questions require the participant to generate answers in their own words, while closed-ended questions force the participant to select an answer from a list. Although open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of answers, the results of closed-ended questions are easier to tabulate. Although surveys are useful in media studies, effective use requires keeping their limitations in mind.

Social Role Analysis

As part of child rearing, parents teach their children about social roles. When parents prepare children to attend school for example, they explain the basics of school rules and what is expected of a student to help the youngsters understand the role of students. Like the role of a character in a play, this role carries specific expectations that differentiate school from home. Adults often play a number of different roles as they navigate between their responsibilities as parents, employees, friends, and citizens. Any individual may play a number of roles depending on his or her specific life choices.

Social role analysis of the media involves examining various individuals in the media and analyzing the type of role that each plays. Role analysis research can consider the roles of men, women, children, members of a racial minority, or members of any other social group in specific types of media. For example, if the role children play in cartoons is consistently different from the role they play in sitcoms, then certain conclusions might be drawn about both of these formats. Analyzing roles used in media allows researchers to gain a better understanding of the messages that the mass media sends (Berger, 1998).

Depth Interviews

The depth interview is an anthropological research tool that is also useful in media studies. Depth interviews take surveys one step further by allowing researchers to directly ask a study participant specific questions to gain a fuller understanding of the participant’s perceptions and experiences. Depth interviews have been used in research projects that follow newspaper reporters to find out their reasons for reporting certain stories and in projects that attempt to understand the motivations for reading romance novels. Depth interviews can provide a deeper understanding of the media consumption habits of particular groups of people (Priest, 2010).

Rhetorical Analysis

Rhetorical analysis involves examining the styles used in media and attempting to understand the kinds of messages those styles convey. Media styles include form, presentation, composition, use of metaphors, and reasoning structure. Rhetorical analysis reveals the messages not apparent in a strict reading of content. Studies involving rhetorical analysis have focused on media such as advertising to better understand the roles of style and rhetorical devices in media messages (Gunter, 2000).

Focus Groups

Like depth interviews, focus groups allow researchers to better understand public responses to media. Unlike a depth interview, however, a focus group allows the participants to establish a group dynamic that more closely resembles that of normal media consumption. In media studies, researchers can employ focus groups to judge the reactions of a group to specific media styles and to content. This can be a valuable means of understanding the reasons for consuming specific types of media.

Focus groups are effective ways to obtain a group opinion on media.

Wikimedia Commons – CC BY-SA 3.0.

Experiments

Media research studies also sometimes use controlled experiments that expose a test group to an experience involving media and measure the effects of that experience. Researchers then compare these measurements to those of a control group that had key elements of the experience removed. For example, researchers may show one group of children a program with three incidents of cartoon violence and another control group of similar children the same program without the violent incidents. Researchers then ask the children from both groups the same sets of questions, and the results are compared.

Participant Observation

In participant observation , researchers try to become part of the group they are studying. Although this technique is typically associated with anthropological studies in which a researcher lives with members of a particular culture to gain a deeper understanding of their values and lives, it is also used in media research.

Media consumption often takes place in groups. Families or friends gather to watch favorite programs, children may watch Saturday morning cartoons with a group of their peers, and adults may host viewing parties for televised sporting events or awards shows. These groups reveal insights into the role of media in the lives of the public. A researcher might join a group that watches football together and stay with the group for an entire season. By becoming a part of the group, the researcher becomes part of the experiment and can reveal important influences of media on culture (Priest).

Researchers have studied online role-playing games, such as World of Warcraft , in this manner. These games reveal an interesting aspect of group dynamics: Although participants are not in physical proximity, they function as a group within the game. Researchers are able to study these games by playing them. In the book Digital Culture, Play, and Identity: A World of Warcraft Reader , a group of researchers discussed the results of their participant observation studies. The studies reveal the surprising depth of culture and unwritten rules that exist in the World of Warcraft universe and give important interpretations of why players pursue the game with such dedication (Corneliussen & Rettberg, 2008).

Key Takeaways

• Media research methods are the practical procedures for carrying out a research project. These methods include content analysis, surveys, focus groups, experiments, and participant observation.
• Research methods generally involve either test subjects or analysis of media. Methods involving test subjects include surveys, depth interviews, focus groups, and experiments. Analysis of media can include content, style, format, social roles, and archival analysis.

Media research methods offer a variety of procedures for performing a media study. Each of these methods varies in cost; thus, a project with a lower budget would be prohibited from using some of the more costly methods. Consider a project on teen violence and video game use. Then answer the following short-response questions. Each response should be a minimum of one paragraph.

• Which methods would a research organization with a low budget favor for this project? Why?
• How might the results of the project differ from those of one with a higher budget?

Berger, Arthur Asa. Media Research Techniques (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1998), 23–24.

Corneliussen, Hilde and Jill Walker Rettberg, “Introduction: ‘Orc ProfessorLFG,’ or Researching in Azeroth,” in Digital Culture, Play, and Identity: A World of Warcraft Reader , ed. Hilde Corneliussen and Jill Walker Rettberg (Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2008), 6–7.

Gunter, Barrie. Media Research Methods: Measuring Audiences, Reactions and Impact (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000), 89.

Priest, Susanna Hornig Doing Media Research: An Introduction (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), 16–22.

Priest, Susanna Hornig Doing Media Research , 96–98.

Understanding Media and Culture Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

100 Media Analysis Essay Topics & Examples

Welcome to our list of media analysis essay topics! Here, you will find plenty of content analysis topic ideas. Use them to write a critical paper, a literary analysis, or a mass-media related project. As a bonus, we’ve included media analysis example essays!

🔝 Top 10 Media Analysis Topics for 2024

🏆 best media analysis topic ideas & essay examples, ⭐ interesting topics to write about media analysis, ✅ simple & easy media analysis essay titles, 🔥 content analysis topic ideas.

• Portrayal of Women in Ads
• Media Bias in Political Reporting
• Representation and Diversity on TV
• Social Media’s Impact on Self-Esteem
• Media Coverage of Humanitarian Crises
• How Are News on Climate Change Framed?
• Consequences of Fake News and Misinformation
• How Gender Roles Are portrayed in Children’s Media
• Does Violence in Video Games Lead to Aggressive Behavior?
• The Relationship of Media and Public Opinion in Elections
• Media Analysis of 13 Reasons Why According to the laws of the genre, the atmosphere is intensified, the pace accelerates, and the turns in the plot become more and more abrupt.
• “Super Bowl LVI Today: Day 1” Media Analysis Hence, it is essential to consider the priorities of the mass communication organization, namely the tone, look and advertising in the show.
• Sociological Media Analysis: “The Bachelor” and “One Day at a Time” The show is misogynistic, with the male protagonist playing the role of the pursuer and the female protagonist assuming the role of the pursued.
• Historical Components of Media Analysis In the case of Mumford and McLuhan, Carey observes that the writing and interpretation of media can result in the reconstruction of wider arguments and even the selection of an antagonistic agent.
• Analysis of Social Media Tools in Business The last item, the detailed analytics of the content and activity, allows for the development of the more efficient business strategy based on the subscribers’ preferences.
• Media Literacy Research: Analysis of the Issue In the process of research, I have significantly expanded my ability to access and analyze media messages as well as to use the power of information to communicate and make a difference in the world.
• Media Influences Learning: Analysis The use of media in learning leads to the achievement of positive outcomes if the medium used is interrelated and confounding.
• Media Analysis: Abuse Over Vaccine Passports The article uses the direct quotations of the restaurant owners, thus making the most of the story based in the first person.
• Media Analysis: Ageism in Advertisement In addition to the idea of saving communicated in E-trade’s ad, the commercial also seems to convey the hope of work among the old population.
• Media Bias Fact Check: Website Analysis For instance, Fact Check relies on the evidence provided by the person or organization making a claim to substantiate the accuracy of the source.
• The Media Economics Analysis In addition, the assessment of the economics of media reveals crucial information about the production, distribution, and consumption patterns of the media services and products.
• Social Media Presence Analysis I think it expresses engagement within my workplace and willingness to learn more to either explore new ideas, be a part of the discussion, and make sure the information I am gathering is accurate and […]
• The HopeLine: Website and Social Media Analysis The organization’s social media and the site contain a body of knowledge that might be also informative or important to revise for the current employees, for instance types and signs of abuse.
• Media Analysis: Gideon’s Trumpet As it has been mentioned above, the purpose of the movie was to show that even a criminal has the right to have someone to represent him in the courtroom.
• Acute Otitis Media Analysis The peak of acute ear infections, which precedes otitis media, is prior to the age of 2 years, and during school entry.
• Modern Mass Media and Tools for Their Analysis A sender is a person who originates the message, a message is the content that is communicated, a channel is a medium used to transmit it, and a recipient is a person to whom the […]
• Covering a Pandemic: Critical Media Analysis A lot of work over the past decades has been devoted to the study of media analysis, which has led to the formation of a new area of knowledge, concepts, and categories.
• Analysis of Media Representation Patterns In fact, studies show that the DNA of any given human being is ninety-nine percent identical in comparison to the rest of the population, regardless of their origin.
• News and Media Reliability: Social Analysis At the same time, given the apparent trend to use the Internet as the primary source of news, mobile devices still seem to arouse suspicion among the adult and the older adult population. The most […]
• Analysis Representations of Britishness in Different Media Texts Although it is clear to me that facts of Britishness exist in all three media sources listed above, I understand that it has different sides and is shown as a mixture of cultural peculiarities, breathtaking […]
• On Stereotyping in the Media Viewers watch shows regularly and do not understand the content that is biased while the media is able to attract the attention of the audience by way of drama, comedy and action.
• Media and Injustice: Issues Analysis This paper will high light relations among media and the Injustice, discuss media in it’s past and current perspective and it’s possible role in future challenges by means of special importance on the media management […]
• Media Coverage of Issues Analysis The main arguments that the authors suggest are: Inconsistent use of labels for the alternative plans minimized the likelihood that the public would understand the details of any of them; The conflicts frame narrowed public […]
• Mass Media Communication: Personal Analysis Finally, when I do the same in the kitchen in the morning, I am occupied with preparing and eating my breakfast; therefore, television serves as a background and I cannot be focused on the information […]
• Mass Media Law’s Analysis Indeed, the existing regulations show that the specified action is defined as flag desecration can be interpreted as an affront of the citizen of the United States, as well as the disdain for the law.
• “The New Yorker” and “National Geographic” Media Analysis What finds most interesting about Surowiecki’s article is that he manages to counter the politics of the USA government, whereas, in Alexander’s article, the secret of the buried treasure and the historical events are the […]
• Media Analysis: Jacob’s Cross In the Jacob’s Cross episode that was watched the following scenes that apply to the social justice theme were observed: This episode begins in the morning by Jacob calling his attorney and some other close […]
• Social Media Data Analysis For the company storage purposes, information in wikis is stored in a chronological order and may be used to build the company’s knowledge.
• Fairfax Media Limited Situational Analysis While it has generally taken Fairfax a longer time than expected to identify and adapt to the shift brought about by the rise of technology in market- specifically the internet and social media- the company […]
• Analysis of Media Strategies This is because it uses a reverse marketing strategy which states that the less the advertisement, the higher the pricing and the harder it becomes to find it, the higher the chances that people will […]
• Media Industry News Analysis: Gasland May Take the Oscar To learn more about the world of media, it is better to focus on the news and the main themes of the articles offered to the reader.
• Fairfax Media Industrial Environmental Analysis When the rights are granted, they come with a cost to the company; there has been challenges of print media from free press media in Australia thus Fairfax faces the challenge to handle the situation.
• Media Analysis: Women and Men in Media Against this background the paper attempts to probe the way in which the press and especially the print journalism help to produce and to reproduce specific ways of knowing the third world.
• Content Analysis of Two Different Forms of Media Although the first one uses television and the second uses the Internet and the World-Wide-Web to deliver content to consumers it must be pointed out that these two are rivals and basically has the same […]
• Analysis of Gender Issues in the Media The message in the advertisement simply showed that women are able to control men by using their bodies in a certain way.
• The Focus on the Importance of Symbols in Media Analysis
• Visual Media Analysis for Social Media and Other Online Platforms
• Research Methodologies for the Media Analysis
• Communications and Media Analysis
• Television Media Analysis
• Media Analysis: Leadership
• Predicting Stock Market Using Social Media Analysis
• Media Analysis: Television and New Media
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• How the Media Places Responsibility for the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Australian Media Analysis
• Media Analysis: Political and Social Bias in the USA
• Collecting Data in Social Media Analysis
• The Jurisprudence and Qualitative Media Analysis
• Media Analysis: Banning Beauty and the Beast in Malaysia
• Media Analysis and Understanding the Meaning of Islam
• Symbolic Interactionism and Social Networks: Media Analysis
• Television Media Analysis: The Cosby Show
• Marketing and Business Communication: Media Analysis
• The Difference Between the Quantitative and Qualitative Media Analysis
• Structuring and Media Analysis
• Media Analysis: Audiences and Consumers
• Managing the News and Media Analysis
• Comparative and Critical Media Analysis
• Media Analysis: Rose Petal Cottage
• Video Installation and Media Analysis
• Philosophical and Social Media Analysis
• Critical and Interdisciplinary Research in Media Analysis
• Public Relations and Media Analysis: Semantic and Social Aspects
• Functionalist Perspective for Media Analysis
• Media Analysis of Traditional Primary Documents
• Responsibility for the COVID-19 Pandemic: Media Analysis
• Qualitative Research Methods in Media Analysis
• A Visual Analytics System for Television Ratings
• Food Chain Actors’ Perceptions of and Adaptations to Volatile Markets: Results of a Media Analysis
• Religion and the Media Analysis
• Symbolic Interactionist Perspective for Media Analysis
• Employer Relation: Industrial Conflict Media Analysis
• Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Media Analysis
• Media Analysis: Overview of Media Research Methodologies and Audiences
• Patterns of Emotional Expression in Social Media Posts
• A Comparative Content Analysis of Television Shows and Gender Representation
• Environmental Sustainability Messaging in Advertisements
• Patterns of Persuasive Language in Political Debates
• News Coverage during COVID-19: Media Framing and Public Perception
• The Impact of Celebrity Endorsement on Consumer Behavior
• Analysis of Unrealistic Standards in Video Game Characters
• How Portrayal of Violence in Movies Leads to Desensitization
• Diversity of Characters and Themes in Children’s Literature
• How Fashion Magazines Affect Beauty Ideals
• Effectiveness of Educational Apps for Children
• Do Food Advertisements Promote Healthy Nutritional Choices?
• Representation of LGBTQ+ Characters in TV Series
• Environmental Messaging in Corporate Social Responsibility Reports
• Representations and Perspectives on Climate Change
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Research Paper

Category: media research paper examples.

Media are the communication outlets or tools used to store and deliver information or data. The term refers to components of the mass media communications industry, such as print media, publishing, the news media, photography, cinema, broadcasting (radio and television), and advertising.

The term “medium” (the singular form of “media”) is defined as “one of the means or channels of general communication, information, or entertainment in society, as newspapers, radio, or television.”

Browse media research paper examples below.

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• 10 Research Question Examples to Guide Your Research Project

10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project

Published on October 30, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on October 19, 2023.

The research question is one of the most important parts of your research paper , thesis or dissertation . It’s important to spend some time assessing and refining your question before you get started.

The exact form of your question will depend on a few things, such as the length of your project, the type of research you’re conducting, the topic , and the research problem . However, all research questions should be focused, specific, and relevant to a timely social or scholarly issue.

Once you’ve read our guide on how to write a research question , you can use these examples to craft your own.

Note that the design of your research question can depend on what method you are pursuing. Here are a few options for qualitative, quantitative, and statistical research questions.

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Social Media Use and Its Connection to Mental Health: A Systematic Review

Fazida karim.

1 Psychology, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences and Psychology, Fairfield, USA

2 Business & Management, University Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, MYS

Azeezat A Oyewande

3 Family Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences and Psychology, Fairfield, USA

4 Family Medicine, Lagos State Health Service Commission/Alimosho General Hospital, Lagos, NGA

Lamis F Abdalla

5 Internal Medicine, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences and Psychology, Fairfield, USA

Reem Chaudhry Ehsanullah

Safeera khan.

Social media are responsible for aggravating mental health problems. This systematic study summarizes the effects of social network usage on mental health. Fifty papers were shortlisted from google scholar databases, and after the application of various inclusion and exclusion criteria, 16 papers were chosen and all papers were evaluated for quality. Eight papers were cross-sectional studies, three were longitudinal studies, two were qualitative studies, and others were systematic reviews. Findings were classified into two outcomes of mental health: anxiety and depression. Social media activity such as time spent to have a positive effect on the mental health domain. However, due to the cross-sectional design and methodological limitations of sampling, there are considerable differences. The structure of social media influences on mental health needs to be further analyzed through qualitative research and vertical cohort studies.

Introduction and background

Human beings are social creatures that require the companionship of others to make progress in life. Thus, being socially connected with other people can relieve stress, anxiety, and sadness, but lack of social connection can pose serious risks to mental health [ 1 ].

Social media

Social media has recently become part of people's daily activities; many of them spend hours each day on Messenger, Instagram, Facebook, and other popular social media. Thus, many researchers and scholars study the impact of social media and applications on various aspects of people’s lives [ 2 ]. Moreover, the number of social media users worldwide in 2019 is 3.484 billion, up 9% year-on-year [ 3 - 5 ]. A statistic in Figure  1  shows the gender distribution of social media audiences worldwide as of January 2020, sorted by platform. It was found that only 38% of Twitter users were male but 61% were using Snapchat. In contrast, females were more likely to use LinkedIn and Facebook. There is no denying that social media has now become an important part of many people's lives. Social media has many positive and enjoyable benefits, but it can also lead to mental health problems. Previous research found that age did not have an effect but gender did; females were much more likely to experience mental health than males [ 6 , 7 ].

Impact on mental health

Mental health is defined as a state of well-being in which people understand their abilities, solve everyday life problems, work well, and make a significant contribution to the lives of their communities [ 8 ]. There is debated presently going on regarding the benefits and negative impacts of social media on mental health [ 9 , 10 ]. Social networking is a crucial element in protecting our mental health. Both the quantity and quality of social relationships affect mental health, health behavior, physical health, and mortality risk [ 9 ]. The Displaced Behavior Theory may help explain why social media shows a connection with mental health. According to the theory, people who spend more time in sedentary behaviors such as social media use have less time for face-to-face social interaction, both of which have been proven to be protective against mental disorders [ 11 , 12 ]. On the other hand, social theories found how social media use affects mental health by influencing how people view, maintain, and interact with their social network [ 13 ]. A number of studies have been conducted on the impacts of social media, and it has been indicated that the prolonged use of social media platforms such as Facebook may be related to negative signs and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress [ 10 - 15 ]. Furthermore, social media can create a lot of pressure to create the stereotype that others want to see and also being as popular as others.

The need for a systematic review

Systematic studies can quantitatively and qualitatively identify, aggregate, and evaluate all accessible data to generate a warm and accurate response to the research questions involved [ 4 ]. In addition, many existing systematic studies related to mental health studies have been conducted worldwide. However, only a limited number of studies are integrated with social media and conducted in the context of social science because the available literature heavily focused on medical science [ 6 ]. Because social media is a relatively new phenomenon, the potential links between their use and mental health have not been widely investigated.

This paper attempt to systematically review all the relevant literature with the aim of filling the gap by examining social media impact on mental health, which is sedentary behavior, which, if in excess, raises the risk of health problems [ 7 , 9 , 12 ]. This study is important because it provides information on the extent of the focus of peer review literature, which can assist the researchers in delivering a prospect with the aim of understanding the future attention related to climate change strategies that require scholarly attention. This study is very useful because it provides information on the extent to which peer review literature can assist researchers in presenting prospects with a view to understanding future concerns related to mental health strategies that require scientific attention. The development of the current systematic review is based on the main research question: how does social media affect mental health?

Research strategy

The research was conducted to identify studies analyzing the role of social media on mental health. Google Scholar was used as our main database to find the relevant articles. Keywords that were used for the search were: (1) “social media”, (2) “mental health”, (3) “social media” AND “mental health”, (4) “social networking” AND “mental health”, and (5) “social networking” OR “social media” AND “mental health” (Table  1 ).

Out of the results in Table  1 , a total of 50 articles relevant to the research question were selected. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, duplicate papers were removed, and, finally, a total of 28 articles were selected for review (Figure  2 ).

PRISMA, Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Peer-reviewed, full-text research papers from the past five years were included in the review. All selected articles were in English language and any non-peer-reviewed and duplicate papers were excluded from finally selected articles.

Of the 16 selected research papers, there were a research focus on adults, gender, and preadolescents [ 10 - 19 ]. In the design, there were qualitative and quantitative studies [ 15 , 16 ]. There were three systematic reviews and one thematic analysis that explored the better or worse of using social media among adolescents [ 20 - 23 ]. In addition, eight were cross-sectional studies and only three were longitudinal studies [ 24 - 29 ].The meta-analyses included studies published beyond the last five years in this population. Table  2  presents a selection of studies from the review.

IGU, internet gaming disorder; PSMU, problematic social media use

This study has attempted to systematically analyze the existing literature on the effect of social media use on mental health. Although the results of the study were not completely consistent, this review found a general association between social media use and mental health issues. Although there is positive evidence for a link between social media and mental health, the opposite has been reported.

For example, a previous study found no relationship between the amount of time spent on social media and depression or between social media-related activities, such as the number of online friends and the number of “selfies”, and depression [ 29 ]. Similarly, Neira and Barber found that while higher investment in social media (e.g. active social media use) predicted adolescents’ depressive symptoms, no relationship was found between the frequency of social media use and depressed mood [ 28 ].

In the 16 studies, anxiety and depression were the most commonly measured outcome. The prominent risk factors for anxiety and depression emerging from this study comprised time spent, activity, and addiction to social media. In today's world, anxiety is one of the basic mental health problems. People liked and commented on their uploaded photos and videos. In today's age, everyone is immune to the social media context. Some teens experience anxiety from social media related to fear of loss, which causes teens to try to respond and check all their friends' messages and messages on a regular basis.

On the contrary, depression is one of the unintended significances of unnecessary use of social media. In detail, depression is limited not only to Facebooks but also to other social networking sites, which causes psychological problems. A new study found that individuals who are involved in social media, games, texts, mobile phones, etc. are more likely to experience depression.

The previous study found a 70% increase in self-reported depressive symptoms among the group using social media. The other social media influence that causes depression is sexual fun [ 12 ]. The intimacy fun happens when social media promotes putting on a facade that highlights the fun and excitement but does not tell us much about where we are struggling in our daily lives at a deeper level [ 28 ]. Another study revealed that depression and time spent on Facebook by adolescents are positively correlated [ 22 ]. More importantly, symptoms of major depression have been found among the individuals who spent most of their time in online activities and performing image management on social networking sites [ 14 ].

Another study assessed gender differences in associations between social media use and mental health. Females were found to be more addicted to social media as compared with males [ 26 ]. Passive activity in social media use such as reading posts is more strongly associated with depression than doing active use like making posts [ 23 ]. Other important findings of this review suggest that other factors such as interpersonal trust and family functioning may have a greater influence on the symptoms of depression than the frequency of social media use [ 28 , 29 ].

Limitation and suggestion

The limitations and suggestions were identified by the evidence involved in the study and review process. Previously, 7 of the 16 studies were cross-sectional and slightly failed to determine the causal relationship between the variables of interest. Given the evidence from cross-sectional studies, it is not possible to conclude that the use of social networks causes mental health problems. Only three longitudinal studies examined the causal relationship between social media and mental health, which is hard to examine if the mental health problem appeared more pronounced in those who use social media more compared with those who use it less or do not use at all [ 19 , 20 , 24 ]. Next, despite the fact that the proposed relationship between social media and mental health is complex, a few studies investigated mediating factors that may contribute or exacerbate this relationship. Further investigations are required to clarify the underlying factors that help examine why social media has a negative impact on some peoples’ mental health, whereas it has no or positive effect on others’ mental health.

Conclusions

Social media is a new study that is rapidly growing and gaining popularity. Thus, there are many unexplored and unexpected constructive answers associated with it. Lately, studies have found that using social media platforms can have a detrimental effect on the psychological health of its users. However, the extent to which the use of social media impacts the public is yet to be determined. This systematic review has found that social media envy can affect the level of anxiety and depression in individuals. In addition, other potential causes of anxiety and depression have been identified, which require further exploration.

The importance of such findings is to facilitate further research on social media and mental health. In addition, the information obtained from this study can be helpful not only to medical professionals but also to social science research. The findings of this study suggest that potential causal factors from social media can be considered when cooperating with patients who have been diagnosed with anxiety or depression. Also, if the results from this study were used to explore more relationships with another construct, this could potentially enhance the findings to reduce anxiety and depression rates and prevent suicide rates from occurring.

The content published in Cureus is the result of clinical experience and/or research by independent individuals or organizations. Cureus is not responsible for the scientific accuracy or reliability of data or conclusions published herein. All content published within Cureus is intended only for educational, research and reference purposes. Additionally, articles published within Cureus should not be deemed a suitable substitute for the advice of a qualified health care professional. Do not disregard or avoid professional medical advice due to content published within Cureus.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Uses of Media Research Paper

Sample Uses of Media Research Paper. Browse other  research paper examples and check the list of research paper topics for more inspiration. If you need a research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our research paper writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

Mass media (mainly TV, newspapers, magazines, radio, and now Internet) have been found to perform a variety of ‘functions’ for the audiences who use them (Wright 1974). Among the major controversies in the literature on media use (which is limited by most research reviewed below having been conducted in the USA) is the question of how much each medium’s content informs rather than simply entertains its audience. Television is often assumed to serve primarily as an entertainment medium while print media are looked to for information.

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The information vs. entertainment distinction may overlook more long-term uses and subtler or latent impacts, such as when media content is used as a stimulus for subsequent conversation or for consumer purchases. Such latter impacts also can affect longer range cultural values and beliefs, such as fostering materialism or the belief that commercial products can solve personal problems.

The media may also perform interrelated information or entertainment ‘functions,’ as when viewers learn headline information about a news story on television, but then seek in-depth information from newspapers or magazines. Much literature has been devoted to studying the diffusion of stories of landmark events (Budd et al. 1966), such as the Kennedy assassination or the death of Princess Diana—or the audience response to events created for the media themselves (e.g., Roots, Kennedy–Nixon and other presidential debates).

There is also the more general question of how the various media complement, compete with, or displace each other to perform these functions, particularly in terms of user or audience time. As each new medium is introduced, it performs functions similar to those performed by existing media. This is referred to as ‘functional equivalence’ (Weiss 1969). Unless individuals devote more overall time to media use, time spent on older media must be displaced. Some researchers argue that overall media time tends to remain constant so that displacement is likely if new media become popular (Wober 1989). To the extent that a new medium like television performs the entertainment function in a way that is more compelling and attractive (than existing media like radio, magazines, movies, or print fiction), according to this ‘functional equivalence’ argument those earlier media will suffer losses of audience time and attention. Time displacement is becoming a central concern in research on Internet use, as researchers seek to gauge its potential to displace use of TV, radio, or newspapers.

Media use issues raise various questions about study methodology and measurement, since research results can vary depending on the methods used. For example, people’s media use can be measured by electronic meters attached to their TVs (or computers), by ‘beepers’ attached to the person’s clothing, by inperson or video monitoring, or by simply asking these people questions about their media use. Survey questions generally have the value of being more flexible, more global, and more economical than monitoring equipment, but there are problems of respondent reliability and validity. Long-range usage questions (e.g., ‘How many hours of TV did you watch in a typical week?’) may reveal more about a respondent’s typical patterns, but they are limited by that person’s memory or recall. Shorter-range questions (e.g., ‘How many hours of TV did you watch yesterday?’) appear to overcome these problems, but the day may not be typical of long-range usage. There is evidence that in the shorter range, complete time diaries of all the activities the person did on the prior day may be needed to capture the full extent of media use engaged in; an example of the power of the diary approach to reflect the full extent of media impact is given in Fig. 1.

In much the same way, different results are obtained when different types of questions are asked about the ways and purposes for which the media are used and how media usage has affected audiences. Thus different results are obtained when one asks respondents which news medium has informed them most compared to a more ‘microbehavioral’ approach, in which respondents are asked actual information questions and these answers are then correlated with the extent of each medium used (Davis and Robinson 1989)—or when respondents are asked to keep an information log of each new piece of information obtained and where how it was obtained.

Similarly, different results and perspectives obtain when respondents are asked about the gratifications they receive from particular types of media content (such as news or soap operas) rather than the ‘channels approach’ (see below), which focuses more on respondents’ preference for, and habitual use of, specific media to serve certain functions.

2. Perspectives on Media Use

The four topic areas covered below mainly concern quantative studies of media audiences. Qualitative studies of media audiences since the 1980s have become increasingly popular in cultural studies and communication studies.

2.1 Uses and Gratifications

Research on media use has been dominated by the uses and gratifications perspective since the 1970s (Rubin 1994). This perspective asserts that individuals have certain communication needs and that they actively seek to gratify those needs by using media. This active use of media is contrasted with older audience theories in which individuals were assumed to be directly affected by passively consumed media content.

The most commonly studied needs are information, entertainment, and ‘social utility’ (discussing media content with others or accessing media content to be used in subsequent conversation). Individuals who experience gratification when they use media are likely to develop a media use habit that becomes routine. Without such gratifications habits will not be developed and existing habits could erode. Across time, gratifications become strongly associated with high levels of media use.

Various forms of gratification are measured by different sets of questionnaire items. Individuals have been found to vary widely in their communication needs and gratifications, with the strongest and most universal communication need satisfied by media repeatedly found for entertainment, then information, and then social utility. Women tend to report stronger need for social utility than men and their use of media is more likely to reflect this need. The central assertions of uses and gratifications theory have been confirmed in a very large number of studies that have been done, focusing on different types of media content ranging from TV news, political broadcasts, and sports programs, to soap operas and situation comedies. Frequency of media use is almost always found to be strongly correlated with reports of gratification. Persons who report more social utility gratification tend to be more socially active. Persons who report more information gratification tend to be better educated and have higher social status.

Uses and gratifications research has been unable to establish strong or consistent links between gratification and subsequent effects (Rubin 1994). For example, persons who report strong entertainment gratification when viewing soap operas should be more influenced by such programs, and persons who report strong information gratification when viewing TV news should learn more.

However, it has proved very difficult to locate such effects consistently; and when effects are found, they tend to be weak, especially in relation to demographic factors. One reason for this may be that most research has been done using one-time, isolated surveys. Another is that individuals may have a limited consciousness of the extent to which media content gratifies them. To increase the accuracy of gratification self-reports, researchers have sought to identify contingent conditions or intervening variables that would identify gratification effects. Other researchers have argued that the type of media use has to be considered, such as routine or ritualized use of media vs. conscious or instrumental use. These efforts have had modest success. Some researchers reject the idea of looking for effects, arguing that the focus of uses and gratifications research should be on the media use process, without concern for the outcome of this process.

2.2 Channels

Recently, a channels approach to media research has emerged (Reagan 1996) that assumes that people develop ‘repertoires’ of media and of the channels into which such media are divided. These ‘repertoires’ consist of sets of channels that individuals prefer to use to serve certain purposes. Channels are rank ordered within repetoires. If all channels are equally accessible, then more preferred channels will be used. For example, some individuals may have a channel repertoire for national news which prioritizes network TV news channels first (e.g., ABC first, CBS second, NBC third), ranks radio news channels second, newspaper channels third, and so on. If they miss a network news broadcast, they will turn next to radio channels and then to newspapers. Reagan (1996) reports that these repertoires are larger (include more channels) when individuals have strong interests in specific forms of content. When interest is low, people report using few channels.

The channels approach was developed in an effort to make sense of the way that individuals deal with ‘information-rich’ media environments in which many media with many channels compete to provide the same services. When only a handful of channels is available, there is no need for people to develop repertoires as a way of coping with abundance. In a highly competitive media environment with many competing channels, the success of a new channel (or a new medium containing many channels) can be gauged first by its inclusion in channel repertoires and later by ranking accorded to these channels. For example, research shows that the Internet is increasingly being included in channel repertoires for many different purposes ranging from national news and health information to sports scores and travel information. In most cases, Internet channels are not highly ranked but their inclusion in channel repertoires is taken as evidence that these channels are gaining strength in relation to other channels.

2.3 Information Diffusion

2.3.1 diffusion of news about routine events..

Perhaps the most widely believed and influential conclusion about the news media is that television is the public’s dominant source for news. Indeed, most survey respondents in the USA and other countries around the world clearly do perceive that television is their ‘main source’ for news about the world, and they have increasingly believed so since the 1960s. As noted above, that belief has been brought into question by studies that examine the diffusion of actual news more concretely. Indeed, Robinson and Levy (1986) found that not one of 15 studies using more direct approaches to the question found TV to be the most effective news medium; indeed, there was some evidence that TV news viewing was insignificantly associated with gains in information about various news stories. While the choice, popularity, and variety of news media have changed notably since the early 1990s, much the same conclusion—that newspapers and other media were more informative than television—still held in the mid-1990s.

That does not mean that news viewers do not accrue important news or information from the programs they view. Davis and Robinson (1989) found that viewers typically comprehend the gist of almost 40 percent of the stories covered in a daily national newscast, despite the failure of TV news journalists to take advantage of the most powerful factors related to viewer comprehension (especially redundancy). However, these information effects seem short-lived, as the succeeding days’ tide of new news events washes away memories of earlier events. It appears that print media—with their ability for readers to provide their own redundancy (by rereading stories or deriving cues from the story’s position by page or space)—have more sticking power. Moreover, the authors found that more prominent and longer TV news stories often conveyed less information because these stories lacked redundancy or tended to wander from their main points.

These results were obtained with national newscasts and need to be replicated with local newscasts, which are designed and monitored more by ‘news consultants’ who keep newscasters in more intimate touch with local audience interests and abilities than at the national network level. The declining audience for network flagship newscasts since the mid-1980s further suggests that viewers’ perceptions of the ‘news’ for which TV is their major source may be news at the local level.

2.3.2 Diffusion of news about critical events.

Another approach to news diffusion research has focused on atypical news events that attract widespread public attention and interest. Kraus et al. (1975) argued that this ‘critical events’ approach developed because researchers found that the news diffusion process and its effects are radically different when critical events are reported. Early critical events research focused on news diffusion after national crises such as the assassination of President Kennedy or President Eisenhower’s heart attack. One early finding was that interpersonal communication played a much larger role in diffusion of news about critical events, often so important that it produced an exponential increase in diffusion over routine events. Broadcast media were found to be more important than print media in providing initial information about critical events.

In Lang and Lang’s (1983) critical events analysis of news diffusion and public opinion during Nixon’s Watergate crisis, both news diffusion and public opinion underwent radical changes for many months. The Langs argued that this crisis had two very different stages, first during the 1972 election campaign and second after the campaign ended. Watergate was largely ignored during the election campaign and its importance was marginalized, news diffusion about Watergate resembling diffusion of routine campaign information. Knowledge about Watergate was never widespread and this knowledge actually declined from June 1972 until November 1972. But the 1973 Senate hearings drew public attention back to it with an unfolding sequence of events that ultimately led to erosion of public opinion support for Nixon.

Other researchers have argued that the media increasingly create artificial crises in order to attract audiences. News coverage is similar to what would be used to report critical events. This means that the importance of minor events is exaggerated. For example, Watergate has been followed by an unending series of other ‘gates’ culminating in Whitewatergate, Travelgate, and Monicagate. Some researchers argue that coverage of the O. J. Simpson trial was exaggerated to provoke an artificial media crisis. Research on these media crises indicates that they do induce higher levels of news diffusion and that frequently the role of interpersonal communication is stimulated beyond what it would be for routine event coverage. Knowledge of basic facts contained in news coverage becomes widespread without the usual differences for education or social class. One interesting side-effect is that public attitudes toward media coverage of such events has been found to be mixed, with less than half the public approving of the way such events are covered. There is growing evidence that the public blames news media for this coverage and that this is one of the reasons why public esteem of the media has been declining.

2.4 Time Displacement

2.4.1 print..

Earliest societies depended on oral traditions in which information and entertainment, and culture generally, were transmitted by word of mouth. While their large gatherings and ceremonies could reach hundreds and in some cases thousands of individuals simultaneously, most communication occurred in face-to-face conversations or small groups. The dawn of ‘mass’ media is usually associated with the invention of the printing press. Print media posed a severe challenge to oral channels of communication. As print media evolved from the publication of pamphlets, posters, and books through newspapers and journals magazines, we have little empirical basis for knowing how each subsequent form of print media affected existing communication channels. We do know that print channels were held in high regard and that they conferred status on persons or ideas (Lazarsfeld and Merton 1948). Print media are thought to have played a critical role in the spread of the Protestant Reformation and in promoting egalitarian and libertarian values. Government censorship and regulation of print media became widespread in an effort to curtail their influence.

Based on current research findings of the ‘more … more’ principle described below, however, we suspect—for simple reasons of the literacy skills involved—that the popularity of older forms of print media such as pamphlets and books made it possible for later media to find audiences. Existing book readers would have been more likely to adapt and spend time reading journals and newspapers than would book nonreaders. Some researchers argue that Protestantism was responsible for the rise of print channels generally because Protestants believed that all individuals should read the Bible on their own. This led them to focus on teaching literacy. Print media were more widespread and influential in Protestant Northern Europe than predominantly Catholic Southern Europe during the early part of the seventeenth century.

2.4.2 Cinema and radio.

Early in the twentieth century, movies quickly became a popular way of spending time; and anecdotal reports suggest that weekly moviegoing had become a ritual for most of the US population by the 1920s. The impact of movies was widely discussed, but there are no contemporary reports about whether the movies were frequented more or less by readers of books, magazines, or newspapers—although one might suspect so for the simple economic reason that the more affluent could afford both old and new media. Movies were especially attractive to immigrant populations in large cities because many immigrants were not literate in English.

Much the same could be expected for the early owners of radio equipment in the 1920s. Whether radio listeners chose to go to the movies, or read, less than nonowners again appears largely lost in history. By the 1930s and 1940s, however, radio appears to have been used for at least an hour a day; but it is unclear how much of that listening was performing the ‘secondary activity’ function that it has become today—rather than the radio serving as the primary focus of attention, as suggested in period photographs of families huddled around the main set in the living room.

2.4.3 Television.

Greater insight into the time displacements brought about by TV was provided by several network and non-network studies, which documented notable declines in radio listening, moviegoing, and fiction reading among new TV owners. These were explained as being media activities that were ‘functional equivalents’ of the content conveyed by these earlier media (Weiss 1969).

However carefully many of these studies were conducted (some employing panel and other longitudinal designs, as in the ‘Videotown’ study), they were limited by their primary focus on media activities. Using the full-time diary approach and examining a sample of almost 25,000 respondents across 10 societies at varying levels of TV diffusion, Robinson and Godbey (1999) reported how several nonmedia activities were affected by TV as well, with TV owners consistently reporting less time in social interaction with friends and relatives, in hobbies, and in leisure travel. Moreover, nonleisure activities were also affected, such as personal care, garden pet care and almost 1.5 hours less weekly sleep—activities that do not easily fit into the functional equivalence model. The diaries of TV owners also showed them spending almost four hours more time per week in their own homes and three hours more time with other nuclear family members.

Some of TV’s longer-term impacts did not show up in these earliest stages of TV. For example, it took another 10 to 15 years for TV to reduce newspaper reading time, which it has continued to do since the 1960s—primarily it seems because of sophisticated local TV news advisors. Another explanation is that TV’s minimal reliance on literacy skills tends to erode over time, and that it took 15 years for literacy skills to erode to the point where more people found it less convenient to read newspapers. In contrast, since the initial impact of TV in the 1950s, time spent on radio listening as a secondary background activity has increased by almost 50 percent and books, magazines, and movies have also recaptured some of their original lost audiences. There has been a dramatic proliferation of specialty magazines to replace the general interest magazines apparently made obsolete by television. Some researchers argue that these magazines disappeared because advertisers deserted them in favor of TV. In terms of nonmedia activities, Putnam (2000) has argued that TV has been responsible for a loss in time for several ‘social capital’ activities since the 1960s.

Figure 1 shows the relative declines in primary activity newspaper reading and radio listening times since the 1960s, both standing out as free-time activities that declined during a period in which the free time to use them expanded by about five hours a week. TV time as a secondary activity has also increased by about two hours a week since the 1960s.

A somewhat different perspective on TV’s longterm effect on media use is afforded by time series data on media use for the particular purpose of following elections. As shown in Fig. 2, TV rapidly had become the dominant medium for following electoral politics by 1964. Since then each of the other media has suffered declines in political use as TV use has maintained its nearly 90 percent usage level; more detailed data would probably show greater TV use per election follower across time as well. However, the three other media have hardly disappeared from people’s media environment and continue to be used as important sources by large segments of the electorate in Fig. 2, such as radio talk shows in the 1990s.

What these electoral data also show, however, is that the composition of the audience for these media has changed as well. Newspapers and magazines no longer appeal as much to better educated individuals as they once did; much the same is true for TV political usage. Age differences are also changing, with newspaper and TV political followers becoming increasingly older, while radio political audiences are getting proportionately younger.

At the same time, there are clear tendencies for media political audiences to become more similar to one another. Greater uses of all media for political purposes are reported by more educated respondents, particularly newspapers and magazines. This finding appears to be consistent with the channel repertoire approach since educated respondents likely have more interest in politics and thus develop a larger channel repertoire. Older respondents report slightly more political media use than younger people, and men more than women, and people who use one political medium are more likely to use others as well.

These are patterns for political content, however; and notably different patterns would be found if the content were fashion or rock country music and not politics. Yet there is still a general tendency for users of newspapers to use other media more (particularly for broad information purposes), bringing us back again to the overriding ‘more … more’ pattern of media use.

3. Conclusions

A recurrent and almost universal theme in media use research is the tendency of the media information rich to become richer following the ‘more … more’ model. Users of one medium are more likely to use others, interested persons develop larger channel repertoires, and the college educated become more informed if news content is involved according to the ‘increasing knowledge gap hypothesis’ (Gaziano 1997). Robinson and Godbey (1999) have found more general evidence of this ‘Newtonian model’ of behavior in which more active people stay in motion while those at rest stay at rest. The increasing gap between the ‘entertainment rich and poor’ may likely be found as well, as when users of TV for entertainment can watch more entertainment programs when more channels or cable connections become available. Persons who have strong communication needs and experience more gratification from media tend to make more use of media.

A prime outcome of media use then may be to create wider differences in society than were there prior to the media’s presence. As media channels proliferate, people respond by developing repertoires that enable them to use these channels efficiently to serve personal purposes. These repertoires vary widely from person to person and strongly reflect the interests of each individual.

The Internet and home computer promise to bring literally millions of channels into peoples’ homes. How will people deal with this flood of channels? Existing research on Internet and computer use indicate that unlike early TV users, Internet computer users are not abandoning older channels in favor of Internet-based channels. Instead, they are merely adding Internet channels to existing repertoires and increasing their overall use of media (Robinson and Godbey 1999). These new media users also report the same amount of TV viewing, perhaps even increasing their viewing as a secondary activity while they are online. It is probably too early to conclude that these elevated levels of total media use will persist even after the Internet has been widely used for several years. The ease with which Internet use can coincide with use of other media will make it difficult to arrive at an accurate assessment of its use in relation to other media. In fact, some futurists argue that TV will survive and evolve as a medium by incorporating the Internet to create an enhanced TV viewing experience. Advocates of the potentially democratizing influence of the Internet will probably be disappointed to find they are swimming upstream as far as the human limits of media information entertainment flow is concerned. The more interesting question may be whether ‘functionally equivalent’ or nonequivalent activities will be those that will be replaced if the Internet continues its present growth trends.

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