what are three qualitative research titles

18 Qualitative Research Examples

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Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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qualitative research examples and definition, explained below

Qualitative research is an approach to scientific research that involves using observation to gather and analyze non-numerical, in-depth, and well-contextualized datasets.

It serves as an integral part of academic, professional, and even daily decision-making processes (Baxter & Jack, 2008).

Methods of qualitative research encompass a wide range of techniques, from in-depth personal encounters, like ethnographies (studying cultures in-depth) and autoethnographies (examining one’s own cultural experiences), to collection of diverse perspectives on topics through methods like interviewing focus groups (gatherings of individuals to discuss specific topics).

Qualitative Research Examples

1. ethnography.

Definition: Ethnography is a qualitative research design aimed at exploring cultural phenomena. Rooted in the discipline of anthropology , this research approach investigates the social interactions, behaviors, and perceptions within groups, communities, or organizations.

Ethnographic research is characterized by extended observation of the group, often through direct participation, in the participants’ environment. An ethnographer typically lives with the study group for extended periods, intricately observing their everyday lives (Khan, 2014).

It aims to present a complete, detailed and accurate picture of the observed social life, rituals, symbols, and values from the perspective of the study group.


The key advantage of ethnography is its depth; it provides an in-depth understanding of the group’s behaviour, lifestyle, culture, and context. It also allows for flexibility, as researchers can adapt their approach based on their observations (Bryman, 2015)	There are issues regarding the subjective interpretation of data, and it’s time-consuming. It also requires the researchers to immerse themselves in the study environment, which might not always be feasible.

Example of Ethnographic Research

Title: “ The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity “

Citation: Evans, J. (2010). The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity. Peter Lang.

Overview: This study by Evans (2010) provides a rich narrative of young adult male identity as experienced in everyday life. The author immersed himself among a group of young men, participating in their activities and cultivating a deep understanding of their lifestyle, values, and motivations. This research exemplified the ethnographic approach, revealing complexities of the subjects’ identities and societal roles, which could hardly be accessed through other qualitative research designs.

Read my Full Guide on Ethnography Here

2. Autoethnography

Definition: Autoethnography is an approach to qualitative research where the researcher uses their own personal experiences to extend the understanding of a certain group, culture, or setting. Essentially, it allows for the exploration of self within the context of social phenomena.

Unlike traditional ethnography, which focuses on the study of others, autoethnography turns the ethnographic gaze inward, allowing the researcher to use their personal experiences within a culture as rich qualitative data (Durham, 2019).

The objective is to critically appraise one’s personal experiences as they navigate and negotiate cultural, political, and social meanings. The researcher becomes both the observer and the participant, intertwining personal and cultural experiences in the research.


One of the chief benefits of autoethnography is its ability to bridge the gap between researchers and audiences by using relatable experiences. It can also provide unique and profound insights unaccessible through traditional ethnographic approaches (Heinonen, 2012).	The subjective nature of this method can introduce bias. Critics also argue that the singular focus on personal experience may limit the contributions to broader cultural or social understanding.

Example of Autoethnographic Research

Title: “ A Day In The Life Of An NHS Nurse “

Citation: Osben, J. (2019). A day in the life of a NHS nurse in 21st Century Britain: An auto-ethnography. The Journal of Autoethnography for Health & Social Care. 1(1).

Overview: This study presents an autoethnography of a day in the life of an NHS nurse (who, of course, is also the researcher). The author uses the research to achieve reflexivity, with the researcher concluding: “Scrutinising my practice and situating it within a wider contextual backdrop has compelled me to significantly increase my level of scrutiny into the driving forces that influence my practice.”

Read my Full Guide on Autoethnography Here

3. Semi-Structured Interviews

Definition: Semi-structured interviews stand as one of the most frequently used methods in qualitative research. These interviews are planned and utilize a set of pre-established questions, but also allow for the interviewer to steer the conversation in other directions based on the responses given by the interviewee.

In semi-structured interviews, the interviewer prepares a guide that outlines the focal points of the discussion. However, the interview is flexible, allowing for more in-depth probing if the interviewer deems it necessary (Qu, & Dumay, 2011). This style of interviewing strikes a balance between structured ones which might limit the discussion, and unstructured ones, which could lack focus.


The main advantage of semi-structured interviews is their flexibility, allowing for exploration of unexpected topics that arise during the interview. It also facilitates the collection of robust, detailed data from participants’ perspectives (Smith, 2015).	Potential downsides include the possibility of data overload, periodic difficulties in analysis due to varied responses, and the fact they are time-consuming to conduct and analyze.

Example of Semi-Structured Interview Research

Title: “ Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review “

Citation: Puts, M., et al. (2014). Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review. Annals of oncology, 25 (3), 564-577.

Overview: Puts et al. (2014) executed an extensive systematic review in which they conducted semi-structured interviews with older adults suffering from cancer to examine the factors influencing their adherence to cancer treatment. The findings suggested that various factors, including side effects, faith in healthcare professionals, and social support have substantial impacts on treatment adherence. This research demonstrates how semi-structured interviews can provide rich and profound insights into the subjective experiences of patients.

4. Focus Groups

Definition: Focus groups are a qualitative research method that involves organized discussion with a selected group of individuals to gain their perspectives on a specific concept, product, or phenomenon. Typically, these discussions are guided by a moderator.

During a focus group session, the moderator has a list of questions or topics to discuss, and participants are encouraged to interact with each other (Morgan, 2010). This interactivity can stimulate more information and provide a broader understanding of the issue under scrutiny. The open format allows participants to ask questions and respond freely, offering invaluable insights into attitudes, experiences, and group norms.


One of the key advantages of focus groups is their ability to deliver a rich understanding of participants’ experiences and beliefs. They can be particularly beneficial in providing a diverse range of perspectives and opening up new areas for exploration (Doody, Slevin, & Taggart, 2013).	Potential disadvantages include possible domination by a single participant, groupthink, or issues with confidentiality. Additionally, the results are not easily generalizable to a larger population due to the small sample size.

Example of Focus Group Research

Title: “ Perspectives of Older Adults on Aging Well: A Focus Group Study “

Citation: Halaweh, H., Dahlin-Ivanoff, S., Svantesson, U., & Willén, C. (2018). Perspectives of older adults on aging well: a focus group study. Journal of aging research .

Overview: This study aimed to explore what older adults (aged 60 years and older) perceived to be ‘aging well’. The researchers identified three major themes from their focus group interviews: a sense of well-being, having good physical health, and preserving good mental health. The findings highlight the importance of factors such as positive emotions, social engagement, physical activity, healthy eating habits, and maintaining independence in promoting aging well among older adults.

5. Phenomenology

Definition: Phenomenology, a qualitative research method, involves the examination of lived experiences to gain an in-depth understanding of the essence or underlying meanings of a phenomenon.

The focus of phenomenology lies in meticulously describing participants’ conscious experiences related to the chosen phenomenon (Padilla-Díaz, 2015).

In a phenomenological study, the researcher collects detailed, first-hand perspectives of the participants, typically via in-depth interviews, and then uses various strategies to interpret and structure these experiences, ultimately revealing essential themes (Creswell, 2013). This approach focuses on the perspective of individuals experiencing the phenomenon, seeking to explore, clarify, and understand the meanings they attach to those experiences.


An advantage of phenomenology is its potential to reveal rich, complex, and detailed understandings of human experiences in a way other research methods cannot. It encourages explorations of deep, often abstract or intangible aspects of human experiences (Bevan, 2014).	Phenomenology might be criticized for its subjectivity, the intense effort required during data collection and analysis, and difficulties in replicating the study.

Example of Phenomenology Research

Title: “ A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: current state, promise, and future directions for research ”

Citation: Cilesiz, S. (2011). A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: Current state, promise, and future directions for research. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59 , 487-510.

Overview: A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology by Sebnem Cilesiz represents a good starting point for formulating a phenomenological study. With its focus on the ‘essence of experience’, this piece presents methodological, reliability, validity, and data analysis techniques that phenomenologists use to explain how people experience technology in their everyday lives.

6. Grounded Theory

Definition: Grounded theory is a systematic methodology in qualitative research that typically applies inductive reasoning . The primary aim is to develop a theoretical explanation or framework for a process, action, or interaction grounded in, and arising from, empirical data (Birks & Mills, 2015).

In grounded theory, data collection and analysis work together in a recursive process. The researcher collects data, analyses it, and then collects more data based on the evolving understanding of the research context. This ongoing process continues until a comprehensive theory that represents the data and the associated phenomenon emerges – a point known as theoretical saturation (Charmaz, 2014).


An advantage of grounded theory is its ability to generate a theory that is closely related to the reality of the persons involved. It permits flexibility and can facilitate a deep understanding of complex processes in their natural contexts (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).	Critics note that it can be a lengthy and complicated process; others critique the emphasis on theory development over descriptive detail.

Example of Grounded Theory Research

Title: “ Student Engagement in High School Classrooms from the Perspective of Flow Theory “

Citation: Shernoff, D. J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Shneider, B., & Shernoff, E. S. (2003). Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. School Psychology Quarterly, 18 (2), 158–176.

Overview: Shernoff and colleagues (2003) used grounded theory to explore student engagement in high school classrooms. The researchers collected data through student self-reports, interviews, and observations. Key findings revealed that academic challenge, student autonomy, and teacher support emerged as the most significant factors influencing students’ engagement, demonstrating how grounded theory can illuminate complex dynamics within real-world contexts.

7. Narrative Research

Definition: Narrative research is a qualitative research method dedicated to storytelling and understanding how individuals experience the world. It focuses on studying an individual’s life and experiences as narrated by that individual (Polkinghorne, 2013).

In narrative research, the researcher collects data through methods such as interviews, observations , and document analysis. The emphasis is on the stories told by participants – narratives that reflect their experiences, thoughts, and feelings.

These stories are then interpreted by the researcher, who attempts to understand the meaning the participant attributes to these experiences (Josselson, 2011).


The strength of narrative research is its ability to provide a deep, holistic, and rich understanding of an individual’s experiences over time. It is well-suited to capturing the complexities and intricacies of human lives and their contexts (Leiblich, Tuval-Mashiach, & Zilber, 2008).	Narrative research may be criticized for its highly interpretive nature, the potential challenges of ensuring reliability and validity, and the complexity of narrative analysis.

Example of Narrative Research

Title: “Narrative Structures and the Language of the Self”

Citation: McAdams, D. P., Josselson, R., & Lieblich, A. (2006). Identity and story: Creating self in narrative . American Psychological Association.

Overview: In this innovative study, McAdams et al. (2006) employed narrative research to explore how individuals construct their identities through the stories they tell about themselves. By examining personal narratives, the researchers discerned patterns associated with characters, motivations, conflicts, and resolutions, contributing valuable insights about the relationship between narrative and individual identity.

8. Case Study Research

Definition: Case study research is a qualitative research method that involves an in-depth investigation of a single instance or event: a case. These ‘cases’ can range from individuals, groups, or entities to specific projects, programs, or strategies (Creswell, 2013).

The case study method typically uses multiple sources of information for comprehensive contextual analysis. It aims to explore and understand the complexity and uniqueness of a particular case in a real-world context (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This investigation could result in a detailed description of the case, a process for its development, or an exploration of a related issue or problem.


Case study research is ideal for a holistic, in-depth investigation, making complex phenomena understandable and allowing for the exploration of contexts and activities where it is not feasible to use other research methods (Crowe et al., 2011).	Critics of case study research often cite concerns about the representativeness of a single case, the limited ability to generalize findings, and potential bias in data collection and interpretation.

Example of Case Study Research

Title: “ Teacher’s Role in Fostering Preschoolers’ Computational Thinking: An Exploratory Case Study “

Citation: Wang, X. C., Choi, Y., Benson, K., Eggleston, C., & Weber, D. (2021). Teacher’s role in fostering preschoolers’ computational thinking: An exploratory case study. Early Education and Development , 32 (1), 26-48.

Overview: This study investigates the role of teachers in promoting computational thinking skills in preschoolers. The study utilized a qualitative case study methodology to examine the computational thinking scaffolding strategies employed by a teacher interacting with three preschoolers in a small group setting. The findings highlight the importance of teachers’ guidance in fostering computational thinking practices such as problem reformulation/decomposition, systematic testing, and debugging.

Read about some Famous Case Studies in Psychology Here

9. Participant Observation

Definition: Participant observation has the researcher immerse themselves in a group or community setting to observe the behavior of its members. It is similar to ethnography, but generally, the researcher isn’t embedded for a long period of time.

The researcher, being a participant, engages in daily activities, interactions, and events as a way of conducting a detailed study of a particular social phenomenon (Kawulich, 2005).

The method involves long-term engagement in the field, maintaining detailed records of observed events, informal interviews, direct participation, and reflexivity. This approach allows for a holistic view of the participants’ lived experiences, behaviours, and interactions within their everyday environment (Dewalt, 2011).


A key strength of participant observation is its capacity to offer intimate, nuanced insights into social realities and practices directly from the field. It allows for broader context understanding, emotional insights, and a constant iterative process (Mulhall, 2003).	The method may present challenges including potential observer bias, the difficulty in ensuring ethical standards, and the risk of ‘going native’, where the boundary between being a participant and researcher blurs.

Example of Participant Observation Research

Title: Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics

Citation: Heemskerk, E. M., Heemskerk, K., & Wats, M. M. (2017). Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics. Journal of Management & Governance , 21 , 233-263.

Overview: This study examined how conflicts within corporate boards affect their performance. The researchers used a participant observation method, where they actively engaged with 11 supervisory boards and observed their dynamics. They found that having a shared understanding of the board’s role called a common framework, improved performance by reducing relationship conflicts, encouraging task conflicts, and minimizing conflicts between the board and CEO.

10. Non-Participant Observation

Definition: Non-participant observation is a qualitative research method in which the researcher observes the phenomena of interest without actively participating in the situation, setting, or community being studied.

This method allows the researcher to maintain a position of distance, as they are solely an observer and not a participant in the activities being observed (Kawulich, 2005).

During non-participant observation, the researcher typically records field notes on the actions, interactions, and behaviors observed , focusing on specific aspects of the situation deemed relevant to the research question.

This could include verbal and nonverbal communication , activities, interactions, and environmental contexts (Angrosino, 2007). They could also use video or audio recordings or other methods to collect data.


Non-participant observation can increase distance from the participants and decrease researcher bias, as the observer does not become involved in the community or situation under study (Jorgensen, 2015). This method allows for a more detached and impartial view of practices, behaviors, and interactions.	Criticisms of this method include potential observer effects, where individuals may change their behavior if they know they are being observed, and limited contextual understanding, as observers do not participate in the setting’s activities.

Example of Non-Participant Observation Research

Title: Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non-participant observation study

Citation: Sreeram, A., Cross, W. M., & Townsin, L. (2023). Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery‐oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non‐participant observation study. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing .

Overview: This study investigated the attitudes of mental health nurses towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units. The researchers used a non-participant observation method, meaning they observed the nurses without directly participating in their activities. The findings shed light on the nurses’ perspectives and behaviors, providing valuable insights into their attitudes toward mental health and recovery-focused care in these settings.

11. Content Analysis

Definition: Content Analysis involves scrutinizing textual, visual, or spoken content to categorize and quantify information. The goal is to identify patterns, themes, biases, or other characteristics (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).

Content Analysis is widely used in various disciplines for a multitude of purposes. Researchers typically use this method to distill large amounts of unstructured data, like interview transcripts, newspaper articles, or social media posts, into manageable and meaningful chunks.

When wielded appropriately, Content Analysis can illuminate the density and frequency of certain themes within a dataset, provide insights into how specific terms or concepts are applied contextually, and offer inferences about the meanings of their content and use (Duriau, Reger, & Pfarrer, 2007).


The application of Content Analysis offers several strengths, chief among them being the ability to gain an in-depth, contextualized, understanding of a range of texts – both written and multimodal (Gray, Grove, & Sutherland, 2017) – see also: .	Content analysis is dependent on the descriptors that the researcher selects to examine the data, potentially leading to bias. Moreover, this method may also lose sight of the wider social context, which can limit the depth of the analysis (Krippendorff, 2013).

Example of Content Analysis

Title: Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news .

Citation: Semetko, H. A., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2000). Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news. Journal of Communication, 50 (2), 93-109.

Overview: This study analyzed press and television news articles about European politics using a method called content analysis. The researchers examined the prevalence of different “frames” in the news, which are ways of presenting information to shape audience perceptions. They found that the most common frames were attribution of responsibility, conflict, economic consequences, human interest, and morality.

Read my Full Guide on Content Analysis Here

12. Discourse Analysis

Definition: Discourse Analysis, a qualitative research method, interprets the meanings, functions, and coherence of certain languages in context.

Discourse analysis is typically understood through social constructionism, critical theory , and poststructuralism and used for understanding how language constructs social concepts (Cheek, 2004).

Discourse Analysis offers great breadth, providing tools to examine spoken or written language, often beyond the level of the sentence. It enables researchers to scrutinize how text and talk articulate social and political interactions and hierarchies.

Insight can be garnered from different conversations, institutional text, and media coverage to understand how topics are addressed or framed within a specific social context (Jorgensen & Phillips, 2002).


Discourse Analysis presents as its strength the ability to explore the intricate relationship between language and society. It goes beyond mere interpretation of content and scrutinizes the power dynamics underlying discourse. Furthermore, it can also be beneficial in discovering hidden meanings and uncovering marginalized voices (Wodak & Meyer, 2015).	Despite its strengths, Discourse Analysis possesses specific weaknesses. This approach may be open to allegations of subjectivity due to its interpretive nature. Furthermore, it can be quite time-consuming and requires the researcher to be familiar with a wide variety of theoretical and analytical frameworks (Parker, 2014).

Example of Discourse Analysis

Title: The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis

Citation: Thomas, S. (2005). The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis. Critical Studies in Education, 46 (2), 25-44.

Overview: The author examines how an education policy in one state of Australia positions teacher professionalism and teacher identities. While there are competing discourses about professional identity, the policy framework privileges a narrative that frames the ‘good’ teacher as one that accepts ever-tightening control and regulation over their professional practice.

Read my Full Guide on Discourse Analysis Here

13. Action Research

Definition: Action Research is a qualitative research technique that is employed to bring about change while simultaneously studying the process and results of that change.

This method involves a cyclical process of fact-finding, action, evaluation, and reflection (Greenwood & Levin, 2016).

Typically, Action Research is used in the fields of education, social sciences , and community development. The process isn’t just about resolving an issue but also developing knowledge that can be used in the future to address similar or related problems.

The researcher plays an active role in the research process, which is normally broken down into four steps:

developing a plan to improve what is currently being done
implementing the plan
observing the effects of the plan, and
reflecting upon these effects (Smith, 2010).


Action Research has the immense strength of enabling practitioners to address complex situations in their professional context. By fostering reflective practice, it ignites individual and organizational learning. Furthermore, it provides a robust way to bridge the theory-practice divide and can lead to the development of best practices (Zuber-Skerritt, 2019).	Action Research requires a substantial commitment of time and effort. Also, the participatory nature of this research can potentially introduce bias, and its iterative nature can blur the line between where the research process ends and where the implementation begins (Koshy, Koshy, & Waterman, 2010).

Example of Action Research

Title: Using Digital Sandbox Gaming to Improve Creativity Within Boys’ Writing

Citation: Ellison, M., & Drew, C. (2020). Using digital sandbox gaming to improve creativity within boys’ writing. Journal of Research in Childhood Education , 34 (2), 277-287.

Overview: This was a research study one of my research students completed in his own classroom under my supervision. He implemented a digital game-based approach to literacy teaching with boys and interviewed his students to see if the use of games as stimuli for storytelling helped draw them into the learning experience.

Read my Full Guide on Action Research Here

14. Semiotic Analysis

Definition: Semiotic Analysis is a qualitative method of research that interprets signs and symbols in communication to understand sociocultural phenomena. It stems from semiotics, the study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation (Chandler, 2017).

In a Semiotic Analysis, signs (anything that represents something else) are interpreted based on their significance and the role they play in representing ideas.

This type of research often involves the examination of images, sounds, and word choice to uncover the embedded sociocultural meanings. For example, an advertisement for a car might be studied to learn more about societal views on masculinity or success (Berger, 2010).


The prime strength of the Semiotic Analysis lies in its ability to reveal the underlying ideologies within cultural symbols and messages. It helps to break down complex phenomena into manageable signs, yielding powerful insights about societal values, identities, and structures (Mick, 1986).	On the downside, because Semiotic Analysis is primarily interpretive, its findings may heavily rely on the particular theoretical lens and personal bias of the researcher. The ontology of signs and meanings can also be inherently subject to change, in the analysis (Lannon & Cooper, 2012).

Example of Semiotic Research

Title: Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia

Citation: Symes, C. (2023). Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia. Semiotica , 2023 (250), 167-190.

Overview: This study examines school badges in New South Wales, Australia, and explores their significance through a semiotic analysis. The badges, which are part of the school’s visual identity, are seen as symbolic representations that convey meanings. The analysis reveals that these badges often draw on heraldic models, incorporating elements like colors, names, motifs, and mottoes that reflect local culture and history, thus connecting students to their national identity. Additionally, the study highlights how some schools have shifted from traditional badges to modern logos and slogans, reflecting a more business-oriented approach.

15. Qualitative Longitudinal Studies

Definition: Qualitative Longitudinal Studies are a research method that involves repeated observation of the same items over an extended period of time.

Unlike a snapshot perspective, this method aims to piece together individual histories and examine the influences and impacts of change (Neale, 2019).

Qualitative Longitudinal Studies provide an in-depth understanding of change as it happens, including changes in people’s lives, their perceptions, and their behaviors.

For instance, this method could be used to follow a group of students through their schooling years to understand the evolution of their learning behaviors and attitudes towards education (Saldaña, 2003).


One key strength of Qualitative Longitudinal Studies is its ability to capture change and continuity over time. It allows for an in-depth understanding of individuals or context evolution. Moreover, it provides unique insights into the temporal ordering of events and experiences (Farrall, 2006).	Qualitative Longitudinal Studies come with their own share of weaknesses. Mainly, they require a considerable investment of time and resources. Moreover, they face the challenges of attrition (participants dropping out of the study) and repeated measures that may influence participants’ behaviors (Saldaña, 2014).

Example of Qualitative Longitudinal Research

Title: Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study

Citation: Hackett, J., Godfrey, M., & Bennett, M. I. (2016). Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study. Palliative medicine , 30 (8), 711-719.

Overview: This article examines how patients and their caregivers manage pain in advanced cancer through a qualitative longitudinal study. The researchers interviewed patients and caregivers at two different time points and collected audio diaries to gain insights into their experiences, making this study longitudinal.

Read my Full Guide on Longitudinal Research Here

16. Open-Ended Surveys

Definition: Open-Ended Surveys are a type of qualitative research method where respondents provide answers in their own words. Unlike closed-ended surveys, which limit responses to predefined options, open-ended surveys allow for expansive and unsolicited explanations (Fink, 2013).

Open-ended surveys are commonly used in a range of fields, from market research to social studies. As they don’t force respondents into predefined response categories, these surveys help to draw out rich, detailed data that might uncover new variables or ideas.

For example, an open-ended survey might be used to understand customer opinions about a new product or service (Lavrakas, 2008).

Contrast this to a quantitative closed-ended survey, like a Likert scale, which could theoretically help us to come up with generalizable data but is restricted by the questions on the questionnaire, meaning new and surprising data and insights can’t emerge from the survey results in the same way.


The key advantage of Open-Ended Surveys is their ability to generate in-depth, nuanced data that allow for a rich, . They provide a more personalized response from participants, and they may uncover areas of investigation that the researchers did not previously consider (Sue & Ritter, 2012).	Open-Ended Surveys require significant time and effort to analyze due to the variability of responses. Furthermore, the results obtained from Open-Ended Surveys can be more susceptible to subjective interpretation and may lack statistical generalizability (Fielding & Fielding, 2008).

Example of Open-Ended Survey Research

Title: Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey

Citation: Hertlein, K. M., & Ancheta, K. (2014). Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey. The Qualitative Report , 19 (11), 1-11.

Overview: This article examines the advantages and disadvantages of technology in couple relationships through an open-ended survey method. Researchers analyzed responses from 410 undergraduate students to understand how technology affects relationships. They found that technology can contribute to relationship development, management, and enhancement, but it can also create challenges such as distancing, lack of clarity, and impaired trust.

17. Naturalistic Observation

Definition: Naturalistic Observation is a type of qualitative research method that involves observing individuals in their natural environments without interference or manipulation by the researcher.

Naturalistic observation is often used when conducting research on behaviors that cannot be controlled or manipulated in a laboratory setting (Kawulich, 2005).

It is frequently used in the fields of psychology, sociology, and anthropology. For instance, to understand the social dynamics in a schoolyard, a researcher could spend time observing the children interact during their recess, noting their behaviors, interactions, and conflicts without imposing their presence on the children’s activities (Forsyth, 2010).


The predominant strength of Naturalistic Observation lies in : it allows the behavior of interest to be studied in the conditions under which it normally occurs. This method can also lead to the discovery of new behavioral patterns or phenomena not previously revealed in experimental research (Barker, Pistrang, & Elliott, 2016).	The observer may have difficulty avoiding subjective interpretations and biases of observed behaviors. Additionally, it may be very time-consuming, and the presence of the observer, even if unobtrusive, may influence the behavior of those being observed (Rosenbaum, 2017).

Example of Naturalistic Observation Research

Title: Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study

Citation: Kaplan, D. M., Raison, C. L., Milek, A., Tackman, A. M., Pace, T. W., & Mehl, M. R. (2018). Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study. PloS one , 13 (11), e0206029.

Overview: In this study, researchers conducted two studies: one exploring assumptions about mindfulness and behavior, and the other using naturalistic observation to examine actual behavioral manifestations of mindfulness. They found that trait mindfulness is associated with a heightened perceptual focus in conversations, suggesting that being mindful is expressed primarily through sharpened attention rather than observable behavioral or social differences.

Read my Full Guide on Naturalistic Observation Here

18. Photo-Elicitation

Definition: Photo-elicitation utilizes photographs as a means to trigger discussions and evoke responses during interviews. This strategy aids in bringing out topics of discussion that may not emerge through verbal prompting alone (Harper, 2002).

Traditionally, Photo-Elicitation has been useful in various fields such as education, psychology, and sociology. The method involves the researcher or participants taking photographs, which are then used as prompts for discussion.

For instance, a researcher studying urban environmental issues might invite participants to photograph areas in their neighborhood that they perceive as environmentally detrimental, and then discuss each photo in depth (Clark-Ibáñez, 2004).


Photo-Elicitation boasts of its ability to facilitate dialogue that may not arise through conventional interview methods. As a visual catalyst, it can support interviewees in articulating their experiences and emotions, potentially resulting in the generation of rich and insightful data (Heisley & Levy, 1991).	There are some limitations with Photo-Elicitation. Interpretation of the images can be highly subjective and might be influenced by cultural and personal variables. Additionally, ethical concerns may arise around privacy and consent, particularly when photographing individuals (Van Auken, Frisvoll, & Stewart, 2010).

Example of Photo-Elicitation Research

Title: Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study

Citation: Green, E. M., Spivak, C., & Dollahite, J. S. (2021). Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study. Appetite, 158 .

Overview: This study focused on early adolescents (ages 10-14) and their food routines. Researchers conducted in-depth interviews using a photo-elicitation approach, where participants took photos related to their food choices and experiences. Through analysis, the study identified various routines and three main themes: family, settings, and meals/foods consumed, revealing how early adolescents view and are influenced by their eating routines.

Features of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a research method focused on understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).

Some key features of this method include:

Naturalistic Inquiry: Qualitative research happens in the natural setting of the phenomena, aiming to understand “real world” situations (Patton, 2015). This immersion in the field or subject allows the researcher to gather a deep understanding of the subject matter.
Emphasis on Process: It aims to understand how events unfold over time rather than focusing solely on outcomes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The process-oriented nature of qualitative research allows researchers to investigate sequences, timing, and changes.
Interpretive: It involves interpreting and making sense of phenomena in terms of the meanings people assign to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). This interpretive element allows for rich, nuanced insights into human behavior and experiences.
Holistic Perspective: Qualitative research seeks to understand the whole phenomenon rather than focusing on individual components (Creswell, 2013). It emphasizes the complex interplay of factors, providing a richer, more nuanced view of the research subject.
Prioritizes Depth over Breadth: Qualitative research favors depth of understanding over breadth, typically involving a smaller but more focused sample size (Hennink, Hutter, & Bailey, 2020). This enables detailed exploration of the phenomena of interest, often leading to rich and complex data.

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

Qualitative research centers on exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).

It involves an in-depth approach to the subject matter, aiming to capture the richness and complexity of human experience.

Examples include conducting interviews, observing behaviors, or analyzing text and images.

There are strengths inherent in this approach. In its focus on understanding subjective experiences and interpretations, qualitative research can yield rich and detailed data that quantitative research may overlook (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

Additionally, qualitative research is adaptive, allowing the researcher to respond to new directions and insights as they emerge during the research process.

However, there are also limitations. Because of the interpretive nature of this research, findings may not be generalizable to a broader population (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). Well-designed quantitative research, on the other hand, can be generalizable.

Moreover, the reliability and validity of qualitative data can be challenging to establish due to its subjective nature, unlike quantitative research, which is ideally more objective.


	Research method focused on understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013)	Research method dealing with numbers and statistical analysis (Creswell & Creswell, 2017)
	Interviews, text/image analysis (Fugard & Potts, 2015)	Surveys, lab experiments (Van Voorhis & Morgan, 2007)
	Yields rich and detailed data; adaptive to new directions and insights (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011)	Enables precise measurement and analysis; findings can be generalizable; allows for replication (Ali & Bhaskar, 2016)
	Findings may not be generalizable; labor-intensive and time-consuming; reliability and validity can be challenging to establish (Marshall & Rossman, 2014)	May miss contextual detail; depends heavily on design and instrumentation; does not provide detailed description of behaviors, attitudes, and experiences (Mackey & Gass, 2015)

Compare Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methodologies in This Guide Here

In conclusion, qualitative research methods provide distinctive ways to explore social phenomena and understand nuances that quantitative approaches might overlook. Each method, from Ethnography to Photo-Elicitation, presents its strengths and weaknesses but they all offer valuable means of investigating complex, real-world situations. The goal for the researcher is not to find a definitive tool, but to employ the method best suited for their research questions and the context at hand (Almalki, 2016). Above all, these methods underscore the richness of human experience and deepen our understanding of the world around us.

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What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
How is anxiety experienced around the world?
How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Qualitative research approaches
Approach	What does it involve?
Grounded theory	Researchers collect rich data on a topic of interest and develop theories .
	Researchers immerse themselves in groups or organizations to understand their cultures.
Action research	Researchers and participants collaboratively link theory to practice to drive social change.
Phenomenological research	Researchers investigate a phenomenon or event by describing and interpreting participants’ lived experiences.
Narrative research	Researchers examine how stories are told to understand how participants perceive and make sense of their experiences.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative data analysis
Approach	When to use	Example
	To describe and categorize common words, phrases, and ideas in qualitative data.	A market researcher could perform content analysis to find out what kind of language is used in descriptions of therapeutic apps.
	To identify and interpret patterns and themes in qualitative data.	A psychologist could apply thematic analysis to travel blogs to explore how tourism shapes self-identity.
	To examine the content, structure, and design of texts.	A media researcher could use textual analysis to understand how news coverage of celebrities has changed in the past decade.
	To study communication and how language is used to achieve effects in specific contexts.	A political scientist could use discourse analysis to study how politicians generate trust in election campaigns.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

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Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Chi square goodness of fit test
Degrees of freedom
Null hypothesis
Discourse analysis
Control groups
Mixed methods research
Non-probability sampling
Quantitative research
Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

Rosenthal effect
Implicit bias
Cognitive bias
Selection bias
Negativity bias
Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

Prepare and organize your data.
Review and explore your data.
Develop a data coding system.
Assign codes to the data.
Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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Tips on how to choose good qualitative research topics

Writing a research paper or a college assignment with success solely depends on your ability to choose suitable qualitative research topics. It’s essential to carefully examine and explore the field with all the challenges before you start writing to identify the key factors and aspects of your assignment. Here are a few tips on how to do that to get good research paper ideas.

Align your research topic with your field of interest

Your assignment topic should be something that interests you deeply so that you can completely get into it and make the most out of your efforts. More importantly, your topic should allow you to develop your personal skills and learn new things.

Make sure you have all the right research on the topic

If you choose a topic that has little to no supporting research available, you’ll end up getting stuck. You must properly research the topic before you start writing. This research will also help you shortlist unrelated topics and narrow down your scope so that you can focus on the information that matches your exact needs.

Follow your university guidelines!

Consulting with your professors and going through the assessment guidelines is paramount to writing a top-class paper. Follow your university guidelines to make sure your efforts get approved by your supervisor.

List of qualitative research topics examples

Long-term planning methods for better project management
How to deal with issues during a project implementation program
The best practices for dealing with tight project deadlines
Why time management is essential for goal setting
Flexibility in management: How to improve decision-making as a manager
Top professional techniques for developing management skills
Healthcare in low-income societies: How to achieve affordable medical care
Dealing with a loss and the process of recovery
How to make eco-friendly facemasks
Preventing flu during cold seasons: The most effective preventative methods
The importance of developing community-based sanitization programs
The best practices for quitting alcohol and cigarettes
Helping the young manage their obesity: The most effective obesity management strategies
Promoting healthcare during COVID-19: Strategies for expanding the health sector
Guide to collecting resources for building a centralized community
How academic and social practices can help uplift a society
Professional practices for building a one-on-one relationship between teachers and students
The science behind consumer motivations and appraisals
Reshaping the traditional form of virtual ethnography
Are homeschooling programs as efficient as they should be?
The importance of developing healthy eating habits
The best strategies for getting ahead of the prospective market
How to track the dynamics of real estate investments
How effective are modern newsgathering technologies?
Developing introvert behavior and its key effects
Can sharing help an individual overcome addictions?
Guide to creating a one-people community
The most effective methods for dealing with cyberbullying
The best way to bringing social equity to patriarchal societies
How quarantine prevents the spread of infectious diseases
The aging populations and the trends they follow
The latest digital media trends
Methods for mitigating communicable diseases
How governments work on protocol observance
Practices for preventing the spread of the coronavirus in crowded places
Alleviating pain during childbirth
Maternal healthcare in developing countries
Can pop music change erratic youth behavior?
The best therapies for recovering from brain surgery
How alcohol changes normal behavior
Depression management among school-going children
Strategies for avoiding a viral disease
Ways to influence the eating habits of children
How and when to engage in sporting activities
How low socioeconomic background impacts self-esteem
The importance of parenting for shaping children’s morals
The impact of poor market completion on supply and demand
Do children under four years need preschool education?
Single-gender schools vs. mixed schools
How the world would benefit from the same education system
How virtual reality helps reshape the world
The hottest destinations for traveling at the moment
How fast does the ozone layer deplete?
Is it possible to predict natural disasters before they occur?
The effects of digital marketing on modern businesses
Physical learning vs. online learning
How related are Windows and Apple products?
Study cases of bullying in schools
The effect of stress on human behavior
Patient behavior and the influence of social processes

If you’re looking for the best way to choose some of the most suitable qualitative research paper topics for your college assignment, these 60 topics should help you get ahead of your task and write an engaging paper. All topics above are for your personal education and motivation. If you still need help with your assignment, our professional paper writing services are available 24/7.

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Home » Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Table of Contents

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people’s beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.

Qualitative research aims to uncover the meaning and significance of social phenomena, and it typically involves a more flexible and iterative approach to data collection and analysis compared to quantitative research. Qualitative research is often used in fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative Research Methods are as follows:

One-to-One Interview

This method involves conducting an interview with a single participant to gain a detailed understanding of their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. One-to-one interviews can be conducted in-person, over the phone, or through video conferencing. The interviewer typically uses open-ended questions to encourage the participant to share their thoughts and feelings. One-to-one interviews are useful for gaining detailed insights into individual experiences.

Focus Groups

This method involves bringing together a group of people to discuss a specific topic in a structured setting. The focus group is led by a moderator who guides the discussion and encourages participants to share their thoughts and opinions. Focus groups are useful for generating ideas and insights, exploring social norms and attitudes, and understanding group dynamics.

Ethnographic Studies

This method involves immersing oneself in a culture or community to gain a deep understanding of its norms, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic studies typically involve long-term fieldwork and observation, as well as interviews and document analysis. Ethnographic studies are useful for understanding the cultural context of social phenomena and for gaining a holistic understanding of complex social processes.

Text Analysis

This method involves analyzing written or spoken language to identify patterns and themes. Text analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative text analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Text analysis is useful for understanding media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

This method involves an in-depth examination of a single person, group, or event to gain an understanding of complex phenomena. Case studies typically involve a combination of data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case. Case studies are useful for exploring unique or rare cases, and for generating hypotheses for further research.

Process of Observation

This method involves systematically observing and recording behaviors and interactions in natural settings. The observer may take notes, use audio or video recordings, or use other methods to document what they see. Process of observation is useful for understanding social interactions, cultural practices, and the context in which behaviors occur.

Record Keeping

This method involves keeping detailed records of observations, interviews, and other data collected during the research process. Record keeping is essential for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data, and for providing a basis for analysis and interpretation.

This method involves collecting data from a large sample of participants through a structured questionnaire. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, through mail, or online. Surveys are useful for collecting data on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and for identifying patterns and trends in a population.

Qualitative data analysis is a process of turning unstructured data into meaningful insights. It involves extracting and organizing information from sources like interviews, focus groups, and surveys. The goal is to understand people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations

Qualitative Research Analysis Methods

Qualitative Research analysis methods involve a systematic approach to interpreting and making sense of the data collected in qualitative research. Here are some common qualitative data analysis methods:

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying patterns or themes in the data that are relevant to the research question. The researcher reviews the data, identifies keywords or phrases, and groups them into categories or themes. Thematic analysis is useful for identifying patterns across multiple data sources and for generating new insights into the research topic.

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing the content of written or spoken language to identify key themes or concepts. Content analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative content analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Content analysis is useful for identifying patterns in media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

Discourse Analysis

This method involves analyzing language to understand how it constructs meaning and shapes social interactions. Discourse analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. Discourse analysis is useful for understanding how language shapes social interactions, cultural norms, and power relationships.

Grounded Theory Analysis

This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected. Grounded theory analysis starts with the data and uses an iterative process of coding and analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. The theory or explanation that emerges is grounded in the data, rather than preconceived hypotheses. Grounded theory analysis is useful for understanding complex social phenomena and for generating new theoretical insights.

Narrative Analysis

This method involves analyzing the stories or narratives that participants share to gain insights into their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. Narrative analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as structural analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. Narrative analysis is useful for understanding how individuals construct their identities, make sense of their experiences, and communicate their values and beliefs.

Phenomenological Analysis

This method involves analyzing how individuals make sense of their experiences and the meanings they attach to them. Phenomenological analysis typically involves in-depth interviews with participants to explore their experiences in detail. Phenomenological analysis is useful for understanding subjective experiences and for developing a rich understanding of human consciousness.

Comparative Analysis

This method involves comparing and contrasting data across different cases or groups to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can be used to identify patterns or themes that are common across multiple cases, as well as to identify unique or distinctive features of individual cases. Comparative analysis is useful for understanding how social phenomena vary across different contexts and groups.

Applications of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research has many applications across different fields and industries. Here are some examples of how qualitative research is used:

Market Research: Qualitative research is often used in market research to understand consumer attitudes, behaviors, and preferences. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with consumers to gather insights into their experiences and perceptions of products and services.
Health Care: Qualitative research is used in health care to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
Education: Qualitative research is used in education to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. Researchers conduct classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
Social Work : Qualitative research is used in social work to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
Anthropology : Qualitative research is used in anthropology to understand different cultures and societies. Researchers conduct ethnographic studies and observe and interview members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
Psychology : Qualitative research is used in psychology to understand human behavior and mental processes. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
Public Policy : Qualitative research is used in public policy to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

How to Conduct Qualitative Research

Here are some general steps for conducting qualitative research:

Identify your research question: Qualitative research starts with a research question or set of questions that you want to explore. This question should be focused and specific, but also broad enough to allow for exploration and discovery.
Select your research design: There are different types of qualitative research designs, including ethnography, case study, grounded theory, and phenomenology. You should select a design that aligns with your research question and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
Recruit participants: Once you have your research question and design, you need to recruit participants. The number of participants you need will depend on your research design and the scope of your research. You can recruit participants through advertisements, social media, or through personal networks.
Collect data: There are different methods for collecting qualitative data, including interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis. You should select the method or methods that align with your research design and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
Analyze data: Once you have collected your data, you need to analyze it. This involves reviewing your data, identifying patterns and themes, and developing codes to organize your data. You can use different software programs to help you analyze your data, or you can do it manually.
Interpret data: Once you have analyzed your data, you need to interpret it. This involves making sense of the patterns and themes you have identified, and developing insights and conclusions that answer your research question. You should be guided by your research question and use your data to support your conclusions.
Communicate results: Once you have interpreted your data, you need to communicate your results. This can be done through academic papers, presentations, or reports. You should be clear and concise in your communication, and use examples and quotes from your data to support your findings.

Examples of Qualitative Research

Here are some real-time examples of qualitative research:

Customer Feedback: A company may conduct qualitative research to understand the feedback and experiences of its customers. This may involve conducting focus groups or one-on-one interviews with customers to gather insights into their attitudes, behaviors, and preferences.
Healthcare : A healthcare provider may conduct qualitative research to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
Education : An educational institution may conduct qualitative research to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. This may involve conducting classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
Social Work: A social worker may conduct qualitative research to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
Anthropology : An anthropologist may conduct qualitative research to understand different cultures and societies. This may involve conducting ethnographic studies and observing and interviewing members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
Psychology : A psychologist may conduct qualitative research to understand human behavior and mental processes. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
Public Policy: A government agency or non-profit organization may conduct qualitative research to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. This may involve conducting focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

Purpose of Qualitative Research

The purpose of qualitative research is to explore and understand the subjective experiences, behaviors, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research aims to provide in-depth, descriptive information that can help researchers develop insights and theories about complex social phenomena.

Qualitative research can serve multiple purposes, including:

Exploring new or emerging phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring new or emerging phenomena, such as new technologies or social trends. This type of research can help researchers develop a deeper understanding of these phenomena and identify potential areas for further study.
Understanding complex social phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring complex social phenomena, such as cultural beliefs, social norms, or political processes. This type of research can help researchers develop a more nuanced understanding of these phenomena and identify factors that may influence them.
Generating new theories or hypotheses: Qualitative research can be useful for generating new theories or hypotheses about social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data about individuals’ experiences and perspectives, researchers can develop insights that may challenge existing theories or lead to new lines of inquiry.
Providing context for quantitative data: Qualitative research can be useful for providing context for quantitative data. By gathering qualitative data alongside quantitative data, researchers can develop a more complete understanding of complex social phenomena and identify potential explanations for quantitative findings.

When to use Qualitative Research

Here are some situations where qualitative research may be appropriate:

Exploring a new area: If little is known about a particular topic, qualitative research can help to identify key issues, generate hypotheses, and develop new theories.
Understanding complex phenomena: Qualitative research can be used to investigate complex social, cultural, or organizational phenomena that are difficult to measure quantitatively.
Investigating subjective experiences: Qualitative research is particularly useful for investigating the subjective experiences of individuals or groups, such as their attitudes, beliefs, values, or emotions.
Conducting formative research: Qualitative research can be used in the early stages of a research project to develop research questions, identify potential research participants, and refine research methods.
Evaluating interventions or programs: Qualitative research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or programs by collecting data on participants’ experiences, attitudes, and behaviors.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is characterized by several key features, including:

Focus on subjective experience: Qualitative research is concerned with understanding the subjective experiences, beliefs, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Researchers aim to explore the meanings that people attach to their experiences and to understand the social and cultural factors that shape these meanings.
Use of open-ended questions: Qualitative research relies on open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed, in-depth responses. Researchers seek to elicit rich, descriptive data that can provide insights into participants’ experiences and perspectives.
Sampling-based on purpose and diversity: Qualitative research often involves purposive sampling, in which participants are selected based on specific criteria related to the research question. Researchers may also seek to include participants with diverse experiences and perspectives to capture a range of viewpoints.
Data collection through multiple methods: Qualitative research typically involves the use of multiple data collection methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation. This allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data from multiple sources, which can provide a more complete picture of participants’ experiences and perspectives.
Inductive data analysis: Qualitative research relies on inductive data analysis, in which researchers develop theories and insights based on the data rather than testing pre-existing hypotheses. Researchers use coding and thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data and to develop theories and explanations based on these patterns.
Emphasis on researcher reflexivity: Qualitative research recognizes the importance of the researcher’s role in shaping the research process and outcomes. Researchers are encouraged to reflect on their own biases and assumptions and to be transparent about their role in the research process.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research offers several advantages over other research methods, including:

Depth and detail: Qualitative research allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data that provides a deeper understanding of complex social phenomena. Through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation, researchers can gather detailed information about participants’ experiences and perspectives that may be missed by other research methods.
Flexibility : Qualitative research is a flexible approach that allows researchers to adapt their methods to the research question and context. Researchers can adjust their research methods in real-time to gather more information or explore unexpected findings.
Contextual understanding: Qualitative research is well-suited to exploring the social and cultural context in which individuals or groups are situated. Researchers can gather information about cultural norms, social structures, and historical events that may influence participants’ experiences and perspectives.
Participant perspective : Qualitative research prioritizes the perspective of participants, allowing researchers to explore subjective experiences and understand the meanings that participants attach to their experiences.
Theory development: Qualitative research can contribute to the development of new theories and insights about complex social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data and using inductive data analysis, researchers can develop new theories and explanations that may challenge existing understandings.
Validity : Qualitative research can offer high validity by using multiple data collection methods, purposive and diverse sampling, and researcher reflexivity. This can help ensure that findings are credible and trustworthy.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research also has some limitations, including:

Subjectivity : Qualitative research relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers, which can introduce bias into the research process. The researcher’s perspective, beliefs, and experiences can influence the way data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted.
Limited generalizability: Qualitative research typically involves small, purposive samples that may not be representative of larger populations. This limits the generalizability of findings to other contexts or populations.
Time-consuming: Qualitative research can be a time-consuming process, requiring significant resources for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
Resource-intensive: Qualitative research may require more resources than other research methods, including specialized training for researchers, specialized software for data analysis, and transcription services.
Limited reliability: Qualitative research may be less reliable than quantitative research, as it relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers. This can make it difficult to replicate findings or compare results across different studies.
Ethics and confidentiality: Qualitative research involves collecting sensitive information from participants, which raises ethical concerns about confidentiality and informed consent. Researchers must take care to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants and obtain informed consent.

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What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on 4 April 2022 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on 30 January 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analysing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analysing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, and history.

How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
What factors influence employee retention in a large organisation?
How is anxiety experienced around the world?
How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography, action research, phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasise different aims and perspectives.

Qualitative research approaches
Approach	What does it involve?
Grounded theory	Researchers collect rich data on a topic of interest and develop theories .
	Researchers immerse themselves in groups or organisations to understand their cultures.
	Researchers and participants collaboratively link theory to practice to drive social change.
Phenomenological research	Researchers investigate a phenomenon or event by describing and interpreting participants’ lived experiences.
Narrative research	Researchers examine how stories are told to understand how participants perceive and make sense of their experiences.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves ‘instruments’ in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

Prepare and organise your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorise your data.
Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analysing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasise different concepts.

Qualitative data analysis
Approach	When to use	Example
	To describe and categorise common words, phrases, and ideas in qualitative data.	A market researcher could perform content analysis to find out what kind of language is used in descriptions of therapeutic apps.
	To identify and interpret patterns and themes in qualitative data.	A psychologist could apply thematic analysis to travel blogs to explore how tourism shapes self-identity.
	To examine the content, structure, and design of texts.	A media researcher could use textual analysis to understand how news coverage of celebrities has changed in the past decade.
	To study communication and how language is used to achieve effects in specific contexts.	A political scientist could use discourse analysis to study how politicians generate trust in election campaigns.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analysing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analysing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

Limited generalisability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalisable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

Labour-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organisation to understand its culture.
Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

Prepare and organise your data.
Review and explore your data.
Develop a data coding system.
Assign codes to the data.
Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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What is Qualitative Research? Methods, Types, Approaches and Examples

Qualitative research is a type of method that researchers use depending on their study requirements. Research can be conducted using several methods, but before starting the process, researchers should understand the different methods available to decide the best one for their study type. The type of research method needed depends on a few important criteria, such as the research question, study type, time, costs, data availability, and availability of respondents. The two main types of methods are qualitative research and quantitative research. Sometimes, researchers may find it difficult to decide which type of method is most suitable for their study. Keeping in mind a simple rule of thumb could help you make the correct decision. Quantitative research should be used to validate or test a theory or hypothesis and qualitative research should be used to understand a subject or event or identify reasons for observed patterns.

Qualitative research methods are based on principles of social sciences from several disciplines like psychology, sociology, and anthropology. In this method, researchers try to understand the feelings and motivation of their respondents, which would have prompted them to select or give a particular response to a question. Here are two qualitative research examples :

Two brands (A & B) of the same medicine are available at a pharmacy. However, Brand A is more popular and has higher sales. In qualitative research , the interviewers would ideally visit a few stores in different areas and ask customers their reason for selecting either brand. Respondents may have different reasons that motivate them to select one brand over the other, such as brand loyalty, cost, feedback from friends, doctor’s suggestion, etc. Once the reasons are known, companies could then address challenges in that specific area to increase their product’s sales.
A company organizes a focus group meeting with a random sample of its product’s consumers to understand their opinion on a new product being launched.

Table of Contents

What is qualitative research? 1

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data. The findings of qualitative research are expressed in words and help in understanding individuals’ subjective perceptions about an event, condition, or subject. This type of research is exploratory and is used to generate hypotheses or theories from data. Qualitative data are usually in the form of text, videos, photographs, and audio recordings. There are multiple qualitative research types , which will be discussed later.

Qualitative research methods 2

Researchers can choose from several qualitative research methods depending on the study type, research question, the researcher’s role, data to be collected, etc.

The following table lists the common qualitative research approaches with their purpose and examples, although there may be an overlap between some.


Narrative	Explore the experiences of individuals and tell a story to give insight into human lives and behaviors. Narratives can be obtained from journals, letters, conversations, autobiographies, interviews, etc.	A researcher collecting information to create a biography using old documents, interviews, etc.
Phenomenology	Explain life experiences or phenomena, focusing on people’s subjective experiences and interpretations of the world.	Researchers exploring the experiences of family members of an individual undergoing a major surgery.
Grounded theory	Investigate process, actions, and interactions, and based on this grounded or empirical data a theory is developed. Unlike experimental research, this method doesn’t require a hypothesis theory to begin with.	A company with a high attrition rate and no prior data may use this method to understand the reasons for which employees leave.
Ethnography	Describe an ethnic, cultural, or social group by observation in their naturally occurring environment.	A researcher studying medical personnel in the immediate care division of a hospital to understand the culture and staff behaviors during high capacity.
Case study	In-depth analysis of complex issues in real-life settings, mostly used in business, law, and policymaking. Learnings from case studies can be implemented in other similar contexts.	A case study about how a particular company turned around its product sales and the marketing strategies they used could help implement similar methods in other companies.

Types of qualitative research 3,4

The data collection methods in qualitative research are designed to assess and understand the perceptions, motivations, and feelings of the respondents about the subject being studied. The different qualitative research types include the following:

In-depth or one-on-one interviews : This is one of the most common qualitative research methods and helps the interviewers understand a respondent’s subjective opinion and experience pertaining to a specific topic or event. These interviews are usually conversational and encourage the respondents to express their opinions freely. Semi-structured interviews, which have open-ended questions (where the respondents can answer more than just “yes” or “no”), are commonly used. Such interviews can be either face-to-face or telephonic, and the duration can vary depending on the subject or the interviewer. Asking the right questions is essential in this method so that the interview can be led in the suitable direction. Face-to-face interviews also help interviewers observe the respondents’ body language, which could help in confirming whether the responses match.
Document study/Literature review/Record keeping : Researchers’ review of already existing written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles, guidelines, policy documents, etc.
Focus groups : Usually include a small sample of about 6-10 people and a moderator, to understand the participants’ opinion on a given topic. Focus groups ensure constructive discussions to understand the why, what, and, how about the topic. These group meetings need not always be in-person. In recent times, online meetings are also encouraged, and online surveys could also be administered with the option to “write” subjective answers as well. However, this method is expensive and is mostly used for new products and ideas.
Qualitative observation : In this method, researchers collect data using their five senses—sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This method doesn’t include any measurements but only the subjective observation. For example, “The dessert served at the bakery was creamy with sweet buttercream frosting”; this observation is based on the taste perception.

Qualitative research : Data collection and analysis

Qualitative data collection is the process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research.
The data collected are usually non-numeric and subjective and could be recorded in various methods, for instance, in case of one-to-one interviews, the responses may be recorded using handwritten notes, and audio and video recordings, depending on the interviewer and the setting or duration.
Once the data are collected, they should be transcribed into meaningful or useful interpretations. An experienced researcher could take about 8-10 hours to transcribe an interview’s recordings. All such notes and recordings should be maintained properly for later reference.
Some interviewers make use of “field notes.” These are not exactly the respondents’ answers but rather some observations the interviewer may have made while asking questions and may include non-verbal cues or any information about the setting or the environment. These notes are usually informal and help verify respondents’ answers.

2. Qualitative data analysis

This process involves analyzing all the data obtained from the qualitative research methods in the form of text (notes), audio-video recordings, and pictures.
Text analysis is a common form of qualitative data analysis in which researchers examine the social lives of the participants and analyze their words, actions, etc. in specific contexts. Social media platforms are now playing an important role in this method with researchers analyzing all information shared online.

There are usually five steps in the qualitative data analysis process: 5

Prepare and organize the data
Transcribe interviews
Collect and document field notes and other material
Review and explore the data
Examine the data for patterns or important observations
Develop a data coding system
Create codes to categorize and connect the data
Assign these codes to the data or responses
Review the codes
Identify recurring themes, opinions, patterns, etc.
Present the findings
Use the best possible method to present your observations

The following table 6 lists some common qualitative data analysis methods used by companies to make important decisions, with examples and when to use each. The methods may be similar and can overlap.


Content analysis	To identify patterns in text, by grouping content into words, concepts, and themes; that is, determine presence of certain words or themes in some text	Researchers examining the language used in a journal article to search for bias
Narrative analysis	To understand people’s perspectives on specific issues. Focuses on people’s stories and the language used to tell these stories	A researcher conducting one or several in-depth interviews with an individual over a long period
Discourse analysis	To understand political, cultural, and power dynamics in specific contexts; that is, how people express themselves in different social contexts	A researcher studying a politician’s speeches across multiple contexts, such as audience, region, political history, etc.
Thematic analysis	To interpret the meaning behind the words used by people. This is done by identifying repetitive patterns or themes by reading through a dataset	Researcher analyzing raw data to explore the impact of high-stakes examinations on students and parents

Characteristics of qualitative research methods 4

Unstructured raw data : Qualitative research methods use unstructured, non-numerical data , which are analyzed to generate subjective conclusions about specific subjects, usually presented descriptively, instead of using statistical data.
Site-specific data collection : In qualitative research methods , data are collected at specific areas where the respondents or researchers are either facing a challenge or have a need to explore. The process is conducted in a real-world setting and participants do not need to leave their original geographical setting to be able to participate.
Researchers’ importance : Researchers play an instrumental role because, in qualitative research , communication with respondents is an essential part of data collection and analysis. In addition, researchers need to rely on their own observation and listening skills during an interaction and use and interpret that data appropriately.
Multiple methods : Researchers collect data through various methods, as listed earlier, instead of relying on a single source. Although there may be some overlap between the qualitative research methods , each method has its own significance.
Solving complex issues : These methods help in breaking down complex problems into more useful and interpretable inferences, which can be easily understood by everyone.
Unbiased responses : Qualitative research methods rely on open communication where the participants are allowed to freely express their views. In such cases, the participants trust the interviewer, resulting in unbiased and truthful responses.
Flexible : The qualitative research method can be changed at any stage of the research. The data analysis is not confined to being done at the end of the research but can be done in tandem with data collection. Consequently, based on preliminary analysis and new ideas, researchers have the liberty to change the method to suit their objective.

When to use qualitative research 4

The following points will give you an idea about when to use qualitative research .

When the objective of a research study is to understand behaviors and patterns of respondents, then qualitative research is the most suitable method because it gives a clear insight into the reasons for the occurrence of an event.
A few use cases for qualitative research methods include:
New product development or idea generation
Strengthening a product’s marketing strategy
Conducting a SWOT analysis of product or services portfolios to help take important strategic decisions
Understanding purchasing behavior of consumers
Understanding reactions of target market to ad campaigns
Understanding market demographics and conducting competitor analysis
Understanding the effectiveness of a new treatment method in a particular section of society

A qualitative research method case study to understand when to use qualitative research 7

Context : A high school in the US underwent a turnaround or conservatorship process and consequently experienced a below average teacher retention rate. Researchers conducted qualitative research to understand teachers’ experiences and perceptions of how the turnaround may have influenced the teachers’ morale and how this, in turn, would have affected teachers’ retention.

Method : Purposive sampling was used to select eight teachers who were employed with the school before the conservatorship process and who were subsequently retained. One-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted with these teachers. The questions addressed teachers’ perspectives of morale and their views on the conservatorship process.

Results : The study generated six factors that may have been influencing teachers’ perspectives: powerlessness, excessive visitations, loss of confidence, ineffective instructional practices, stress and burnout, and ineffective professional development opportunities. Based on these factors, four recommendations were made to increase teacher retention by boosting their morale.

Advantages of qualitative research 1

Reflects real-world settings , and therefore allows for ambiguities in data, as well as the flexibility to change the method based on new developments.
Helps in understanding the feelings or beliefs of the respondents rather than relying only on quantitative data.
Uses a descriptive and narrative style of presentation, which may be easier to understand for people from all backgrounds.
Some topics involving sensitive or controversial content could be difficult to quantify and so qualitative research helps in analyzing such content.
The availability of multiple data sources and research methods helps give a holistic picture.
There’s more involvement of participants, which gives them an assurance that their opinion matters, possibly leading to unbiased responses.

Disadvantages of qualitative research 1

Large-scale data sets cannot be included because of time and cost constraints.
Ensuring validity and reliability may be a challenge because of the subjective nature of the data, so drawing definite conclusions could be difficult.
Replication by other researchers may be difficult for the same contexts or situations.
Generalization to a wider context or to other populations or settings is not possible.
Data collection and analysis may be time consuming.
Researcher’s interpretation may alter the results causing an unintended bias.

Differences between qualitative research and quantitative research 1


Purpose and design	Explore ideas, formulate hypotheses; more subjective	Test theories and hypotheses, discover causal relationships; measurable and more structured
Data collection method	Semi-structured interviews/surveys with open-ended questions, document study/literature reviews, focus groups, case study research, ethnography	Experiments, controlled observations, questionnaires and surveys with a rating scale or closed-ended questions. The methods can be experimental, quasi-experimental, descriptive, or correlational.
Data analysis	Content analysis (determine presence of certain words/concepts in texts), grounded theory (hypothesis creation by data collection and analysis), thematic analysis (identify important themes/patterns in data and use these to address an issue)	Statistical analysis using applications such as Excel, SPSS, R
Sample size	Small	Large
Example	A company organizing focus groups or one-to-one interviews to understand customers’ (subjective) opinions about a specific product, based on which the company can modify their marketing strategy	Customer satisfaction surveys sent out by companies. Customers are asked to rate their experience on a rating scale of 1 to 5

Frequently asked questions on qualitative research

Q: how do i know if qualitative research is appropriate for my study .

A: Here’s a simple checklist you could use:

Not much is known about the subject being studied.
There is a need to understand or simplify a complex problem or situation.
Participants’ experiences/beliefs/feelings are required for analysis.
There’s no existing hypothesis to begin with, rather a theory would need to be created after analysis.
You need to gather in-depth understanding of an event or subject, which may not need to be supported by numeric data.

Q: How do I ensure the reliability and validity of my qualitative research findings?

A: To ensure the validity of your qualitative research findings you should explicitly state your objective and describe clearly why you have interpreted the data in a particular way. Another method could be to connect your data in different ways or from different perspectives to see if you reach a similar, unbiased conclusion.

To ensure reliability, always create an audit trail of your qualitative research by describing your steps and reasons for every interpretation, so that if required, another researcher could trace your steps to corroborate your (or their own) findings. In addition, always look for patterns or consistencies in the data collected through different methods.

Q: Are there any sampling strategies or techniques for qualitative research ?

A: Yes, the following are few common sampling strategies used in qualitative research :

1. Convenience sampling

Selects participants who are most easily accessible to researchers due to geographical proximity, availability at a particular time, etc.

2. Purposive sampling

Participants are grouped according to predefined criteria based on a specific research question. Sample sizes are often determined based on theoretical saturation (when new data no longer provide additional insights).

3. Snowball sampling

Already selected participants use their social networks to refer the researcher to other potential participants.

4. Quota sampling

While designing the study, the researchers decide how many people with which characteristics to include as participants. The characteristics help in choosing people most likely to provide insights into the subject.

Q: What ethical standards need to be followed with qualitative research ?

A: The following ethical standards should be considered in qualitative research:

Anonymity : The participants should never be identified in the study and researchers should ensure that no identifying information is mentioned even indirectly.
Confidentiality : To protect participants’ confidentiality, ensure that all related documents, transcripts, notes are stored safely.
Informed consent : Researchers should clearly communicate the objective of the study and how the participants’ responses will be used prior to engaging with the participants.

Q: How do I address bias in my qualitative research ?

A: You could use the following points to ensure an unbiased approach to your qualitative research :

Check your interpretations of the findings with others’ interpretations to identify consistencies.
If possible, you could ask your participants if your interpretations convey their beliefs to a significant extent.
Data triangulation is a way of using multiple data sources to see if all methods consistently support your interpretations.
Contemplate other possible explanations for your findings or interpretations and try ruling them out if possible.
Conduct a peer review of your findings to identify any gaps that may not have been visible to you.
Frame context-appropriate questions to ensure there is no researcher or participant bias.

We hope this article has given you answers to the question “ what is qualitative research ” and given you an in-depth understanding of the various aspects of qualitative research , including the definition, types, and approaches, when to use this method, and advantages and disadvantages, so that the next time you undertake a study you would know which type of research design to adopt.

References:

McLeod, S. A. Qualitative vs. quantitative research. Simply Psychology [Accessed January 17, 2023]. www.simplypsychology.org/qualitative-quantitative.html
Omniconvert website [Accessed January 18, 2023]. https://www.omniconvert.com/blog/qualitative-research-definition-methodology-limitation-examples/
Busetto L., Wick W., Gumbinger C. How to use and assess qualitative research methods. Neurological Research and Practice [Accessed January 19, 2023] https://neurolrespract.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42466-020-00059
QuestionPro website. Qualitative research methods: Types & examples [Accessed January 16, 2023]. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/qualitative-research-methods/
Campuslabs website. How to analyze qualitative data [Accessed January 18, 2023]. https://baselinesupport.campuslabs.com/hc/en-us/articles/204305675-How-to-analyze-qualitative-data
Thematic website. Qualitative data analysis: Step-by-guide [Accessed January 20, 2023]. https://getthematic.com/insights/qualitative-data-analysis/
Lane L. J., Jones D., Penny G. R. Qualitative case study of teachers’ morale in a turnaround school. Research in Higher Education Journal . https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1233111.pdf
Meetingsnet website. 7 FAQs about qualitative research and CME [Accessed January 21, 2023]. https://www.meetingsnet.com/cme-design/7-faqs-about-qualitative-research-and-cme
Qualitative research methods: A data collector’s field guide. Khoury College of Computer Sciences. Northeastern University. https://course.ccs.neu.edu/is4800sp12/resources/qualmethods.pdf

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Qualitative Research Topics & Ideas For Students

The Best Qualitative Research Topics For Students

Do you have difficulty finding a qualitative research title for your project? If you are, you need not worry because you are not alone. However, there are many unique qualitative titles you can explore for your research. You just need a few qualitative research title examples to get you started. Qualitative research is focused on data obtained through a researcher’s first-hand observations, natural setting recording, artifacts, case studies, documents, questionnaires, and interviews. The findings in qualitative research are usually non-numerical. Also, it is common in humanities and social sciences. This post provides over 100 qualitative research topics you can consider.

The Best Qualitative Research Topics That Impress the Teacher

Exceptional Qualitative Research Topics In Social Science

Qualitative research title examples for students, fantastic examples of qualitative research titles, good topics to start for qualitative research, qualitative research topics in education, quick examples of qualitative research topics, qualitative research topics in the philippines, qualitative researches topics about humanity & social science, great choices of qualitative research title examples, qualitative research topics for students to think about, our examples of the best qualitative research topics that impress the teacher.

An excellent research topic will help you earn a good grade. Consider any example of a qualitative research title from the following options:

The impacts of social media on physical social engagement in society
The benefits of treating mental disorders with medication
The effects of Gender-Based Violence on women’s social lives in rural areas
The decline of academic pursuit in third-world countries
Sexual workers: the stigma they experience
How has the promotion of feminist values influenced workplaces?
Free education: its impact in third-world countries
What is the correlation between education and success?
Ableism: its effects on disabled people in society
Food insecurity in third-world nations

The topic of your research paper can influence how easily you can conduct your study and draw conclusions.

Here are fantastic examples of qualitative research titles:

Female harm: how it is influenced by culture
The socioeconomic impacts of free education
The link between food insecurity and poor performance in schools
Alcoholism among college students: a critical study
How to mitigate child labor in our society
The root causes of child labor in Latin America
The stigma of living with transmissive medical conditions
The root cause of the stigma of people living with disabilities
How to identify depression in small children
Signs of autism in kids below two years old

Choosing a qualitative research topic is not a task you should take lightly because it can influence your performance. Here are some noteworthy qualitative research titles examples:

Basic patient care policies in developing nations
The impacts of alcoholism on education
Adult learning: what does it entail?
Homeschooling: Is it the latest trend after the pandemic?
Does computer literacy influence the quality of education kids enjoy?
How to effectively teach students with learning disabilities
The relationship between poor education systems and crime rates in third-world countries
Student bullying: the psychological impacts
Should high school students go through university preparedness programs?
research writing in high schools: its significance

Are you looking for qualitative research topic examples to start your study? Below are some creative examples to consider:

Remote tests: are they as effective as in-class tests?
The value of social activities in academic institutions
Why should healthcare be free in all countries?
The implications of racist laws on society
The reception of COVID-19 vaccines and treatments
What is the difference between foreign policies in first-world and third-world nations?
Racism and Colorism: what is the difference?
Dissecting the causes of low voter turnouts in the 21 st century
The challenges of social media on kid’s brain development
The inclusion of black women in American politics and its impacts

When competing with several brilliant minds, a good research topic can do you greatly. The following qualitative research examples titles are a great place to start:

Should school uniforms be discarded for high schoolers?
The need for equal representation in global politics
The implications of police brutality on politics
The role of parental care in foster kids
The distinction between Islamic values and Christian values
The correlation between political instability and migration
Sex trafficking and violence against women: what is the link?
How can global governments eradicate homelessness?
Fraternities and sororities: are they still relevant?
The role of literature in promoting societal changes

Qualitative research is popular in the education field and other social sciences. Choose a qualitative research title example on the subject of education from the following list:

Effectively introducing foreign languages in the high school curriculum
How can teachers help students with disabilities improve their learning?
The link between social activities and comprehension among students
Research writing in high schools: is it necessary?
How has virtual learning influenced teacher-student relationships?
The implications of allowing smartphones in classes
Should all schools introduce sign language lessons in their curriculum?
Student loans: their impacts on black students
The impacts of race on college acceptance rates
Poverty and education: what is the link?
Ethnic and socioeconomic causes of poor school attendance in developing worlds
Various teaching methods and their efficiency
Efficient teaching methods for children below two years
Why do students perform better in humanities than in sciences?
The difference between college acceptance and completion in most nations
Remote learning in developing countries
What are the best ways of approaching bullying in schools?
How do teachers promote inequality among students?
Does social class influence academic performance negatively or positively?
How do teachers shape their students’ personalities?

Coming up with a qualitative research title can be hard because of the numerous subject areas and the issue of uniqueness. Therefore, we have prepared the following qualitative title examples for you:

How to promote oral learning in classrooms
Political instability in developing countries: its economic impacts
The impacts of weather on social activities
Boredom and poor-decision making: the connection
Exploring the connection between attachment types and love languages
Socioeconomic impacts of instability on a country
How does social media impact the perception of reality
Reality TV shows: are they a true reflection of reality?
How culture applies to different age groups
Is social media influencing the loss of cultural values?

You can base your research topic on a specific region or nation, like the Philippines. A sample qualitative research title can get you started. You can pick a sample qualitative research title from the ideas below:

Why are so many Philippines residents migrating to America?
The impact of politics on migration in the Philippines
How has violence led to food insecurity in rural areas in the Philippines?
The Philippine education system: an overview
How cultural norms influence social activities in the Philippines
Gender roles in the Philippines society
How popular Filipino cultures have served as agents of social change in the nation
The link between male dominance and GBV in the Philippines
Barriers to clean hygiene in health centers in the Philippines
The spread of COVID in rural areas in the Philippines

Most top performers in research subjects attribute their success to choosing the best title for qualitative research. Here are some qualitative research topics about humanities and social science to promote good performance:

The impact of poor market rivalry on supply and demand
The role of parents in shaping kids’ morals
Is social media the root cause of poor societal morals?
How does alcohol impact a person’s normal behavior?
How often should adults engage in sporting activities?
Children’s eating habits and their influences
Low socioeconomic backgrounds and their impacts on self-esteem
The effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the world’s views on viral diseases
How can school-going kids manage depression
Causes of mental challenges among school-going kids

Finding a good topic for qualitative research is a critical task that requires a lot of thought and research. However, we have simplified the process with the following qualitative topic ideas:

Pop music and erratic youth behavior: is there a link?
How do public figures influence cultures?
Ideas for improving healthcare in developing nations
Possible solutions for alleviating the food crisis in developing nations
New ways of mitigating viral diseases
Social media trends among the elderly
Quarantine as a mitigation approach for infectious diseases
Promoting social justice in patriarchal societies
Worrying trends among the young population
Emerging marketing trends in 2023

Qualitative research for college and high school students helps improve reading, writing, and intellectual skills. Here are some qualitative research examples and topic ideas for students :

How to detect and prevent natural disasters beforehand
Can the whole world have the same education system?
What is the most effective therapy for patients recuperating from brain surgery?
Possible solutions for promoting ethical practices in telehealth
Can addicts overcome addiction without therapy?
The latest technology trends and their impacts?
How can global governments promote mental health awareness?
Have smartphones caused reduced attention spans among users?
Sexual violence in rural areas
The introduction of Islam in African nations

We Are Here for You

Qualitative research is an investigative analysis of intangible or inexact data, mostly non-numerical. The title of qualitative research you choose will guide your entire research process and influence its conclusions. Do you need a paper or an example of a research title qualitative topic? Our expert team is ready to write it for you.

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The Oxford Handbook of Qualitative Research (2nd edn)

Patricia Leavy Independent Scholar Kennebunk, ME, USA

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The Oxford Handbook of Qualitative Research, second edition, presents a comprehensive retrospective and prospective review of the field of qualitative research. Original, accessible chapters written by interdisciplinary leaders in the field make this a critical reference work. Filled with robust examples from real-world research; ample discussion of the historical, theoretical, and methodological foundations of the field; and coverage of key issues including data collection, interpretation, representation, assessment, and teaching, this handbook aims to be a valuable text for students, professors, and researchers. This newly revised and expanded edition features up-to-date examples and topics, including seven new chapters on duoethnography, team research, writing ethnographically, creative approaches to writing, writing for performance, writing for the public, and teaching qualitative research.

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Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institutionâ€™s website and Oxford Academic.

Click Sign in through your institution.
Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institutionâ€™s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see â€˜Sign in through society siteâ€™ in the sign in pane within a journal:

Click Sign in through society site.
When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

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Qualitative research examples: How to unlock, rich, descriptive insights

User Research

Aug 19, 2024 • 17 minutes read

Qualitative research examples: How to unlock, rich, descriptive insights

Qualitative research uncovers in-depth user insights, but what does it look like? Here are seven methods and examples to help you get the data you need.

Armin Tanovic

Behind every what, there’s a why . Qualitative research is how you uncover that why. It enables you to connect with users and understand their thoughts, feelings, wants, needs, and pain points.

There’s many methods for conducting qualitative research, and many objectives it can help you pursue—you might want to explore ways to improve NPS scores, combat reduced customer retention, or understand (and recreate) the success behind a well-received product. The common thread? All these metrics impact your business, and qualitative research can help investigate and improve that impact.

In this article, we’ll take you through seven methods and examples of qualitative research, including when and how to use them.

Qualitative UX research made easy

Conduct qualitative research with Maze, analyze data instantly, and get rich, descriptive insights that drive decision-making.

7 Qualitative research methods: An overview

There are various qualitative UX research methods that can help you get in-depth, descriptive insights. Some are suited to specific phases of the design and development process, while others are more task-oriented.

Here’s our overview of the most common qualitative research methods. Keep reading for their use cases, and detailed examples of how to conduct them.

Method
User interviews
Focus groups
Ethnographic research
Qualitative observation
Case study research
Secondary research
Open-ended surveys			to extract descriptive insights.

1. User interviews

A user interview is a one-on-one conversation between a UX researcher, designer or Product Manager and a target user to understand their thoughts, perspectives, and feelings on a product or service. User interviews are a great way to get non-numerical data on individual experiences with your product, to gain a deeper understanding of user perspectives.

Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured . Structured interviews follow a strict interview script and can help you get answers to your planned questions, while semi and unstructured interviews are less rigid in their approach and typically lead to more spontaneous, user-centered insights.

When to use user interviews

Interviews are ideal when you want to gain an in-depth understanding of your users’ perspectives on your product or service, and why they feel a certain way.

Interviews can be used at any stage in the product design and development process, being particularly helpful during:

The discovery phase: To better understand user needs, problems, and the context in which they use your product—revealing the best potential solutions
The design phase: To get contextual feedback on mockups, wireframes, and prototypes, helping you pinpoint issues and the reasons behind them
Post-launch: To assess if your product continues to meet users’ shifting expectations and understand why or why not

How to conduct user interviews: The basics

Draft questions based on your research objectives
Recruit relevant research participants and schedule interviews
Conduct the interview and transcribe responses
Analyze the interview responses to extract insights
Use your findings to inform design, product, and business decisions

💡 A specialized user interview tool makes interviewing easier. With Maze Interview Studies , you can recruit, host, and analyze interviews all on one platform.

User interviews: A qualitative research example

Let’s say you’ve designed a recruitment platform, called Tech2Talent , that connects employers with tech talent. Before starting the design process, you want to clearly understand the pain points employers experience with existing recruitment tools'.

You draft a list of ten questions for a semi-structured interview for 15 different one-on-one interviews. As it’s semi-structured, you don’t expect to ask all the questions—the script serves as more of a guide.

One key question in your script is: “Have tech recruitment platforms helped you find the talent you need in the past?”

Most respondents answer with a resounding and passionate ‘no’ with one of them expanding:

“For our company, it’s been pretty hit or miss honestly. They let just about anyone make a profile and call themselves tech talent. It’s so hard sifting through serious candidates. I can’t see any of their achievements until I invest time setting up an interview.”

You begin to notice a pattern in your responses: recruitment tools often lack easily accessible details on talent profiles.

You’ve gained contextual feedback on why other recruitment platforms fail to solve user needs.

2. Focus groups

A focus group is a research method that involves gathering a small group of people—around five to ten users—to discuss a specific topic, such as their’ experience with your new product feature. Unlike user interviews, focus groups aim to capture the collective opinion of a wider market segment and encourage discussion among the group.

When to use focus groups

You should use focus groups when you need a deeper understanding of your users’ collective opinions. The dynamic discussion among participants can spark in-depth insights that might not emerge from regular interviews.

Focus groups can be used before, during, and after a product launch. They’re ideal:

Throughout the problem discovery phase: To understand your user segment’s pain points and expectations, and generate product ideas
Post-launch: To evaluate and understand the collective opinion of your product’s user experience
When conducting market research: To grasp usage patterns, consumer perceptions, and market opportunities for your product

How to conduct focus group studies: The basics

Draft prompts to spark conversation, or a series of questions based on your UX research objectives
Find a group of five to ten users who are representative of your target audience (or a specific user segment) and schedule your focus group session
Conduct the focus group by talking and listening to users, then transcribe responses
Analyze focus group responses and extract insights
Use your findings to inform design decisions

The number of participants can make it difficult to take notes or do manual transcriptions. We recommend using a transcription or a specialized UX research tool , such as Maze, that can automatically create ready-to-share reports and highlight key user insights.

Focus groups: A qualitative research example

You’re a UX researcher at FitMe , a fitness app that creates customized daily workouts for gym-goers. Unlike many other apps, FitMe takes into account the previous day’s workout and aims to create one that allows users to effectively rest different muscles.

However, FitMe has an issue. Users are generating workouts but not completing them. They’re accessing the app, taking the necessary steps to get a workout for the day, but quitting at the last hurdle.

Time to talk to users.

You organize a focus group to get to the root of the drop-off issue. You invite five existing users, all of whom have dropped off at the exact point you’re investigating, and ask them questions to uncover why.

A dialog develops:

Participant 1: “Sometimes I’ll get a workout that I just don’t want to do. Sure, it’s a good workout—but I just don’t want to physically do it. I just do my own thing when that happens.”

Participant 2: “Same here, some of them are so boring. I go to the gym because I love it. It’s an escape.”

Participant 3: “Right?! I get that the app generates the best one for me on that specific day, but I wish I could get a couple of options.”

Participant 4: “I’m the same, there are some exercises I just refuse to do. I’m not coming to the gym to do things I dislike.”

Conducting the focus groups and reviewing the transcripts, you realize that users want options. A workout that works for one gym-goer doesn’t necessarily work for the next.

A possible solution? Adding the option to generate a new workout (that still considers previous workouts)and the ability to blacklist certain exercises, like burpees.

3. Ethnographic research

Ethnographic research is a research method that involves observing and interacting with users in a real-life environment. By studying users in their natural habitat, you can understand how your product fits into their daily lives.

Ethnographic research can be active or passive. Active ethnographic research entails engaging with users in their natural environment and then following up with methods like interviews. Passive ethnographic research involves letting the user interact with the product while you note your observations.

When to use ethnographic research

Ethnographic research is best suited when you want rich insights into the context and environment in which users interact with your product. Keep in mind that you can conduct ethnographic research throughout the entire product design and development process —from problem discovery to post-launch. However, it’s mostly done early in the process:

Early concept development: To gain an understanding of your user's day-to-day environment. Observe how they complete tasks and the pain points they encounter. The unique demands of their everyday lives will inform how to design your product.
Initial design phase: Even if you have a firm grasp of the user’s environment, you still need to put your solution to the test. Conducting ethnographic research with your users interacting with your prototype puts theory into practice.

How to conduct ethnographic research:

Recruit users who are reflective of your audience
Meet with them in their natural environment, and tell them to behave as they usually would
Take down field notes as they interact with your product
Engage with your users, ask questions, or host an in-depth interview if you’re doing an active ethnographic study
Collect all your data and analyze it for insights

While ethnographic studies provide a comprehensive view of what potential users actually do, they are resource-intensive and logistically difficult. A common alternative is diary studies. Like ethnographic research, diary studies examine how users interact with your product in their day-to-day, but the data is self-reported by participants.

⚙️ Recruiting participants proving tough and time-consuming? Maze Panel makes it easy, with 400+ filters to find your ideal participants from a pool of 3 million participants.

Ethnographic research: A qualitative research example

You're a UX researcher for a project management platform called ProFlow , and you’re conducting an ethnographic study of the project creation process with key users, including a startup’s COO.

The first thing you notice is that the COO is rushing while navigating the platform. You also take note of the 46 tabs and Zoom calls opened on their monitor. Their attention is divided, and they let out an exasperated sigh as they repeatedly hit “refresh” on your website’s onboarding interface.

You conclude the session with an interview and ask, “How easy or difficult did you find using ProFlow to coordinate a project?”

The COO answers: “Look, the whole reason we turn to project platforms is because we need to be quick on our feet. I’m doing a million things so I need the process to be fast and simple. The actual project management is good, but creating projects and setting up tables is way too complicated.”

You realize that ProFlow ’s project creation process takes way too much time for professionals working in fast-paced, dynamic environments. To solve the issue, propose a quick-create option that enables them to move ahead with the basics instead of requiring in-depth project details.

4. Qualitative observation

Qualitative observation is a similar method to ethnographic research, though not as deep. It involves observing your users in a natural or controlled environment and taking notes as they interact with a product. However, be sure not to interrupt them, as this compromises the integrity of the study and turns it into active ethnographic research.

When to qualitative observation

Qualitative observation is best when you want to record how users interact with your product without anyone interfering. Much like ethnographic research, observation is best done during:

Early concept development: To help you understand your users' daily lives, how they complete tasks, and the problems they deal with. The observations you collect in these instances will help you define a concept for your product.
Initial design phase: Observing how users deal with your prototype helps you test if they can easily interact with it in their daily environments

How to conduct qualitative observation:

Recruit users who regularly use your product
Meet with users in either their natural environment, such as their office, or within a controlled environment, such as a lab
Observe them and take down field notes based on what you notice

Qualitative observation: An qualitative research example

You’re conducting UX research for Stackbuilder , an app that connects businesses with tools ideal for their needs and budgets. To determine if your app is easy to use for industry professionals, you decide to conduct an observation study.

Sitting in with the participant, you notice they breeze past the onboarding process, quickly creating an account for their company. Yet, after specifying their company’s budget, they suddenly slow down. They open links to each tool’s individual page, confusingly switching from one tab to another. They let out a sigh as they read through each website.

Conducting your observation study, you realize that users find it difficult to extract information from each tool’s website. Based on your field notes, you suggest including a bullet-point summary of each tool directly on your platform.

5. Case study research

Case studies are a UX research method that provides comprehensive and contextual insights into a real-world case over a long period of time. They typically include a range of other qualitative research methods, like interviews, observations, and ethnographic research. A case study allows you to form an in-depth analysis of how people use your product, helping you uncover nuanced differences between your users.

When to use case studies

Case studies are best when your product involves complex interactions that need to be tracked over a longer period or through in-depth analysis. You can also use case studies when your product is innovative, and there’s little existing data on how users interact with it.

As for specific phases in the product design and development process:

Initial design phase: Case studies can help you rigorously test for product issues and the reasons behind them, giving you in-depth feedback on everything between user motivations, friction points, and usability issues
Post-launch phase: Continuing with case studies after launch can give you ongoing feedback on how users interact with the product in their day-to-day lives. These insights ensure you can meet shifting user expectations with product updates and future iterations

How to conduct case studies:

Outline an objective for your case study such as examining specific user tasks or the overall user journey
Select qualitative research methods such as interviews, ethnographic studies, or observations
Collect and analyze your data for comprehensive insights
Include your findings in a report with proposed solutions

Case study research: A qualitative research example

Your team has recently launched Pulse , a platform that analyzes social media posts to identify rising digital marketing trends. Pulse has been on the market for a year, and you want to better understand how it helps small businesses create successful campaigns.

To conduct your case study, you begin with a series of interviews to understand user expectations, ethnographic research sessions, and focus groups. After sorting responses and observations into common themes you notice a main recurring pattern. Users have trouble interpreting the data from their dashboards, making it difficult to identify which trends to follow.

With your synthesized insights, you create a report with detailed narratives of individual user experiences, common themes and issues, and recommendations for addressing user friction points.

Some of your proposed solutions include creating intuitive graphs and summaries for each trend study. This makes it easier for users to understand trends and implement strategic changes in their campaigns.

6. Secondary research

Secondary research is a research method that involves collecting and analyzing documents, records, and reviews that provide you with contextual data on your topic. You’re not connecting with participants directly, but rather accessing pre-existing available data. For example, you can pull out insights from your UX research repository to reexamine how they apply to your new UX research objective.

Strictly speaking, it can be both qualitative and quantitative—but today we focus on its qualitative application.

When to use secondary research

Record keeping is particularly useful when you need supplemental insights to complement, validate, or compare current research findings. It helps you analyze shifting trends amongst your users across a specific period. Some other scenarios where you need record keeping include:

Initial discovery or exploration phase: Secondary research can help you quickly gather background information and data to understand the broader context of a market
Design and development phase: See what solutions are working in other contexts for an idea of how to build yours

Secondary research is especially valuable when your team faces budget constraints, tight deadlines, or limited resources. Through review mining and collecting older findings, you can uncover useful insights that drive decision-making throughout the product design and development process.

How to conduct secondary research:

Outline your UX research objective
Identify potential data sources for information on your product, market, or target audience. Some of these sources can include: a. Review websites like Capterra and G2 b. Social media channels c. Customer service logs and disputes d. Website reviews e. Reports and insights from previous research studies f. Industry trends g. Information on competitors
Analyze your data by identifying recurring patterns and themes for insights

Secondary research: A qualitative research example

SafeSurf is a cybersecurity platform that offers threat detection, security audits, and real-time reports. After conducting multiple rounds of testing, you need a quick and easy way to identify remaining usability issues. Instead of conducting another resource-intensive method, you opt for social listening and data mining for your secondary research.

Browsing through your company’s X, you identify a recurring theme: many users without a background in tech find SafeSurf ’s reports too technical and difficult to read. Users struggle with understanding what to do if their networks are breached.

After checking your other social media channels and review sites, the issue pops up again.

With your gathered insights, your team settles on introducing a simplified version of reports, including clear summaries, takeaways, and step-by-step protocols for ensuring security.

By conducting secondary research, you’ve uncovered a major usability issue—all without spending large amounts of time and resources to connect with your users.

7. Open-ended surveys

Open-ended surveys are a type of unmoderated UX research method that involves asking users to answer a list of qualitative research questions designed to uncover their attitudes, expectations, and needs regarding your service or product. Open-ended surveys allow users to give in-depth, nuanced, and contextual responses.

When to use open-ended surveys

User surveys are an effective qualitative research method for reaching a large number of users. You can use them at any stage of the design and product development process, but they’re particularly useful:

When you’re conducting generative research : Open-ended surveys allow you to reach a wide range of users, making them especially useful during initial research phases when you need broad insights into user experiences
When you need to understand customer satisfaction: Open-ended customer satisfaction surveys help you uncover why your users might be dissatisfied with your product, helping you find the root cause of their negative experiences
In combination with close-ended surveys: Get a combination of numerical, statistical insights and rich descriptive feedback. You’ll know what a specific percentage of your users think and why they think it.

How to conduct open-ended surveys:

Design your survey and draft out a list of survey questions
Distribute your surveys to respondents
Analyze survey participant responses for key themes and patterns
Use your findings to inform your design process

Open-ended surveys: A qualitative research example

You're a UX researcher for RouteReader , a comprehensive logistics platform that allows users to conduct shipment tracking and route planning. Recently, you’ve launched a new predictive analytics feature that allows users to quickly identify and prepare for supply chain disruptions.

To better understand if users find the new feature helpful, you create an open-ended, in-app survey.

The questions you ask your users:

“What has been your experience with our new predictive analytics feature?"
“Do you find it easy or difficult to rework your routes based on our predictive suggestions?”
“Does the predictive analytics feature make planning routes easier? Why or why not?”

Most of the responses are positive. Users report using the predictive analytics feature to make last-minute adjustments to their route plans, and some even rely on it regularly. However, a few users find the feature hard to notice, making it difficult to adjust their routes on time.

To ensure users have supply chain insights on time, you integrate the new feature into each interface so users can easily spot important information and adjust their routes accordingly.

💡 Surveys are a lot easier with a quality survey tool. Maze’s Feedback Surveys solution has all you need to ensure your surveys get the insights you need—including AI-powered follow-up and automated reports.

Qualitative research vs. quantitative research: What’s the difference?

Alongside qualitative research approaches, UX teams also use quantitative research methods. Despite the similar names, the two are very different.

Here are some of the key differences between qualitative research and quantitative research .

Research type
Qualitative research			.
Quantitative research

Before selecting either qualitative or quantitative methods, first identify what you want to achieve with your UX research project. As a general rule of thumb, think qualitative data collection for in-depth understanding and quantitative studies for measurement and validation.

Conduct qualitative research with Maze

You’ll often find that knowing the what is pointless without understanding the accompanying why . Qualitative research helps you uncover your why.

So, what about how —how do you identify your 'what' and your 'why'?

The answer is with a user research tool like Maze.

Maze is the leading user research platform that lets you organize, conduct, and analyze both qualitative and quantitative research studies—all from one place. Its wide variety of UX research methods and advanced AI capabilities help you get the insights you need to build the right products and experiences faster.

Frequently asked questions about qualitative research examples

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is a research method that aims to provide contextual, descriptive, and non-numerical insights on a specific issue. Qualitative research methods like interviews, case studies, and ethnographic studies allow you to uncover the reasoning behind your user’s attitudes and opinions.

Can a study be both qualitative and quantitative?

Absolutely! You can use mixed methods in your research design, which combines qualitative and quantitative approaches to gain both descriptive and statistical insights.

For example, user surveys can have both close-ended and open-ended questions, providing comprehensive data like percentages of user views and descriptive reasoning behind their answers.

Is qualitative or quantitative research better?

The choice between qualitative and quantitative research depends upon your research goals and objectives.

Qualitative research methods are better suited when you want to understand the complexities of your user’s problems and uncover the underlying motives beneath their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Quantitative research excels in giving you numerical data, helping you gain a statistical view of your user's attitudes, identifying trends, and making predictions.

What are some approaches to qualitative research?

There are many approaches to qualitative studies. An approach is the underlying theory behind a method, and a method is a way of implementing the approach. Here are some approaches to qualitative research:

Grounded theory: Researchers study a topic and develop theories inductively
Phenomenological research: Researchers study a phenomenon through the lived experiences of those involved
Ethnography: Researchers immerse themselves in organizations to understand how they operate

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131 Interesting Qualitative Research Topics For High Scoring Thesis

Qualitative research topics are undoubtedly not easy. While statistics enthralls some students, others don’t like the subject. That’s because qualitative assignments entail cognitive analysis, which complicates them. But apart from the hardships of completing the projects, selecting topics for qualitative research papers is also a challenge.

This article presents a list of 130-plus qualitative research topic ideas to help learners that struggle to get titles for their papers. It is helpful because many learners have difficulties picking titles that will make their essays impressive to educators. But before presenting the topics, this article defines qualitative research.

What Is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is an investigative and innovative abstract data analysis. When writing a qualitative research paper, a learner analyzes intangible data. Qualitative researchers code the data after or during collection. Therefore, having top-notch research topics is necessary for a first-class essay.

Knowing how to write a qualitative research paper is vital because it helps the student deliver a copy that provides a clear picture of an event or situation. A researcher can achieve this via practical experience, reliable reporting, and conversations. Gathering raw data is the initial step in qualitative research. A researcher can gather raw data by conducting reviews, observations, and surveys. Also, researchers can use creative methods to collect data.

Best Examples Of Qualitative Research Topics

Qualitative research covers many things. Here are examples of topics that learners can explore in their qualitative study.

What causes stigma around some health challenges?
Stigma facing the people living with disabilities- What is the cause?
Can Pro Bono legal assistance improve the criminal justice system?
How the less privileged can benefit from Pro Bono services
The educational challenges facing rural children- Are there ways to help them?
Child labor causes- How to mitigate the practice
Substance and drugs- What are young people abusing more?
How alcohol affects college students
Can food insecurity interfere with children’s performance in school?
Food banks intricacies- Understanding the challenge in low-income areas
Free education- Does it have socioeconomic benefits?
Culture and female harm- What’s the connection?
The impact of social media on physical and social engagement among teens in urban areas
Using medication to treat depression- What are the health benefits?
Investigating peer educators’ efficiency in creating awareness of health and social issues
Gender-based violence- What causes it in rural areas, and how does it affect victims?
Sexual reproductive health challenges of child brides- Are there ways to control it?
Investigating the causes of school dropout among teenagers
How to address school dropout among young adults
Investigating the deteriorating academic pursuit in Third-World countries
Social activities- Do they have benefits for depressed people?
Investigating cerebral palsy and the stigma that people associate with it.
Living with disabilities- Are there social implications?
The impact of ableism on disabled people
Exploring the promotion and benefits of feminist values
Why should society promote free education in all learning environments?
What causes food insecurities among low-income earners?
Food and housing insecurity- What are the root causes?
What are the effects of displacement- Investigating the homeless people’s mental health

These are good examples of qualitative research topics. However, a student that picks a title in this category should research it extensively to impress the educator with their work.

Qualitative Nursing Research Topics

Professors ask students to write about qualitative topics when pursuing nursing studies. Here are issues to consider in this category.

How does the nurse-patient relationship affect health outcomes?
How can nurses deal with complex patients?
How can nurses provide culturally competent care?
How do personal beliefs affect nursing practice?
What is the impact of spirituality on nursing care?
How does the nurse’s role change when working with terminally ill patients?
What challenges do nurses face when providing end-of-life care?
How can nurses best support families whose members have serious illnesses?
What are the unique challenges of caring for elderly patients?
How does the nurse’s role change when working in a hospice setting?
Health outreach programs- What are the most effective ways to execute them?
Effective methods of curbing drug abuse
Effective ways to help rape survivors
How can nurses administer care to female genital mutilation victims?
How to care for special needs individuals
Anxiety and depression symptoms
Methods of administering care to Dyslexia patients
How to help individuals dealing with mental disorders
Signs of Alzheimer’s disease in older people
How to provide primary patient care

These are good qualitative research topics for students pursuing nursing studies. Nevertheless, learners must research any of these titles before writing their papers.

Qualitative Research Topics In Education

Most topics spring up from the education niche despite fitting other specifications. Here are examples of qualitative research topics that include the education niche.

Are guidance and counseling essential in schools?
How computer literacy affects education
Why governments in developing schools should encourage adult education
Autistic children’s education- Which learning style suits them?
Is mental health education relevant in the modern school curriculum?
Exploring the learning conditions for kids in third world countries
Child education and food insecurity- What is the connection?
The impact of virtual learning on high school students
How does alcoholism affect a student and their education?
Homeschooling- What are its advantages and disadvantages?
How do teachers’ beliefs about intelligence affect their teaching?
What is the teacher’s role in developing a student’s self-concept?
Does race or ethnicity play a role in how teachers treat their students?
What are the teachers’ experiences with teaching students with special needs?
What methods do effective teachers use to motivate their students?
What are the most effective ways to teach reading and writing?
How does technology use affect how teachers teach, and students learn?
What are the challenges faced by teachers in rural areas?
What are the challenges faced by teachers in urban areas?
How do charter schools differ from traditional public schools?

Many topics and issues in the education system allow learners to find subjects to investigate and cover in their papers quickly. And this is not an exhaustive qualitative research topic list in this field. Nevertheless, it covers the most exciting ideas to explore.

Qualitative Research Topics In Public Health

Educators ask students to write academic papers while studying the public health sector. And this provides insights into crucial and relevant aspects of this sector. Here are qualitative research topics examples in this category.

How does the public health sector manage epidemics?
The role of public health in disaster management
Evaluating the effectiveness of public health campaigns
An analysis of the factors that hinder effective public health delivery
Access to healthcare: A study of rural and urban populations
Health needs assessment of refugees
Mental health support within the public health sector
The role of technology in public health
Understanding and addressing health disparities
Sexual and reproductive health rights in the public health discourse
How immunization benefits people in rural areas
What causes water-borne diseases, and how can society mitigate them?
Symptoms of high blood pressure among young people
How antenatal care helps pregnant women
How to boost breast cancer awareness

These are excellent qualitative research paper topics in the public health sector. Nevertheless, learners need sufficient time and resources to investigate their preferred titles in this category to write winning papers.

Qualitative Research Topics In Project Management

Project management writing focuses on ways to achieve results and goals while basing the achievement on the process. This subject covers planning, structuring, proffering, and controlling ways to execute plans to accomplish desired goals. Here are research topics for qualitative research in project management.

How effective communication strategies can impact the outcome of a project
How different leadership styles affect team productivity during a project
The role of conflict management in ensuring successful project outcomes
Gender differences in the perception and understanding of project risk
The impact of organizational culture on a project’s likelihood of success
How different project management methodologies affect its outcome
The effect of stakeholder involvement on project success
How to manage virtual teams effectively to ensure successful project outcomes
What motivates project managers to achieve successful results?
How can project managers create a positive work environment that leads to successful outcomes?
What challenges do project managers face when trying to achieve successful outcomes?
How can project management be used to achieve social change?
What are the ethical implications of project management?
What are the global impacts of project management?
Ways to achieve sustainable development through project management

These are topics to explore in project management. Nevertheless, learners need adequate time to investigate their chosen titles and write winning essays.

Qualitative Research Topics In Political Science

Qualitative research can also cover political science. Investigating this field enables people to understand it better and can be broad. Here are sample titles to consider in for your scientific thesis .

How do social media affect the way people engage with politics?
What motivates people to vote?
How does voting behavior change over time?
What are the consequences of gerrymandering?
How does campaign finance influence elections?
Interest groups- What is their role in politics?
How do the media cover politics?
What are the effects of political scandals?
How does public opinion influence policymakers?
How feminism enhanced the American politics
The adverse effects of misrepresentation
The American democracy- A look into its dimensions
Colorism, racism, and classism- How the American ideologies differ
What causes an election crisis?
Two-party system- What challenges does it face in America?
Black women’s inclusion in the American politics
Should America have a multi-party system?
Why mass media matters in politics’ scrutiny and promotion

While political science is a broad field, these narrow topics help learners handle their research effectively. Pick any of these ideas to write a winning essay.

Topics For Ethnography Qualitative Research

Ethnographic research entails studying and paying attention to society and describing it. Here are topics to consider for a research paper in this field.

Studying a subculture: Reasons people join and stay in gangs
How does social media use vary by culture?
An ethnographic study of a homeless shelter or soup kitchen
Understanding the lives of sex workers through ethnography
The impact of religion on family life
How does parenting vary between cultures?
How do children learn and socialize in different cultures?
What is the effect of migration on family life?
What are the experiences of refugees?- An explorative case study
What is the impact of poverty on family life?
How do people in different cultures understand and experience mental illness?
What is the role of the family in other cultures?
What are the end-of-life experiences and beliefs around death in different cultures?

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3 Qualitative Research Methods You Should Know

Imagine that you want to understand why your mother loves making pancakes for breakfast. You could sneak around the kitchen, tracking when and how she makes pancakes, or you could just sit down and have a chat with her. Most people would agree that the chat will give a much better answer.

If you want to understand people’s beliefs or thoughts, numbers (i.e. quantitative research) don’t always give the full picture. Interactions or conversations with people (i.e. qualitative research) often help researchers gain deeper insights into why people do what they do.

What is qualitative research?

“Conversations with people” isn’t very specific, so let’s go a little deeper. By definition, qualitative research is an inquiry into the way people interpret a certain social condition around them. It usually involves interviews or conversations, which produce non-numerical data. An example of qualitative research is identifying how effective a government welfare program is by talking to the people directly affected by it.

Qualitative research is often time intensive, primarily because it requires collecting data by interacting with people over long periods of time. Then, after collecting data, analyzing conversations and bringing out insights is also time consuming.

Qualitative research is useful in two situations:

When research questions need to be sharpened: In the beginning of any study, researchers may only have a rough idea what they want to collect data on and how they can collect that data. Using qualitative research can help researchers understand their problem, zero in on their hypothesis, and create a design for further research (either qualitative or quantitative) as the study unfolds.
When you need detailed description of an issue: For complex issues, simple statistics may show what is happening, but not why it’s happening. In these scenario, qualitative research is helpful for exploring social conditions and explaining them in detail. For example, quantitative data may show how many girls drop out of school, but qualitative data can help researchers understanding the barriers that stop parents from sending girls to school.

There are several different qualitative research methods. Which method you should use depends on what you’re trying to achieve. However, the three most commonly used qualitative research methods are in-depth interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs) and observation.

Method 1: In-depth interviews

What is an in-depth interview.

One-to-one interviews are the most commonly used qualitative research method. They are semi-structured, which means that the questions to be asked and issues to be addressed are fluid and take shape as the interview unfolds.

How long do in-depth interviews take?

An in-depth interview may last 60–90 minutes and is conducted face to face.

Do participants need to give their permission?

Yes. Participation must be voluntary, and each person must give informed consent before they participate in an interview.

When are in-depth interviews useful?

In-depth interviews are ideal in situations where:

The research topic is complex. (For example, what factors affect whether men of a certain strata use contraceptives?)
The research topic is sensitive. (For example, understanding the prevalence of alcoholism among a group of people.)
The study requires detailed information.

In-depth interviews can be used at any stage of research. For example, they can be conducted in the beginning of a program to explore hypotheses and set the research plan, in the middle to benchmark the program’s progress, or at the end to understand the effectiveness of a program’s implementation.

Who should interview participants?

Highly skilled interviewers are important for effective in-depth interviews. It is critical that interviewers are sensitive, empathic, and able to establish a comfortable environment for interviewees.

Interviewers should also have a deep understanding of both the topic under study and the research objectives, so they can ask questions that provide relevant and actionable insights. Poor interviewing skills, poor phrasing of questions, or inadequate knowledge of the subject’s culture or frame of reference may result in data that isn’t accurate or useful.

While selecting interviewers, researchers may also need to weigh personal characteristics that will make interviewees more comfortable with interviewers. For example, age, sex and profession may be important characteristics.

How should researchers prepare for in-depth interviews?

In-depth interviews typically start with open-ended questions , then interviewers use further questions to probe into different topics. The interviewer should have a guide prepared with a list of issues that are to be explored along with some suitable questions or probes for each issue.

How should researchers collect data during in-depth interviews?

The interview should be recorded. Preferably, it should also be transcribed immediately so that invisible information such as body language and expressions are not lost in the annals of time.

Advantages of in-depth interviews

Yield rich data and new insights
Allow face-to-face interaction
Allow in-depth conversation about the topic being studied
Can capture both affective and cognitive aspects
Give the interviewer the opportunity to clarify or explain the question/topic for better responses

Limitations of in-depth interviews

Costly and time-consuming
Require highly trained interviewers
May obtain a massive amount of information, which makes transcription and data analysis difficult
Create exploratory, not conclusive, results. This means that their findings usually cannot be generalized for the entire population.

Method 2: Focus group discussions (FGDs)

What is a fgd.

Focus group discussions are another common qualitative research method. In a focus group discussion, an interviewer talks to a group of people about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs and attitudes towards an idea, concept, service, product, etc. The participants are usually a group of people who are similar in some way, such as their income, education, or occupation. This helps the participants feel more comfortable with one another.

How many people are involved in an FGD?

A typical focus group has anywhere between 6 to 12 participants, and it’s usually best to carry out at least 3 FGDs. Talking with multiple groups leads to more in-depth or diverse information.

How long do FGDs take?

An FGD should be 60–90 minutes. If the FGD is shorter than 60 minutes, it is often difficult to fully explore the discussion topic. If the FGD is longer than 90 minutes, the discussion can become unproductive (as participants get weary) and the discussion can start to impose on participants’ time.

Yes. Researchers must get informed consent for all participants. Participation should be voluntary, though it can be incentivized.

When are FGDs useful?

Focus groups are most useful for:

Identifying and defining problems
Pre-testing topics or ideas to sharpen the research questions
Identifying program strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations
Interpreting quantitative findings
Learning people’s thoughts on project outcomes and impacts
Generating new ideas

In a FGD, the researcher is not trying to make the group reach a consensus. Rather, their goal is to explore different people’s opinions on the topic. Hence, the results of an FGD are exploratory, not conclusive.

Who should conduct an FGD?

A successful FGD requires a skilled moderator. As a moderator, it is important to ensure that all participants are comfortable and engaged with the discussion, and that their opinions are being heard. The following techniques are helpful:

Remain neutral to ensure that everyone feels comfortable expressing their opinion. No nodding or shaking your head, raising eyebrows, agreeing or disagreeing with comments, or praising or denigrating participants.
Elicit further information from shy participants with comments like “Can you tell me more about that?”, “Help me understand what you mean”, or “Can you give an example?”
Deal with dominant participants by acknowledging their opinion and soliciting other opinions. Sentences like “Thank you. What do other people think?” can be helpful.
Paraphrase or summarize long, unclear comments by participants. This shows participants that the moderator is actively listening, and it helps the moderator to ensure he or she has understood the participant’s statement.
Act spontaneously if needed. If the conversation goes in an unexpected, but productive direction, go with it and ask questions that were not on the initial questionnaire. Probe deeper into new topics and ideas, as long as the information being gained is valuable.

Like with in-depth interviews, digital recorders (either audio or video) are a great way to record data during FGDs. The record should be transcribed immediately so its nuances aren’t lost over time.

Advantages of FGDs

Focus groups can often get at perceptions, attitudes, and experiences better than a quantitative survey.
They allows in-depth conversation about the topic
Unlike a paper survey, FGDs gives researchers the opportunity to clarify or explain the question or topic for better responses.
When participants discuss a topic with one another, they can become more active and engaged, which leads to more data. However, the moderator plays a key role in probing and ensuring participation.

Limitations of FGDs

It is important to realize that there are two key limitations to FGDs:

Since FGD data is qualitative, it cannot necessarily be generalized to the population. This is because qualitative data is often context-specific.
Moderators must ensure that they don’t show any bias. This will veer the trajectory of the conversation. Moderators must also be be active in ensuring that active participants do not overpower subdued participants during the discussion.

Looking to conduct an FGD? Keep reading for more information on how to make it successful.

qualitative research methods, observation, observational data, observational research

Method 3: Observations

What is observation.

Observation is a qualitative research method where researchers gather data by observing people’s behavior or events in their natural setting.

There are 2 main types of observation:

Covert : No one knows they are being observed and the observer is concealed. For example, a researcher trying to understand the rituals and ceremonies of Hindu weddings may conceal himself as a guest to observe what’s happening.
Overt : Everyone knows they are being observed. For example, a researcher on Hindu weddings may explain his study to the wedding party and use a video camera to record the wedding.

Usually, overt observations are preferable, because observing people without their knowledge or permission can raise ethical problems.

Covert vs. overt aren’t the only types of observation. There’s also direct vs. indirect, simple vs. behavioral, and participant vs. non-participant. Learn more about each type here.

For overt observation, informed consent must be obtained from participants before any observational data is gathered.

When is observation useful?

Observations are most useful when:

You are trying to understand an ongoing process or situation.
You are gathering data on individual behaviors or interactions between people.
Collecting data from people is not realistic. If respondents are unwilling or unable to provide data through questionnaires or interviews, observation is a method that requires little from participants.

How should researchers prepare for observation?

The research questions or processes being observed must be well structured — that is, the parameters to be observed must be clearly defined. For example, a researcher observing students in class should have precise things to observe, like the number of students asleep within the first five minutes or students’ level of engagement throughout the class. Selecting specific focus areas or questions helps make the collected data more accurate and relevant to the research question.

In addition, it is critical that to schedule observations so they overlap with whatever is being observed. For example, if you’re trying to observe noon music classes at a school, observations shouldn’t be scheduled for 2 pm. This requires advance planning.

Who should conduct observation?

Observers must be well-trained on the data collection process, and must be focused on producing effective, useful and unbiased insights. Observers can be the researchers themselves, or researchers can train other people (such as students, interns, research assistants or stakeholders) to act as observers.

How should researchers collect data during observation?

The right data collection technique depends on what information is being collected. Here are a few ways to collect data through observation.

Recording sheets and checklists: a list of both pre-set questions and responses. They are the most standardized way of collecting observation data.
Observation guides: lists of the interactions, processes, or behaviors to be observed, with space to record open-ended narrative data.
Field notes: open-ended narrative data that can be written (on paper or digitally) or dictated (on a tape recorder). This is the least standardized way of collecting observation data, since it doesn’t include preset questions or responses.

Using digital tools (such as a data collection app, tape recorder, laptop, camera, or video camera) can make it much easier and quicker to collect observational data.

Advantages of observation

It allows researchers to collect first-hand data from where the activity is happening.
Researchers can get answers from groups that don’t have the time or willingness to answer questions.

Limitations of observation

The insights are susceptible to researcher bias .
Observation can be expensive and time consuming.
Overt observation may lead to the Hawthorne effect, where people tend to behave better when they know they’re being observed. In covert observation, this may not be the case.

Planning to do observations? Learn more about when and how to collect observational data.

Summing it up

Qualitative research is one of the best tools to identify behaviors and patterns governing social conditions. It goes a step beyond quantitative data by providing the reasons and rationale behind a phenomenon, which often cannot be explored quantitatively.

The qualitative research methods above (in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and observation) are most commonly used for collecting qualitative data. However, lesser-known qualitative research methods include literature and document review of existing material on the research topic. These can be helpful for identifying if the research questions have been partly or fully answered in the past.

Image credits: Rawpixel , Samule Sun , Antenna , and The Climate Reality Project

3 Myths About Paper-Based Data Collection

A Complete Guide to Quantitative Research Methods

18 Data Validations That Will Help You Collect Accurate Data

Qualitative research helps in capturing data from hidden place but the researchers should have extensive knowledge on the issues to be investigated and skills on keeping the discussion interesting for both respondents and researchers.

Very useful for research

Useful and practical guidance. Thank you.

The information is very important for the researchers. It clearly states how researchers conduct qualitative studies. I would be happy if you send me a few typical phases in conducting qualitative case studies in classroom situations.

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Criteria for Good Qualitative Research: A Comprehensive Review

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Published: 18 September 2021
Volume 31 , pages 679–689, ( 2022 )

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Drishti Yadav ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2974-0323 1

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This review aims to synthesize a published set of evaluative criteria for good qualitative research. The aim is to shed light on existing standards for assessing the rigor of qualitative research encompassing a range of epistemological and ontological standpoints. Using a systematic search strategy, published journal articles that deliberate criteria for rigorous research were identified. Then, references of relevant articles were surveyed to find noteworthy, distinct, and well-defined pointers to good qualitative research. This review presents an investigative assessment of the pivotal features in qualitative research that can permit the readers to pass judgment on its quality and to condemn it as good research when objectively and adequately utilized. Overall, this review underlines the crux of qualitative research and accentuates the necessity to evaluate such research by the very tenets of its being. It also offers some prospects and recommendations to improve the quality of qualitative research. Based on the findings of this review, it is concluded that quality criteria are the aftereffect of socio-institutional procedures and existing paradigmatic conducts. Owing to the paradigmatic diversity of qualitative research, a single and specific set of quality criteria is neither feasible nor anticipated. Since qualitative research is not a cohesive discipline, researchers need to educate and familiarize themselves with applicable norms and decisive factors to evaluate qualitative research from within its theoretical and methodological framework of origin.

Good Qualitative Research: Opening up the Debate

Beyond qualitative/quantitative structuralism: the positivist qualitative research and the paradigmatic disclaimer.

What is Qualitative in Research

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

“… It is important to regularly dialogue about what makes for good qualitative research” (Tracy, 2010 , p. 837)

To decide what represents good qualitative research is highly debatable. There are numerous methods that are contained within qualitative research and that are established on diverse philosophical perspectives. Bryman et al., ( 2008 , p. 262) suggest that “It is widely assumed that whereas quality criteria for quantitative research are well‐known and widely agreed, this is not the case for qualitative research.” Hence, the question “how to evaluate the quality of qualitative research” has been continuously debated. There are many areas of science and technology wherein these debates on the assessment of qualitative research have taken place. Examples include various areas of psychology: general psychology (Madill et al., 2000 ); counseling psychology (Morrow, 2005 ); and clinical psychology (Barker & Pistrang, 2005 ), and other disciplines of social sciences: social policy (Bryman et al., 2008 ); health research (Sparkes, 2001 ); business and management research (Johnson et al., 2006 ); information systems (Klein & Myers, 1999 ); and environmental studies (Reid & Gough, 2000 ). In the literature, these debates are enthused by the impression that the blanket application of criteria for good qualitative research developed around the positivist paradigm is improper. Such debates are based on the wide range of philosophical backgrounds within which qualitative research is conducted (e.g., Sandberg, 2000 ; Schwandt, 1996 ). The existence of methodological diversity led to the formulation of different sets of criteria applicable to qualitative research.

Among qualitative researchers, the dilemma of governing the measures to assess the quality of research is not a new phenomenon, especially when the virtuous triad of objectivity, reliability, and validity (Spencer et al., 2004 ) are not adequate. Occasionally, the criteria of quantitative research are used to evaluate qualitative research (Cohen & Crabtree, 2008 ; Lather, 2004 ). Indeed, Howe ( 2004 ) claims that the prevailing paradigm in educational research is scientifically based experimental research. Hypotheses and conjectures about the preeminence of quantitative research can weaken the worth and usefulness of qualitative research by neglecting the prominence of harmonizing match for purpose on research paradigm, the epistemological stance of the researcher, and the choice of methodology. Researchers have been reprimanded concerning this in “paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging confluences” (Lincoln & Guba, 2000 ).

In general, qualitative research tends to come from a very different paradigmatic stance and intrinsically demands distinctive and out-of-the-ordinary criteria for evaluating good research and varieties of research contributions that can be made. This review attempts to present a series of evaluative criteria for qualitative researchers, arguing that their choice of criteria needs to be compatible with the unique nature of the research in question (its methodology, aims, and assumptions). This review aims to assist researchers in identifying some of the indispensable features or markers of high-quality qualitative research. In a nutshell, the purpose of this systematic literature review is to analyze the existing knowledge on high-quality qualitative research and to verify the existence of research studies dealing with the critical assessment of qualitative research based on the concept of diverse paradigmatic stances. Contrary to the existing reviews, this review also suggests some critical directions to follow to improve the quality of qualitative research in different epistemological and ontological perspectives. This review is also intended to provide guidelines for the acceleration of future developments and dialogues among qualitative researchers in the context of assessing the qualitative research.

The rest of this review article is structured in the following fashion: Sect. Methods describes the method followed for performing this review. Section Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative Studies provides a comprehensive description of the criteria for evaluating qualitative studies. This section is followed by a summary of the strategies to improve the quality of qualitative research in Sect. Improving Quality: Strategies . Section How to Assess the Quality of the Research Findings? provides details on how to assess the quality of the research findings. After that, some of the quality checklists (as tools to evaluate quality) are discussed in Sect. Quality Checklists: Tools for Assessing the Quality . At last, the review ends with the concluding remarks presented in Sect. Conclusions, Future Directions and Outlook . Some prospects in qualitative research for enhancing its quality and usefulness in the social and techno-scientific research community are also presented in Sect. Conclusions, Future Directions and Outlook .

For this review, a comprehensive literature search was performed from many databases using generic search terms such as Qualitative Research , Criteria , etc . The following databases were chosen for the literature search based on the high number of results: IEEE Explore, ScienceDirect, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science. The following keywords (and their combinations using Boolean connectives OR/AND) were adopted for the literature search: qualitative research, criteria, quality, assessment, and validity. The synonyms for these keywords were collected and arranged in a logical structure (see Table 1 ). All publications in journals and conference proceedings later than 1950 till 2021 were considered for the search. Other articles extracted from the references of the papers identified in the electronic search were also included. A large number of publications on qualitative research were retrieved during the initial screening. Hence, to include the searches with the main focus on criteria for good qualitative research, an inclusion criterion was utilized in the search string.

From the selected databases, the search retrieved a total of 765 publications. Then, the duplicate records were removed. After that, based on the title and abstract, the remaining 426 publications were screened for their relevance by using the following inclusion and exclusion criteria (see Table 2 ). Publications focusing on evaluation criteria for good qualitative research were included, whereas those works which delivered theoretical concepts on qualitative research were excluded. Based on the screening and eligibility, 45 research articles were identified that offered explicit criteria for evaluating the quality of qualitative research and were found to be relevant to this review.

Figure 1 illustrates the complete review process in the form of PRISMA flow diagram. PRISMA, i.e., “preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses” is employed in systematic reviews to refine the quality of reporting.

PRISMA flow diagram illustrating the search and inclusion process. N represents the number of records

Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative Studies

Fundamental criteria: general research quality.

Various researchers have put forward criteria for evaluating qualitative research, which have been summarized in Table 3 . Also, the criteria outlined in Table 4 effectively deliver the various approaches to evaluate and assess the quality of qualitative work. The entries in Table 4 are based on Tracy’s “Eight big‐tent criteria for excellent qualitative research” (Tracy, 2010 ). Tracy argues that high-quality qualitative work should formulate criteria focusing on the worthiness, relevance, timeliness, significance, morality, and practicality of the research topic, and the ethical stance of the research itself. Researchers have also suggested a series of questions as guiding principles to assess the quality of a qualitative study (Mays & Pope, 2020 ). Nassaji ( 2020 ) argues that good qualitative research should be robust, well informed, and thoroughly documented.

Qualitative Research: Interpretive Paradigms

All qualitative researchers follow highly abstract principles which bring together beliefs about ontology, epistemology, and methodology. These beliefs govern how the researcher perceives and acts. The net, which encompasses the researcher’s epistemological, ontological, and methodological premises, is referred to as a paradigm, or an interpretive structure, a “Basic set of beliefs that guides action” (Guba, 1990 ). Four major interpretive paradigms structure the qualitative research: positivist and postpositivist, constructivist interpretive, critical (Marxist, emancipatory), and feminist poststructural. The complexity of these four abstract paradigms increases at the level of concrete, specific interpretive communities. Table 5 presents these paradigms and their assumptions, including their criteria for evaluating research, and the typical form that an interpretive or theoretical statement assumes in each paradigm. Moreover, for evaluating qualitative research, quantitative conceptualizations of reliability and validity are proven to be incompatible (Horsburgh, 2003 ). In addition, a series of questions have been put forward in the literature to assist a reviewer (who is proficient in qualitative methods) for meticulous assessment and endorsement of qualitative research (Morse, 2003 ). Hammersley ( 2007 ) also suggests that guiding principles for qualitative research are advantageous, but methodological pluralism should not be simply acknowledged for all qualitative approaches. Seale ( 1999 ) also points out the significance of methodological cognizance in research studies.

Table 5 reflects that criteria for assessing the quality of qualitative research are the aftermath of socio-institutional practices and existing paradigmatic standpoints. Owing to the paradigmatic diversity of qualitative research, a single set of quality criteria is neither possible nor desirable. Hence, the researchers must be reflexive about the criteria they use in the various roles they play within their research community.

Improving Quality: Strategies

Another critical question is “How can the qualitative researchers ensure that the abovementioned quality criteria can be met?” Lincoln and Guba ( 1986 ) delineated several strategies to intensify each criteria of trustworthiness. Other researchers (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016 ; Shenton, 2004 ) also presented such strategies. A brief description of these strategies is shown in Table 6 .

It is worth mentioning that generalizability is also an integral part of qualitative research (Hays & McKibben, 2021 ). In general, the guiding principle pertaining to generalizability speaks about inducing and comprehending knowledge to synthesize interpretive components of an underlying context. Table 7 summarizes the main metasynthesis steps required to ascertain generalizability in qualitative research.

Figure 2 reflects the crucial components of a conceptual framework and their contribution to decisions regarding research design, implementation, and applications of results to future thinking, study, and practice (Johnson et al., 2020 ). The synergy and interrelationship of these components signifies their role to different stances of a qualitative research study.

Essential elements of a conceptual framework

In a nutshell, to assess the rationale of a study, its conceptual framework and research question(s), quality criteria must take account of the following: lucid context for the problem statement in the introduction; well-articulated research problems and questions; precise conceptual framework; distinct research purpose; and clear presentation and investigation of the paradigms. These criteria would expedite the quality of qualitative research.

How to Assess the Quality of the Research Findings?

The inclusion of quotes or similar research data enhances the confirmability in the write-up of the findings. The use of expressions (for instance, “80% of all respondents agreed that” or “only one of the interviewees mentioned that”) may also quantify qualitative findings (Stenfors et al., 2020 ). On the other hand, the persuasive reason for “why this may not help in intensifying the research” has also been provided (Monrouxe & Rees, 2020 ). Further, the Discussion and Conclusion sections of an article also prove robust markers of high-quality qualitative research, as elucidated in Table 8 .

Quality Checklists: Tools for Assessing the Quality

Numerous checklists are available to speed up the assessment of the quality of qualitative research. However, if used uncritically and recklessly concerning the research context, these checklists may be counterproductive. I recommend that such lists and guiding principles may assist in pinpointing the markers of high-quality qualitative research. However, considering enormous variations in the authors’ theoretical and philosophical contexts, I would emphasize that high dependability on such checklists may say little about whether the findings can be applied in your setting. A combination of such checklists might be appropriate for novice researchers. Some of these checklists are listed below:

The most commonly used framework is Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) (Tong et al., 2007 ). This framework is recommended by some journals to be followed by the authors during article submission.

Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR) is another checklist that has been created particularly for medical education (O’Brien et al., 2014 ).

Also, Tracy ( 2010 ) and Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP, 2021 ) offer criteria for qualitative research relevant across methods and approaches.

Further, researchers have also outlined different criteria as hallmarks of high-quality qualitative research. For instance, the “Road Trip Checklist” (Epp & Otnes, 2021 ) provides a quick reference to specific questions to address different elements of high-quality qualitative research.

Conclusions, Future Directions, and Outlook

This work presents a broad review of the criteria for good qualitative research. In addition, this article presents an exploratory analysis of the essential elements in qualitative research that can enable the readers of qualitative work to judge it as good research when objectively and adequately utilized. In this review, some of the essential markers that indicate high-quality qualitative research have been highlighted. I scope them narrowly to achieve rigor in qualitative research and note that they do not completely cover the broader considerations necessary for high-quality research. This review points out that a universal and versatile one-size-fits-all guideline for evaluating the quality of qualitative research does not exist. In other words, this review also emphasizes the non-existence of a set of common guidelines among qualitative researchers. In unison, this review reinforces that each qualitative approach should be treated uniquely on account of its own distinctive features for different epistemological and disciplinary positions. Owing to the sensitivity of the worth of qualitative research towards the specific context and the type of paradigmatic stance, researchers should themselves analyze what approaches can be and must be tailored to ensemble the distinct characteristics of the phenomenon under investigation. Although this article does not assert to put forward a magic bullet and to provide a one-stop solution for dealing with dilemmas about how, why, or whether to evaluate the “goodness” of qualitative research, it offers a platform to assist the researchers in improving their qualitative studies. This work provides an assembly of concerns to reflect on, a series of questions to ask, and multiple sets of criteria to look at, when attempting to determine the quality of qualitative research. Overall, this review underlines the crux of qualitative research and accentuates the need to evaluate such research by the very tenets of its being. Bringing together the vital arguments and delineating the requirements that good qualitative research should satisfy, this review strives to equip the researchers as well as reviewers to make well-versed judgment about the worth and significance of the qualitative research under scrutiny. In a nutshell, a comprehensive portrayal of the research process (from the context of research to the research objectives, research questions and design, speculative foundations, and from approaches of collecting data to analyzing the results, to deriving inferences) frequently proliferates the quality of a qualitative research.

Prospects : A Road Ahead for Qualitative Research

Irrefutably, qualitative research is a vivacious and evolving discipline wherein different epistemological and disciplinary positions have their own characteristics and importance. In addition, not surprisingly, owing to the sprouting and varied features of qualitative research, no consensus has been pulled off till date. Researchers have reflected various concerns and proposed several recommendations for editors and reviewers on conducting reviews of critical qualitative research (Levitt et al., 2021 ; McGinley et al., 2021 ). Following are some prospects and a few recommendations put forward towards the maturation of qualitative research and its quality evaluation:

In general, most of the manuscript and grant reviewers are not qualitative experts. Hence, it is more likely that they would prefer to adopt a broad set of criteria. However, researchers and reviewers need to keep in mind that it is inappropriate to utilize the same approaches and conducts among all qualitative research. Therefore, future work needs to focus on educating researchers and reviewers about the criteria to evaluate qualitative research from within the suitable theoretical and methodological context.

There is an urgent need to refurbish and augment critical assessment of some well-known and widely accepted tools (including checklists such as COREQ, SRQR) to interrogate their applicability on different aspects (along with their epistemological ramifications).

Efforts should be made towards creating more space for creativity, experimentation, and a dialogue between the diverse traditions of qualitative research. This would potentially help to avoid the enforcement of one's own set of quality criteria on the work carried out by others.

Moreover, journal reviewers need to be aware of various methodological practices and philosophical debates.

It is pivotal to highlight the expressions and considerations of qualitative researchers and bring them into a more open and transparent dialogue about assessing qualitative research in techno-scientific, academic, sociocultural, and political rooms.

Frequent debates on the use of evaluative criteria are required to solve some potentially resolved issues (including the applicability of a single set of criteria in multi-disciplinary aspects). Such debates would not only benefit the group of qualitative researchers themselves, but primarily assist in augmenting the well-being and vivacity of the entire discipline.

To conclude, I speculate that the criteria, and my perspective, may transfer to other methods, approaches, and contexts. I hope that they spark dialog and debate – about criteria for excellent qualitative research and the underpinnings of the discipline more broadly – and, therefore, help improve the quality of a qualitative study. Further, I anticipate that this review will assist the researchers to contemplate on the quality of their own research, to substantiate research design and help the reviewers to review qualitative research for journals. On a final note, I pinpoint the need to formulate a framework (encompassing the prerequisites of a qualitative study) by the cohesive efforts of qualitative researchers of different disciplines with different theoretic-paradigmatic origins. I believe that tailoring such a framework (of guiding principles) paves the way for qualitative researchers to consolidate the status of qualitative research in the wide-ranging open science debate. Dialogue on this issue across different approaches is crucial for the impending prospects of socio-techno-educational research.

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150+ Qualitative Research Topics

Even the most successful students sometimes have no clue what topic to choose for their qualitative research or how to organize the process correctly. If you’re facing this problem, our writing ideas generator and post is just what you need. Our qualitative research ideas will be useful to you if you’re searching for something to knock your teacher’s socks off. But before we proceed to the topics themselves, let’s figure out what “qualitative research projects” are.

What are qualitative research projects?

Qualitative research projects are projects that are based on research that involves the collection and analysis of data collected from primary sources. The most common qualitative research methods are focus groups and in-depth interviews. They are aimed at identifying the qualitative, rather than the quantitative, characteristics of people’s behavior. If quantitative research answers the question “How much?”, then using qualitative research we are able to answer the question “Why?” Qualitative research allows you to collect different opinions related to the issue that you’re studying, whether it’s an eating disorder essay , an essay about basketball , or an essay about soccer .

Qualitative research is considered well done when the researchers manage to collect a broad range of existing opinions, even uncommon ones.

Ideas for qualitative research in psychology

What life values do young people pursue in modern society?
Dreams and their meanings.
Eating disorders and anorexia.
The influence of colors on the human brain.
The psychological characteristics of adolescence.
Anxiety problem. How does anxiety affect a person’s life?
The influence of color on a person’s mood.
The effect of noise on the human body.
Bullying and its impact on the socialization of students.
The influence of temperament on the choice of profession in high school.
Teenage delinquency.
Conflict. Types and methods of conflict resolution.
Optics and fine arts.
Personality types.
Causes of stress and their impact on students’ lives.
The meaning of deviant behavior in young children.
Education based around sensory perception.
Enneagram – the path to personality knowledge.
Formation of communication skills in adolescents through sports.
Collective creative activity as a form of organizing leisure activities for middle-aged people.
The causes of smiling.
Interpersonal conflicts among schoolchildren: methods of resolution.
Causes and forms of deviant behavior among adolescents.
High school students’ perception of love.
Flexibility of thinking and ways to develop it.
What does handwriting say about a person?
Experience of loneliness in adolescence.
The influence of the family on the formation of the child’s personality.
The manifestation of aggressiveness in adolescence.
Exams as a stress factor for students.
Anthropomorphism of domestic animals.
Psychogeometry at school.
Twins: the likelihood of commonalities and differences.
Television advertising and children.
The influence of color on the performance of schoolchildren.

Examples of qualitative research topics in social science

Personalized learning: new technologies for individual development of students.
Nations and how they arose.
The influence of social networks on teenagers.
Problems of the modern family and ways to overcome them.
The influence of advertising on consumer preferences of television viewers.
Bank cards in modern society.
Internet in the life of a high school student: pros and cons.
Problems and prospects of youth in the modern world.
Is it possible to accurately predict developments in international relations?
Juvenile crime.
Children’s bank cards.
What will help young people overcome bad habits?
The current most in-demand professions.
Problems of modern families in the USA.
Internet in the life of a teenager: pros and cons.
The influence of a computer on child development.
Subcultures in modern society.
Education in the 21 st century.

How advertising influences people. (You might also want to investigate some finance research topics to get deeper into the issue.)

The role of patriotic education in the formation of the values system of youth.

The meaning of life – how does it vary based on socioeconomic status?
The “punk” subculture.
Intergenerational conflicts and ways to resolve them.
Family closeness compared in urban and rural environments.
Moral foundations of family life.
Political activity of French citizens.
Internet bullying.
Causes of juvenile delinquency.
The threat of terrorism in the 21st century.
Is an army necessary in the modern world?
Demographic situation in modern China.
Values of modern teenagers.
The role and place of the middle child.
The usefulness of social advertising in school.
Rights of a teenager in modern society.
The influence of the media on teenagers.
The influence of audiovisual media on the formation of public opinion of middle-aged and older people.
Women in government.
The problem of choosing a profession.
Current problems of economic security of the USA.
Paying taxes – oppression or citizen duty?
The problem of homeless animals in the USA.
The power of habit.
Past and present: Olympic Games.
The role of diasporas in the political, economic and cultural life of the state.
Nanotechnology – a springboard into the great future of humanity.
Historical literacy of youth.
Is the modern teenager a savvy consumer?

If wondering how to write and structure an essay on education topics, please check a cheerleading research paper sample from our authors.

Qualitative research topics in educatio n

The inner world of a modern schoolchild.
Educational potential of epic texts in developing interest in the history of the motherland.
Educational functions of the media.
Educational potential of folk tales.
Self-knowledge and self-education.
Games’ power in childhood.
The art of living with dignity: the life path and pedagogical creativity of a teacher.
The importance of books in the self-education of an individual.
Family history’s role in the formation of cultural identity.
History of my school: events, teachers, pupils.
My ideal teacher.
Youth and the city.
My school: reality and dream.
On the waves of childhood memories.
Folk traditions in education.
Moral ideals of a modern school graduate.
The lifestyle of a modern high school student.
The image of American teachers in fiction.
The image of a teacher in the history of American education.
The image of a teacher through the eyes of modern students.
Social activities of high school students as a path to profession.
Features of the image of a “good” and “difficult”.
Features of creative imagination in primary schoolchildren.
Features of artistic creativity in the modern teenager.
Pedagogy around us: the civic formation of a growing person in the space of family and school.
Problems of national education in the domestic historical and pedagogical heritage.
The path to yourself: self-knowledge is the key to self-education.
A heart given to children: teachers’ destinies.
Values systems of students and their role in openness to new ideas.
Modern childhood and how it differs from our ancestors’ childhood.
Socialization of children outside the family home.
Social and psychological portrait of a young writer.
The theme of home in the memory of older generations.
Cultural traditions in the family (based on fiction and autobiographical literature).
My first teacher.
Teacher dynasties are a way of interconnecting generations.
Formation of cultural identity and tolerance based on the traditions of the region.
The values of childhood in fiction and poetry (classic and modern).
Values of family and childhood in folk pedagogy.
School is a warm and bright second home.
School of the future.
School brotherhood in memoirs.
“School years”: nostalgia vs reality.
Aesthetic education and how it influences career opportunities.
Ethical code of a teacher: based on the example of the personality of outstanding teachers.

Qualitative research topics examples in English and Literature

Nickname as a special type of modern anthroponyms.
Secrets of global communication.
Abbreviation as a linguistic feature of on-line communication.
Abbreviation in e-mail and on-line games.
Abbreviation in English computer slang.
Alfred the Great and his contribution to the development of the English language.
American English – new trends.
Analysis of print media headlines.
English vocabulary related to church and religion.
English as a global language of communication.
English language as a reflection of the history and identity of the English people.
Biography and creativity of A. Milne.
Biography and work of William Shakespeare.
Biography and work of Lewis Carroll.
Letters of the English alphabet.
The influence of J. Byron’s work on classical literature.
Globalization of the English language and its influence on other languages.

How to choose a qualitative research topic

Student life is a time of discovery and experimentation. This also applies to academic tasks, in particular choosing topics for qualitative research. Who said that all research papers should be tied to familiar and standard qualitative research topic examples? When you address research papers for sale , you can see the unique approach to choosing a topic. Reputable research paper writing services don’t limit themselves to standard subjects and issues to cover in essays they craft for students. Choosing an unusual topic can be your chance to stand out from the rest and show your ability to think outside the box.

Unusual and good qualitative research topics are an opportunity not only to demonstrate originality of thinking, but also to attract the attention of the teacher, and perhaps the entire academic community. They can stimulate your intellectual abilities and make you more interested in research work because you won’t feel limited by traditional approaches.

However, choosing such a topic can be challenging, especially if you collaborate with a research proposal writing service on it and need to decide whether their proposed topic is relevant enough to fit your needs. How does one find a balance between originality and scientific relevance? What qualitative research problems would be interesting but not too difficult to research? In this article, we tried to answer these questions by providing you with a list of unusual topics in various fields.

Once you decide to buy research paper online , you can offer any of them to your assigned writer and ask them to cover it inside and out in the final draft.

Tips for choosing an unusual topic

Choosing an unusual topic among qualitative research titles is a great way to stand out and add a fresh touch to your studies. However, before you dive headfirst, it is important to make sure that the chosen topic is acceptable and feasible. Here are some tips to help you with this:

Assess your interests and knowledge. Remember that the most important thing in working on a paper is your personal interest in the topic. If the topic does not appeal to you, the process will be difficult and tedious. Choose a topic that piques your curiosity and desire to study it.
Check your access to sources. Before you finalize your topic, make sure you have access to enough information. Conduct a preliminary search of sources: books, scientific articles, expert interviews, and so on. Also, you might want to review it via an AI essay checker to ensure it doesn’t sound too superficial and artificial.
Consult with your instructor. Before you begin work on your paper, discuss your chosen topic with your instructor. They can give you valuable advice and help you evaluate the feasibility of your topic
Break your topic down into subtopics. This will help you organize your research better and make it easier to deal with large amounts of work. Each subtopic can become a separate section in your paper.

Choosing an unusual topic can be a great experience that will expand your knowledge and help develop your research skills. Don’t be afraid to experiment and look for new approaches to learning the material!

If writing your paper doesn’t bring you joy, get help on EssayShark. Here, you can pay for a research paper anytime as our writers are able to write the best qualitative research papers fast. Prior to writing, they will conduct thorough research on your topic. Our writers demonstrate that it is possible to write high-quality papers by deadline. They never refuse to help students with whatever writing problems they have.

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Introduction to qualitative research methods – Part I

Shagufta bhangu.

Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, King's College London, London, United Kingdom

Fabien Provost

Carlo caduff.

Qualitative research methods are widely used in the social sciences and the humanities, but they can also complement quantitative approaches used in clinical research. In this article, we discuss the key features and contributions of qualitative research methods.

INTRODUCTION

Qualitative research methods refer to techniques of investigation that rely on nonstatistical and nonnumerical methods of data collection, analysis, and evidence production. Qualitative research techniques provide a lens for learning about nonquantifiable phenomena such as people's experiences, languages, histories, and cultures. In this article, we describe the strengths and role of qualitative research methods and how these can be employed in clinical research.

Although frequently employed in the social sciences and humanities, qualitative research methods can complement clinical research. These techniques can contribute to a better understanding of the social, cultural, political, and economic dimensions of health and illness. Social scientists and scholars in the humanities rely on a wide range of methods, including interviews, surveys, participant observation, focus groups, oral history, and archival research to examine both structural conditions and lived experience [ Figure 1 ]. Such research can not only provide robust and reliable data but can also humanize and add richness to our understanding of the ways in which people in different parts of the world perceive and experience illness and how they interact with medical institutions, systems, and therapeutics.

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Examples of qualitative research techniques

Qualitative research methods should not be seen as tools that can be applied independently of theory. It is important for these tools to be based on more than just method. In their research, social scientists and scholars in the humanities emphasize social theory. Departing from a reductionist psychological model of individual behavior that often blames people for their illness, social theory focuses on relations – disease happens not simply in people but between people. This type of theoretically informed and empirically grounded research thus examines not just patients but interactions between a wide range of actors (e.g., patients, family members, friends, neighbors, local politicians, medical practitioners at all levels, and from many systems of medicine, researchers, policymakers) to give voice to the lived experiences, motivations, and constraints of all those who are touched by disease.

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

In identifying the factors that contribute to the occurrence and persistence of a phenomenon, it is paramount that we begin by asking the question: what do we know about this reality? How have we come to know this reality? These two processes, which we can refer to as the “what” question and the “how” question, are the two that all scientists (natural and social) grapple with in their research. We refer to these as the ontological and epistemological questions a research study must address. Together, they help us create a suitable methodology for any research study[ 1 ] [ Figure 2 ]. Therefore, as with quantitative methods, there must be a justifiable and logical method for understanding the world even for qualitative methods. By engaging with these two dimensions, the ontological and the epistemological, we open a path for learning that moves away from commonsensical understandings of the world, and the perpetuation of stereotypes and toward robust scientific knowledge production.

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Developing a research methodology

Every discipline has a distinct research philosophy and way of viewing the world and conducting research. Philosophers and historians of science have extensively studied how these divisions and specializations have emerged over centuries.[ 1 , 2 , 3 ] The most important distinction between quantitative and qualitative research techniques lies in the nature of the data they study and analyze. While the former focus on statistical, numerical, and quantitative aspects of phenomena and employ the same in data collection and analysis, qualitative techniques focus on humanistic, descriptive, and qualitative aspects of phenomena.[ 4 ]

For the findings of any research study to be reliable, they must employ the appropriate research techniques that are uniquely tailored to the phenomena under investigation. To do so, researchers must choose techniques based on their specific research questions and understand the strengths and limitations of the different tools available to them. Since clinical work lies at the intersection of both natural and social phenomena, it means that it must study both: biological and physiological phenomena (natural, quantitative, and objective phenomena) and behavioral and cultural phenomena (social, qualitative, and subjective phenomena). Therefore, clinical researchers can gain from both sets of techniques in their efforts to produce medical knowledge and bring forth scientifically informed change.

KEY FEATURES AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

In this section, we discuss the key features and contributions of qualitative research methods [ Figure 3 ]. We describe the specific strengths and limitations of these techniques and discuss how they can be deployed in scientific investigations.

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Key features of qualitative research methods

One of the most important contributions of qualitative research methods is that they provide rigorous, theoretically sound, and rational techniques for the analysis of subjective, nebulous, and difficult-to-pin-down phenomena. We are aware, for example, of the role that social factors play in health care but find it hard to qualify and quantify these in our research studies. Often, we find researchers basing their arguments on “common sense,” developing research studies based on assumptions about the people that are studied. Such commonsensical assumptions are perhaps among the greatest impediments to knowledge production. For example, in trying to understand stigma, surveys often make assumptions about its reasons and frequently associate it with vague and general common sense notions of “fear” and “lack of information.” While these may be at work, to make such assumptions based on commonsensical understandings, and without conducting research inhibit us from exploring the multiple social factors that are at work under the guise of stigma.

In unpacking commonsensical understandings and researching experiences, relationships, and other phenomena, qualitative researchers are assisted by their methodological commitment to open-ended research. By open-ended research, we mean that these techniques take on an unbiased and exploratory approach in which learnings from the field and from research participants, are recorded and analyzed to learn about the world.[ 5 ] This orientation is made possible by qualitative research techniques that are particularly effective in learning about specific social, cultural, economic, and political milieus.

Second, qualitative research methods equip us in studying complex phenomena. Qualitative research methods provide scientific tools for exploring and identifying the numerous contributing factors to an occurrence. Rather than establishing one or the other factor as more important, qualitative methods are open-ended, inductive (ground-up), and empirical. They allow us to understand the object of our analysis from multiple vantage points and in its dispersion and caution against predetermined notions of the object of inquiry. They encourage researchers instead to discover a reality that is not yet given, fixed, and predetermined by the methods that are used and the hypotheses that underlie the study.

Once the multiple factors at work in a phenomenon have been identified, we can employ quantitative techniques and embark on processes of measurement, establish patterns and regularities, and analyze the causal and correlated factors at work through statistical techniques. For example, a doctor may observe that there is a high patient drop-out in treatment. Before carrying out a study which relies on quantitative techniques, qualitative research methods such as conversation analysis, interviews, surveys, or even focus group discussions may prove more effective in learning about all the factors that are contributing to patient default. After identifying the multiple, intersecting factors, quantitative techniques can be deployed to measure each of these factors through techniques such as correlational or regression analyses. Here, the use of quantitative techniques without identifying the diverse factors influencing patient decisions would be premature. Qualitative techniques thus have a key role to play in investigations of complex realities and in conducting rich exploratory studies while embracing rigorous and philosophically grounded methodologies.

Third, apart from subjective, nebulous, and complex phenomena, qualitative research techniques are also effective in making sense of irrational, illogical, and emotional phenomena. These play an important role in understanding logics at work among patients, their families, and societies. Qualitative research techniques are aided by their ability to shift focus away from the individual as a unit of analysis to the larger social, cultural, political, economic, and structural forces at work in health. As health-care practitioners and researchers focused on biological, physiological, disease and therapeutic processes, sociocultural, political, and economic conditions are often peripheral or ignored in day-to-day clinical work. However, it is within these latter processes that both health-care practices and patient lives are entrenched. Qualitative researchers are particularly adept at identifying the structural conditions such as the social, cultural, political, local, and economic conditions which contribute to health care and experiences of disease and illness.

For example, the decision to delay treatment by a patient may be understood as an irrational choice impacting his/her chances of survival, but the same may be a result of the patient treating their child's education as a financial priority over his/her own health. While this appears as an “emotional” choice, qualitative researchers try to understand the social and cultural factors that structure, inform, and justify such choices. Rather than assuming that it is an irrational choice, qualitative researchers try to understand the norms and logical grounds on which the patient is making this decision. By foregrounding such logics, stories, fears, and desires, qualitative research expands our analytic precision in learning about complex social worlds, recognizing reasons for medical successes and failures, and interrogating our assumptions about human behavior. These in turn can prove useful in arriving at conclusive, actionable findings which can inform institutional and public health policies and have a very important role to play in any change and transformation we may wish to bring to the societies in which we work.

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Choose Italian and get started with the first lesson (stop once you reach the first question).
Now go all the way through the rest of the first lesson, describing your thoughts as you go.
Get your profile set up, then view your account page. What information and options are there? Do you feel that these are useful? Why or why not?
After a week in Italy, you're going to spend a few days in Austria. How would you take German lessons on Duolingo?
What other languages does the app offer? Do any of them interest you?

I felt like there could have been a little more of an instructional component to the lesson.

It would be cool if there were some feature that could allow two learners studying the same language to take lessons together. I imagine that their screens would be synced and they could go through lessons together and chat along the way.

Overall, the app was very intuitive to use and visually appealing. I also liked the option to connect with others.

Overall, the app seemed very helpful and easy to use. I feel like it makes learning a new language fun and almost like a game. It would be nice, however, if it contained more of an instructional portion.

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25 Essential Qualitative Research Questions with Context

Health and Well-being:

Question: How do individuals with chronic illnesses perceive and manage their overall well-being?

Context: This question aims to explore the subjective experiences of individuals living with chronic illnesses, focusing on their perceptions of well-being and the strategies they employ to manage their health.

Question: What are the experiences of teachers implementing project-based learning in high school science classrooms?

Context: This question delves into the qualitative aspects of teaching practices, seeking to understand the lived experiences of teachers as they implement a specific instructional approach (project-based learning) in a particular academic context (high school science classrooms).

Question: How do marginalized communities perceive and navigate social inclusion in urban environments?

Context: This question addresses the sociological dimensions of social inclusion within urban settings, focusing on the perspectives and strategies of marginalized communities as they navigate societal structures.

Psychology:

Question: What are the coping mechanisms employed by individuals facing post-traumatic stress disorder?

Context: This question explores the psychological experiences of individuals dealing with post-traumatic stress disorder, aiming to uncover the qualitative aspects of coping strategies and mechanisms.

Anthropology:

Question: How does a specific cultural group express identity through traditional rituals and ceremonies?

Context: This anthropological question focuses on cultural practices and rituals as expressions of identity within a specific cultural group, aiming to uncover the meanings and functions of these traditions.

Gender Studies:

Question: What are the lived experiences of transgender individuals in the workplace, particularly regarding inclusion and discrimination?

Context: This question within gender studies explores the qualitative dimensions of transgender individuals’ workplace experiences, emphasizing the nuanced aspects of inclusion and discrimination they may encounter.

Environmental Studies:

Question: How do local communities perceive and respond to environmental conservation efforts in their region?

Context: This question addresses the intersection of environmental studies and sociology, aiming to understand the qualitative perspectives of local communities toward conservation initiatives, exploring their perceptions and responses.

Business and Management:

Question: How do employees perceive leadership styles and their impact on workplace culture?

Context: Within the realm of business and management, this question explores the qualitative aspects of organizational culture, focusing on employees’ perceptions of leadership styles and their influence on the workplace environment.

Technology and Society:

Question: What are the social implications and user experiences of emerging technologies in the context of augmented reality applications?

Context: This question within the field of technology and society investigates the qualitative dimensions of user experiences and social implications related to the adoption of augmented reality applications.

Communication Studies:

Question: How do individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds interpret and respond to media representations of body image?

Context: This question explores the intersection of communication studies and cultural studies, aiming to understand the qualitative variations in how individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds interpret and respond to media depictions of body image.

Political Science:

Question: What are the public perceptions and attitudes toward government policies on climate change?

Context: Within political science, this question delves into the qualitative aspects of public opinion, seeking to understand how individuals perceive and respond to government policies related to climate change.

Cultural Studies:

Question: How do international students experience acculturation and adaptation in a foreign academic environment?

Context: This question within cultural studies explores the qualitative dimensions of acculturation and adaptation, focusing on the experiences of international students within the context of a foreign academic environment.

Family Studies:

Question: How do families navigate and negotiate roles and responsibilities in the context of remote work?

Context: In the domain of family studies, this question addresses the qualitative aspects of family dynamics, examining how families navigate and negotiate roles and responsibilities in the context of remote work.

Public Health:

Question: How do community members perceive and engage with public health campaigns aimed at promoting vaccination in underserved urban areas?

Context: This public health question investigates the qualitative aspects of community perceptions and engagement with vaccination campaigns, particularly in urban areas with limited access to healthcare resources.

Urban Planning:

Question: What are the experiences of residents in gentrifying neighborhoods regarding changes in their community dynamics, affordability, and social cohesion?

Context: Within urban planning, this question explores the qualitative dimensions of gentrification, focusing on residents’ lived experiences and perceptions of neighborhood transformations.

Literature and Cultural Criticism:

Question: How do contemporary authors use literature to critique and challenge societal norms around gender roles and identity?

Context: In the realm of literature and cultural criticism, this question examines the qualitative dimensions of literary works, exploring how authors use their craft to challenge and critique societal norms related to gender.

Social Work:

Question: What are the perceptions of social workers regarding the challenges and opportunities in providing mental health support to homeless populations?

Context: This social work question addresses the qualitative aspects of mental health support within homeless populations, exploring social workers’ perspectives on challenges and opportunities in their roles.

Tourism and Hospitality:

Question: How do tourists from different cultural backgrounds experience and interpret authenticity in local culinary traditions?

Context: Within tourism and hospitality, this question explores the qualitative aspects of cultural experiences, focusing on tourists’ perceptions and interpretations of authenticity in local culinary traditions.

Media and Entertainment:

Question: How do audiences engage with and interpret representations of diverse identities in streaming platforms’ original content?

Context: In the realm of media and entertainment, this question investigates the qualitative dimensions of audience engagement and interpretation of diverse identities in content produced by streaming platforms.

Historical Studies:

Question: What are the narratives and memories of individuals who lived through a significant historical event, and how have these narratives evolved over time?

Context: Within historical studies, this question explores the qualitative aspects of personal narratives and memory, investigating how individuals recall and frame their experiences of a significant historical event.

Linguistics:

Question: How do multilingual individuals navigate language use and identity in diverse linguistic environments?

Context: In the field of linguistics, this question delves into the qualitative dimensions of language use and identity, focusing on how multilingual individuals navigate linguistic diversity in their environments.

Cybersecurity:

Question: What are the perceptions and behaviors of employees in organizations regarding cybersecurity practices, and how do these perceptions influence organizational security?

Context: Within cybersecurity, this question explores the qualitative aspects of employees’ perceptions and behaviors related to cybersecurity practices, examining their impact on organizational security.

Human-Computer Interaction:

Question: How do users experience and adapt to voice-controlled virtual assistants in their daily lives, considering factors such as privacy concerns and usability?

Context: In human-computer interaction, this question investigates the qualitative aspects of user experiences with voice-controlled virtual assistants, considering factors such as privacy concerns and usability challenges.

International Development:

Question: How do local communities perceive and negotiate the impacts of international development projects on their cultural and economic landscapes?

Context: This international development question explores the qualitative dimensions of community perceptions and negotiations regarding the impacts of international development projects, considering cultural and economic factors.

Sport Psychology:

Question: What are the psychological experiences and coping mechanisms of athletes during periods of extended competition hiatus, such as the postponement of major sporting events?

Context: In sport psychology, this question delves into the qualitative aspects of athletes’ psychological experiences and coping mechanisms during extended competition hiatus, such as the postponement of major sporting events.

These additional detailed examples provide a broader perspective on qualitative research questions, covering diverse fields of study and highlighting the nuanced inquiries within each domain.

Interested in learning more about the fields of product, research, and design? Search our articles here for helpful information spanning a wide range of topics!

UX Mapping Methods and How to Create Effective Maps

A guide to the system usability scale (sus) and its scores, what is usability metrics, types best practices & more, jobs to be done (jtbd): definition, framework & applications.

100 Qualitative Research Titles For High School Students

Are you brainstorming for excellent qualitative research titles for your high school curriculum? If yes, then this blog is for you! Academic life throws a lot of thesis and qualitative research papers and essays at you. Although thesis and essays may not be much of a hassle. However, when it comes to your research paper title, you must ensure that it is qualitative, and not quantitative.

Qualitative research is primarily focused on obtaining data through case studies, artifacts, interviews, documentaries, and other first-hand observations. It focuses more on these natural settings rather than statistics and numbers. If you are finding it difficult to find a topic, then worry not because the high schooler has this blog post curated for you with 100 qualitative research titles that can help you get started!

Qualitative research prompts for high schoolers

Qualitative research papers are written by gathering and analyzing non-numerical data. Generally, teachers allot a list of topics that you can choose from. However, if you aren’t given the list, you need to search for a topic for yourself.

Qualitative research topics mostly deal with the happenings in society and nature. There are endless topics that you can choose from. We have curated a list of 100 qualitative research titles for you to choose from. Read on and pick the one that best aligns with your interests!

Why is there a pressing need for wildlife conservation?
Discuss the impacts of climate change on future generations.
Discuss the impact of overpopulation on sustainable resources.
Discuss the factors considered while establishing the first 10 engineering universities in the world.
What is the contribution of AI to emotional intelligence? Explain.
List out the effective methods to reduce the occurrences of fraud through cybercrimes.
With case studies, discuss some of the greatest movements in history leading to independence.
Discuss real-life scenarios of gender-based discrimination.
Discuss disparities in income and opportunities in developing nations.
How to deal with those dealing with ADHD?
Describe how life was before the invention of the air conditioner.
Explain the increasing applications of clinical psychology.
What is psychology? Explain the career opportunities it brings forth for youngsters.
Covid lockdown: Is homeschooling the new way to school children?
What is the role of army dogs? How are they trained for the role?
What is feminism to you? Mention a feminist and his/her contributions to making the world a better place for women.
What is true leadership quality according to you? Explain with a case study of a famous personality you admire for their leadership skills.
Is wearing a mask effective in preventing covid-19? Explain the other practices that can help one prevent covid-19.
Explain how teachers play an important role in helping students with disabilities improve their learning.
Is ‘E business’ taking over traditional methods of carrying out business?
What are the implications of allowing high schoolers to use smartphones in classes?
Does stress have an effect on human behavior?
Explain the link between poverty and education.
With case studies, explain the political instability in developing nations.
Are ‘reality television shows’ scripted or do they showcase reality?
Online vs Offline teaching: which method is more effective and how?
Does there exist an underlying correlation between education and success? Explain with case studies.
Explain the social stigma associated with menstruation.
Are OTT entertainment platforms like Netflix and Amazon Prime beneficial in any other way?
Does being physically active help reverse type 2 diabetes?
Does pop culture influence today’s youth and their behavior?
‘A friend in need is a friend in deed.’ Explain with case studies of famous personalities.
Do books have greater importance in the lives of children from weaker economic backgrounds? Explain in detail.
Give an overview of the rise of spoken arts.
Explain the problem of food insecurity in developing nations.
How related are Windows and Apple products?
Explore the methods used in schools to promote cultural diversity.
Has social media replaced the physical social engagement of children in society?
Give an overview of allopathic medicine in treating mental disorders.
Explain if and how willpower plays a role in overcoming difficulties in life.
Are third-world countries seeing a decline in academic pursuit? Explain with real-life scenarios.
Can animals predict earthquakes in advance? Explain which animals have this ability and how they do it.
Discuss if the education system in America needs to improve. If yes, list out how this can be achieved.
Discuss democracy as a government of the people, by the people, and for the people.’
Discuss the increasing rate of attention deficit disorder among children.
Explain fun games that can help boost the morale of kids with dyslexia.
Explain the causes of youth unemployment.
Explain some of the ways you think might help in making differently-abled students feel inclusive in the mainstream.
Explain in detail the challenges faced by students with special needs to feel included when it comes to accessibility to education.
Discuss the inefficiency of the healthcare system brought about by the covid-19 pandemic.
Does living in hostels instill better life skills among students than those who are brought up at home? Explain in detail.
What is Advanced Traffic Management? Explain the success cases of countries that have deployed it.
Elaborate on the ethnic and socioeconomic reasons leading to poor school attendance in third-world nations.
Do preschoolers benefit from being read to by their parents? Discuss in detail.
What is the significance of oral learning in classrooms?
Does computer literacy promise a brighter future? Analyze.
What people skills are enhanced in a high school classroom?
Discuss in detail the education system in place of a developing nation. Highlight the measures you think are impressive and those that you think need a change.
Apart from the drawbacks of UV rays on the human body, explain how it has proven to be beneficial in treating diseases.
Discuss why or why not wearing school uniforms can make students feel included in the school environment.
What are the effective ways that have been proven to mitigate child labor in society?
Explain the contributions of arts and literature to the evolving world.
How do healthcare organizations cope with patients living with transmissive medical conditions?
Why do people with special abilities still face hardships when it comes to accessibility to healthcare and education?
What are the prevailing signs of depression in small children?
How to identify the occurrences and onset of autism in kids below three years of age?
Explain how SWOT and PESTLE analysis is important for a business.
Why is it necessary to include mental health education in the school curriculum?
What is adult learning and does it have any proven benefits?
What is the importance of having access to libraries in high school?
Discuss the need for including research writing in school curriculums.
Explain some of the greatest non-violent movements of ancient history.
Explain the reasons why some of the species of wildlife are critically endangered today.
How is the growing emission of co2 bringing an unprecedented change in the environment?
What are the consequences of an increasing population in developing nations like India? Discuss in detail.
Are remote tests as effective as in-class tests?
Explain how sports play a vital role in schools.
What do you understand about social activities in academic institutions? Explain how they pose as a necessity for students.
Are there countries providing free healthcare? How are they faring in terms of their economy? Discuss in detail.
State case studies of human lives lost due to racist laws present in society.
Discuss the effect of COVID-19 vaccines in curbing the novel coronavirus.
State what according to you is more effective: e-learning or classroom-based educational systems.
What changes were brought into the e-commerce industry by the COVID-19 pandemic?
Name a personality regarded as a youth icon. Explain his or her contributions in detail.
Discuss why more and more people are relying on freelancing as a prospective career.
Does virtual learning imply lesser opportunities? What is your take?
Curbing obesity through exercise: Analyze.
Discuss the need and importance of health outreach programs.
Discuss in detail how the upcoming generation of youngsters can do its bit and contribute to afforestation.
Discuss the 2020 budget allocation of the United States.
Discuss some of the historic ‘rags to riches’ stories.
What according to you is the role of nurses in the healthcare industry?
Will AI actually replace humans and eat up their jobs? Discuss your view and also explain the sector that will benefit the most from AI replacing humans.
Is digital media taking over print media? Explain with case studies.
Why is there an increasing number of senior citizens in the elderly homes?
Are health insurances really beneficial?
How important are soft skills? What role do they play in recruitment?
Has the keto diet been effective in weight loss? Explain the merits and demerits.
Is swimming a good physical activity to curb obesity?
Is work from home as effective as work from office? Explain your take.

Qualitative research titles for high school students

Tips to write excellent qualitative research papers

Now that you have scrolled through this section, we trust that you have picked up a topic for yourself from our list of 100 brilliant qualitative research titles for high school students. Deciding on a topic is the very first step. The next step is to figure out ways how you can ensure that your qualitative research paper can help you grab top scores.

Once you have decided on the title, you are halfway there. However, deciding on a topic signals the next step, which is the process of writing your qualitative paper. This poses a real challenge!

To help you with it, here are a few tips that will help you accumulate data irrespective of the topic you have chosen. Follow these four simple steps and you will be able to do justice to the topic you have chosen!

Create an outline based on the topic. Jot down the sub-topics you would like to include.
Refer to as many sources as you can – documentaries, books, news articles, case studies, interviews, etc. Make a note of the facts and phrases you would like to include in your research paper.
Write the body. Start adding qualitative data.
Re-read and revise your paper. Make it comprehensible. Check for plagiarism, and proofread your research paper. Try your best and leave no scope for mistakes.

Wrapping it up!

To wrap up, writing a qualitative research paper is almost the same as writing other research papers such as argumentative research papers , English research papers , Biology research papers , and more. Writing a paper on qualitative research titles promotes analytical and critical thinking skills among students. Moreover, it also helps improve data interpretation and writing ability, which are essential for students going ahead.

Having a 10+ years of experience in teaching little budding learners, I am now working as a soft skills and IELTS trainers. Having spent my share of time with high schoolers, I understand their fears about the future. At the same time, my experience has helped me foster plenty of strategies that can make their 4 years of high school blissful. Furthermore, I have worked intensely on helping these young adults bloom into successful adults by training them for their dream colleges. Through my blogs, I intend to help parents, educators and students in making these years joyful and prosperous.

Qualitative Research Questionnaire – Types & Examples

Published by Alvin Nicolas at August 19th, 2024 , Revised On August 20, 2024

Before you start your research, the first thing you need to identify is the research method . Depending on different factors, you will either choose a quantitative or qualitative study.

Qualitative research is a great tool that helps understand the depth and richness of human opinions and experiences. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data , qualitative research allows exploring and interpreting the experiences of the subject. Questionnaires, although mostly associated with quantitative research, can also be a valuable instrument in qualitative studies. Let’s explore what qualitative research questionnaires are and how you can create one.

What Is A Qualitative Research Questionnaire

Qualitative research questionnaires are a structured or semi-structured set of questions designed to gather detailed, open-ended participant responses. It allows you to uncover underlying reasons and opinions and provides insights into a particular phenomenon.

While quantitative questionnaires often have closed-ended questions and numerical responses, a qualitative questionnaire encourages participants to express themselves freely. Before you design your questionnaire, you should know exactly what you need so you can keep your questions specific enough for the participants to understand.

For example:

Describe your experience using our product.
How has technology impacted your work-life balance?

Types of Qualitative Research Questions With Examples

Now that you are familiar with what qualitative research questions are, let’s look at the different types of questions you can use in your survey .

Descriptive Questions

These are used to explore and describe a phenomenon in detail. It helps answer the “what” part of the research, and the questions are mostly foundational.

Example: How do students experience online learning?

Comparative Questions

This type allows you to compare and contrast different groups or situations. You can explore the differences and similarities to highlight the impact of specific variables.

Example: How do the study habits of first-year and fourth-year university students differ?

Interpretive Questions

These questions help you understand the meanings people attach to experiences or phenomena by answering the “how” and “why”.

Example: What does “success” mean to entrepreneurs?

Evaluative Questions

You can use these to assess the quality or value of something. These allow you to understand the outcomes of various situations.

Example: How effective is the new customer service training program?

Process-Oriented Questions

To understand how something happens or develops over time, researchers often use process-oriented questions.

Example: How do individuals develop their career goals?

Exploratory Questions

These allow you to discover new perspectives on a topic. However, you have to be careful that there must be no preconceived notions or research biases to it.

Example: What are the emerging trends in the mobile gaming industry?

How To Write Qualitative Research Questions?

For your study to be successful, it is important to consider designing a questionnaire for qualitative research critically, as it will shape your research and data collection. Here is an easy guide to writing your qualitative research questions perfectly.

Tip 1: Understand Your Research Goals

Many students start their research without clear goals, and they have to make substantial changes to their study in the middle of the research. This wastes time and resources.

Before you start crafting your questions, it is important to know your research objectives. You should know what you aim to discover through your research, or what specific knowledge gaps you are going to fill. With the help of a well-defined research focus, you can develop relevant and meaningful information.

Tip 2: Choose The Structure For Research Questions

There are mostly open-ended questionnaires in qualitative research. They begin with words like “how,” “what,” and “why.” However, the structure of your research questions depends on your research design . You have to consider using broad, overarching questions to explore the main research focus, and then add some specific probes to further research the particular aspects of the topic.

Tip 3: Use Clear Language

The more clear and concise your research questions are, the more effective and free from ambiguity they will be. Do not use complex terminology that might confuse participants. Try using simple and direct language that accurately conveys your intended meaning.

Here is a table to explain the wrong and right ways of writing your qualitative research questions.


How would you characterise your attitude towards e-commerce transactions?	How do you feel about online shopping?
Could you elucidate on the obstacles encountered in your professional role?	What challenges do you face in your job?
What is your evaluation of the innovative product aesthetic?	What do you think about the new product design?
Can you elaborate on the influence of social networking platforms on your interpersonal connections?	How has social media impacted your relationships?

Tip 4: Check Relevance With Research Goals

Once you have developed some questions, check if they align with your research objectives. You must ensure that each question contributes to your overall research questions. After this, you can eliminate any questions that do not serve a clear purpose in your study.

Tip 5: Concentrate On A Single Theme

While it is tempting to cover multiple aspects of a topic in one question, it is best to focus on a single theme per question. This helps to elicit focused responses from participants. Moreover, you have to avoid combining unrelated concepts into a single question.

If your main research question is complicated, you can create sub-questions with a “ladder structure”. These allow you to understand the attributes, consequences, and core values of your research. For example, let’s say your main broad research question is:

How do you feel about your overall experience with our company?

The intermediate questions may be:

What aspects of your experience were positive?
What aspects of your experience were negative?
How likely are you to recommend our company to a friend or colleague?

Types Of Survey Questionnaires In Qualitative Research

It is important to consider your research objectives, target population, resources and needed depth of research when selecting a survey method. The main types of qualitative surveys are discussed below.

Face To Face Surveys

Face-to-face surveys involve direct interaction between the researcher and the participant. This method allows observers to capture non-verbal cues, body language, and facial expressions, and helps adapt questions based on participant responses. They also let you clarify any misunderstandings. Moreover, there is a higher response rate because of personal interaction.

Example: A researcher conducting a study on consumer experiences with a new product might visit participants’ homes to conduct a detailed interview.

Telephone Surveys

These type of qualitative research survey questionnaires provide a less intrusive method for collecting qualitative data. The benefits of telephone surveys include, that it allows you to collect data from a wider population. Moreover, it is generally less expensive than face-to-face interviews and interviews can be conducted efficiently.

Example: A market research firm might conduct telephone surveys to understand customer satisfaction with a telecommunication service.

Online Surveys

Online survey questionnaires are a convenient and cost-effective way to gather qualitative data. You can reach a wide audience quickly, and participants may feel more comfortable sharing sensitive information because of anonymity. Additionally, there are no travel or printing expenses.

Example: A university might use online surveys to explore students’ perceptions of online learning experiences.

Strengths & Limitations Of Questionnaires In Qualitative Research

Questionnaires are undoubtedly a great data collection tool. However, it comes with its fair share of advantages and disadvantages. Let’s discuss the benefits of questionnaires in qualitative research and their cons as well.


Can be inexpensive to distribute and collect	Can suffer from low response rates
Allow researchers to reach a wide audience	There is a lack of control over the environment
Consistent across participants	Once the questionnaire is distributed, it cannot be modified
Anonymity helps make participants feel more comfortable	Participants may not fully understand questions
Open-ended questions provide rich, detailed responses	Open-ended questions may not capture the right answers

Qualitative Research Questionnaire Example

Here is a concise qualitative research questionnaire sample for research papers to give you a better idea of its format and how it is presented.

Thank you for participating in our survey. We value your feedback on our new mobile app. Your responses will help us improve the applications and better meet your needs.

Demographic Information

Occupation:
How long have you been using smartphones:
How would you describe your overall experience with the new mobile app?
What do you like most about the app?
What do you dislike most about the app?
Are there any specific features you find particularly useful or helpful? Please explain.
Are there any features you think are missing or could be improved? Please elaborate.
How easy is the app to navigate? Please explain any difficulties you encountered.
How does this app compare to other similar apps you have used?
What are your expectations for future updates or improvements to the app?
Is there anything else you would like to share about your experience with the app?

Are questionnaires quantitative or qualitative research?

A survey research questionnaire can have both qualitative and quantitative questions. The qualitative questions are mostly open-ended, and quantitative questions take the form of yes/no, or Likert scale rating.

Can we use questionnaires in qualitative research?

Yes, survey questionnaires can be used in qualitative research for data collection. However, instead of a Likert scale or rating, you can post open-ended questions to your respondents. The participants can provide detailed responses to the questions asked.

Why are questionnaires good for qualitative research?

In qualitative research, questionnaires allow you to collect qualitative data. The open-ended and unstructured questions help respondents present their ideas freely and provide insights.

Radiology education for medical students: a qualitative exploration of educational topics, teaching methods and future strategies

Frederike S. Harthoorn 1 , 2 ,
Sascha W. J. Scharenborg 1 , 2 ,
Monique Brink 2 ,
Liesbeth Peters-Bax 2 &
Dylan Henssen 2

BMC Medical Education volume 24 , Article number: 891 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Imaging techniques play a central role in modern medicine and therefore it would be beneficial for all medical students to incorporate radiology education in medical school curricula. However, a formal undergraduate radiology curriculum with well-defined learning objectives remains lacking in The Netherlands. This study aims to qualitatively ascertain opinions from clinicians (radiologists and non-radiologists) with regard to radiology education in the medical school curricula, including topics, teaching methods and strategies.

A qualitative study with in-depth semi-structured interviews was conducted. Inclusion was carried out until saturation was achieved, after which 2 additional interviews were held. Interviews were conducted using open-ended questions, following a predefined topic list. The constant comparative method was applied in order to include new questions when unexpected topics arose during the interviews. All interviews were transcribed verbatim and coded using a thematic analysis approach. Codes were organized into categories and themes by discussion between the researchers.

Forty-four clinicians were interviewed (8 radiologists, 36 non-radiologists). The three main themes that were derived from the interviews were: (1) expectations of indispensable knowledge and skills on radiology, (2) organization of radiology education within the medical curriculum and (3) promising educational innovations for the radiology curriculum. The qualitative study design provides more in-depth knowledge on clinicians’ views on educational topics.

Conclusions

The themes and statements of this study provided new insights into educational methods, timing of radiology education and new topics to teach. More research is needed to gain consensus on these subjects and inclusion of the opinion of medical students with regard to radiology education is needed.

• Radiology education in medical curricula was considered important by all interviewees

• Integrating radiology and anatomy in Longitudinal learning communities (LLC’s) could be a promising educational strategy

• Integration of ultrasound education in medical curricula should be investigated further

Peer Review reports

Imaging technologies play a central role in the practice of modern medicine. Therefore, it is not surprising that previous studies suggest that all medical students would benefit from (basic) knowledge concerning medical imaging technologies and radiology [ 24 , 37 , 63 ]. However, radiology education is not well integrated in the medical curricula [ 21 , 25 , 29 , 37 ] and students’ lacking knowledge can be potentially dangerous [ 19 , 63 ]. In turn, medical students (including interns) and residents reported a lack of confidence when interpreting radiology examinations, including (chest) radiographs [ 19 , 48 ]. Moreover, lacking radiological knowledge was found to be correlated with an overutilization of medical imaging services [ 27 ], leading to increased societal healthcare-related expenses. Consequently, a need for radiology education in medical schools is recognized among teachers, medical students and curriculum designers [ 1 , 29 , 37 , 42 , 44 , 47 , 48 , 52 , 61 ]. Albeit, the learning objectives of such a radiology curriculum remains a topic of debate [ 61 ]. Therefore, proper identification of useful learning objectives for radiology education in medical curricula should be carried out [ 23 , 54 , 60 , 61 ]. The first step of defining learning objectives is to determine which educational topics are important to teach [ 26 , 34 , 60 , 5 ].

When defining these, it is important to identify the opinions of both clinicians (radiologists and non-radiologists) and medical students since both groups influence which topics are considered important to teach during medical school [ 39 ]. Opinions on this topic diverse, due to the fast technological developments in this broad field, which covers nearly every medical discipline for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes [ 23 , 34 , 63 ]. Several studies have previously aimed to determine radiology curriculum topics by questioning different groups of physicians (both radiologists and non-radiologists) and educational experts using questionnaires [ 32 , 36 , 48 , 53 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 55 , 61 ]. Overall, these studies provided lists of interpretative and non-interpretative skills that respondents agreed on what should be taught in medical school regarding radiology. The most commonly mentioned interpretative skill concerned the systematic approach of reading chest radiographs [ 32 , 36 , 48 , 53 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 55 ]. Suggested non-interpretative skills were more diverse and included (a) the basic physical mechanisms of ionizing radiation, including knowledge on radiation risks [ 32 , 36 , 53 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 55 , 61 ], (b) the principles of justification of procedures (e.g., knowing when to use intravenous contrast agents) [ 32 , 36 , 48 , 53 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 55 , 61 ], and comprehension of the role, indications and limitations of diagnostic imaging (and interventional) techniques [ 32 , 36 , 48 , 53 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 55 , 61 ].

Nevertheless, the aforementioned studies used a survey-based approach in which rather pre-determined information is collected from a large group of participants [ 32 , 36 , 48 , 53 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 55 ]. This study aimed to build on this work by employing an inductive, qualitative approach, allowing for the opportunity to acquire participants’ opinions without any influence of preset questions and to explore these answers to gain more detailed information on a broad range of topics [ 22 , 58 ]. Therefore, it is possible to gain a more accurate insight into the wide diversity of current ideas on education on imaging technology that are continuously changing. Limitations of qualitative research, on the other hand, concern the labor-intensive nature of such studies, which explains why in most fields, qualitative data are lacking. Also, qualitative data are more subjective than quantitative data as the interviewee has more control over the content of the data. Therefore, unnecessary quantification of qualitative data should be avoided as it falsely suggests objective, statistically proven results [ 10 , 38 ].

Consequently, there is a recognized need for enhanced radiology education in medical schools among teachers, students, and curriculum designers. This study aimed to 1) Identify key topics that should be included in a radiology curriculum, 2) Determine effective teaching methods for radiology education and 3) Propose strategies for integrating radiology education into existing medical school curricula. Therefore, we qualitatively investigated the perspectives of clinicians (both radiologists and non-radiologists) on radiology education in medical curricula.

An exploratory inductive qualitative study focusing on the role of radiology education in medical curricula was performed. A pragmatic qualitative approach was used with the aim to identify topics in radiology education that clinicians considered important to embed in the medical curriculum. A sample of clinicians involved in medical education in the Netherlands was asked to provide their insights using in-depth semi-structured interviews. Interviews were performed following an inductive iterative process using the constant comparative method [ 31 ]. This implies that if new topics arose during interviews, it was possible to explore these topics and thereby allowing new topics to be added to the interview guide during the experiment. The interview guide is provided in Table 1 . After interviewing, a thematic approach was used to analyze the data.

Relevant scientific literature was reviewed on learning objectives and teaching methods in radiology education in medical school. After reviewing the available literature, two researchers (F.H. en D.H.) constructed a topic list. An inductive iterative interviewing process was carried out using the constant comparative method [ 51 ]. Therefore, new topics could be added to the topic list during the interviews.

Participants

A list of eligible clinicians was constructed by reviewing hospitals and general practitioners within the training region of the university medical center in the east of The Netherlands (OpleidingsRegio Oost-Nederland). The contact person of each practice or department that provided a mandatory internship within the medical curriculum or an elective internship in radiology was contacted by e-mail in order to recruit eligible clinicians. Only clinical specialties embedding radiological imaging in their daily clinical practice were deemed eligible. Therefore, clinicians of the department of psychiatry, dermatology and ophthalmology were excluded from this study. The remaining clinicians were eligible if they participated in any medical curriculum in the Netherlands, regardless of being involved in the Bachelor’s or Master’s phase. Additionally, clinicians needed to be board-certified and actively working medical specialists, general practitioners or residents in radiology. Moreover, board-certified radiologists of the same training region who were involved in (any) medical curriculum in the Netherlands were included to provide more insight into what these “imaging experts” considered important to teach. Eligible clinicians were contacted by use of e-mail. After no initial response, the eligible clinicians were contacted again two weeks later. A third reminder was sent after a longer period of time, which varied from two weeks to three months. If no response was received, the participant was excluded from further inclusion.

Ethical statement

This study was approved by the ethics committee of the Netherlands Association of Medical Education (NVMO, case number 2023.2.9). Before being interviewed, clinicians confirmed to participate in the study. Informed consent was obtained from all clinicians prior to the interview in which the clinicians consented to have the interview audio-recorded for further analyses. Moreover, all methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. All recorded data was stored on a secured disc, to which only one researcher (F.H.) had access. Transcribed data was stored and analyzed anonymously.

Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted by one of the researchers (F.H.). Clinicians decided in which way the interviews were held: in person, via electronic telecommunication software (i.e. Skype version 8.65.0.78; Skype Technologies, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg Palo Alto, CA, United States) or by telephone. In addition, four clinicians provided extensive answers to interview questions via e-mail. These data were also used in the data analysis. The interviews started with a short introduction of the research content followed by an open question on the participant’s thoughts on this matter. During the interviews, the interviewer used open-ended questions and encouraged the clinicians to speak openly and express their opinions, thoughts and considerations. The interviewer explained that there were no relations with the board of examiners, the university medical center educational board or the educational management team. In order to ensure reliable data, all interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim afterwards. Each transcript was thereafter analyzed using direct content analysis [ 30 ]. Starting after the first interview had taken place; transcriptions were coded line-by-line, through which a code list was created. Coding was continued after each interview. Inclusion of new participants was halted when no new topics and codes arose from this process, indicating that data saturation occurred. To confirm data saturation, two additional interviews were held. When confirmed, inclusion of new participants was stopped.

Data analysis

The interview transcripts were analyzed qualitatively. The first four transcripts were independently analyzed by two researchers (F.H. and B.v.W.). Coding results were compared and discrepancies were resolved by discussion. If necessary, a third more experienced investigator (D.H.) could be asked to help resolve issues. Since there were no major discrepancies, further coding and analysis were carried out independently by one of the researchers (F.H.), who met periodically with one of the other researchers (D.H.) to discuss codes and themes until consensus was reached. The coding process was performed using Atlas.ti software, version 8.2.29.0 (ATLAS.ti Scientific Software Development GmbH, Berlin, Germany). The constructed codebook was organized into categories and themes which arose after discussion of all the different codes between two of the researchers (F.H. and D.H.). Categories were used to group codes, which were then grouped into several themes. The categories and themes were shared with the other researchers in order to assess their validity.

A total of 97 eligible clinicians (radiologists; 10.3% and non-radiologists; 89.7%) were contacted by one of the researchers (F.H.) via e-mail between July and October 2020 (Table 2 ). Non-responders were excluded after a period of six months after the first e-mail was sent ( n = 44). Clinicians were also excluded if they expressed to have no active involvement in medical curricula ( n = 3) (Fig. 1 ). Of the included clinicians, four reactions were received via e-mail, while the other forty respondents provided their input by participating in an interview. The interviews lasted between 17 and 59 min. Participant characteristics are displayed in Table 2 .

Selection of the clinicians. 1 Six clinicians were not available due to lack of time . 2 Three contacted clinicians were excluded since they no longer worked for the specific training region

Ten categories of items were distilled from the transcribed codes, which were arranged in the following three themes (Fig. 2 ).

An overview of the subcategorized themes. Three themes accompanied by ten categories were derived from the interviews during the analysis after qualitative exploration of the opinions of clinicians and general practicioners on imaging technologies in medical school curricula

Theme 1: Expectations with regard to educational topics in radiology education

Anatomical knowledge.

Interviewees advocated that students need to be able to identify important anatomical landmarks and gross anatomical structures on the different radiologic imaging techniques. Knowledge of anatomy was believed to be the foundation of understanding a radiologic image by both radiologists and non-radiologists.

“It starts with that [knowledge of the human anatomy], as this forms the foundation of radiology. Then, you can also start interpreting medical images” – General Practitioner

“… but I sense that there is little attention for forming an idea on the anatomical relations. And in the end, that is the essence…” – Surgeon

Conversely, Computed Tomography scans (CT-scans) and Ultrasound (US) were suggested as ideal tools to teach anatomy in medical school. This was believed to benefit both anatomy education and radiology education. This combination provides clinical significance to anatomical structures as well as a three-dimensional insight into the anatomy. Furthermore, it would lead to early exposure to medical imaging in the curriculum. Magnetic Resonance Imaging scans (MRI-scans) were both suggested and dissuaded as a teaching tool because of their complexity.

Skills in interpretation

Interviews with both radiologists and non-radiologists revealed that the ability to interpret a wide range of radiological studies should not be included as a learning objective in medical school. Learning to interpret specific radiological studies (e.g., CT study of the thorax, brain MRI) should be incorporated in post-academic education for residents in training, as there is a greater exposure to these specific radiological studies during this period. Nevertheless, interviewees stated four things a medical student should be able to do concerning radiographs: (1) distinguish abnormal from normal (recognizing gross abnormalities), (2) identify some very common pathologies (e.g., pulmonary infiltrates, common bone fractures, joint luxation, pulmonary edema, hemorrhage, ischemia and malignancies), (3) identify acute diagnoses (e.g., vertebral fractures and pneumothorax on radiographs) and (4) acquire a systematic approach when reading radiographs (both chest radiographies and musculoskeletal radiographies). The extent to which these skills should be mastered under supervision was scarcely discussed and varied greatly.

Basic technological knowledge

Knowledge on the techniques of the four major different imaging modalities (radiography, CT, MRI and ultrasound) was regarded important as this provides knowledge on (contra-)indications and strengths and weaknesses of each imaging modality. It can also help a student interpret medical images as it helps to understand which structures are visible and why they are displayed in the way they are (e.g., the differences in size while comparing an AP- and PA-radiograph). It could also help students to understand the content of a radiological report (e.g., helping to understand why radiologists discuss patient positioning in their reports).

“You have to know the basics. You can order radiographs, a CT-scan, or an ultrasound or an MRI-scan. And the reason why you would choose one option or another is always different, but you always visualize something with it. I consider it important to know what a specific imaging technique shows you.” – Emergency doctor.

More specifically, it was considered important to have knowledge on the basics of ionization radiation, including its hazardous effects. For MR imaging, knowledge of the basic differences between T1-weighted-, T2-weighted-, and fluid-attenuation inversion recovery (FLAIR) sequences were disclosed as important subjects to master for medical students.

In addition, the impact that a radiological examination has on a patient (both mentally as well as physically) should also be embedded in the medical curriculum. This would also help future healthcare professionals to inform their patients properly in order to achieve well-informed consent.

“...I think that it is good to know because we receive a lot of questions from patients about radiologic studies” – General Practitioner

Comprehension of the role, indications and limitations of diagnostic imaging techniques

The most common (contra-)indications and limitations of the most frequently used modalities are seen as imperative knowledge which a student should acquire in medical school. This includes insights in accuracy rates of different radiological imaging methods and how these rates are influenced by other factors, as well as the costs of the different modalities. It should be noted that some clinicians mentioned that keeping up with the quickly changing indications could be a challenge and another participant did not find knowledge in indication important. All believed that you should always consult a radiologist when in doubt.

The benefits and drawbacks of the use of contrast agents, especially in CT imaging, and its (contra-)indications are worth emphasizing, for it has been mentioned multiple times in the interviews and is apart from one explicit modality.

“I believe that it is very important that you know which radiological examinations are available and what you can use each one of them for. I also believe that it is very important that students are aware of the costs of the different imaging modalities and that they also take this into account when making a decision. And that they realize which study is useful for a specific question” – General Practitioner.

Implications of radiology use in clinical practice

As each medical specialty has some level of experience with certain radiological imaging methods, it is important that students learn which techniques are used in various settings.. This was reported as a learning goal which should be achieved through experience-based learning (i.e., during internships). Also, clinicians expressed that it was paramount that students learn to write a concise though complete request for radiological imaging. In addition, students need to learn to look critically and should learn how to implement the radiologist's conclusion in the clinical setting for further medical management and/or follow-up.

Finally, students should also learn to consult the radiologist when questions arise regarding the most optimal imaging method or the radiological conclusion and how to interpret it.

“Radiological findings are subjected to interpretation: someone sees an abnormality and expects it to be something. And those expectations are supported or undermined by the clinical presentation and you have to either provide this knowledge to the radiologist or have to take this into account yourself”—ENT-specialist.

“I noticed that they [students and junior doctors] have no comprehension of contrast agents and therefore just follow guidelines which state to ‘Check renal function’. They have no idea why and whether they have to order for contrast agents” – Radiologist.

Theme 2: Teaching strategies with regard to radiology education

Timing and emphasizing responsibilities.

Most interviewees were convinced that during the Bachelor’s phase (i.e., the first three years of the university curriculum), imaging technology education needs to focus on the differences between modalities from a technical point of view. During those three years, radiological images should be used to help students understand the technical basis of imaging and recognize anatomical structures. This should gradually evolve into using radiological images to recognize simple pathology at the end of the Bachelor’s phase (e.g., bone fractures, pneumonia, pneumothorax). During the Master’s phase (last three years of university curriculum), the interviewees considered applied radiology as an important learning goal. This education could then be combined with recapitulating the anatomy.

“I think that it should definitely be addressed in the Bachelor’s phase, but that the subjects in radiology that are embedded in an internship should be addressed in more detailed and specific way before that internship. I am actually getting thrilled by that idea”—General practitioner.

It was believed that students will get more familiar with radiology when learning about imaging technologies is combined with anatomy and repeated over the years. Doing this while emphasizing different aspects of radiology during different learning phases of students, was also believed to result in a greater feeling of competence for medical students, especially with regard to chest radiographs and musculoskeletal radiographs. Therefore, radiology education during the Master’s phase of medicine should also focus on basic, structured interpretation of chest radiographs.

Assessment during internships of other disciplines

Interviewees suggested incorporating Entrusted Professional Abilities (EPAs) for radiology in the internships, so that radiology knowledge can be reviewed and improved continuously. Therefore, the knowledge of radiology can be monitored during the internships in the same way the discipline of radiology is integrated through all the different specialisms in medicine.

Theme 3: Promising educational strategies in radiology education

Longitudinal subject planning.

The idea of Longitudinal Learning Communities (LLCs) in radiology was discussed during all interviews. LLCs were defined as a community-based approach to learning during a time period of more than 1 year, encouraging meaningful student interaction and small-group learning as well as peer-group evaluation. LLCs were believed to help students to develop a collaborative approach to clinical practice, particularly in radiology. Clinicians believed that a timely repetition of anatomical and radiological knowledge before an internship would result in an improved learning experience.

Three clinicians, all non-radiologists, did not support more radiology education in already overcrowded medical curricula. One participant explicitly expressed that an LLC in radiology would take up too much time. Other interviewees (both radiologists and non-radiologists), however, considered radiology to be important enough to devote attention to, for example by use of LLCs. One participant also suggested saving time by combining the LLC with anatomy and physiology education throughout the medical curriculum. The learning materials used in such LLCs on radiology education were discussed as well. Suggested teaching methods included e-learnings and interactive workgroups. Additionally, the use of clinical cases during education as a form of applied radiology was expressed by many. Nevertheless, discrepancies remained with regard to the different teaching forms. Proposed forms were interactive teaching forms, clinical cases, lectures, computer orientated education, e-learnings, workshops, self-study, seminars, learning during the internships themselves (via specific educational moments, multidisciplinary meetings, during consulting hours at the outpatient department, radiology meetings, before surgery or via assignments). Clinicians expressed that they found it difficult to decide which educational methods would create the best learning environment for students.

Some additions to the described LLC were mentioned during the interviews. Several clinicians, both radiologists and non-radiologists, suggested adding practical ultrasound education to the LLC’s. One participant highlighted the importance of recapitulation shortly before practical education, also called in-time learning. This person believed that students would benefit more from good references, so they would know where to look when they need it and have clear learning objectives for radiology during their internships.

‘…I strongly believe that just in time learning would be a valuable option. If you simply teach students in-time where to find specific knowledge on radiology, they will use it when they need it the most. Then, all they need to do is practice their knowledge” – Geriatrician.

‘If you learn about radiological examinations relevant in the clinical practice that you are about to embark in, you will learn the basics just prior to your internship and the clinical context will help you to complete the picture. Together, I would consider this a rich learning experience for students” – Radiologist.

Internship in radiology

Due to a lack of time in the medical curriculum, most of the interviewees would not opt for the incorporation of a mandatory internship in radiology. Nevertheless, it was considered an important elective internship. Only one participant believed it was important to create time for a mandatory internship.

On the other hand, interviewees expressed that some practical experience in radiology for all medical students would be beneficial to: (1) gain insight into the tasks of a radiologist, (2) become aware of one’s own strengths and limitations regarding reading radiological examinations and (3) learn how to establish an optimal collaboration between radiologist and clinician. It was mentioned that such “intern days” could be integrated into the proposed LLCs in radiology or in various internships such as emergency and internal medicine or surgery.

“I consider it a good idea to offer it as an internship for choice, apart from the LLC”- Internal medicine doctor

Intracurricular primary radiologic skills

There was some discussion with regard to learning the skill of interpretation of a chest radiograph and the skill to perform a point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS). Chest radiography in itself takes a prominent place in radiology education and was believed to deserve a specific view on learning goals. There is an emerging use of POCUS in health care and the opinions on what should be taught on this subject diverse widely. Some interviewees thought that integrating POCUS as an intra-curricular learning goal would take up too much time to really let students master this skill. On the other hand, others were eager to implement teaching POCUS in the medical curriculum as it could serve as an extension on the physical examination with immediate results, low costs and high mobility with hand-held devices. It was mentioned that since so little is taught on ultrasound, there is so much to gain out of a bit more education.

“If you ask me, we will all throw out our stethoscope and let everyone have an ultrasound machine and I do believe that time will come. I just do not know how soon” – Emergency doctor

This study elucidated the views of both radiologists and non-radiologists and grouped these views in three themes: 1) Expectations with regard to educational topics in radiology education; 2) Teaching strategies with regard to radiology education; and 3) Promising educational strategies in radiology education.

These findings are largely corroborated by others. For example, Subramaniam et al. [ 53 , 55 , 55 ] also showed that radiology education should include the teaching of (contra-)indications for different imaging techniques, skills to systematically review chest and musculoskeletal radiographs, skills to identify gross abnormalities on radiographs and teaching students how to fit important findings in the clinical setting. However, contradictory to the studies of Subramaniam et al., interviewees did not express the reading of abdominal radiographs as an educational topic, which can be explained by the ongoing development of radiology in the clinical setting [ 2 , 57 ]. At the time of the publication of the papers of Subramaniam et al., abdominal radiographs had a more prominent clinical role than today.

Integration of radiology and anatomy education

Interviewees in this study stated that basic anatomical knowledge is needed to fully comprehend imaging studies. However, as less time is being assigned to anatomy education in medical curricula [ 18 , 35 , 4 ], learning about radiological examinations could become more complicated for students. Also, as Kourdioukova et al. [ 33 ] mention in their paper, Problem Based Curricula create a building block approach in which radiology and radiologic anatomy is relatively underrepresented in examinations. Integration of applied anatomy and applied radiology has been commonly suggested to optimize quality of anatomy and radiology education in modern medical curricula, [ 4 , 14 , 28 , 36 ]. This was also objectified as radiology small group teaching significantly improved anatomy scores [ 8 , 9 ] and radiology skills [ 40 ]. Additionally, combining radiology and anatomy education has been described to be easily implementable in existing preclinical curricula, because it requires few additional resources [ 62 ]. Integration of radiology education with other disciplines has also been suggested [ 42 ]. Interestingly, in the current study, MRI sequence which were considered basic knowledge comprised T1-weighted images, T2-weighted images and FLAIR images, whereas other sequences were not mentioned. Fat suppression techniques were not discussed, although several advantages are well-known in for example neuroradiology [ 56 ] and imaging of the musculoskeletal system [ 16 ]. Also, the use of diffusion-weighted imaging was not mentioned as part of the basic knowledge that a medical student must obtain. Possibly, clinicians omitted these sequence as the physical concepts are somewhat more complex to explain to students during rotations. However, the exact motives remain elusive. Together with the positive feedback to the LLC in the interviews of this study, a balanced integration of radiology education in various subjects of teaching could be a promising next step for radiology educators.

Other innovative teaching methods which might play a role in the future of anatomy and radiology education, such as augmented reality, virtual reality and combined use of these techniques with radiological data were not mentioned during the interviews. Nevertheless, several publications point out the possible advantages of each individual technique [ 6 , 3 , 12 , 13 , 41 ].

Radiology education topics: reading chest radiographs and practical teaching of ultrasound skills

Although in this study chest radiographs were considered an important educational topic in medical school, there was a wide diversity in opinion to what extent a student should master this subcategory of imaging technologies. Even though this study was not able to provide results to what extent of supervision level or entrusted professional activity a medical student should master this skill, this study was the first that objectified this wide diversity in opinions. We believe this should be investigated more profoundly to be able to create a properly adjusted learning objective on this topic. Especially since Eisen and colleagues found that only 15% of their study population, consisting of medical students, interns, residents and fellows, felt capable to interpret chest radiographs independently in an academic medical center setting [ 19 ]. This lack of confidence has been found by others as well [ 7 , 11 ].

Lastly, teaching ultrasound was a topic of debate in our study, which was widely discussed among the interviewees. This observed discrepancy is in line with literature on this topic [ 36 , 50 ]. Although ultrasound has been described as an educational tool to improve anatomy knowledge, physical examination skills, increase diagnostic accuracy and advance patient safety, the evidence regarding the effects of ultrasound education on these outcomes is very limited [ 20 ]. Nevertheless, various studies reported that medical students consider ultrasound education as valuable [ 15 , 17 , 46 , 49 , 59 ]. Despite this increased demand of ultrasound education in medical school, studies showed that hands-on education of ultrasound is taught at a minority of universities in Europe and the United States [ 43 , 45 ]. More research is needed to either create insight into the learning objectives of ultrasound in medical curricula or to chart the potential benefits of teaching ultrasound in medical school. Additionally, the effects of using ultrasound for educational goals on learning outcomes should be studied as well.

Strengths and limitations

The major strength of this study was the qualitative study design as a recent review highlighted that quality research is needed to investigate when and how radiology should be included in medical education [ 8 , 9 ]. A second strength concerns the exploration of the thoughts and opinions of a wide variety of clinicians included in this study. The sparse availability of recent scientific literature on the teaching of a dynamic subject like medical imaging illustrates that this is a relatively understudied domain and, simultaneously, shows the importance of the present work. This work, however, is not without its limitations. One limitation of this study was formed by the strictly defined inclusion criteria which only allowed clinicians from one region within The Netherlands to participate. The ideas on this topic within this region can differ from others since every training region has its own personal and cultural view on certain subjects and specific spearheads. This limitation regarding generalizability of the reported themes might also exist for the clinicians’ views on radiology education in countries other than The Netherlands. Secondly, this study population cannot be considered as a generalizable population of clinicians which are involved in medical education. For example, the number of radiologists participating in this study was larger as compared to the number of general practitioners (Table 2 ). Therefore, radiologists were overrepresented in the study population. In addition, some medical disciplines, such as psychiatry, ophthalmology and dermatology were excluded from this interview study due to the fact that these clinicians do not frequently encounter radiology. However, the risk of potential bias is limited as the nature of this study and research question did not warrant the inclusion of these clinicians. Furthermore, a limitation of the qualitative study design concerns the relative subjectivity of the results as participants hold control over the content of the data. This prevents quantification of the results and warrants future studies to investigate the statistical significance of the here described findings [ 10 , 38 ]. Additionally, it must be noted that clinicians are no education experts. Future implementation of these results should be carried out in close collaboration with education experts.

This qualitative study provided more in-depth knowledge on well-known topics with regard to radiology education in medical curricula. More knowledge with regard to educational methods, timing of radiology education was distilled and several new topics arose. This includes thoughts on educating ultrasound skills to undergraduates and the views on a longitudinal learning community in radiology in order to integrate imaging technologies in a problem based medical curriculum. It was recommended that radiology education should be more embedded in the medical curriculum and various educational strategies and topics to achieve this were suggested. Nevertheless, to which extent these educational topics should be mastered, what resulting learning objectives will need to entail and how to evaluate them need further research.

Availability of data and materials

The dataset generated from the interviews and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available since individual privacy could potentially be compromised but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Longitudinal learning community/curriculum

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Published: 20 August 2024

Investigating how subject teachers transition to integrated STEM education: A hybrid qualitative study on primary and middle school teachers

Gang Mao 1 , 2 ,
Qianying Zhang 1 ,
Tingyan Ma 1 ,
Feiming Li 1 , 2 &
Min Lan 1 , 2

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume 11 , Article number: 1059 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Encouraging subject teachers to transition to integrated STEM education is an important measure to address the shortage of STEM teachers. However, there is limited research available on the process and characteristics of STEM teacher identity transformation. The study used a hybrid method of Grounded Theory and Epistemic Network Analysis to analyze interview texts of 10 STEM teachers from Zhejiang Province, China. Research has shown that subject teachers go through three stages when transitioning to integrated STEM education: imitation, exploration, and innovation. Throughout each stage, the teacher’s identity changes as they gain a better understanding of integrated STEM education, curriculum and project design, practical methods, and teaching reflection. The study has identified three paths for the transformation of STEM teacher identity, which are influenced by factors such as gender, professional background, school type, and location. Additionally, the study proposes strategies that could encourage subject teachers to transition toward STEM education.

Subject integration and theme evolution of STEM education in K-12 and higher education research

Consequential insights for advancing informal STEM learning and outcomes for students from historically marginalized communities

Primary and secondary school teachers’ perceptions of their social science training needs

Introduction.

Integrated STEM Education involves combining knowledge from multiple disciplines, including science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). This approach enables students to develop a range of skills, such as problem-solving and innovative thinking (Watermeyer and Montgomery, 2018 ). STEM education is highly regarded worldwide as a way for countries to showcase their commitment to educational reform. However, a significant challenge in implementing STEM education is the shortage of suitable highly qualified STEM teachers (Wright et al. 2019 ).

Encouraging teachers of STEM-related subjects to transition into Integrated STEM education is a crucial strategy for increasing the number of STEM teachers (Ketelhut et al. 2020 ). Considerable research has been conducted on this topic, primarily by providing professional development programs for STEM educators (Nadelson et al. 2012 ; Laffey et al. 2013 ). However, it remains a point of contention whether short-term programmes for training teachers can successfully provide long-term support for their development. Amrein-Beardsley et al. ( 2013 ) highlighted that the complexity of teachers’ professional abilities, including educational beliefs, professional knowledge and teaching skills, among other factors, is the main reason for this issue. This poses a challenge for short-term training programmes, which may struggle to address all aspects adequately.

From the perspective of teachers’ identity transformation, exploring the characteristic changes in teachers during the transformation and development stage presents a novel theoretical framework. El Nagdi et al. ( 2018 ) highlights that the professional identity of teachers is a dynamic and progressive process, created through the interaction of personal and professional characteristics with new educational experiences. Teachers Professional Development Theory suggests that teachers go through distinct stages of development, ranging from novice to expert, with each exhibiting unique characteristics (Berliner, 1988 ). However, for STEM teachers, how did they transition from subject teaching to integrated STEM education? What changes occur in teachers’ understanding and practice of STEM education during the process of identity transformation? Currently, there are few studies that conduct in-depth investigations on these issues.

Literature review

Teacher identity transformation in integrated stem education.

Integrated STEM education is “the teaching and learning of the content and practices of disciplinary knowledge which include science and/or mathematics through the integration of the practices of engineering and engineering design of relevant technologies” (Bryan et al. 2015 ). Integrated STEM education provides students with a comprehensive situation of using multidisciplinary knowledge, supporting repeated testing and refining solutions. In STEM education activities, children learn how to think and invent, because these skills and experiences are what they value. (Galanti and Holincheck, 2022 ).

Integrated STEM education was introduced in China in 2014 and has since become a focal point in the reform of K-12 education. Despite its growing prominence, the long-standing subject-centered pedagogical approach and the lack of a comprehensive technology and engineering curriculum present considerable obstacles to the implementation of STEM education in Chinese schools. The current stage of STEM teacher training, curriculum development, and talent cultivation is in its infancy, necessitating a shift in educators’ perceptions, attitudes, and self-efficacy to embrace integrated STEM education (Zhong et al. 2022 ). Financial constraints and deficiencies in instructional management practices serve to further complicate this transition (Wang et al. 2020 ). Nevertheless, as STEM education develops in China, an increasing number of teachers are transcending the conventional boundaries of their respective subjects, gradually adopting integrated STEM pedagogical approaches.

The process of transitioning teachers to integrated STEM education entails a shift in teachers’ identities. Teachers’ identity refers to an individual’s core beliefs about teaching and becoming a teacher (Grier and Johnston, 2009 ). According to Grier and Johnston ( 2009 ), teachers’ identity is a dynamic process that continuously evolving and developing itself through personal and professional experiences. During this process, teachers develop or transform their beliefs and values about the meaning of being a teacher and the type of teacher to strive for as they interact with different policies, school and classroom settings, and colleagues. As a result, there are three features of teacher identity, namely multiplicity, discontinuity, and sociality (Akkerman and Meijer, 2011 ). As a general theory of teacher identity transformation, a considerable number of studies have examined the factors affecting teacher identity transformation from different aspects (Fouad and Bynner 2008 ; Xu and Huang 2021 ). However, in the field of STEM teacher education, few studies have revealed the characteristics and patterns of subject teachers’ transition to STEM.

The challenges to be a STEM teacher

The creation of a new identity for STEM teachers occurs during the process of STEM instructional design and practice, necessitating teachers to assume a variety of roles and duties associated with this identity. According to Slavit et al. ( 2016 ), STEM teachers’ role encompasses multiple facets, including being learners, explorers, investigators, curriculum developers, negotiators, and collaborators. Yang’s et al. ( 2021 ) research classifies STEM teachers into three groups: designers, implementers, and disseminators. As designers, teachers autonomously or collaboratively create innovative curricula and activities for personal or group use. Implementers enact interdisciplinary lessons in class. Disseminators facilitate or lead STEM implementation expansion.

The multiplicity of STEM teachers’ roles means that teachers will experience complex tracks and face more challenges, conflicts and even crises through their careers. Carrier et al. ( 2017 ) investigated the development trajectory of pre-service teachers and found that they were initially on the edge of the teacher community, and moved to the center with the accumulation of experience. The journey is characterised by moving from a student role, to a teacher candidate, and eventually to a fully qualified teacher. Galanti and Holincheck ( 2022 ) identified a significant tension that exists between the various roles that STEM teachers must fulfil as learners, professional teachers, and innovators. The formation of teachers’ identities as learners is shaped through their participation in both formal and non-formal educational experiences. STEM teachers gain their expertise by accumulating classroom experience and completing teacher education courses. To become innovators in STEM education, they must continue to overcome challenges, engage in problem-solving activities, and gradually acquire the skills to design and implement effective STEM initiatives. Zhang and Jiang ( 2023 ) identified three phases of teacher identity formation concerning their emotional development: ‘an interested yet baffled learner’, ‘an enthusiastic but apprehensive explorer’, and ‘an exhilarated yet discontented instructor’. Throughout this progression, teachers experience both affirmative and negative emotions that are entwined, facilitating the shaping and establishment of their professional identities.

Factors affecting STEM teachers’ identity

An array of factors, including personal, social, cultural, and situational influences, have intertwined to significantly impact the formation of a teacher’s identity (Jiang et al. 2021 ). In terms of gender differences, it has been observed that female teachers tend to display more enthusiasm toward STEM teaching and actively engage in collaborative activities, whereas male teachers may express more pessimistic views (Al Salami et al. 2017 ; Wegemer and Eccles, 2019 ). Wang et al. ( 2011 ) investigated teachers’ perceptions from different professional backgrounds on the integration of STEM subjects into their practices. The findings indicate that teachers typically begin integrating STEM concepts in ways that suit their comfort level, leading to diverse understandings of STEM education in practice. Similarly, Grier and Johnston’s ( 2009 ) analysis of the transformation of mathematics and chemistry teachers into STEM education implies that instructors commonly depend on their pre-existing skill sets when transitioning to a new career.

The school’s location and type also have an impact on the development of STEM teachers. Yoon and Kim ( 2022 ) indicated that teachers working in urban schools were more likely to access diverse professional development opportunities, including the integration of ICT into their teaching practice. However, rural schools provide more opportunities for teachers, such as teaching science subjects that stimulate intelligence, linking scientific topics with rural life, and having a sense of satisfaction and job security (Goodpaster et al. 2012 ). Lesseig’s et al. ( 2019 ) study revealed that primary school teachers exhibit more autonomy and flexibility in aspects such as curriculum arrangement, teaching resource usage, and content selection. On the other hand, secondary schools offer more career awareness activities, such as organized field trips to science research and engineering facilities, and provide opportunities for students to participate in regional and state-level robotics competitions.

Based on the aforementioned investigation, it can be concluded that the move of subject teachers to STEM education leads to a transformation of teacher identity. This transformation is determined by internal aspects, such as gender and professional background, as well as external factors, including school location and school type. However, a systematic analysis of the dynamic development process from subject teachers to STEM teachers is currently lacking. Such an analysis could uncover changes in cognitive, practical, and other aspects during the transformation of a teacher’s identity. Exploring this issue can enhance our understanding of the characteristics and main challenges encountered by teachers during different stages of development, thereby providing more specific recommendations for the professional development of STEM teachers. Hence, this study’s central focus is to explore the following research questions (RQs):

RQ1: From subject teaching to STEM education, what are the stages of transformation that teacher identity has undergone?

RQ2: From subject teaching to STEM education, does the transformation of teacher identity follow a similar path?

RQ3: From subject teaching to STEM education, how do individual internal and external factors affect the transformation of teacher identity?

Participants

The study identifies suitable research participants through the Zhejiang Province Master Teachers Network Workshop, an online training community supported by the Department of Education in Zhejiang Province. This platform aims to enhance teacher excellence by creating high-quality digital educational resources, facilitating online training, and offering teaching guidance. It is structured around provincial master teachers and includes a community of regional subject leaders and key school instructors.

With the help of provincial teaching master teachers, we established specific criteria for the selection of research participants, which included: (1) having more than 10 years of teaching experience, (2) currently involved in integrated STEM teaching, and having more than 3 years of STEM teaching experience, (3) to be able to find public press information on the internet about this teacher who is leading STEM activities. Ultimately, 10 STEM teachers from 6 different regions in Zhejiang Province were interviewed. Basic information about these teachers is shown in Table 1 .

Data collection

Relevant data were collected using personal in-depth interviews. The question design drew upon research by Grier and Johnston ( 2009 ) and Zhang and Jiang ( 2023 , and encompassing four main areas: comprehension of STEM education among teachers, teacher self-development, STEM teaching practices, and teaching reflection. The semi-structured interview outline focused on five questions:

What inspired your shift from subject-specific teaching to STEM education?

While developing your identity as a STEM teacher, what transformations have you undergone regarding your perception of STEM education?

In what methods have you enhanced your capability to implement STEM teaching activities?

Please provide examples of STEM project activities you have carried out. What difficulties or challenges have you encountered, and how did you surmount them?

If you were to offer advice to a new STEM teacher, what recommendations would you suggest?

Interviews were primarily conducted via online video or telephone from the commencement of October 2022 until the conclusion of December, with an average duration of 50 min. Further, each individual who agreed to participate in the research as an interviewee was asked to sign a consent form confirming that they had understood the implications of their involvement and that they were willing to participate.

Procedure and data analysis

Interview text encoding scheme.

This study employed grounded theory to code and analyse the interview transcripts. Grounded theory is a qualitative research method developed by Glaser and Strauss ( 1992 ). It helps us to understand patterns of human behavior in social contexts through the analysis of interview or field survey data. Grounded Theory employs iterative analysis through three levels of coding: open, axial, and selective coding, to establish connections between concepts and form explanatory theories. NVivo 11 was employed to conduct qualitative analysis of the interview transcripts.

Firstly, open coding was independently executed by two experienced researchers, attaining an acceptable consistency level (Cohen’s Kappa = 0.712). In instances where any concepts experienced discrepancies in labelling, the researchers conferred with each other based on the contextual information provided in the text until an agreement was made. The process of open coding adheres to the saturation principle of grounded theory. This principle posits that data meets research requirements when key concepts are reiterated until no new ones emerge. Eventually, the study identified 155 concept labels. These labels were grouped based on their similarities, and the most vivid and representative statements capturing the essential characteristics were selected to form 24 open codes. Secondly, the study categorises based on the content attributes of open coding, creates axial coding and identifies eight categories: understanding of stem concept, knowledge learning, curriculum design, project development, teaching practice, teacher role, teaching reflection and developmental reflection. Finally, the process involved selective coding, which led to the formation of four core categories: teacher cognition, instructional design, instructional practice, and instructional reflection. The final coding results are shown in Table 2 .

Epistemic Network Analysis

Epistemic Network Analysis (ENA) is a quantitative ethnographic technique used for modeling the structure of connections in data. ENA was originally developed to model cognitive networks— the patterns of association between knowledge, skills, values, habits of mind, and other elements that characterize complex thinking (Shaffer et al. 2009 ). In recent years, ENA has been utilised in various forms of research pertaining to teacher education, including examination of teachers’ TPACK, beliefs, and collaborative problem-solving (Oner, 2020 ; Benna and Reynolds, 2021 ). Moreover, the ENA serves as a valuable complement to the Grounded Theory. Grounded theory aids researchers in constructing theoretical models and offers abstract explanations of latent variable relationships pertaining to a given topic buried within the data (Glaser and Strauss, 1992 ). ENA, on the other hand, facilitates the analysis of the interplay between various factors within the theoretical model, while also monitoring changes in the dynamic relationships between these variables over time (Swiecki et al. 2020 ).

In ENA, three crucial parameters prevail: unit, section, and coding. For this study, we are analyzing teaching groups with diverse genders, professional backgrounds, school categories, and school regions as the units. Our primary objective is to identify the variations in cognitive networks among these distinct teacher groups. Each sentence in the interview responses constitutes a section. Elements that co-occur within the same section are correlated, while elements in different sections remain unrelated. The coding process involved coding the understanding of STEM concepts, STEM pedagogical practices, and reflections on teaching. Elements that were mentioned were marked as “1” and those that were not mentioned were coded as “0”. For this study, ENA 1.5.2 Web Tool software was selected to analyze the data. This software enables researchers to present multidimensional data analysis results in a two-dimensional space, facilitating the observation of cognitive network changes during the teacher identity transformation process from a holistic perspective.

The stages of teachers’ identity transformation

The coding analysis of the interviews revealed that the changes in teachers’ identities were reflected in four key areas: the understanding of STEM education, the designing of STEM activities, teaching practice and reflective teaching. During the interviews, researchers prompted participants to reflect on their understanding of STEM education at various stages by asking follow-up questions. This approach revealed temporal cues in the interview content. For example, participants might state, “In the beginning, I learned through imitation,” “Subsequently, I commenced the design of my own curriculum,” and “Presently, I lead a team.” These temporal indicators, along with the coded content, allowed the study to map the transformation of teachers’ identities into three stages: imitation, exploration, and innovation, referencing the frameworks proposed by Slavit et al. ( 2016 ) and Yang et al. ( 2021 ). To delineate teachers’ identities across these stages, the study selected representative words from the open coding and categorized them into relevant dimensions, as depicted in Table 3 . Table 3 outlines the characteristics of the teacher community at various stages of identity transformation within STEM education.

Imitation stage:

① Teachers often start as apprentices, participating in STEM activities led by experienced educators: “I participated in STEM activities organized by experienced teachers as an apprentice.” (T3).

② They improve their understanding by mimicking successful lessons: “Imitating successful lessons or examples in order to improve understanding of STEM education.” (T4).

③ Initially, they perceive STEM education as merely creating an object: “The initial perception of STEM education was an activity of ‘making an object’ “ (T7).

④ There is a desire to go beyond traditional subject teaching: “I wanted to step out of my comfort zone (of subject teaching) and try to incorporate my own subject or experience in STEM activity design.” (T1).

Exploration stage:

① Teachers begin to see the broader scope of STEM, recognizing its cross-disciplinary applications: “I realized that the most significant distinction between STEM and discipline-based teaching is that STEM learning activities will give students more opportunities to apply their knowledge across disciplines and engage in independent investigations.” (T1).

② They identify Project-Based Learning (PBL) as a promising approach for curriculum design: “the PBL model was identified as a promising approach for curriculum design. “ (T9).

③ Collaboration becomes crucial, often requiring teamwork with colleagues: “ Some STEM activities require collaboration with colleagues to complete them.” (T2).

④ Teachers acknowledge the need for continuous learning to effectively implement STEM education: “As I progress in my practice of STEM education, I find that I must learn more and more, such as how to organize more effective STEM instruction, how to promote interdisciplinary collaboration among teachers, and how to assess student learning.” (T10).

Innovation stage:

① Teachers integrate local cultural resources into STEM curricula: “I began to recognize the value of local intangible cultural heritage resources and incorporated them into the design of STEM curriculum activities.” (T1).

② They emphasize the importance of equity in STEM education: “if only some part of children can participate in integrated STEM activities, I think it is not enough.” (T6).

③ Innovative practices include leveraging external partnerships: “we realize that the capacity of schools and individual teachers is limited, so we try to incorporate the power of enterprises and families, and innovate through school-enterprise interaction and home-school collaboration in the STEM teaching model.” (T5).

④ Experienced teachers become mentors and advocates for STEM education: “I have also taken a few apprentices now, all of them come from my school and neighboring schools.” (T8).

The path of teachers’ identity transformation

Through examining question 1, we have gained insight into the stages and characteristics of the transformation of STEM teachers’ identities. Utilizing this information, we have devised a theoretical model of STEM teachers’ transformation and progression, which is presented in Fig. 1 . Before transitioning to STEM education, these teachers had extensive experience in their respective subject areas. This research aims to determine if they experience similar developmental stages during their transformation into STEM educators. Comparative analysis of teacher interviews revealed three distinct pathways in the transformation of teacher identity. These pathways are visually represented in Fig. 1 .

The model comprised three distinct stages: imitation, exploration and innovation. Each stage was characterised by a cyclical process of cognition, design thinking, practice and reflection. The model also identified three pathways of transformation and development, which were associated with the three stages.

Path 1: From Imitation to Exploration

Two factors are pivotal in the transition to STEM education. Firstly, the introduction of new educational concepts and exemplary practices can prompt teachers to reconsider the essence of education. As one teacher noted, “The most significant insight that STEM provided was the realization that education is not merely about studying a specific course or preparing for examinations, but about cultivating students’ problem-solving abilities in authentic settings” (T10). Secondly, the mentorship of experienced educators accelerates the shift from the imitation to the exploration phase. For instance, one teacher expressed gratitude for their mentor’s support: “I would like to thank Mr. Zhao, an expert teacher, for his guidance over the past year. This included observing STEM activities, designing STEM teaching and learning tasks, and receiving invaluable feedback. I am now able to design STEM activities independently…” (T3).

Path 2: From Imitation and Exploration to Innovation

Teachers navigating the transition to STEM education often exert considerable effort. One teacher recounted the challenges faced when designing their own STEM curriculum: “I encountered numerous difficulties, including determining content, organizing activities, fostering teacher collaboration, and evaluating learning outcomes…” (T2). This process also requires a significant degree of creativity. For example, in designing a localized STEM curriculum, a teacher incorporated the cultural heritage of the ancient Taihu Lake Water Conservancy Project, collaborating on projects like “Little Farmers of Taihu Lake” and “Bridges over Taihu Lake.” Moreover, these teachers often assume leadership roles, as one expressed: “I hope that through my work, I can attract more teachers to participate in this process” (T5).

Path 3: Leaping from Imitation to the Innovation Stage

Among the ten teachers interviewed, only two, T6 and T8, followed this particular pathway. Upon reviewing their interview responses, both teachers had over 15 years of experience teaching physics. One teacher reflected, “Much of my previous teaching aligns with interdisciplinary principles… The STEM concept has provided a framework to reevaluate and consolidate my past teaching practices” (T6). The other teacher remarked, “STEM has offered a theoretical framework that helped me reorganize my integrated activities from the past 20 years in mechanics, optics, and electricity, providing clarity on their significance” (T8).

The internal and external factors affect teachers’ identity transformation

For a deeper understanding of how individual internal and external factors affect the transformation of teachers’ identities, this study employs eight dimensions created through axial coding as its analytical framework. Additionally, a comparative analysis of STEM teachers from different genders, professional backgrounds, school types, and locations is conducted. Throughout the research process, ENA was used to describe changes in the group cognitive network over time in various stages. Each graph in the study displays the overlapping of the cognitive network structures of teachers across various grouping conditions.

Genders differences in teacher identity transformation

Figure 2 shows a comparison of ENA across teachers of different genders at the three stages. The rectangular dashed boxes indicate the confidence intervals at the 95% level for the center of mass position. Coloured line illustrates that the associated groups exhibit greater significance in this dimension than the control group. The width of the line reflects the strength of the link between them.

The red line in the figure represents the data for male participants, while the blue line represents the data for female participants. The interpretation of each code is provided in Table 3 .

During the imitation stage, there was a notable difference between male and female teachers along the x-axis (male group M = −0.21; female group M = 0.12; u = 1.00; p = 0.03 < 0.05; R = 0.91). The disparity was emphasized by the male teachers’ stronger connections in the factors of teacher role (TRo), knowledge learning (KL), and teaching reflection (TRe). These results suggest male teachers are more inclined to reinforce their STEM teaching identity through teaching reflection and knowledge learning, which is an essential component of their teaching role.

During the exploratory stage, there was also a significant difference between male and female teachers (male group M = −0.34; female group M = 0.12; u = 1.00; p = 0.03 < 0.05; R = 0.92). Male teachers primarily focused on teaching practice (TP), emphasizing on project design (PD) and developmental reflection (DR). In contrast, female teachers placed greater value on teaching reflection (TRe), which was closely associated with teaching practice (TP), teachers role (TRo), and curriculum design (CD).

The contrasting concerns of male and female teachers during the innovation stage are evident (male group M = −0.33; female group M = 0.34 ; u = 1.00; p = 0.01 < 0.05; R = 0.95). Male teachers concentrate on two key areas: the correlation between curriculum design (CD) and project development (PD), and the connection between teacher roles (TRo) and developmental reflection (DR). Conversely, female educators give more weightage to reflecting on teaching practices.

Overall, male educators prioritised project development (PD), whereas female educators exhibited greater emotional engagement and were more willing to participate in diverse teaching reflection (TRe) activities.

Professional background difference in teacher identity transformation

To comprehend variances in the identity transition of STEM teachers from diverse professional backgrounds, the research categorised physics and mathematics teachers into Group 1, the Chinese, English, and History teachers into Group 2. Figure 3 presents a comparison of the ENA of teachers from varying professional backgrounds in the three stages.

Group 1 is for physics and maths teachers, while group 2 is for Chinese, English and history teachers. The interpretation of each code is provided in Table 3 .

During the imitation stage, there was a significant difference observed among teachers from the two groups along the x-axis (Group 1M = 0.20; Group 2M = −0.21; u = 1.00; p = 0.02 < 0.05; R = 0.92). Primarily, Group 1 teachers demonstrated a stronger connection between STEM teaching reflection (TRe) and teachers roles (TRo). Group 2 teachers, on the other hand, showed more emphasis on comprehension of STEM concepts (UC) and teaching reflection (TRe).

During the exploration stage, Group 1 had a mean score of 0.25, while Group 2 had a mean score of −0.34. The Mann-Whitney U test showed a statistically significant difference ( u = 24.00; p = 0.01 < 0.05; R = −1.00). Mathematics and Physics teachers demonstrated a higher level of commitment towards teaching practices (TP) and project design(PD), and paid greater attention to the developmental reflection (DR), which enhance student learning, the quality of schools, and personal growth. Group 2 teachers, however, primarily emphasised on teaching practices (TP) and teaching reflection (TRe).

During the innovation stage, significant differences were observed between Group 1 ( M = 0.25) and Group 2 ( M = −0.34) ( u = 24.00; p = 0.01 < 0.05; R = −1.00). Group 1 developed a stronger connection between curriculum design (CD) and project development (PD), and enhanced their understanding of STEM education (UC). In contrast, Group 2 focused on teaching practices (TP) and forged stronger connections with teaching reflection (TRe), project design (PD), and an understanding of STEM education. Overall, teachers with backgrounds in mathematics and physics appeared to have a comparative advantage in implementing STEM education, as they could provide more examples to peers through STEM project development. In contrast, teachers with subjects background like Chinese and English concentrated on STEM teaching methodologies, displaying a more active engagement in teaching reflection within the context of STEM education.

School type difference in teacher identity transformation

Due to the different stages of students’ cognitive development, primary and secondary schools present distinct requirements for STEM education activities. Accordingly, the demand for STEM teachers varies across these categories. This study explored the cognitive differences between primary and secondary STEM teachers in the process of identity change, as shown in Fig. 4 .

The red line represents the participants from middle school, while the blue line represents those from primary school. The interpretation of each code is provided in Table 3 .

During the imitation stage, no significant difference was found between the two groups of teachers (Primary group M = −0.30; Secondary group M = 0.22; u = 33.00; p = 0.06 > 0.05; R = 0.76). However, the teachers in the primary group exhibited a much stronger linkage between their teaching practice (TP) and knowledge learning (KL). Secondary school teachers, in contrast, prioritised reflecting on STEM education, encompassing developmental reflection (DR) and teaching reflection (TRe), as well as knowledge learning (KL) and the role of teachers (TRo).

During the exploration phase, substantial discrepancies between the two cohorts were observed (Group 1M = −0.25; Group 2M = 0.20; u = 1.00; p = 0.02 < 0.05; R = 0.97). These discrepancies were primarily manifested through the fact that the primary school teachers evinced a stronger association between curriculum design (CD) and the teacher’s role (TRo), while the secondary school teachers group displayed a more robust link between curriculum design (CD) and teaching practice (TP).

During the innovation stage, a significant difference between the primary and secondary groups was observed (Primary group M = −0.27; Secondary group M = 0.33; u = 0.00; p = 0.01 < 0.05; R = 1.00). Notably, primary school teachers demonstrated a stronger correlation between teaching practices (TP) and developmental reflection (DR) in comparison to secondary school teachers, who exhibited stronger correlations between teaching practices (TP), curriculum design (CD), and teaching reflection (TRe). Primary school teachers consistently prioritised STEM teaching practices (TP), gradually developing an orientation towards their role as educators (TRo). In contrast, secondary school teachers focused earlier on changing their identity as a teacher and, at a later stage, improved STEM teaching practices through project design (PD) and curriculum design (CD). This could be attributed to the elevated complexity in the design of STEM education activities, knowledge requirements, and teaching organization in secondary schools.

Regional difference in teacher identity transformation

The cultural features of the environment where the school is situated, the available resources, and the opportunities for teacher training might affect teacher identity transformation. Consequently, this study contrasts and examines STEM teachers’ cognitive network configuration in rural and urban schools during their identity transformation process, as presented in Fig. 5 .

The red line shows participants from urban areas, while the blue line shows those from rural areas. The interpretation of each code is provided in Table 3 .

During the imitation stage, a notable difference was observed between the two groups of teachers (Urban group M = −0.48; Rural group M = 0.17; u = 20.00; p = 0.03 < 0.05; R = −0.90). Teachers belonging to the urban group exhibited a more pronounced correlation between knowledge acquisition (KL) and their role as teachers (TRo). Conversely, teachers from the rural group had a stronger emphasis on understanding STEM concepts (UC), and a greater association between knowledge learning (KL), teaching practices (TP), and teaching reflection (TRe).

Significant differences emerged between the two groups during the exploration stage (Urban group M = −0.38; Rural group M = 0.19; u = 1.00; p = 0.03 < 0.05; R = 0.90). Urban group teachers were primarily focused on curriculum design (CD), while their rural counterparts emphasized teaching practices (TP).

During the innovation stage, notable variations were found between the two groups (Urban group M = −0.44; Rural group M = 0.07; u = 0.00; p = 0.02 < 0.05; R = 1.00). Both sets of teachers prioritised teaching reflection (TRe), yet urban group teachers emphasised the correlation between teaching reflection (TRe) and developmental reflection (DR), while rural group teachers concentrated on the association between TRe and curriculum design (CD). This distinction in perspectives indicates the contrasting approaches of urban and rural teachers when observing and reflecting on STEM education. While urban teachers utilise reflection to enhance their curriculum design, rural teachers use it to solidify their knowledge of STEM concepts and its relevance to individuals, students, and learning development through teaching practices.

The transition of subject teachers to STEM education is a unique experience in teacher professional development

The study found that the transformation of STEM teachers still follows the laws of the theory of teacher professional development stages, which is a development process from novice to experts (Berliner, 1988 ). “Novice” subject teachers need to understand the fundamental principles of STEM education, methods of curriculum design, and implementation through learning, observation, and imitation. Nevertheless, they are not complete “novices.” They possess a profound comprehension of their students, exhibit expertise in subject teaching, and possess widespread teaching experience. These characteristics allow teachers to readily venture beyond their subject-teaching comfort zone and transition into STEM education. During the shift, subject teachers take on varied teacher identities such as learners, team collaborators, curriculum designers, project developers, and teacher leaders. These findings align with the perceptions of STEM teachers’ multiple identities, as described by Slavit et al. ( 2016 ) and Yang et al. ( 2021 ).

The STEM teacher transformation model depicts multiple pathways of teacher identity transformation

The transition from subject matter teachers to STEM educators represents a new phase in teacher professional development. STEM teachers undergo stages of novice, competent, mature, and expert, as delineated by Berliner ( 1988 ). This study identified three distinct stages in the transformation of teachers: imitation, exploration, and innovation, constructing a model of STEM teacher development. The model illustrates varied pathways teachers may follow during their transformation process. While all teachers experience the imitation stage, a minority progress to exploration. A few advance through all stages, and a select few bypass exploration directly to innovation. These findings contribute to understanding the non-linear nature of teacher professional growth (Akkerman and Meijer, 2011 ).

These insights offer valuable implications for optimizing STEM teacher training. Novice subject teachers benefit from observing and modeling STEM teaching activities, which aids in grasping STEM concepts, alleviating concerns, and fostering willingness to depart from traditional subject teaching. Teachers with initial STEM experience benefit from resources on integrated STEM curriculum design and enhanced support for organizing and collaborating on STEM initiatives, accelerating their development as STEM educators. For subject experts, training in STEM education theory and curriculum design facilitates reflection on teaching practices and expedites transformation.

The impact of multiple internal and external factors has increased the complexity of teacher identity transformation

The analysis based on the Teacher Epistemic Network provides in-depth insights into teacher identity transformation. This study showed that female educators focused on STEM teaching practices and introspectively examined their roles. Furthermore, they demonstrated a high level of proactiveness, expressing their ambition to excel as educators and impact a wider audience. These findings closely align with the research conducted by Al Salami et al. ( 2017 ) and Wegemer and Eccles ( 2019 ). However, this study revealed that male teachers placed greater emphasis on interdisciplinary curriculum integration and project design during the transition process, which is not consistent with the results of Wegemer and Eccles’s ( 2019 ) study. It should be highlighted that Wegemer and Eccles’s study primarily examined teachers in the exploratory stage, while our research encompassed the entire trajectory of STEM teacher development. Moreover, our investigation underscored those teachers hailing from professional backgrounds such as physics and mathematics possessed a natural proclivity for transitioning into integrated STEM education. Conversely, teachers from non-STEM professional backgrounds necessitated additional efforts to attain competency in integrated STEM education. Hence, it is essential to account for the differences in teachers’ professional backgrounds to overcome resistance to the change in teacher identities.

The ENA analysis, which is based on teachers’ geographical regions and school types, has provided profound insights into the transformation of STEM teachers. The study revealed that primary school teachers place a strong emphasis on STEM teaching practices and reflection. Their contemplations encompass various aspects of STEM education as well as student, school, and personal development. In contrast, secondary school teachers tend to direct their focus towards curriculum design. The reasons for behind these differences can be attributed to the higher demands placed on STEM programs in secondary schools, including curriculum structure, content knowledge, and assessment criteria (Lesseig et al. 2019 ). In terms of schools’ geographical regions, urban teachers consistently focused on the core topic of curriculum design. This is because they benefit from greater access to information, resource support and developmental opportunities. In comparison, teachers in rural schools primarily rely on their own efforts and those of their colleagues to enhance their comprehension of STEM education. However, they excel at mobilizing community resources to facilitate the integration of STEM activities into their curriculum. For instance, “I will encourage parents with professional knowledge in engineering or technology to participate in STEM project activities, in order to establish cooperation between schools and enterprises.”.

Encouraging subject teachers transition to integrated STEM education is an important measure to enhance their professional abilities. Many studies have proposed that teacher training can transform teachers’ understanding of STEM education and enhance their ability to design and manage STEM activities. However, if the developmental stage of STEM teachers is not taken into account, as well as individual and school differences, relevant training activities may become ineffective.

These research findings can provide valuable insights for enhancing STEM teacher training. Firstly, targeted support and improved training effectiveness can be achieved by developing training programs that consider the characteristics of STEM teacher development stages. Secondly, measures should be formulated to motivate teachers to fully utilize their unique characteristics and strengths in relation to gender and professional background, to facilitate the transformation of subject teachers into STEM education. Finally, the unique advantages of schools and regions should be fully leveraged to more effectively utilise existing resources. This will help establish a regional STEM education community and achieve localisation of STEM education.

This study has constraints. Firstly, the sample may not be entirely representative as it primarily consisted of teachers with physics backgrounds, and fewer from other fields. Moreover, limitations are present in the data collected through interviews. To enhance the validity of our findings, future research should consider increasing the sample size and incorporating additional data sources. For instance, it may be beneficial to examine the course design and teaching videos of STEM educators’ professional development to gain a comprehensive understanding of the trends and characteristics of STEM teacher transformation.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Social Science Foundation of China, Youth Project in Education. The project is titled “Action Research on Optimising Teachers’ Online Instructional Design from the Perspective of Regulation Theory” [Project No. CCA220320].

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GM formulated the research questions, participated in data collection and analysis, and interpreted and reported on the results. QZ and TM carried out data collection and data analysis, and reported on the results. FL interpreted and reported on the results, and ML contributed to writing and revising the article.

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This study was jointly approved on 25 April 2023 by four members (i.e., Zhanjun Wang, Shujian Cai, Haoqing Feng, Donghong Wu) of the Human Experimentation Ethics Committee of Zhejiang Normal University, Donghong Wu is the chair of the Academic Committee. The ethical approval number is ZSRT2023068.

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Mao, G., Zhang, Q., Ma, T. et al. Investigating how subject teachers transition to integrated STEM education: A hybrid qualitative study on primary and middle school teachers. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1059 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03565-6

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Published: 20 August 2024

Patient perspectives on systematic client feedback in Dutch outpatient mental healthcare, a qualitative case reports study

Bram Bovendeerd 1 , 2 ,
Kim de Jong 3 ,
Erik de Groot 2 &
Jos de Keijser 1

BMC Health Services Research volume 24 , Article number: 957 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

The added value of systematic client feedback (SCF) to psychotherapy can be affected by patient perspectives, both in a positive and negative way, and is influenced by cultural factors as well. Current study explores patients’ perspectives on use and optimization of SCF in Dutch outpatient mental healthcare. Primary aim of present study is to generate implications for daily practice and optimize SCF implementation, particularly for the Netherlands.

Four patients suffering from mild to moderate psychological disorders were in-depth interviewed on their perspective on the use of SCF, when the Partners for Change Outcome Management System (PCOMS, high frequent), the Outcome Questionnaire (OQ-45, low frequent) and the Mental Health Continuum Short Form (MHC-SF, low frequent) was added to treatment as usual in two Dutch outpatient mental healthcare centers offering brief psychological treatment. Interview topics were (a) SCF in general; (b) type of questionnaires; (c) frequency of use; (d) effect of SCF on therapy; and (e) perceived added value of SCF. A SCF expert team analyzed the data through reflexive Thematic Analysis.

We identified three themes, all of which have two sub-themes: (a) Requirements to use SCF, with sub-themes (a1) Balance between effort to complete SCF and perceived validity, and (a2) Balance between used frequency and perceived validity; (b) Modifiers for test-taking attitude, with subthemes (b1) SCF as an embedded part of therapy, and (b2) Quality of Therapist-Client alignment; and (c) Effects on therapeutic process, with subthemes (c1) Focus on task and goals, and shared responsibility, and (c2) Effects on outcome and satisfaction.

Conclusions

Adding SCF to therapy can be perceived as helpful by patients in psychotherapy if two conditions are met: (1) Creating a right balance between effort and yield for SCF to be used at all; and (2) embedding SCF as an integral part of therapy, through therapist-client alignment. Throughout the progression of therapy, it might be useful to perceive SCF and therapy as communicating vessels; according to patients it is not only necessary to adjust therapy based on SCF, but also to adjust SCF based on the course of therapy.

Trial Registration

This trial was registered on September 30, 2015 in the Dutch Trial Register NTR5466. The Medical Ethics Committee of the University of Twente (Enschede) approved this study (registration number: K15-11, METC Twente).

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Systematic Client Feedback (SCF), the regular monitoring of patients’ progress to optimize the course of psychotherapy, is nowadays an established method in mental healthcare [ 1 ]. In SCF, patients complete standardized questionnaires at regular intervals, and results are discussed during the session to assess whether the course of treatment requires adjustment. Possible underlying mechanisms of action of SCF are that it enhances patient-therapist communication and alliance, and focusses attention of the therapist, especially when the patient is not on track [ 2 ]. SCF is also known as Progress Feedback or Measurement Based Care, and several meta-analyses [ 1 , 3 ] have demonstrated its potential to improve therapy outcome in terms of symptom reduction, wellbeing, or lowered drop-out rates. Despite this growing evidence for its added value, implementation of SCF is found to be challenging [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ] with patient, therapist and organizational factors influencing its use and effect [ 8 , 9 ].

In addition, SCF implementation is known to be influenced by cultural factors [ 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Strong heritage cultural identity was for instance found to be related to perceptions of potential harm of SCF use [ 10 ], and She et al. found differences in SCF use between Eastern and Western countries [ 11 ]. Douglas and colleagues [ 12 ] stated that within Western countries there are indications that optimal approaches when starting SCF implementation may vary from top-down, bottom-up, or a combination of bottom-up and top-down. Although the studies on cultural differences in SCF implementation are scarce, there are clear indications that a successful implementation strategy in one country is not automatically transferable to another country. Our study was designed to specifically examine patient factors on SCF within the Netherlands.

The specific influence of patient factors on the use and effect of SCF has been examined in several studies. Happel et al. [ 13 ] found that patients of mental health care services mainly want to use SCF as a means to have a joint conversation about recovery. This was also reported by Guthrie et al. [ 14 ], who underlined the importance of patients being included in the interpretation and use of SCF. In addition, Unsworth et al. [ 15 ] found that adding SCF to therapy can improve the client-therapist relationship.

This added value of SCF for patients was found by Hoy [ 16 ] as well, who concluded that the use of SCF not only facilitated the conversation between patient and therapist, but also increased patients’ self-awareness. Wolpert [ 17 ] on the other hand warned of the potential iatrogenic damage of poorly implemented SCF. Wolpert and colleagues [ 18 ] additionally found that patients feared that SCF would put too much emphasis on technique at the expense of building a working relationship.

Solstad et al. [ 19 ] conducted a systematic review of patients’ experiences in the use of SCF. They found four meta-themes in which SCF was perceived as either helpful or hindering: (1) SCF can induce suspicion towards the therapists; (2) Used questionnaires are often too limited or symptom-oriented, not sufficiently corresponding with what patients regard as valuable outcomes; (3) SCF can lead to increased patient empowerment, and (4) SCF can increase collaboration between patient and therapist.

These four themes described by Solstad et al. [ 19 ] seem highly relevant, and are also found in later research. The enhanced empowerment in the form of heightened self-awareness and improved collaboration was for instance found by Hovland et al. [ 20 ]. In addition, Moltu et al. [ 21 ] found that the increased collaboration between patient and therapist was perceived as important not only for patients but also for therapists. This effect of increased collaboration has also been found in group therapy [ 22 ] where it strengthened the working alliance.

In summary, previous studies in patients’ perspectives in the use of SCF on the one hand found that adding SCF to treatment as usual can improve collaboration and patient empowerment, but on the other hand can induce suspicion towards therapists or hinder therapy when the used questionnaire is not perceived as a valuable outcome parameter. Although previous studies have painted a clear picture of important themes that play a role in patients’ use of SCF, they have provided little concrete insight into the practical implications that would improve the use of SCF for patients. In addition, SCF implementation is affected by cultural factors and varies per setting and country. Consequently, actionable insights will vary per setting and country as well.

Current study aimed to generate actionable outcomes that can be used as tools to optimize the added value of SCF for patients in Dutch outpatient mental healthcare. We have therefore chosen to have the patient perspective on adding high and low frequent SCF to their therapy analyzed by a team of SCF experts familiar with its use in the Netherlands. By thus organizing the analysis into shared meaningful themes, we expected to be able to formulate clear implications for daily practice. We used reflexive Thematic Analysis (rTA) as described by Braun and Clarke [ 23 , 24 , 25 ] and further elaborated by Byrne [ 26 ] as qualitative method, as it is specifically intended for such profound subjective analysis and designed to generate actionable outcomes for a specific target group.

Instead of aiming for high generalizability, we strived for actionable insights for daily practice of SCF use in the Netherlands. Our main goal was to investigate the conditions that patients consider helpful or necessary to successfully use SCF in Dutch mental healthcare. By distilling important central themes in using SCF from a patient’s point of view, we thus aimed to generate implications for daily practice and optimize its implementation. Our secondary goal was to investigate to what extent themes found in interviews with Dutch patients correspond to the four general meta-themes found by Solstad et al. [ 19 ].

Recruitment

Patients were recruited from two centers of Mindfit, an outpatient mental health organization in the Netherlands with over 30 centers across the country. These centers are offering brief psychological treatment added with high and low frequent SCF. Their therapeutic approach is based on (positive) cognitive behavioral therapy [ 27 ] and solution focused therapy [ 28 ].

Recruitment was carried out with the help of therapists who regularly added SCF to treatment as usual. First posters with information about the interviews were hung in the participating centers. If patients were interested in participating in the interviews, they could express this to their own therapist and were then asked if they agreed to be contacted by the lead researcher for an individual interview.

We aimed for a small number of in-depth interviews instead of a large number of short interviews, because we intended to generate actionable insights for SCF implementation for clinical practice in Dutch mental healthcare. In the first recruitment round, carried out in the second quartile of 2016, two patients registered for the interviews. After these first interviews were conducted, it emerged that both patients were predominantly positive about SCF use. We then decided to hold a second recruitment round to ensure that we would get a sufficiently diverse picture of patient perspectives in line with the findings of Solstad et al. [ 19 ]. In this second round of recruitment, carried out in the third quartile of 2017, two patients again registered, one with a more or less positive attitude and one with an ambivalent attitude towards SCF use. This seemed to sufficiently correspond with perspectives that emerged from previous studies and based on this preliminary analysis was concluded that the recruitment phase could be terminated.

All interested patients agreed to be contacted, had experience with the use of high and low frequent SCF, and continued to participate. All participating patients were given pseudonyms to secure anonymity and signed an informed consent prior to the interview. They were allowed to withdraw their consent to record, transcribe or use their data during or after the interview. None of the patients withdrew their consent.

We recruited four patients, three women and one man, with an age between 22 and 47 years ( M = 32.5, SD = 12.56). All patients were referred to psychological treatment by their general practitioner. The inclusion criteria were that patients were: (a) at least 18 years old; (b) suffered from mild to moderate psychological disorders; (c) mastered Dutch as their first or second language; and (d) were receiving treatment as usual added with SCF. All patients participated in a larger study [ 29 ] approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of the University of Twente (K15-11, METC Twente).

Data Collection

The in-depth interviews were the primary source for analyses. The conversations with the patients were conducted on the basis of a semi-structured interview based on a Dutch study of Boeschen Hospers [ 30 ] in patients’ experiences of SCF use, and on the themes found by Solstad et al. [ 19 ].

All interviews were conducted in-person by the lead researcher. Interviews were not time-limited, and patients could return for a second round of interviewing if desired. Interviews were concluded when the interviewee stated that they had nothing further to add. No patient used a second round of interviewing, and interviews lasted 42 min on average (range 33–51). All data were anonymized and then transcribed by a professional transcription agency. The lead researcher then reinspected the transcribed data and adjusted them where necessary by listening to the recordings.

Low frequency SCF was already implemented at the participating centers as part of standard measurement. In our study high frequent SCF was added to low frequent SCF. The interviews focused on patients’ experiences with SCF in general, as well as the questionnaires used. Three SCF-tools were used in this study; the Partners for Change Outcome Management System (PCOMS; high frequent), the Outcome Questionnaire (OQ-45; low frequent) and the Mental Health Continuum Short Form (MHC-SF; low frequent). All three questionnaires were discussed in terms of content, length and used frequency.

PCOMS [ 31 , 32 ] is a feedback system using two brief, four-item visual analogue scales, the Outcome Rating Scale (ORS) and the Session Rating Scale (SRS). PCOMS was used as a high frequent SCF-tool, to be used at every therapy session. In PCOMS, the ORS is administered at the beginning of each session, measuring intrapersonal, interpersonal, social, and overall wellbeing. The SRS is administered at the end of each session, measuring the affective bond, topics and goals, approach or method, and the overall working alliance. The ORS- and SRS-score and progress or decline from previous scores are discussed immediately and are used for improvement in upcoming therapy sessions. Miller et al. [ 31 ] examined the psychometric properties of the ORS, finding a high internal consistency, test-retest reliability and sensitivity to change. Duncan at al. [ 32 ] tested the psychometric properties of the SRS, finding similar validity and reliability as longer alliance measures.

The Dutch version of the MHC-SF [ 33 , 34 ] was used as low frequent SCF tool, with a minimum of two times (at the begin and the end of therapy) and a maximum of four times (at the beginning, after 5 weeks, after 13 weeks, and at the end of therapy). It contains 14 items and taps the domains of emotional, psychological and social wellbeing. The total sum score is the overall experienced positive mental health. An item of the MHC-SF is “How often have you felt that you have contributed something important to society?”, and its psychometric properties were empirically tested by Lamers and colleagues [ 34 ] finding high internal reliability and moderate test-retest reliability.

The Dutch version of the Outcome Questionnaire (OQ-45; [ 35 , 36 ] was also used as low frequent SCF tool, with a minimum of two times (at the begin and the end of therapy) and a maximum of four times (at the beginning, after 5 weeks, after 13 weeks, and at the end of therapy). The OQ-45 is measuring patients’ wellbeing and psychiatric symptoms. It uses a five-point scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (almost always) on three subscales: Symptom Distress, Interpersonal Relationships, and Social Role and contains 45 items. The total score ranges from 0 to 180. Examples of the OQ-45 are “I tire quickly”, or “I feel lonely”. The Dutch translation of the OQ-45 was examined by De Jong et al. [ 36 ], finding similar reliability and validity as the original OQ-45. Based on their findings De Jong et al. added a fourth scale to the OQ-45, called the Anxiety and Somatic Distress scale.

In summary, PCOMS was used in this study as a relatively short SCF-tool at high frequency, the MHC-SF as a medium length SCF-tool at low frequency, and the OQ-45 as relatively long SCF-tool at low frequency.

Methodological Approach

Reflexive Thematic Analysis (rTA; [ 23 , 24 , 25 ]) was used for the qualitative analysis by a Dutch team of SCF experts. Thematic analysis in general can be seen as an appropriate method for understanding a range of experiences across a data set [ 37 ]. rTA can be seen as an artful interpretive way of thematic analysis [ 38 ] and can be particularly useful to generate actionable outcomes [ 39 ].

To interpret our data, we used a constructionist epistemological approach. In this approach criteria for themes to be noteworthy are that they must be both recurring and meaningful. In line with this approach, we used an experiential orientation to data comprehension, aiming to highlight meaningfulness as described by the participating patients and acknowledge their subjectivity. Aligned with this constructionist and experiential strategy, we adopted an inductive, data driven approach instead of a deductive, theory driven approach. Finally, our coding strategy focused on latent coding instead of semantic coding, aiming to identify underlying assumptions and ideas.

Patients were interviewed on their perspective on the use of SCF, when it was added to treatment as usual. Interview topics were their views on: (a) SCF in general; (b) used questionnaires; (c) used frequency; (d) effect of SCF on therapy; and (e) perceived added value of SCF. The interview protocol is available in supplemental material (appendix A). The standards for reporting qualitative research as formulated by O’Brian and colleagues [ 40 ] were used to compile the manuscript.

Researchers

BB is a clinical psychologist and psychotherapist with 26 years of experience as a therapist. He is trained in several SCF methods, is an experienced SCF user and has conducted research on the added value of SCF in the past 15 years. He is also a senior lecturer and researcher at the University of Groningen. EdG is a psychologist and an experienced researcher, and coordinator of the implementation of Meaningful Outcomes, Value Based Health Care, Routine Outcome Monitoring (ROM) and Patient Satisfaction at Dimence, an in- and outpatient mental healthcare institute with around 3000 employees in the Netherlands. KdJ is a psychologist and assistant professor at Leiden University. Her research focuses on understanding differences in treatment outcomes between institutions, therapists and patients, as well as developing and testing interventions that improve outcomes in mainstream clinical practice. KdJ has two lines of research: personalized mental health care and therapist differences. Within the second line she also researches interventions that help therapists to provide more effective care, such as SCF, deliberate practice and training therapeutic skills. JdK is a clinical psychologist and psychotherapist and endowed professor at the University of Groningen to advance education and research on the treatment of complex grief. The last 10 years he has also been conducting SCF research together with the other members of this group.

The analytical process consisted of the six phases of reflexive Thematic Analysis as proposed by Braun and Clarke [ 23 ]. The first phase, familiarization with the data, was done by the lead researcher, who also conducted the interviews. After the interviews had been transcribed, all recordings were listened to again and any incompleteness was corrected if necessary.

The first iteration of the second phase, coding of the data, was done by the lead researcher as well. In total 151 excerpts were coded in this phase. The second iteration was done by the lead researcher and EdG merging duplications and overlapping encodings, reducing the number of encodings to 80.

The lead researcher and EdG also conducted the third phase, generating initial themes, which consisted of three iterations. After the initial iteration of themes, it became clear that different themes were related to three different implementation phases; the start-up phase, the executive phase and the final phase of therapy. Thus, in the second and third iteration, six subthemes were formulated that seemed to be related to three overarching themes. The first overarching theme contained the necessary conditions for using SCF at all. The second theme involved building trust and careful collaboration around the use of SCF as an embedded part of therapy. The last overarching theme contained the effects of SCF on outcomes.

Reviewing and developing of themes, the fourth phase, was done by the entire SCF expert team in four rounds of adjustment. In this phase, the codes of the initial subtheme ‘compulsory use of SCF’ were grouped under the initial subtheme ‘embedded part of the therapy’. In addition, the initial overarching theme ‘the effects of SCF on outcomes’ was split into two preliminary sub-themes ‘effect on working relationship’ and ‘effect on outcomes’.

The SCF expert team conducted the fifth phase as well; refining, defining and naming themes, in two rounds of adjustment. In this phase, we formulated fully developed substantive themes and subthemes in consensus. The final report was produced by the entire team, all authors of this manuscript.

Analyzing the data, we identified three themes: (1) Requirements to use SCF; (2) Modifiers for test-taking attitude; and (3) Effects on therapeutic process. These three themes are corresponding with the start-up phase, the executive phase and the final phase of therapy. All main themes had two subthemes. The themes seem to influence each other and their relationship is illustrated in Fig. 1 .

The extent to which the requirements for the use of SCF are met, seems strongly related to the test taking attitude once SCF is used. All participants indicated that clear explanations are necessary to clarify the relevance of the questionnaires. This influence also goes the other way; the extent to which a positive test-taking attitude is formed seems related to the conditions imposed on the use of SCF as well. Some participants also indicated that after experiencing the added value of a specific questionnaire, they were more motivated to complete the questionnaire the next time. However, this relationship seems somewhat weaker because negotiating the conditions takes place in the early stages and the test-taking attitude gradually takes shape as the treatment progresses. The extent to which the conditions for the use of SCF are met combined with the extent to which a positive test-taking attitude is formed seem to be related to the effect on the therapeutic process. Each of the main themes and underlying subthemes are described in detail in the following sections, including illustrating quotes to clarify core meanings of the different subthemes.

Requirements to use SCF

As indicated above, three different SCF-tools were used by the participants; a relatively short SCF-tool that was used at high frequency, a medium SCF-tool that was used at low frequency, and a relatively long SCF-tool that was also used at low frequency. The interviews showed that the extent to which a patient is willing to use and complete a SCF-tool is related to the frequency in which it is used, the length of the tool and the complexity of the questions on the one hand, and its perceived validity on the other hand.

Balance between effort it takes to complete SCF and perceived validity

Participants indicated that the relatively short questionnaire did not provide very detailed information, but was very user-friendly. Participants also indicated that the advantage of the longer questionnaires was that you dive deeper into a problem and thus gain more insight into what is going on.

Regarding the relatively longer questionnaires, it was also indicated that it was quite a lot of work, that not all questions were relevant and that using these longer SCF-tools should also yield something. One participant was also disturbed by questions that came back in a slightly different form and made a plea for computer adaptive testing:

There’s a lot of repetition in it. And then I think, I have just filled that in too. [ ] There were for instance a lot of questions about whether you drink or do drugs. Look, if that doesn’t apply to you, then that question will still come up every time. Yes, that was asked three times. If you already say no to the first one, then I think it is unnecessary to fill in the other two [ ] if it has been modified slightly. So if, for example, you can immediately declare alcohol and drugs, no, and all those questions below that will disappear. Then I think it’s a good questionnaire.

Balance between used frequency and perceived validity

The combination of long and short SCF-tools was seen as helpful, when the short tools were used frequently and the longer tools occasionally to ask more specifically about different problems. Participants stated that the longer SCF-tools should best be used at the beginning and at the end of therapy, and in longer treatments, for example every three months:

I would have [the longer questionnaires] administered at the beginning and the end anyway and then… Yes, I think it depends a bit on how long your treatment lasts. Yes, if you are only here for three months and you receive such a questionnaire ten times, that is too much. But I think I would do it an average of three times. Once at the beginning and the end and once in the middle. But suppose you are here for a year, then I would do it more often. Once a quarter for instance, something like that.

Modifiers for test-taking attitude

The test-taking attitude seemed to be mainly related to the extent to which therapist and patient collaborated on the one hand, and by the extent to which SCF was an embedded part of the treatment on the other hand.

Quality of therapist-client alignment

All participants reported that the building of trust is important in successfully using SCF. Trust can be improved through an equal approach and a solidly built collaboration. It is important that the information obtained is handled carefully in a joint conversation to determine how to make the results meaningful. One participant stated:

You must have great confidence in the person treating you, because he or she is immediately watching. So it’s, … the questions are very personal. And then you really have to have confidence in your practitioner. And then, then it works very well. If you don’t trust your practitioner, well, I guess you’re going to fill it in based on what the practitioner would like to see. [ ] And my therapist understood what I meant, where my problem was and worked on it. So that’s what I mean by trust. [ ] It also seems that you then expect the other person to handle the information carefully.

SCF as an embedded part of therapy

The participants indicated that a thorough explanation about the content and use of the SCF-tools is necessary before the start. Specific instructions about the necessity and added value of negative feedback was also considered important. In addition, patients recommended the practitioner to actively structure the treatment and make SCF an embedded part of the therapy. One of the participants, who also used online therapy tools, stated:

If you provide blended treatment, both face-to-face therapy sessions and internet therapy, and you also have completed SCF-tools, then it is important that you discuss the online tools and SCF in the face-to-face sessions. This will make it more lively and a coherent whole. By doing so, you show your involvement as a practitioner as well.

Effects on therapeutic process

With regard to the effect of SCF on the therapeutic process, two different sub-themes could be distinguished; one that focused more on the course of the treatment, and one that focused more on the end result.

Focus on task and goals, and shared responsibility

The participants stated that using SCF helped them realize that they were not just having a conversation with their therapist, but that they also needed to focus on the tasks and goals of the therapy. In particular, the short questionnaires used at high frequency contributed to this. One of the participants stated:

Completing and discussing the ORS together at the start leads to a shared responsibility for the quality of the session. The SRS is a great way to make adjustments afterwards if, despite discussing the ORS, the session did not go entirely as desired.

Effect on outcome and satisfaction

Finally, most of the participants indicated that the use of SCF led to more satisfaction with the treatment and the outcome. Completing the longer questionnaires in particular confirmed improvement and growth when therapy was completed. They also stated that the graphical representation helped to compare feeling and ‘fact’:

Yes, those [questionnaires] were discussed and then you could also see it in a graph. Then you could also see how, how, plus and minus what you had in it, so to speak. It is, yes, it is confrontational. If you think: I don’t feel so good today, and you see on the screen that you actually feel better [compared to earlier], that’s it… It’s good for yourself, and the same goes for the other way around.

One participant however, who did not improve sufficiently during therapy, indicated that it was confronting to see this reflected in the questionnaires. The lack of progress shown in the questionnaires made it clear that a different, more intensive form of treatment was needed elsewhere. On the one hand, the participant felt that a different form of treatment was needed, but on the other hand, also wanted to stay with the current therapist. However, when they looked at the SCF, it became clear that the latter was not appropriate.

Besides the relative homogeneity found in the answers and themes, we also found an important difference between the participants, namely their level of computer skills. These skills varied from moderate to expert, which appeared to influence how they experienced the user-friendliness of administration. This difference in skills seemed to particularly affect the theme ‘Requirements to use SCF’ because participants with lower computer skills found it more difficult to complete the online questionnaires.

In this study several Dutch patients interviews on the use of SCF were analyzed through reflexive Thematic Analysis by an SCF expert team, to generate implications for daily practice and optimize its implementation in the Netherlands. Three themes could be identified, all of which have two sub-themes.

The first theme is related to the start of therapy and describes requirements to use SCF. In this phase it seems important that the therapist and patient find a balance between effort to complete SCF in terms of complexity, length and frequency, and the perceived validity of the used SCF system. Longer, complex questionnaires are preferably used at low frequency and shorter simpler questionnaires at high frequency.

After this first start-up phase, modifiers for test-taking attitude can be distinguished, with SCF as an embedded part of therapy on the one hand, and the quality of Therapist-Client alignment on the other. If these two phases are completed successfully, the chance seems to increase that SCF has positive effects on the therapeutic process and improve outcome and satisfaction.

The results found are in line with the two helping meta-themes of SCF found by Solstad et al. [ 18 ]; SCF led to increased patient empowerment, and increased collaboration between patient and therapist. The participating patients stated that SCF led to an increased focus on task, goals, and to an increased awareness of shared responsibility.

Our results are also aligned with one of the hindering meta-theme found by Solstad et al. [ 18 ] reporting that SCF is not always sufficiently corresponding with what patients regard as valuable outcomes. Our participants endorsed that questionnaires should sufficiently correspond with what they regard as valuable outcomes and added that this partly depends on the length, complexity and frequency of the questionnaire used.

Contrary to the findings of Solstad and colleagues, SCF did not induce suspicion towards therapists in our study. This may be related to the fact that in our study feedback generally led to an improvement in treatment outcome [ 7 ]. On the other hand, the participants indicated that SCF does not automatically have added value. Thus, when the requirements are insufficiently met, and the test taking attitude is poor, it will probably have a negative effect, as described by Wolpert [ 16 ].

Finally, we found that SCF can also be confronting, especially if no progress can be observed. It forces to change the course of treatment, or sometimes even the treatment setting, even if the working alliance is satisfactory. In this way, SCF can help to close unhelpful treatments in time and lead the way to a more helpful form of therapy.

Implications

This study provides evidence that SCF does not automatically lead to improvement in Dutch mental healthcare and that an ongoing process of therapist-client alignment seems required. This starts with the preparation, in which frequency, length, user friendliness and complexity of the questionnaires used must be balanced with their perceived added value. This alignment seems best continued through an solidly built collaboration to determine how to ensure that SCF becomes a meaningful embedded part of the therapy. Throughout the progression of therapy, it seems necessary to keep discussing SCF and adjust it if necessary. In other words, SCF and therapy are communicating vessels. It is not only necessary to adjust therapy based on SCF, but it is also necessary to adjust SCF based on the course of therapy.

This ‘communicating vessels-approach’ is not common practice in SCF use neither in the Netherlands nor in other countries. Most often the questionnaires are used in a fixed frequency of completion, determined at the outset of therapy. Treatment will be adjusted in the further course based on SCF, but not the other way around. However, the patients in this study make a clear plea for the possibility of adjusting not only treatment, but also type and frequency of questionnaires. This may be related to cultural aspects. The Netherlands is known for its neo-corporate ‘Polder Model’ in which it is very common to negotiate together on all kinds of areas, and this model is deeply anchored in the culture [ 41 ].

In addition, the desire to adjust the use of SCF during the course of treatment may also be related to the added predicted value of SCF. In the study of Bovendeerd et al. [ 7 ] the added value of SCF was mainly found at the beginning of therapy, over 76% of the added improvement was achieved in the first three months. If SCF is continued with the same intensity after these three months, the efforts will remain the same, but the benefits will decrease. If that is the case, it seems logical to adjust the intensity as well.

Limitations

The current study combined the perspective of a limited number of patients in Dutch mental healthcare when high and low frequent SCF was added to their therapy with the perspective of a Dutch team of SCF experts using reflexive Thematic Analysis (rTA) as described by Braun and Clarke [ 24 ]. This method is specifically designed for profound subjective analysis concerning a specific topic, in this case SCF implementation in the Netherlands. This subjectivity is a strength on the one hand, because it can lead to profound interpretations and useful practical implications. This subjectivity is also its limitation, another team of experts might come to different conclusions.

Regarding the reflexivity of this research team as formulated by O’Brian and colleagues [ 40 ], there is a consciously chosen overlap between the researchers’ characteristics and the interviewed patients. We chose to combine the perspective of Dutch patients in outpatient mental healthcare with the perspective of a team of Dutch SCF experts, and used reflexive thematic analysis to generate themes and actionable insights for clinical practice. This profound subjective approach optimizes an in-depth analysis concerning implementing SCF in Dutch outpatient mental healthcare. This approach might simultaneously lead to limited transferability, especially for SCF implementation in other countries.

Adding SCF to therapy was perceived as helpful by Dutch patients in psychotherapy if two conditions were met; (1) Creating a right balance between effort and yield for SCF to be used at all, and (2) embedding SCF as an integral part of therapy, through therapist-client alignment. Throughout the course of therapy, it might be useful to perceive SCF and therapy as communicating vessels: therapy must be adjusted based on SCF, and SCF use must be adjusted based on the course of therapy. If these conditions are met, it will probably improve the working alliance, therapy outcome and treatment satisfaction.

Illustration of relationship between main themes

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, BB, upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Mental Health Continuum Short Form

Outcome Questionnaire

Outcome Rating Scale

Partners for Change Outcome Management System

reflexive Thematic Analysis

Systematic Client Feedback

Session Rating Scale

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Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the patients from the participating centers of Mindfit for their participation in the study, the patient advisory board of the Dimence Group for their advice, and numerous colleagues of the Dimence Group for their additional help.

This work was supported by the Research-foundation of Postmaster Psychologie Opleidingen (PPO) the Netherlands, grant number PPO-RF-18CM, and the Dimence Groep, the Netherlands, grant number CWOBB112014. The University of Groningen financially supported JdK’s contributions to the study. None of the sponsors had a role in the design and conducting of the study nor in preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript.

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Department of Clinical Psychology and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Behavioural and Social Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands

Bram Bovendeerd & Jos de Keijser

GGZ center for mental health care, Dimence, PO Box 390, Deventer, 7400 AJ, The Netherlands

Bram Bovendeerd & Erik de Groot

Institute of Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands

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Contributions

BB wrote the study proposal, the manuscript and led the research project. BB, EdG and JdK developed the study design and coordinated the data acquisition. JdK and KdJ supervised the research project. BB was involved in every step of the data-analysis, EdG participated in generating the initial themes, EdG, KdJ and JdK were involved in the reviewing and developing of themes and in the refining, defining and naming of themes. All authors provided comments on manuscript drafts and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Bram Bovendeerd .

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This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the protocol was approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of the University of Twente (K15-11, METC Twente). All participants were informed about the content of this study and the potential risks before each interview. Written consent was obtained from all participants.

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Bovendeerd, B., de Jong, K., de Groot, E. et al. Patient perspectives on systematic client feedback in Dutch outpatient mental healthcare, a qualitative case reports study. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 957 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11404-2

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Received : 26 March 2024

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Published : 20 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11404-2

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18 Qualitative Research Examples

Qualitative Research Examples

2. Autoethnography

3. Semi-Structured Interviews

4. Focus Groups

5. Phenomenology

6. Grounded Theory

7. Narrative Research

8. Case Study Research

9. Participant Observation

10. Non-Participant Observation

11. Content Analysis

12. Discourse Analysis

13. Action Research

14. Semiotic Analysis

15. Qualitative Longitudinal Studies

16. Open-Ended Surveys

17. Naturalistic Observation

18. Photo-Elicitation

Features of Qualitative Research

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

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Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research Methods

One-to-One Interview

Focus Groups

Ethnographic Studies

Text Analysis

Process of Observation

Record Keeping

Qualitative Research Analysis Methods

Thematic Analysis

Content Analysis

Discourse Analysis

Grounded Theory Analysis

Narrative Analysis

Phenomenological Analysis

Comparative Analysis

Applications of Qualitative Research

How to Conduct Qualitative Research

Examples of Qualitative Research

Purpose of Qualitative Research

When to use Qualitative Research

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Advantages of Qualitative Research

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