types of international assignment

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Managing International Assignments: Compensation Approaches

A new international assignment landscape is challenging traditional compensation approaches

For many years, expatriate compensation has been focused on a dilemma: having assignees on expensive home-based expatriate package versus localization - which is about replacing expatriates with locals or at least transition expatriates from an expatriate package to a local salary. Many predicted that the traditional home-based balance sheet approach would gradually disappear. The predictions of the demise of the typical expatriate approach have been greatly exaggerated. We are witnessing the emergence of new compensation challenges instead, due to the complexity of having to manage multiple types of assignments and assignee categories.

The home-based approach still retains its utility for certain kinds of moves (e.g. business-critical assignments or moves to hardship locations). Local strategies are becoming more common but, due to the difficulty of applying them consistently in all transfer destinations, they are used only in some cases (moves between similar countries, developmental moves) and take multiple forms as “purely local” or local-plus approaches. Additional approaches like international compensation structures have emerged to address issues of global nomads.

The challenge for HR managers is, therefore, not so much to find the best approach applicable for all assignments as to deal with individual assignment complexity, envisage greater mobility policy segmentation and, if relevant for the company, map each compensation approach to a particular assignment in a consistent way.

The increasingly complex international assignment landscape: One size does not fit all anymore

Expatriates vs. Locals

One size fits all?

Let's localize assignees as soon as possible!

Expatriates

Rise of the third-country nationals

Need to add a cost efficient category for junior employees/developmental moves?

Traditional expatriates

Global nomads

Permanent transfers

Employee-initiated moves

Local or local plus?

Foreigners hired locally

Commuters (cross-border or regional

Multiple types of short-term/project/rotational assignments

Increasing number of home locations

Reviewing international assignment approaches in three steps:

Step 1: Understand the options available

Approaches linked to the host country (local or local-plus)

While these approaches sound logical and natural (when relocating assignees to a new country, they will be paid according to the local salary structure in that destination country) their practical implementation is often tricky. Few employees accept a salary decrease when moving to a low-paying country. It is often difficult to reintegrate assignees relocated to a high-paying country into their original salary structure due to their inflated base salary.

The host approach was historically not the most common for assignees on long-term assignments. However, we have witnessed a growing interest in recent years in host-based approaches – either a host approach or local-plus approach (host salary plus selected benefits or premiums) – as companies are trying to contain costs and as significant salary increases in many emerging markets make host strategies more attractive.

Approaches linked to the home country ("balance sheets")

Home-based approaches have been traditionally the most commonly used to compensate international assignees. Assignees on a home-based approach retain their home-country salary and receive a suite of allowances and premiums designed to cover the costs linked to expatriation. The equalization logic behind the balance sheet approach (no gain/no loss) encourages mobility by removing obstacles. Retaining the home-country salary facilitates repatriation. The balance sheet approach can, however, be costly. Many companies either look for alternatives or try to reduce the benefits and premiums included for less significant moves.

Other Solutions

Hybrid approaches attempt to combine the advantages of the home and host-based approaches. These often mean running a balance sheet calculation and comparing the results with the host market salary to determine what solution would make sense. A hybrid approach can work well for a small assignee population but it can generate inconsistencies when companies expand globally, and the assignee population grows significantly.

Finally, some companies rely on international compensation structures that do not use the host and the home structures at all. These might utilize the average salary in a selected group of high-paying countries where the companies operate. This approach facilitates mobility for global nomads and highly mobile employees. It is, however, often very expensive and doesn’t solve all assignment-related issues (e.g., currency issues, pension, taxation). It is typically used in specific industry sectors (e.g., energy and engineering) and for a few assignees (top level managers and global nomads.)

Step 2: Assessing assignment patterNs and business objectives

Assignment patterns

Are assignees moving between countries with similar salary levels, which would make the use of local or local plus easier or, on the contrary, are expatriates sent to host countries with different pay and benefits structures (low-paying to high-paying, or high-paying to low-paying country moves)? Are moves for a fixed duration – e.g., assignments lasting one to five years – or will the company rely on permanent transfers with no guarantee of repatriation?

Assignee Population

Are assignees coming mainly from the headquarter countries (typical for early stages of globalization) or is the number of third-country nationals already significant? A growing number of multinational companies report that the number of moves between emerging markets (“lateral moves”) is catching up with or exceeding the number from the headquarters, prompting a review of compensation approaches.

Are some assignees becoming true global nomads who move from country to country without returning home during their career? Employees, and especially the younger generations, are becoming much more mobile, but only a minority would be global nomads. These assignees are usually top-level managers, experts with unique skills, or globally mobile talent sourced from small or emerging countries where the absence of career opportunities perspective would preclude repatriation perspectives.

Company's philosophy and sector

Some industry sectors like services and finances relocate employees between major regional and financial hubs which facilitate the use of local approach, whereas energy and engineering companies transferred employees to hardship locations are a key feature of the business – and requires comprehensive expatriation packages often based on balance sheets and international salary structures.

Step 3: Assess segmentation needs

An increasing number of companies rely on expatriate policy segmentation to reconcile the cost control versus international expansion dilemma – how to have the same number of assignments or more without increasing the budget dedicated to international mobility. Segmentation means reallocating part of the budget to business critical assignees and limits the costs of non-essential moves.

Some of the commonly used assignment categories include strategic moves (business-critical), developmental moves (which benefit both the company and the employee), and self-requested move (requested by the employee but not essential to the business).

A consistent policy segmentation approach allows HR teams to present business cases or assignment options to management and provide a clearer understanding of the cost and business implications of relocation for different assignees.

It could also help manage exceptions into a well-defined framework based on a consistent talent management approach, as opposed to ad hoc deals.

Example of segmented compensation approach: the four-box model

Want to learn more about Expatriate Compensation Approaches?

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Events and training Throughout the year, Mercer conducts a variety of free webinars and paid training sessions, online and in person, to help you keep pace with the evolution of international talent mobility and global workforce management.

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5 Tips for Managing Successful Overseas Assignments

• Andy Molinsky
• Melissa Hahn

Stay in constant touch and have a plan for their return.

Sending talented employees overseas can be a promising way to leverage the benefits of a global economy. But expatriate assignments can be extremely expensive: up to three times the cost of a person’s typical annual salary, according to some statistics. And despite the investment, many organizations lack the know-how for optimizing the potential benefits, leaving them disappointed with the results. The unfortunate reality is that even companies providing well-crafted relocation packages (including the all-important cultural training) may not have the talent management mechanisms in place to truly leverage the valuable skills expatriate employees gain during their assignments.

• Andy Molinsky is a professor of Organizational Behavior and International Management at Brandeis University and the author of Global Dexterity , Reach , and Forging Bonds in a Global Workforce . Connect with him on LinkedIn and download his free e-booklet of 7 myths about working effectively across cultures .
• Melissa Hahn teaches intercultural communication at American University’s School of International Service. Her new book, Forging Bonds in a Global Workforce (McGraw Hill), helps global professionals build effective relationships across cultures.

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18.7 The International Assignment

Learning objectives.

• Describe how to prepare for an international assignment.
• Discuss the acculturation process as an expatriate.
• Describe effective strategies for living and working abroad.

Suppose you have the opportunity to work or study in a foreign country. You may find the prospect of an international assignment intriguing, challenging, or even frightening; indeed, most professionals employed abroad will tell you they pass through all three stages at some point during the assignment. They may also share their sense of adjustment, even embrace of their host culture, and the challenges of reintegration into their native country.

An international assignment, whether as a student or a career professional, requires work and preparation, and should be given the time and consideration of any major life change. When you lose a loved one, it takes time to come to terms with the loss. When someone you love is diagnosed with a serious illness, the news may take some time to sink in. When a new baby enters your family, a period of adjustment is predictable and prolonged. All these major life changes can stress an individual beyond their capacity to adjust. Similarly, in order to be a successful “expat,” or expatriate, one needs to prepare mentally and physically for the change.

International business assignments are a reflection of increased global trade, and as trade decreases, they may become an expensive luxury. As technology allows for instant face-to-face communication, and group collaboration on documents via cloud computing and storage, the need for physical travel may be reduced. But regardless of whether your assignment involves relocation abroad, supervision of managers in another country at a distance, or supervision by a foreign manager, you will need to learn more about the language, culture, and customs that are not your own. You will need to compare and contrast, and seek experiences that lend insight, in order to communicate more effectively.

An efficient, effective manager in any country is desirable, but one with international experience even more so. You will represent your company and they will represent you, including a considerable financial investment, either by your employer (in the case of a professional assignment) or by whoever is financing your education (in the case of studying abroad). That investment should not be taken lightly. As many as 40 percent of foreign-assigned employees terminate their assignments early (Tu, H. and Sullivan, S., 1994), at a considerable cost to their employers. Of those that remain, almost 50 percent are less than effective (Tu, H. and Sullivan, S., 1994).

Preparation

With this perspective in mind, let’s discuss how to prepare for the international assignment and strategies to make you a more effective professional as a stranger in a strange land. First we’ll dispel a couple of myths associated with an idealized or romantic view of living abroad. Next we’ll examine traits and skills of the successful expatriate. Finally, we’ll examine culture shock and the acculturation process.

Your experience with other cultures may have come firsthand, but for most, a foreign location like Paris is an idea formed from exposure to images via the mass media. Paris may be known for its art, as a place for lovers, or as a great place to buy bread. But if you have only ever known about a place through the lens of a camera, you have only seen the portraits designed and portrayed by others. You will lack the multidimensional view of one who lives and works in Paris, and even if you are aware of its history, its economic development, or its recent changes, these are all academic observations until the moment of experience.

That is not to say that research does not form a solid foundation in preparation for an international assignment, but it does reinforce the distinction between a media-fabricated ideal and real life. Awareness of this difference is an important step as you prepare yourself for life in a foreign culture.

If the decision is yours to make, take your time. If others are involved, and family is a consideration, you should take even more care with this important decision. Residence abroad requires some knowledge of the language, an ability to adapt, and an interest in learning about different cultures. If family members are not a part of the decision, or lack the language skills or interest, the assignment may prove overwhelming and lead to failure. Sixty-four percent of expatriate respondents who terminated their assignment early indicated that family concerns were the primary reason (Contreras, C. D., 2009).

Points to consider include the following:

• How flexible are you?
• Do you need everything spelled out or can you go with the flow?
• Can you adapt to new ways of doing business?
• Are you interested in the host culture and willing to dedicate the time and put forth the effort to learn more about it?
• What has been your experience to date working with people from distinct cultures?
• What are your language skills at present, and are you interested in learning a new language?
• Is your family supportive of the assignment?
• How will it affect your children’s education? Your spouse’s career? Your career?
• Will this assignment benefit your family?
• How long are you willing to commit to the assignment?
• What resources are available to help you prepare, move, and adjust?
• Can you stand being out of the loop, even if you are in daily written and oral communication with the home office?
• What is your relationship with your employer, and can it withstand the anticipated stress and tension that will result as not everything goes according to plan?
• Is the cultural framework of your assignment similar to—or unlike—your own, and how ready are you to adapt to differences in such areas as time horizon, masculinity versus femininity, or direct versus indirect styles of communication?

This list of questions could continue, and feel free to add your own as you explore the idea of an international assignment. An international assignment is not like a domestic move or reassignment. Within the same country, even if there are significantly different local customs in place, similar rules, laws, and ways of doing business are present. In a foreign country, you will lose those familiar traditions and institutions and have to learn many new ways of accomplishing your given tasks. What once took a five-minute phone call may now take a dozen meetings and a month to achieve, and that may cause you some frustration. It may also cause your employer frustration as you try to communicate how things are done locally, and why results are not immediate, as they lack even your limited understanding of your current context. Your relationship with your employer will experience stress, and your ability to communicate your situation will require tact and finesse.

Successful expatriates are adaptable, open to learning new languages, cultures, and skilled at finding common ground for communication. Rather than responding with frustration, they learn the new customs and find the advantage to get the job done. They form relationships and are not afraid to ask for help when it is warranted or required. They feel secure in their place as explorer, and understand that mistakes are a given, even as they are unpredictable. Being a stranger is no easy task, but they welcome the challenge with energy and enthusiasm.

Acculturation Process

Acculturation , or the transition to living abroad, is often described as an emotional rollercoaster. Steven Rhinesmith provides ten steps that show the process of acculturation, including culture shock, that you may experience:

• Initial anxiety
• Initial elation
• Initial culture shock
• Superficial adjustment
• Depression-frustration
• Acceptance of host culture
• Return anxiety
• Return elation
• Reentry shock
• Reintegration

Humans fear the unknown, and even if your tolerance for uncertainty is high, you may experience a degree of anxiety in anticipation of your arrival. At first the “honeymoon” period is observed, with a sense of elation at all the newfound wonders. You may adjust superficially at first, learning where to get familiar foods or new ways to meet your basic needs. As you live in the new culture, divergence will become a trend and you’ll notice many things that frustrate you. You won’t anticipate the need for two hours at a bank for a transaction that once took five minutes, or could be handled over the Internet, and find that businesses close during midday, preventing you from accomplishing your goals. At this stage, you will feel that living in this new culture is simply exhausting. Many expats advise that this is the time to tough it out—if you give in to the temptation to make a visit back home, you will only prolong your difficult adjustment.

Over time, if you persevere, you will come to accept and adjust to your host culture, and learn how to accomplish your goals with less frustration and ease. You may come to appreciate several cultural values or traits and come to embrace some aspects of your host culture. At some point, you will need to return to your first, or home, culture, but that transition will bring a sense of anxiety. People and places change, the familiar is no longer so familiar, and you too have changed. You may once again be elated at your return and the familiar, and experience a sense of comfort in home and family, but culture shock may again be part of your adjustment. You may look at your home culture in a new way and question things that are done in a particular way that you have always considered normal. You may hold onto some of the cultural traits you adopted while living abroad, and begin the process of reintegration.

Figure 18.3

The international assignment requires adaptability.

JT – Euro Note Currency – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

You may also begin to feel that the “grass is greener” in your host country, and long to return. Expatriates are often noted for “going native,” or adopting the host culture’s way of life, but even the most confirmed expats still gather to hear the familiar sound of their first language, and find community in people like themselves who have blended cultural boundaries on a personal level.

Living and Working Abroad

In order to learn to swim you have to get in the water, and all the research and preparation cannot take the place of direct experience. Your awareness of culture shock may help you adjust, and your preparation by learning some of the language will assist you, but know that living and working abroad take time and effort. Still, there are several guidelines that can serve you well as you start your new life in a strange land:

• Be open and creative . People will eat foods that seem strange or do things in a new way, and your openness and creativity can play a positive role in your adjustment. Staying close to your living quarters or surrounding yourself with similar expats can limit your exposure to and understanding of the local cultures. While the familiar may be comfortable, and the new setting may be uncomfortable, you will learn much more about your host culture and yourself if you make the effort to be open to new experiences. Being open involves getting out of your comfort zone.
• Be self-reliant . Things that were once easy or took little time may now be challenging or consume your whole day. Focus on your ability to resolve issues, learn new ways to get the job done, and be prepared to do new things.
• Keep a balanced perspective . Your host culture isn’t perfect. Humans aren’t perfect, and neither was your home culture. Each location and cultural community has strengths you can learn from if you are open to them.
• Be patient . Take your time, and know a silent period is normal. The textbook language classes only provide a base from which you will learn how people who live in the host country actually communicate. You didn’t learn to walk in a day and won’t learn to successfully navigate this culture overnight either.
• Be a student and a teacher . You are learning as the new member of the community, but as a full member of your culture, you can share your experiences as well.
• Be an explorer . Get out and go beyond your boundaries when you feel safe and secure. Traveling to surrounding villages, or across neighboring borders, can expand your perspective and help you learn.
• Protect yourself . Always keep all your essential documents, money, and medicines close to you, or where you know they will be safe. Trying to source a medicine in a country where you are not fluent in the language, or where the names of remedies are different, can be a challenge. Your passport is essential to your safety and you need to keep it safe. You may also consider vaccination records, birth certificates, or business documents in the same way, keeping them safe and accessible. You may want to consider a “bug-out bag,” with all the essentials you need, including food, water, keys, and small tools, as an essential part of planning in case of emergency.

Key Takeaways

Preparation is key to a successful international assignment. Living and working abroad takes time, effort, and patience.

• Research one organization in a business or industry that relates to your major and has an international presence. Find a job announcement or similar document that discusses the business and its international activities. Share and compare with classmates.
• Conduct a search on expat networks including online forum. Briefly describe your findings and share with classmates.
• What would be the hardest part of an overseas assignment for you and why? What would be the easiest part of an overseas assignment for you and why?
• Find an advertisement for an international assignment. Note the qualifications, and share with classmates.
• Find an article or other first-person account of someone’s experience on an international assignment. Share your results with your classmates.

Contreras, C. D. (2009). Should you accept the international assignment? BNET . Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5350/is_200308/ai_n21334696 .

Rhinesmith, S. (1984). Returning home . Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Bureau for International Education.

Tu, H., & Sullivan, S. (1994). Business horizons . Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1038/is_nl_v37/ai_14922926 .

Business Communication for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Gareth Wadley

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International assignments: Key issues to consider

What legal issues do you need to consider when it comes to sending employees overseas?

The number of employees working abroad is increasing. As it becomes more common, some assume this will lead to greater standardisation, with template assignment letters the norm.

However, the legal, tax, pension and other variables involved in international assignments require a more bespoke approach, leaving little room for standard documentation. We outline some key issues to address below.

What is an assignment?

Also referred to as a secondment or transfer, an assignment might be internal (to a different role abroad with the same employer) or to an external employer. A key characteristic of an international assignment is that an employee from one legal entity and country ('home' country) temporarily performs services in another country ('host' country).

Potential assignment structures

There are a number of different ways in which assignments can be structured and documented. Which approach is appropriate will depend on a range of issues including employment law, tax, pension, social security and regulatory implications as well as the expectations of employees. Five frequently used assignment structures are:

• the employee continues to be employed solely by the home employer;
• the contract with the home employer is suspended and the employee enters into a local employment contract with the host employer for the assignment;
• the contract with the home employer is terminated with a promise of re-employment at the end of the assignment. In the meantime, the employee enters into a local employment contract with the host employer;
• the contract with the home employer is suspended and the employee enters into a contract with an international assignment company (IAC) within the employer group; or
• the contract with the home employer is suspended and the employee enters into a contract with both an IAC and the host country employer.

Which is best?

When deciding on the best structure for the circumstances, some questions to consider are:

• Do the host country’s laws require employment by a local entity, ruling out sole employment by the home employer?
• Where there is no contract of employment in place with the host employer, could local laws presume that the host is the de facto employer?
• If the home contract is “suspended”, is the home employer prepared to accept the legal uncertainty, in employment law terms, that this status brings?
• In a dual contract structure, who will bear the greatest risk of being liable for employment claims – host, home (or the IAC)?
• Will the employee accept the termination of his/her home contract?
• What is the impact on pension and benefit schemes, social security and tax?

Are there key terms in the home contract that require special consideration and protection, for example, restrictive covenants and confidentiality?

Which national law applies, when and to what? Which courts would have jurisdiction in the event of a dispute?

Who pays for, and manages, the employee during the assignment and will the employee return to the home country?

Looking forward

It is inevitable that documenting assignments will become a smoother process as employers become more familiar with the issues involved. However, the range of significant personal, legal and financial implications will mean that a degree of tailoring will always be necessary, in order to avoid negative repercussions.

Gareth Wadley is principal associate at Eversheds

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International Assignments: Who's Going Where and Why?

What does the global-mobility landscape look like today?

According to global relocation services provider Cartus’ recent 2013 Trends in Global Relocation Survey, younger employees are most interested in taking international relocation assignments, with career development being the main reason, and sequential assignments are on the rise.

The survey’s findings shed light on who companies are moving (and where), what criteria they are using to select their mobile talent, and how they’re linking talent management to global mobility.

Assignee Demographics

The demographics of the expatriate population appear to be steady in terms of gender, with the percentages of both men (79 percent) and women (21 percent) shifting only slightly from 2012.

Generation X employees (56 percent) represent the largest age group of transferees. Baby Boomers (20 percent) posted a slight increase over 2012, while the youngest group—Millennials, or Generation Y (20 percent)—showed a significant increase.

Married expats with accompanying families are still the most common but have become a smaller percentage of global workers over the past six years. The category of those “married and traveling solo” has gained the most in percentage points over this period.

In general, younger, single male employees are showing the highest interest in global assignments, according to the survey. Women, Baby Boomers and employees with families are showing less interest in working abroad.

This profile holds true when the destination is an emerging market.

“Given the issues with schooling, housing and in many cases security, the lack of interest among assignees with families is not surprising,” the report said.

Some of the respondents’ comments include:

• “Dubai and the Middle East have their limitations for certain lifestyles. People with family are not so open to move their family to areas with little infrastructure.”
• “There is low interest in African regions.”
• “Employees seem to be less interested in going to certain locations if assignment allowances do not properly reflect the hardships that exist in the new work/life environment.”
• “As the quality of lifestyle in emerging markets can vary when compared to a developed country, it is difficult for entire families to relocate to these types of countries. We have implemented two-year assignments in these regions, which seem to be working, with a limited time in more challenging environments.”
• “Although Millennials are interested in these types of assignments, we need highly experienced people to go in and develop our emerging markets, so sometimes the interest and the experience needed to be successful are out of sync.”
• “Employees with families tend to shy away from emerging markets. They look for places with more stable economies and social systems, especially for reasons of safety, security and schooling. They are also concerned about fluctuations in currency and overall earning and savings power.”

Most and Least Desirable Locations for Assignments

When asked which of the developed countries generated the most employee interest for assignments, the clear choices were the U.S., U.K., Australia, Singapore and Canada.

Tier I India and China (developed cities such as Mumbai and Shanghai) ranked as the locations that workers were most resistant to relocating to among the developed countries, indicating these are still perceived as challenging markets.

For emerging-market locations, Brazil topped the list of nations to which employees most wanted to go, followed closely by the United Arab Emirates. Among the emerging-market countries that professionals were reluctant to work in are Nigeria, Saudi Arabia and Russia. Notably, Tiers II-IV for both India and China show up as generating significant interest and resistance. “This is likely attributable to the fact that as booming markets, they offer significant opportunities but also major challenges in infrastructure and other areas,” the report explained. “They are likely to be perceived differently depending on the assignee’s experience, appetite for adventure, and perception of the market’s importance to company goals.”

Motivating Factors

When asked for the main reasons why employees accepted an international assignment, companies said that while attractive compensation was named by a third of respondents (34 percent), the main motivating factors for employees were career development and advancement.

“This finding is a clear indicator that now is the time for companies to really start focusing on creating synergies across HR and businesses in order to ensure assignees are no longer ‘out of sight, out of mind’ and they are aware that the company is also focusing on their career. If employees’ value is not recognized, particularly the Gen Y/Millennial population, attrition rates will continue to rise,” according to the report.

Qualifying Criteria

As for the business criteria and qualifications that organizations seek when considering someone for an international assignment, leadership potential (80 percent) and technical skills (75 percent) were cited the most. A significant number of respondents (61 percent) also noted that the criteria depended on the project. Notably, only 33 percent are factoring in minimum performance ratings in selection criteria.

Flexibility and the ability to adapt to fluid circumstances (71 percent) led the list of behavioral characteristics businesses look for when considering an employee for an assignment abroad.

Second and third on the list of behavioral traits were career orientation and the desire to advance (63 percent), and the ability to work productively in an independent setting (57 percent).

Questioned about the family criteria their organization takes into account when considering someone for an international assignment, 68 percent of respondents said family status was not considered, while 25 percent said family criteria depended on the project.

Linking Talent Management and Global Mobility

When asked whether they agreed with the statement “The impact of an international assignment on an assignee’s career is positive,” 82 percent said yes, a 30 percent increase from 2009. “This supports the feeling that companies are paying more attention to, and realizing the importance of, how international assignments support employee growth, business value and retention,” the report said.

Building effective linkages between talent and global mobility will help ensure that assignments truly contribute to company business strategies, the report said.

According to respondents, the most frequently implemented strategies were:

• Ensuring assignment objectives are incorporated into the employee’s performance review while on assignment (62 percent).
• Collaborating with HR to ensure that employee performance ratings are considered for all workers on overseas assignments (60 percent).

The top three strategies under consideration:

• Tracking postassignment employee advancement (63 percent).
• Tracking postassignment employee retention (57 percent).
• Developing a global talent pool for future assignments (56 percent).

Sequential Assignments Rising

Not all expatriates get to return home after an assignment. Fifty-eight percent of respondents have either many (13 percent) or a few (45 percent) “global nomads” who are on back-to-back assignments. More than half (57 percent) expect the sequential-assignment trend to stay about the same, and about a third (31 percent) expect the trend to increase.

Of organizations that said they have sequential assignments, 80 percent said they were typically long term, and the most frequent demographic profile was an older employee, Generation X worker or a Baby Boomer. This supports a general trend of companies sending more senior employees on this type of assignment, often with newer employees accompanying them for professional development, the report said.

Repatriation Lacking

Responding organizations ranked repatriation and career development highest among aspects of their relocation programs they most want to improve.

More than half (58 percent) of companies said they did not offer formal repatriation programs. Of those that offer these programs, only a third (33 percent) typically offer repatriation programs for long-term assignments. The most common reasons given for not offering these programs were lack of perceived value by the organization (60 percent) and cost considerations (35 percent).

Roy Maurer is an online editor/manager for SHRM.

Follow him at @SHRMRoy

Related Articles:

Developing an Effective Global Mobility Program , SHRM Online Global HR, August 2013 International Assignments Expected to Increase in 2013 , SHRM Online Global HR, May 2013

Managing International Assignments , SHRM Online Templates and Samples, July 2012

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• Type of assignment
• Recruitment
• Letter of assignment
• New employment contract
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Guide for global employers: International assignments

Authors: Matthew Howse and Sarah Ash , Morgan, Lewis & Bockius, LLP

• There are different types of international assignments. Which arrangement an organisation chooses in the circumstances will depend on several factors, including the duration of the assignment, the objectives of the organisations involved and the tax implications of the assignment. (See Type of assignment )
• Employers should consider what employment documentation they will need for an international assignment. For mid- and long-term assignments, where the home organisation is the employee's employer during the assignment, it could provide the employee with a letter of assignment varying his or her terms and conditions of employment. It should also decide which policies and procedures will apply to the assignee. (See Employment documents and Policies and procedures )
• Organisations have several options from which to choose when deciding on the reward package for an international assignee. (See Pay and benefits )
• Many organisations help employees with the practical challenges of relocating abroad, for example by providing assistance with their immigration application, tax advice and language and culture training. (See Immigration , Tax and social security issues and Preparing the assignee for the assignment )
• An important factor in the success of many international assignments is the support offered by the employer to the employee's accompanying family members. (See Assistance for family members )
• Organisations should plan ahead for an employee's return from an international assignment. (See Return of the assignee )

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Flexible global working arrangements: An integrative review and future research agenda

Stefan jooss.

a Cork University Business School, University College Cork, College Road, Cork, Ireland

Anthony McDonnell

Kieran conroy.

b Queen's Management School, Queen's University Belfast, University Road, Belfast, UK

The topography of global mobility within multinational enterprises (MNEs) is evolving where we now have a portfolio of flexible global working arrangements (FGWAs) including: international business travellers, flexpatriates, short-term international assignees, international commuters, and rotational assignees. The need for more agile structures and more efficient mechanisms to transfer globally dispersed knowledge are two key enablers in this evolution. With increased interest, this paper offers the first systematic, integrative review of 100 articles on FGWAs. The review indicates that these forms of global work appear to be a somewhat overlooked double-edged sword in that they may confer significant but unrealised value for MNEs alongside hidden, adverse consequences for individuals. Notable was the lack of insight into the HR function's input or oversight at either a strategic or operational level. We find that there is a distinct lack of strategic linkages to global mobility and/or HR functions. We propose a research agenda that centres on better understanding the international HR function's role and responsibility in providing a more strategic and sustainable perspective of these increasingly common FGWAs alongside virtual work. The COVID-19 pandemic may offer a critical juncture point in which there is greater strategic consideration on the utilisation and support of such arrangements.

• • This is the first systematic review on flexible global working arrangements
• • There is a clear imbalance in representation of the work arrangements in the literature
• • Value creation and destruction highlight the doubled-edged nature of such work
• • There is a lack of research into the HR function's input or oversight
• • Research on strategic IHRM integration and sustainable management is proposed

1. Introduction

In order for multinational enterprises (MNEs) to adapt to increasing volatility, complexity, and uncertainty in the global environment, there is an urgent need to develop and leverage more innovative and flexible forms of global mobility ( Collings & Isichei, 2018 ; Reiche, Lee, & Allen, 2019 ). The acceleration of globalisation in recent decades, coupled with demographic, geopolitical, economic, and information technology (IT) changes and the increased ease of international travel, has seen continued use of expatriate assignments ( Miralles-Vazquez & McGaughey, 2015 ) alongside the rise of other forms which we term – flexible global working arrangements (FGWAs) ( Cascio & Aguinis, 2008 ; Collings, Scullion, & Morley, 2007 ; Shaffer, Kraimer, Chen, & Bolino, 2012 ). The rise of FGWAs is paralleled by MNEs pursuing more agile structures and a desire to enable knowledge transfer in more efficient and effective ways ( Meyer, Li, & Schotter, 2020 ). Despite a rise of populism and protectionism in recent years, MNEs continue to expand following a strategy of international diversification ( Hitt, Li, & Xu, 2016 ) while seeking to maintain a balance between global integration and local responsiveness ( Verbeke & Kano, 2016 ). In this context, globally mobile workers traversing borders and continuously engaging in face-to-face exchanges act as highly valuable boundary spanners between headquarters (HQ) and foreign subsidiaries ( Barner-Rasmussen, Ehrnrooth, Koveshnikov, & Mäkelä, 2014 ). Leveraging such global working is especially pertinent when expanding in new frontier economies to create trust among stakeholders, build relationships, and facilitate richer knowledge transfer ( Duvivier, Peeters, & Harzing, 2019 ; Schotter, Mudambi, Doz, & Gaur, 2017 ).

Previous studies have referred to international working patterns ( Baruch, Dickmann, Altman, & Bournois, 2013 ), global work ( Hinds, Liu, & Lyon, 2011 ), global work experiences ( Dragoni et al., 2014 ; Shaffer et al., 2012 ), and global work arrangements ( Mayrhofer & Reiche, 2014 ; Reiche et al., 2019 ); all of which were broader in their scope including traditional long-term expatriation, which dominate research, and/or virtual collaborations. For example, Reiche et al. (2019 , p.360) define global work arrangements as ‘situations in which employees who are collaborating with each other are culturally diverse and often also geographically distant from one another and thus embedded in different national contexts’. In contrast, our systematic review focuses on FGWAs, which we define as;

situations where employees physically engage in working internationally as part of their substantive role for a condensed and defined period ranging from one day to up to one year.

Importantly, our definition identifies how these periods of international working can happen regularly as part of one's global work, enhancing their strategic value but also creating significant challenges. As such, international business travellers (IBTs), flexpatriates, short-term international assignees (STIAs), international commuters, and rotational assignees are included (e.g. Collings & Isichei, 2018 ; Shaffer et al., 2012 ). Rather than viewing those as ‘alternative’ forms of international assignments ( Meyskens, Von Glinow, Werther Jr, & Clarke, 2009 , p.1441), we argue that these need to be considered as a critical component of the mobility portfolios for contemporary MNEs. For example, Deloitte (2019) found that year-over-year, 43% of firms deployed more FGWAs in 2018. Similarly, KPMG (2019) found that over the next five years, most firms expect an increase of flexpatriation (56%) and short-term international assignments (75%). While MNEs have broadened and expanded on the global working arrangements they utilise which, in turn, has brought increased scholarly attention, no systematic literature review has occurred in this nascent area. This stands in marked contrast to traditional expatriation which has seen several useful reviews (e.g. Andersen, 2019 ; Dabic, González-Loureiro, & Harvey, 2015 ; Harvey & Moeller, 2009 ).

Given the significant disruption created by the COVID-19 crisis, this paper is timely in providing a comprehensive synthesis of the existing body of knowledge on FGWAs. While the ongoing pandemic has stopped or derailed international travel in much of 2020, we argue that FGWAs represent crucial mechanisms through which MNEs can augment their international HR management (IHRM) structures in order to respond to globally complex and disruptive conditions ( Caligiuri, De Cieri, Minbaeva, Verbeke, & Zimmermann, 2020 ). Although international travel may re-commence in time, it may be an opportune moment for organisations and individuals to consider whether these FGWAs are being optimally used within their global mobility portfolio. This review illuminates the potential strategic value and challenges of FGWAs as well as the implications of their use at different levels of analysis. For example, a key question of interest is; are FGWAs a legitimate value creation device for MNEs and are there more destructive elements in their use that MNEs need to account for (e.g. knowledge transfer versus individual career development versus health and well-being matters)? This review, in turn, allows us to inform future research efforts which can assist in providing a more extensive coverage and understanding of global mobility forms. In so doing, we address a recent criticism by Cooke, Wood, Wang and Veen (2019 , p.59), where they argued that IHRM research ‘…has for too long focused rather narrowly on expatriate management’. Therefore, the paper's first contribution is providing better balance in the global mobility strand of IHRM scholarship.

Our second contribution is that we provide a more encompassing classification of FGWAs and their key features. This helps reduce the ambiguity and complexity around the terminology used ( Mäkelä, Saarenpää, & McNulty, 2017 ). Specifically, building on Shaffer et al. (2012) we untangle key features of each type of global work arrangement according to their structural and relational embeddedness, benefits and disadvantages, IHRM function involvement, duration, repatriation, and so forth. Our third contribution stems from the future research agenda that we put forward. While the review highlights the lack of strategic oversight or sustainable management of FGWAs, our future research agenda calls for greater interrogation of the involvement of the IHRM function in coordinating and supporting FGWAs. In particular, we seek to illustrate how IHRM and international business scholars may work more closely together ( Andersson et al., 2019 ) to unpack the strategic importance of IHRM and more precisely the value-creating nature of FGWAs ( Reiche et al., 2019 ).

The lack of evidence of strategic or operational considerations, coupled with the considerable adverse physical, psychological, and social aspects reported in the literature, moves us to reporting significant misgivings over the extent to which value creation is realised at an organisational level, and the potential destructive effects that emanate at the individual level. As such, the rise of FGWAs presents a double-edged sword with substantial concern that such work is not being captured as a valuable asset ( Reiche et al., 2019 ). We call for greater theorisation and integration of the strategic IHRM literature to better elucidate the value-creating potential of FGWAs and the role that HR takes in this. While the IHRM function is increasingly front and centre in the ‘expatriate cycle’ due to the value placed on such individuals and their assignments ( Bonache, Brewster, & Suutari, 2001 , p.9), it appears largely absent in the case of FGWAs. Moreover, despite COVID-19 increasing the prevalence of virtual collaboration and global remote working, we argue that a balanced portfolio of FGWAs acts as a crucial complement to an MNE's virtual architecture, and a combination of both is likely to provide strategic and sustainable pathways to conducting global work.

The paper now turns to briefly considering these global work arrangements in the context of global mobility and IHRM before we articulate the methods employed for the systematic review and the data analysis process. We then map the research horizon of FGWAs which involves setting out the number of papers, the fields and journals they have been published in along with detailing the methodologies employed and theories drawn upon. Following this, we discuss the findings within the two identified core themes – value creation and value destruction, before moving to setting out several research avenues.

2. International human resource management: Moving beyond expatriation in global mobility

The IHRM literature is heavily centred on what can be viewed as more conventional or traditional forms of global mobility which encompass the relocation of an employee, and possibly their family, for more than one year ( Tahvanainen, Welch, & Worm, 2005 ). With a talent gap cited across many Western economies and the growing importance of emerging markets, a significant macro-level shift of mobility patterns has commenced on a global scale ( Deloitte, 2019 ; PwC, 2010 ). We now briefly describe the FGWAs of interest in this review paper.

IBTs are typically described as those ‘for whom business travel is an essential component of their work’ ( Welch & Worm, 2006 , p.284 cited in Collings et al., 2007 , p.206) that usually involves travelling for a few days and up to three weeks (e.g. Druckman, Harber, Liu, & Quigley, 2014 ; Puchmüller & Fischlmayr, 2017 ; Shaffer et al., 2012 ). As such, they do not relocate on any sort of medium- to short-term basis. IBTs are based in a home country and maintain close connections with the home country while being on a business trip ( Westman, Etzion, & Gattenio, 2008 ). A term used synonymously is international frequent flyers ( Minbaeva & Michailova, 2004 ) and multiple trips to various locations are common ( Shaffer et al., 2012 ). Flexpatriates refer to employees ‘who travel for brief assignments, away from their home base and across cultural or national borders, leaving their family and personal life behind’ ( Mayerhofer, Hartmann, Michelitsch-Riedl, & Kollinger, 2004b , p.1371). This typically involves being assigned to a host country for one to two months ( Shaffer et al., 2012 ). International commuters are best defined as employees who commute ‘from a home country to a place of work in another country, usually on a weekly or bi-weekly basis, while the family remains at home’ ( Mayerhofer et al., 2004b , p.1375). The employee returns home at frequent intervals, travels during the week, spends weekends in the home country, and is assigned to a particular host country which usually does not change ( Mäkelä et al., 2017 ; Suutari, Brewster, Riusala, & Syrjäkari, 2013 ). Rotational assignees operate internationally on a shift cycle ( Baker & Ciuk, 2015 ; Shortland, 2018 ) and thus commute from their home in one country to their workplace in another country for a short period which is then followed by a period of time off back home ( Collings et al., 2007 , p.206). This is a common approach used in hardship and offshore locations ( Ross, 2009 ) with the mining, oil, and gas industries being key examples of this arrangement ( Mayerhofer et al., 2004b ; Shortland, 2018 ). Finally, STIAs are employees who undertake an international assignment that is longer than business travel but shorter than traditional expatriation ( Tahvanainen et al., 2005 ). There is no agreement on duration with Collings et al. (2007) indicating one to twelve months while Shaffer et al. (2012) speak to a duration of three to twelve months to further differentiate it from flexpatriation (one to two months).

3. Systematic review methodology and analysis

To identify relevant publications for the purpose of this integrative review, we utilised three of the most highly regarded databases that provide an adequate coverage and a capability to perform systematic searches ( Gusenbauer & Haddaway, 2020 ): Web of Science Core Collection, Scopus, and EBSCOhost Business Source Complete . The objective was to identify all conceptual and empirical articles on FGWAs. For the initial search, we set three inclusion criteria: (1) peer-reviewed journal articles, (2) written in English language, and (3) at least one of the following search term(s) needed to be in either the title, abstract, or keywords: international business travel/traveler/traveller; frequent flyer; international frequent flyer; flexpatriation; flexpatriate; international commuter; rotational assignment/assignee; and short-term international assignment/assignee. We did not enter a starting date to allow us to establish when the first paper was published while our end date was the time of the search which was March 2020. Conference papers, editorials, books, and book chapters were not considered as a peer-review process could not be guaranteed. Our systematic database search process is illustrated in Fig. 1 .

Overview of systematic literature search process.

A total of 4740 records were identified through the database searching. We then proceeded to exclude records based on screening of the titles and abstracts. We excluded papers that did not address FGWAs. For example, papers that referred to rotational assignments (motion of particles) in the fields of physics and chemistry were excluded. Similarly, papers that referred to frequent flyers but only focused on airline frequent flyer schemes were disregarded; papers that focused on leisure travel as opposed to business travel were also excluded. This resulted in 258 records after the initial screening. We then excluded records based on duplicity, i.e. articles appearing in either both databases or across search terms which led us to arriving at 122 unique articles. At this juncture we assessed the records for eligibility based on the full paper, i.e. we read each paper in detail to determine relevance. This led to the exclusion of an additional 22 papers. Those excluded at this stage tended to be because while there may have been mention of one or more of the FGWAs, it was so peripheral to the paper it offered nothing by way of knowledge advancement. Papers that focused on traditional expatriation or did not consider an international context were also excluded. Consequently, the final sample for our review were 100 peer-reviewed articles which are summarised in Table 1 .

Overview of articles.

We then developed an initial coding template that involved listing the authors, year of publication, paper title, journal name, CABS journal ranking, journal impact factor, and citations in Web of Science, Scopus, EBSCO, and Google Scholar. In addition, the research purpose, theoretical framework applied (if any), details on the methodology (e.g. method, sample, sector, level of analysis), key findings, and future research suggestions in the paper were all included. Our analysis of these data involved the adoption of an open coding process followed by the development of broader categories and resulted in the identification of our two core themes – value creation and value destruction (see Appendix A for coding structure). In developing our core themes we applied a value lens ( Bowman, 2010 ; Bowman & Ambrosini, 2000 ; Lepak, Smith, & Taylor, 2007 ) which allowed us to discern a deeper structure within our analysis, provide a conceptual platform for more explicitly integrating these studies with the broader IHRM context, and ultimately draw implications for effective management of FGWAs.

The first theme encompasses strategic and organisational aspects such as the intra- and inter-firm functionality of these different forms of global work which describe value-creating activities. It discusses why organisations engage in flexible global work and includes open codes such as relationship building, position filling, knowledge transfer, leadership development, coordination and control, and negotiations, among others.

The second theme, value destruction, considers the more personal implications and highlights the potentially negative nature of these FGWAs. It refers to adverse physical, psychological, and social health and well-being consequences of being engaged in flexible global work. This theme includes open codes such as family, careers, support, work-life balance (WLB), workload, and stress, among others.

4. Findings

4.1. publication profile.

Fig. 2 illustrates the 100 articles according to year of publication. The dashed trendline demonstrates a continuous increase of papers over the last two decades. While the first article appeared in 1997, 64 articles were published in the last ten years (01/2010–03/2020) with 2015 marking the year with the most publications.

Number of articles per year.

Please note the partial coverage of our review for the year 2020. We included all papers published until the time of the search which was March 2020

The vast majority of papers are multi-authored (85 articles) and thus, the research stream is not dominated by a small number of scholars given there are 216 authors with 78 different first authors across the sample. In spite of the topic being so international in nature, the analysis demonstrates that cross-country author collaboration is uncommon with 72 articles produced by a single author or an author team from a single country. Based on the first author country affiliations, it is evident that the majority of articles are from Anglo-Saxon countries with 30 articles from the USA, 15 from the UK, 9 from Canada, and 7 from Australia. Other leading countries in terms of first author publications are Austria with 10 and Finland with 7 papers.

The articles have been published across a wide range of academic domains (see Table 2 ). Some 31 articles were disseminated in a journal that can be best categorised as HRM focused, followed by 22 articles in a medicine/health-focused journal and 22 articles in business- or management-focused journals. In addition, we also found journals that are focused on geography, psychology, tourism/travel, community, education, economics, environment, innovation, international development, law, immigration, policy, and sociology. The articles in our sample were published in 62 different journals with the International Journal of Human Resource Management (13 articles), the Journal of Global Mobility (7 articles), and the Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine (6 articles) being the three most popular outlets. The majority of articles were published in journals with an impact factor (80 papers) and listed in the CABS journal rankings (74 papers).

List of journals and number of articles.

While dominance of authors is not apparent, the citation data (see Table 3 ) tells us that there are clearly a small number of pioneering pieces that have gained the most interest among academics. One paper in particular stands out, namely, the Collings et al. (2007) paper has almost double the citations of the second most cited piece by Shaffer et al. (2012) .

List of ten most cited articles.

Citations as per 29 May 2020.

4.2. Methodologies employed

Our analysis demonstrates that the majority of articles (83 papers) are empirical in nature. Perhaps surprisingly given the recency of the topic in research circles, there is a good balance between the use of quantitative and qualitative approaches. This may however represent the multi-disciplinary nature of the publications and research design preferences in some fields. A total of 6 mixed method articles were found combining quantitative and qualitative tools ( Dimberg, Mundt, Sulsky, & Liese, 2001 ; Jais et al., 2015a , Jais et al., 2015b ; Roy & Filiatrault, 1998 ; Shortland, 2015 ; Striker et al., 1999 ). Out of the 36 qualitative articles, the majority used interviews, with a few articles combining interviews with some corporate documentation ( Cardoso & Jordão, 2017 ; Haynes, 2010 ; Mayerhofer, Schmidt, Hartmann, & Bendl, 2011 ; Suutari et al., 2013 ) or focus groups ( Pereira, Malik, Howe-Walsh, Munjal, & Hirekhan, 2017 ; Tahvanainen et al., 2005 ). Qualitative studies ranged from 5 to 120 interviewees. Out of the 41 quantitative articles, surveys were the most popular tool followed by an analysis of data from reports, appraisals, and medical records; 2 papers also used an experimental design ( Phillips, Gully, McCarthy, Castellano, & Kim, 2014 ; Takahashi, Nakata, & Arito, 2002 ). The survey sample size varies significantly from a minimum of 66 to a maximum of 2233. The largest sample sizes represented those that involved the analysis of economic data and medical records. Of note was that several studies did not provide any or very limited information on their sample and only 50 articles provided a clear definition of the FGWA under consideration. Overall, we respectfully suggest that the quality of the empirical work and underpinning research design has scope for improvement.

Turning to the empirical context, we find that in 39 articles (47%), the research was conducted in a MNE setting of which 14 were single, and 25 multiple case studies. With the exception of three firms (based in Australia, India, and Japan), all of these MNEs were headquartered in Europe or the USA and in most cases the country equalled the first author's country affiliation. Thus, the research stream can be described as highly Anglo-Saxon focused in terms of study context, i.e. the organisations being researched. The limited research in more dispersed settings may also be due to the general lack of structured considerations around FGWAs by IHRM functions and organisations. Representing the research stream of flexible ‘global’ work without conducting research with organisations in other geographical regions such as Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America limits our understanding. Studies in those regions would provide a more holistic view on flexible global work challenges. In 28 articles (34%), individuals that were not linked to a particular organisation made up the sample, while there were 11 papers (13%) with research in a public sector environment. This setting was unexpected but can be explained as follows; 5 of these papers were based on data within the World Bank Group ( Dimberg et al., 2001 ; Dimberg et al., 2002 ; Espino, Sundstrom, Frick, Jacobs, & Peters, 2002 ; Liese, Mundt, Dell, Nagy, & Demure, 1997 ; Striker et al., 1999 ); another 5 studies were conducted in universities ( Crowne & Engle, 2016 ; Jais et al., 2015a , Jais et al., 2015b ; Jais, Smyrnios, & Hoare, 2015c ; Salt & Wood, 2014 ), and 1 study was within the Irish Defence Forces ( Crowley-Henry & Heaslip, 2014 ). In the remaining 5 papers (6%), regions and countries were the focus of research ( Anderson, 2007 ; Belenkiy & Riker, 2012 ; Collins & Tisdell, 2004 ; Gholipour and Foroughi, 2019 , Gholipour and Foroughi, 2020 ).

We also considered the empirical context by sector. 34 out of the 83 empirical articles (41%) focused on one sector, 16 articles (19%) involved multiple sectors with 33 articles (40%) providing no details on sector. Most research was conducted in the banking, education, and IT sectors (6 studies each), followed by the oil and gas (5) and the energy (4) sectors. One study was completed in each of the following sectors: automotive, defence, engineering, pharmaceutical, professional services and consulting, purchasing, and telecommunications.

Reviewing the research design in more detail, we found that the vast majority of articles were at the individual level of analysis. Specifically, we found that in 63 out of the 83 empirical articles (76%), the unit of analysis was an individual, namely the traveller, commuter, assignee, or their spouse. Out of those studies, few had a balanced gender ratio while only two focused exclusively on women ( Fischlmayr & Puchmüller, 2016 ; Miralles-Vazquez & McGaughey, 2015 ). One article focuses its analysis on a team level ( McKenna, Ducharme, & Budworth, 2009 ) and 8 articles (10%) on a firm level of which only one had multi-source data that included flexible global workers, line managers, and HR ( Suutari et al., 2013 ). As a result, we have limited knowledge on the interaction between individuals' experiences of flexible global work, other stakeholders, and the HR system. Five articles (6%) considered the impact of international business travel at a country level. The remaining 6 articles (7%) applied a combination of two units of analysis at individual, business unit, firm, sector, region, and country levels.

5. Flexible global working arrangements and theoretical framing

An important observation from the analysis was that while there has been increased discourse around the rise of these FGWAs, there is a clear imbalance in representation within the literature. Specifically, IBTs are the dominant focus accounting for 61% of all articles, followed by 10 articles on STIAs. Five papers focused on flexpatriates ( Mayerhofer et al., 2011 ; Mayerhofer, Hartmann, & Herbert, 2004a ; Mayerhofer et al., 2004b ; Mayerhofer, Müller, & Schmidt, 2010 ; Pate & Scullion, 2018 ), and 2 on rotational assignees ( Valk and Hannon, 2016 , Valk and Hannon, 2017 ). While referred to in other papers, no article had international commuters as the sole focus. The remaining 22 articles considered multiple types of global work with many also incorporating traditional expatriate assignments. Therefore, the evidence is not especially strong about the changing topography of global mobility in research intensity terms across each of the five different arrangements.

It appears critical to clearly distinguish between the various forms of flexible global work as each is quite unique in its set-up (e.g. people, processes, and structures) ( Reiche et al., 2019 ). As such, the differences between the various FGWAs have not been sufficiently discussed and we therefore know relatively little around the duties, responsibilities, and motivation of each FGWA. There also appears to be ambiguity around some of the terms with little consensus as to what they encompass. For example, it has been argued that flexpatriates may also include other sub-groups such as rotational assignees ( Valk & Hannon, 2016 ) and project work assignees ( Suutari et al., 2013 ). Referring to Wickham and Vecchi's (2009) taxonomy of travellers, Pate and Scullion (2018) view flexpatriates as an umbrella term including international commuters (repetitive journey, limited destinations), explorers (regular and new destinations), nomads (high number of new destinations), missionaries (to disseminate knowledge), and visiting tradesmen (to work on customer sites, e.g. project work). We argue that equating terms such as flexpatriates, international commuters, and rotational assignees is problematic as the set-ups of these forms of FGWAs differ (see Table 4 ). To better understand the actors, structures, and processes ( Reiche et al., 2019 ) involved, we need to expand research of each form of global work and see subsuming terms on occasion as unhelpful for theoretical and practical reasons.

Classification of flexible global working arrangements.

Source: developed from Shaffer et al. (2012) .

Building on recent insights around the phenomena of global work (e.g. Mäkelä, Barner-Rasmussen, Ehrnrooth, & Koveshnikov, 2019 ; Reiche et al., 2019 ), our review enables us to enrich Shaffer et al.'s (2012) framework, by presenting an extended classification which is mainly defined by duration, frequency, and location of global work (see Table 4 ). By doing so, we highlight international commuters and rotational assignees as two distinctive forms of flexible global work – in addition to the previously presented IBTs, flexpatriates, and STIAs. The table also highlights the relational and structural embeddedness of flexible global workers through their capacity to act as boundary spanners.

Our analysis highlights an atheoretical approach across most papers with only 27 articles presenting some level of theoretical underpinning. This may reflect disciplinary and journal expectations. A total of 17 different theories were used in these articles thus indicating, to some degree, theoretical fragmentation. Most of these theories have focused on explaining the characteristics, experiences, and challenges of the individuals taking on flexible global work and predominately the potential value-destroying nature of it. Conservation of resources (COR) theory, job demands-resources (JD-R) model, effort-reward imbalance (ERI) model, holistic model of stress (HMS) and institutional theory were introduced to highlight some of the adverse health and well-being implications, particularly the role of stress. Social capital theory, social support theory, perceived organisational support (POS), and expectancy theory focused on the support systems perceived and requested by flexible global workers. Reasoned action theory and family systems theory were used to analyse the decision process of individuals when it comes to taking on flexible global work ( Konopaske, Robie, & Ivancevich, 2005 ; Konopaske, Robie, & Ivancevich, 2009 ). In addition, role theory was introduced by Shaffer et al. (2016) to better understand role adjustment of individuals in their new family and work contexts, and Atkinson and Pareit (2019) examine the psychological contract of flexible global workers. Focusing on potential positive outcomes at an individual level, Dimitrova (2020) integrates principles from the challenge and hindrance demands (CH) framework with COR theory, while Andresen and Bergdolt (2019) discuss constructivist theory; both referring to the importance of developmental challenges as part of the FGWA.

In contrast, application of theory at an organisational level is especially scarce. We found only two papers that explain the value creation of flexible global work using a theoretical framework – social capital theory ( Bozkurt & Mohr, 2011 ) and a combination of two microeconomic theories of the firm: managerial theory and the model for sales maximisation ( Collins & Tisdell, 2004 ).

6. Current debates in a fragmented field – A value perspective

6.1. value creation – functionality of flexible global working arrangements.

Flexible global work appears to have evolved as a valuable alternative to the conventional long-term international assignment and now forms part of many MNEs' global mobility portfolio ( Wood & Salt, 2012 ). The contribution of these global work forms to organisations has been highlighted in the literature with a focus on value creation at both intra- and inter-firm levels ( Bozkurt & Mohr, 2011 ). Flexibility, simplicity, and cost effectiveness are commonly described as major advantages of such global working arrangements ( Shaffer et al., 2012 ; Shankaran, Murray, & Miller, 2011 ; Tahvanainen et al., 2005 ). However, such advantages are often assumed rather than proven. At an intra-firm level, a range of value-creating activities have been highlighted including staffing and position filling, relationship building with teams, knowledge acquisition and transfers, leadership and career development, research and development and innovation, coordination and control, project work and collaborative work, strategy meetings, problem solving, and seminars and trainings ( Bathelt & Henn, 2014 ; Faulconbridge, Beaverstock, Derudder, & Witlox, 2009 ; Mayerhofer et al., 2004b ; Welch, Welch, & Worm, 2007 ). Particularly in subsidiaries where suitable host country nationals are not available due to skills shortages, flexible global workers are seen as an important puzzle in the global staffing and knowledge transfer processes in MNEs ( Collings et al., 2007 ; Welch et al., 2007 ).

Managing knowledge between HQ and subsidiaries has been identified in several papers as a key intra-firm function of flexible global work across MNEs (e.g. Bathelt & Henn, 2014 ; Minbaeva & Michailova, 2004 ). Miralles-Vazquez and McGaughey (2015) illustrate that flexible global workers can create, implement, and sustain innovation across various business units. Interestingly, their study also highlights the importance of socially embedded, informal interactions that lead to the generation of ideas and development of trust which ultimately underpin knowledge transfer. Minbaeva and Michailova (2004) suggest that the ability to transfer knowledge may be increased through involvement in FGWAs in multiple countries whereas conventional long-term expatriate assignments will align more on deepening knowledge within one location. This knowledge transfer ability appears to vary across the various forms of flexible global work. For example, limited value can be gained from a short, once-off business trip. Flexpatriates, on the other hand, can act as valuable global boundary spanners as they have particularly strong structural (connectedness) and relational (relationship quality) embeddedness across business units within a MNE ( Mäkelä et al., 2019 ; Schotter et al., 2017 ; Taylor, 2007 ). They have a large network across various locations and are also able to develop meaningful relationships ( Bozkurt & Mohr, 2011 ) with locals due to their extended stay. Consequently, they can be key actors in fostering inter-group relations, sourcing and sharing heterogenous knowledge ( Criscuolo, 2005 ), linking people, and resolving conflicts ( Björkman, Barner-Rasmussen, & Li, 2004 ).

Building on the idea of using distinct forms of global work for specific knowledge management purposes ( Minbaeva & Michailova, 2004 ), a recent study by Duvivier et al. (2019) examines how using short-term international assignments to the HQ (short-term inpatriation), short-term international assignments to subsidiaries, and traditional expatriation allowed for the transfer of different types of knowledge. Initially, short-term inpatriates received declarative and procedural information including the job expectations and procedures, alongside some axiomatic and relational knowledge. Once inpatriates had returned to their subsidiaries, STIAs were sent to the subsidiaries to deepen knowledge transfer, intervene, and coach, mainly providing axiomatic knowledge. They conclude that forms of global work are ideally set up as ‘a sequence of complementary knowledge transfer efforts’ ( Duvivier et al., 2019 , p.188).

The literature also identifies the role of FGWAs in management development at an intra-firm level. Flexible global work takes place in an intense environment which requires employees to be agile, learn new global skills, and develop a global mindset ( Suutari et al., 2013 ). This potentially provides a significant learning opportunity for flexible global workers. However, Oddou, Mendenhall, and Ritchie (2000 , p.159) argue that this remains an under-utilised method as most managers ‘cocoon themselves’ during the time abroad, and thus, they are missing opportunities to enhance skills and do not invest in their personal growth. Atkinson and Pareit (2019) found that while IBTs expected their firm to provide development opportunities during business travel, they also acknowledged that it was their responsibility to realise the potential of such opportunities and to signal any career needs. This becomes particularly important when organisations view management development only as a peripheral benefit rather than the central cause of the FGWA, which may occur when it is organised around efficiencies and convenience ( Oddou et al., 2000 ). Corporate travel policies and procedures that focus solely on operational measures including time and efficient use of financial resources lack strategic oversight ( McKenna & Richardson, 2007 ). Ultimately, this means that firms do not fully capture the potential value of flexible global work in terms of leadership development.

Recent studies by Andresen and Bergdolt (2019) and Dimitrova (2020) reinforce the importance of considering how international business trips are organised. Integrating principles from the CH framework with COR theory, Dimitrova (2020) proposes that perhaps the trip purpose is somewhat less important in a development process. Instead, the work role and challenging experiences make the international business trip valuable. In other words, if adequately set up, development can be fostered during any form of flexible global work – not just during a dedicated leadership assignment. Similarly, Andresen and Bergdolt (2019) found that global mindset development depends significantly on how the international business trip is structured. Importantly, they highlight that an ‘optimal level’ of developmental challenges ought to be provided to ensure learning. As such, their role should encompass a balanced degree of novelty, uncertainty, and meaningfulness ( Andresen & Bergdolt, 2019 ).

At an inter-firm level, relationship building with partners, client and supplier meetings, negotiations and business development, promotions and sales events, problem-solving, and attendance at conferences, conventions, and exhibitions have been identified as value-creating activities (e.g. Belenkiy & Riker, 2012 ; Liu, Scholnick, & Finn, 2017 ). Engaging with stakeholders such as governments, professional bodies, or trade associations also requires significant travel to international meetings and trade fairs ( Beaverstock, Derudder, Faulconbridge, & Witlox, 2009 ). At both intra- and inter-firm levels, the continuing importance seems to be placed on face-to-face contact to create value across the operations in MNEs. Interestingly, advances in technology do not appear to have led to a reduction in travel ( Beaverstock et al., 2009 ; Gustafson, 2012 ; Jones, Faulconbridge, Marsden, & Anable, 2018 ). While innovative technologies enable remote management and have prompted some to declare the ‘death of distance’, it appears that face-to-face contact remains important ( Boeh & Beamish, 2012 , p.533). Faulconbridge et al. (2009 , p.298) refer to this phenomenon as the ‘obligations of proximity’ explaining that certain business contexts oblige people to travel, for example, to sign a contract, visit a building, or attend an event. In these scenarios, face-to-face encounters allow for understanding embodied interactions, gaining of social cues, and developing trust which are vital but often missed in a virtual environment ( Dulebohn & Hoch, 2017 ). In addition, Mabey and Zhao (2017) highlight that particularly tacit knowledge is difficult to grasp through virtual means. Gustafson (2012) argues that virtual meetings may stimulate more global collaboration and consequently more face-to-face contact and Jones et al. (2018 , p.257) conclude that ‘virtual and physical work complement rather than substitute for one another’. The COVID-19 pandemic may of course substantially alter the intensity of use of FGWAs.

Drawing from social capital theory, Bozkurt and Mohr (2011) explain how flexible global work strengthens social ties by reducing organisational distances. Particularly IBTs and flexpatriates are highlighted as having the potential to initiate cross-unit ties with many colleagues and partners given their frequent travel to multiple locations. They also show a greater potential for the creation of valuable multilateral rather than bilateral social ties. Such ties help to develop valuable business partnerships, create shared values, and facilitate communication, ultimately creating value through the collection and dissemination of rich heterogenous knowledge from across the MNE ( Faulconbridge et al., 2009 ; Mäkelä & Suutari, 2009 ). However, the ties established by IBTs often remain weak when continuous and recurrent face-to-face interactions do not occur. Thus, international business travel may be more useful to sustain, deepen, and leverage networks rather than solely building them initially.

Ultimately, at both intra-firm and inter-firm levels, a range of activities can lead to value creation which subsequently contributes to the broader economic growth of organisations, regions, and countries. While not a core aspect of this review, we acknowledge that a few papers focus on such a wider economic impact ( Anderson, 2007 ; Collins & Tisdell, 2004 ; Gholipour and Foroughi, 2019 , Gholipour and Foroughi, 2020 ; Hovhannisyan & Keller, 2015 ). For example, Hovhannisyan and Keller (2015) illustrate that increased international business travel leads to more innovation and subsequent patenting at a country level, and Anderson (2007) found that per capita GDP is higher in countries with higher inbound international business travel. Applying a combination of two microeconomic theories (managerial theory of the firm and sales maximisation model), Collins and Tisdell (2004) indicate a positive link between business travels and business returns. Drawing on the concept of microfoundations ( Foss & Pedersen, 2019 ; Minbaeva, 2013 ) may aid to further explore the relationship between micro and macro constructs as part of the value-creating process.

6.2. Value destruction – Health and well-being implications

Traditionally, global mobility has been glamorised in society and an ‘ominous silence’ exists around its ‘darker side’ which, some may argue, still exists ( Cohen & Gössling, 2015 , p.1661). However, this review demonstrates increasing evidence of significant personal (stress and coping, identity transformation), work (career transition concerns, structural and perceptual barriers), and social (work-family conflict, maintaining friendships and personal life) demands for those undertaking flexible global work ( Shaffer et al., 2012 ).

Some of the earliest articles that focused on physical health aspects were published two decades ago including a series of studies conducted at the World Bank Group on the impact of international business travel on the travellers' and spouses' health ( Dimberg et al., 2001 ; Dimberg et al., 2002 ; Espino et al., 2002 ; Liese et al., 1997 ; Striker et al., 1999 ). For example, Liese et al. (1997) assert that international business travel poses a range of health risks beyond infectious diseases. More recent studies confirmed these concerns, for example, Rogers, Bunn, and Connor (2016) contend that health and safety risk are higher for IBTs across all categories of illness. Perhaps surprisingly, Bunn (2008) found that despite those significant risks identified by medical experts, many IBTs remain unaware of the risk of infection or do not follow recommendations provided. Common infectious diseases include: diarrhoea, influenza, yellow fever, typhoid fever, dengue fever, dengue haemorrhagic fever, malaria, hepatitis A and B, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) ( Hudson & Fortuna, 2008 ). The COVID-19 pandemic represents an especially stark reminder of such physical health issues. Other frequent physiological costs include a disruption of the immune system, exposure to germs and radiation, jetlag, and sleep deprivation ( Barish & Dilchert, 2010 ; Burkholder, Joines, Cunningham-Hill, & Xu, 2010 ; Cohen & Gössling, 2015 ). Harsh climate conditions and unhealthy living conditions with a lack of nutritious meals, an excess alcohol consumption, and a lack of exercise further strain the physical health of travellers resulting in a lower body mass index and lower blood pressure ( Rezaei, Shahijan, Valaei, Rahimi, & Ismail, 2018 ). Dehydration due to low cabin air humidity, insufficient fluid intake, and restricted movement during flights may cause musculoskeletal pain or deep venuous thrombosis (DVT), a rare but painful health threat particularly of concern for IBTs and international commuters due to the high frequency of travel ( Chen et al., 2018 ; Druckman et al., 2014 ). Overall, it appears that medical and insurance claims were considerably higher for travellers than for non-travellers and increased with frequency of travel thus bringing a value-destructing component ( Dimberg et al., 2002 ).

From a psychological aspect, the early studies conducted at the World Bank Group focused on stress levels of IBTs. It was found that IBTs experienced higher levels of stress as a consequence of lengthy travelling and frequent changes in travel dates ( Espino et al., 2002 ). Psychological costs included not only increased stress levels but also in extreme cases psychological disorders and mental illnesses ( Cohen & Gössling, 2015 ). Valk and Hannon (2017) found that 36% of IBTs reported high or very high stress levels. This is linked to a range of factors including dual commitments in home and host countries, anxiety of an accumulating workload, pre-trip stress, transportation, sensory overload, isolation and loneliness, and a personal identity confusion ( Burkholder et al., 2010 ; Richards & Rundle, 2011 ). Most positions that encompass substantial flexible global work engagement do not consider the additional duties and responsibilities that go beyond the conventional home-country job description ( Kraimer, Bolino, & Mead, 2016 ). As a result, employees are seen juggling their dual workloads in home and host countries, working extremely long days in the host country in order to ‘catch-up’ with work back home. Reference also exists to the host country adjustment particularly where high institutional distances are evident ( Ramsey, 2013 ). Both instances are causes of high levels of stress and can impact an individual's performance and ability to create value for the organisation.

From a social aspect, it must be acknowledged that FGWAs inevitably affect the personal life of employees including their kinships, friendships, and communities ( Cohen & Gössling, 2015 ). Some scholars refer to work-life imbalance as a potentially ‘desired state of working life’ ( Mayerhofer et al., 2011 , p.605). For the ambitious and driven individuals that accept this imbalance, being engaged in flexible global work is viewed as a career fit and long-term rewards are a positive prospect. However, for many global workers, work-life imbalance appears to lead to conflicts that ultimately impact health and well-being and can therefore be described as a value-destructing activity.

Career choices are naturally related to internal influences such as intrinsic and extrinsic motivators and personal characteristics ( Shaffer et al., 2012 ). Drawing from reasoned action theory, Konopaske et al. (2009) found that external influences such as personal agency, country and family considerations significantly impact these choices. Although most of the FGWAs do not require relocation, spouses' and families' general approval engaging in such work still plays a crucial role in the decision process to take it on. Drawing from family systems theory, which asserts that individuals cannot be assessed in isolation but as part of their families as these build an emotional unit, Konopaske et al. (2005) found that spouses' willingness to relocate exerted a positive influence on managers' willingness to take on a short-term international assignment. In contrast, spouse job involvement was the most significant negative predictor of willingness to relocate.

While it could be argued that flexible global work is easier to manage from a family perspective compared to conventional expatriation, our review shows that the work-family conflict remains a key concern among many employees ( Suutari et al., 2013 ). Ultimately, a significant amount of time is spent away from families, and work schedules are often unpredictable ( Baker & Ciuk, 2015 ). Flexible global workers have only limited control over their schedules and many trips are taken on very short notice depending on customer demands and internal business requests. Due to the lack of strategic oversight, the employees are commonly left alone in managing these trips with global travel departments, where in existence, being the only function involved ( Mayerhofer et al., 2004b ). Moreover, given the unstructured nature of this work, travel decisions are made at line managers' discretion across operational departments which adds further ambiguity to the process ( Welch et al., 2007 ).

In addition, emotional exhaustion as a result of extensive travelling has also been highlighted as regularly leading to work-family conflict ( Jensen & Rundmo, 2015 ; Mäkelä, Bergbom, Tanskanen, & Kinnunen, 2014 ; Mäkelä, Kinnunen, & Suutari, 2015 ). The lack of clear boundaries may result in role blurring and subsequently in potential conflict which can hinder value creation in MNEs ( Demel & Mayrhofer, 2010 ; Saarenpää, 2018 ). Drawing from role theory, Shaffer et al. (2016) contend that a certain level of comfort with the responsibilities and relationship interactions within new or redefined work and family role must be achieved. Being absent from home can cause a loss of the family role and little time for home-based social life which ultimately means scaling back of one's home network ( Richards & Rundle, 2011 ).

A particular interest among some scholars has been the role of women as flexible global workers, wives, and mothers. Studies show that traditional gender role patterns still exist in some contexts and that women face prejudices when wanting to combine family and an international career ( Fischlmayr & Puchmüller, 2016 ; Westman et al., 2008 ). For example, Mayerhofer et al. (2004a) found that while career issues were evident for all flexpatriates, the impact of family life was viewed as more significant for women. Investigating the role of social capital, Fischlmayr and Puchmüller (2016) contend that women may use their social capital to organise their career, family life, and childcare. However, FGWAs that involve considerable travelling such as international business travel and international commuting are unpopular among women as their working patterns are disruptive to WLB, particularly for mothers ( Shortland, 2015 ). This confirms earlier findings by Casinowsky (2013) who found that men typically engage more in international business travel than women. Women appear to remain the main caretaker for children when engaging in flexible global work, and childcare was identified as the number one challenge for women ( Fischlmayr & Puchmüller, 2016 ). However, it must be pointed out that other studies have questioned some of the stereotypes related to women's ability to engage in flexible global work. For example, Mäkelä, Bergbom, Saarenpää, and Suutari (2015) found that women without dependent children were at the lowest risk of work-family conflict in a mixed-gender sample.

Given the significant physical, psychological, and social challenges faced by flexible global workers and their families, a combination of informal and formal support is required ( Dimitrova, Chia, Shaffer, & Tay-Lee, 2020 ). However, our review indicates that due to the lack of oversight from subsidiary or corporate level HRM functions, very limited support appears to be provided in most instances ( Conroy, McDonnell, & Holzleitner, 2018 ; Suutari et al., 2013 ). Drawing from expectancy theory, Konopaske and Werner (2005) present a range of support types requested by employees undertaking flexible global work including on-site assistance, development opportunities, aligned compensation, and career prospects. Similarly, Jais et al. (2015a) differentiate between organisational, HR, financial, and career support. Taking COR theory into consideration, Jensen and Rundmo (2015) contend that organisational resources are critical to support IBTs which will reduce job exhaustion. Based on the JD-R model, Mäkelä and Kinnunen (2018) also highlight the consequences of insufficient resources and guidance by firms on health problems and job performance. Particularly in a high institutional distance context, resources need to be provided. From a physical health aspect, offering adequate medical insurance, vaccination, and prevention programmes is required ( Rogers et al., 2016 ; Rogers, Bunn, & Lerner, 2019 ) and organisations should identify those employees at risk ( Druckman, 2009 ). From a psychological aspect, preparing for the stress factors that often accompany flexible global workers is essential ( Burkholder et al., 2010 ). It appears that pre-travel advice is still under-utilised and needs to be improved considerably in organisations ( Chen et al., 2018 ). Informal support pre-departure and post-arrival may include the establishment of network ties in the local country with other assignees or host country nationals while formal support is mainly provided pre-departure and may include language and cross-cultural training ( Conroy et al., 2018 ). Gaining such broader cultural intelligence may reduce cross-cultural adaptation stress on arrival in the host country and limit potential value-destructing inter-cultural conflict when managing and negotiating across international operations ( Crowne & Engle, 2016 ; Ramsey, Leonel, Gomes, & Monteiro, 2011 ).

Despite families being acknowledged as a critical success factor for flexible global workers, WLB support factors have not adequately been discussed to date ( Shaffer et al., 2016 ). Focusing on a sample of female IBTs and drawing from social support theory, Puchmüller and Fischlmayr (2017) found that women mainly valued and used emotional and instrumental support; however, they did not target informational support. Regardless of gender, organisations are under pressure to consider an individual's family status ( Mäkelä, Bergbom, et al., 2015 ) and lifestyle ( Mayerhofer et al., 2010 ), allow lead times and flexibility ( Lirio, 2014 ), and facilitate efficiencies in work administration ( Mayerhofer et al., 2011 ) in order to limit the value-destructing nature of flexible global work.

7. Moving the field forward – Strategic and sustainable pathways

7.1. integrating flexible global work in a strategic ihrm context.

Despite the various contributions of FGWAs, limited evidence exists around their strategic integration with the IHRM structures within MNEs. Research appears to indicate that most FGWAs are disconnected from the broader IHRM structure with little oversight from corporate HR functions (e.g. Suutari et al., 2013 ), which we posit hinders the value-creating capacity of such work. Particularly in the context of skills shortages in many countries, flexible global workers may best be viewed as critical employees and actively managed at a corporate HR level ( Collings, 2014 ). This situation appears in spite of having identified the management of internal receptivity (i.e. talent flow and career management) as a core responsibility of the corporate HR function in MNEs ( Farndale, Scullion, & Sparrow, 2010 ).

As MNEs seek to establish more innovative and adaptable IHRM systems, policies, and practices, FGWAs have the value-creating capacity to strike an effective balance between global integration and local adaption of its IHRM structures ( Pudelko & Harzing, 2007 ). Regardless of whether MNEs focus more on global or regional strategies, flexible global workers can navigate and oscillate between global, regional, and local levels. If leveraged effectively, they have the potential to operate as a strategic platform through which the corporate HR function becomes a spearhead in creating a more ‘integrative’ IHRM model ( Minbaeva, 2013 ). Rather than relying on expatriation of parent country nationals, which often results in the implementation of globally standardised IHRM structures, FGWAs provide MNEs with a more formative way to control foreign subsidiaries, while maintaining sufficient autonomy to learn and adapt local HR practices ( Hitt et al., 2016 ). In more complex MNE structures, FGWAs may provide the HQ with a subtle yet influential way to coordinate globally dispersed subsidiaries, building high-bandwidth communication channels with subsidiaries in peripheral locations, and deepening the integration and assimilation of best practices across the MNE. With the growing significance of regional strategies for MNEs, scholars should consider how FGWAs provide regional HQs with a strategically valuable mechanism for balancing complex tensions between underperforming or self-interested subsidiaries in a local context and rationally bounded or over-controlling corporate HQs in the home country ( Conroy, Collings, & Clancy, 2017 ; Preece, Iles, & Jones, 2013 ). Scholars should also look to explore how different portfolios of FGWAs may align with various types of international strategies outlined in Bartlett and Ghoshal's (1989) integration-responsiveness framework. It is likely that MNEs with transnational strategies, that rely on multidirectional flows of personnel, capital, and knowledge provide a suitable context to examine the double-edged sword of FGWAs. As such, a more explicit acknowledgement of and accommodation for FGWAs will refresh and update the IHRM field, aligning it more closely with contemporary practitioner debates in ‘talent mobility’ ( Deloitte, 2019 ). This requires more frequent and intense dialogue between scholars in IHRM and international business to unpack the strategic importance of IHRM and more precisely the value-creating nature of FGWAs ( Reiche et al., 2019 ).

Recent work on global boundary spanning also provides us with a context to theorise the value-creating capacity of FGWAs in MNEs. Although some studies have considered the boundary spanning roles of expatriates ( Liu & Meyer, 2020 ), flexible global workers confront unique circumstances in that the limited duration they spend in any given market means they may have to endure to maintain trust and legitimacy across a broad range of networks ( Bathelt & Henn, 2014 ). While expatriates are confronted with relatively stable boundaries rooted in a single location, flexible global workers regularly traverse geographical, cultural, and hierarchical boundaries, which presents a multiplicity of boundary frictions, making their boundary spanning role more intricate and complex ( Schotter et al., 2017 ). However, they can potentially perform significant gatekeeping, connecter, and bridging roles ( Pedersen, Soda, & Stea, 2019 ; Yagi & Kleinberg, 2011 ). Although recent studies have sought to expand the knowledge-related activities of alternative forms of mobility ( Duvivier et al., 2019 ), more research is required on the boundary spanning activities of flexible global workers. For instance, in the early stages of location investment decisions, flexible global workers may be deployed as reconnaissance scouts, identifying suitable sites, collecting contextually valuable information, and building social capital locally to determine appropriate entry modes. In the context of a continuously increasing spatial division of labour, we suggest emerging insights from global strategy scholars on the significance of global boundary spanning (e.g. Pedersen et al., 2019 ) provides a fruitful and relevant context to draw from.

Studies should also look to situate the value-creating capacity of flexible global work in the context of recent arguments on global talent management ( Cascio & Boudreau, 2016 ). For instance, it is likely that many undertaking flexible global work are talented individuals, operating in pivotal positions and accumulating valuable firm-specific human capital ( Morris, Snell, & Björkman, 2016 ). Exploring FGWAs through a human capital lens may provide scholars with a way to more effectively integrate insights on international business and IHRM. For instance, different forms of MNE human capital, such as corporate human capital or subsidiary human capital ( Chung, Park, Lee, & Kim, 2015 ; Morris et al., 2016 ) can be leveraged through various FGWAs to balance global integration and local responsiveness demands. Consequently, engaging in flexible global work may allow individuals to strengthen their position in a global talent pool or act as a springboard for global talent designation in the future which, in turn, allows MNEs to maintain their global talent supply ( Collings, Mellahi, & Cascio, 2019 ). However, it can be argued that human capital on its own is insufficient and that other forms of intellectual capital such as social, political, cultural, and career capital are required ( Harvey & Novicevic, 2004 ; Ng, Tan, & Ang, 2011 ). While recent studies have explored learning and competence development as part of FGWAs ( Andresen & Bergdolt, 2019 ; Dimitrova, 2020 ), research on global careers remains scarce. Having been applied in the research streams of traditional expatriation ( Dickmann & Doherty, 2008 ) and self-initiated expatriation ( Al Ariss & Crowley-Henry, 2013 ), career capital has the potential to provide further insights into the significance or otherwise of FGWAs on individuals' careers ( Demel & Mayrhofer, 2010 ). Work from Stahl, Miller, and Tung (2002) and others (e.g. Bolino, 2007 ; Rodrigues & Guest, 2010 ) on the concept of ‘boundaryless’ careers could also prove fruitful in this space. For example, building on the work from DeFillippi and Arthur (1996) , FGWAs may facilitate ‘knowing how, knowing whom, and knowing why’ career competencies of individuals by developing cross-cultural skills, broadening their network in the MNE, and understanding their own identity. From a theoretical perspective, this would see us broadening the limited theoretical base that currently exists for flexible global work, that focuses largely on microeconomic theories and perhaps narrow capital views to broader considerations of value creation including integrative IHRM, global boundary spanning, and global talent management.

7.2. Sustainable solutions for more flexible global work

Despite the potential value-creating capacity of flexible global work, our review reported that these arrangements present a double-edged sword in that, if not appropriately supported, they may destroy value within the MNE over time. We posit that this value destruction manifests largely at the individual level, in that flexible global work may have significant negative consequences for the individuals performing such roles. Therefore, MNEs need to create and develop structures and systems to ensure that FGWAs offer a more sustainable career path for individuals that undertake this kind of work. Emerging insights from sustainable careers studies ( De Vos, Van der Heijden, & Akkermans, 2020 ; Straub, Vinkenburg, & Van Kleef, 2019 ) could prove useful for further exploring how flexible global work hinders or contributes to the personal development and overall physical or mental well-being of individuals involved in this work over time. Specifically, ability, engagement, and performance in terms of health, happiness and productivity are important factors in assessing the ‘sustainability’ of flexible global work. Flexible global work is therefore a dynamic and multifaceted context to explore the sustainability of one's career, particularly as it also requires the active involvement of other salient stakeholders such as families and peers ( Mayerhofer et al., 2004b ). The lens of sustainable careers may be particularly fruitful in exploring how organisations support females and mothers in sustaining this type of work over time. However, further empirical research is required to understand how individuals cope with the associated challenges and how their personal characteristics, past experiences, and family characteristics impact their intention to take on (further) flexible global work.

Future studies should also seek to differentiate between the various forms of flexible global working and test if the assumption that more frequent travel leads to higher susceptibility to health and well-being implications holds true ( Mäkelä et al., 2014 ). From a theoretical perspective, this would see us broadening existing approaches that focus on the individual worker towards models of occupational health. Examining the measures that can be taken to reduce health and well-being implications should be viewed as a critical area of concern. This has become all the more aggravated and apparent in the current COVID-19 crisis when public health is a most prominent topic. Undoubtedly, workplaces directly impact physical, psychological, and social well-being of employees ( Danna & Griffin, 1999 ) and creating truly healthy workplaces has been a strategic priority for many organisations in recent years ( Guest, 2017 ). Although studies have considered HR's role in managing broader duty of care and WLB issues ( Lirio, 2014 ), these issues are largely absent in the context of IHRM. For instance, work on ‘health and safety rules’ ( Mayerhofer et al. (2004b , p.1380) in ‘high risk’ locations – those where crime, terrorism, civil unrest, and armed conflict are present – emphasises how duty of care is provisioned in the form of security and emergency aid for assignees ( Bader, 2015 ). Ignoring the call for greater support will certainly create ongoing ambiguities and misunderstandings between flexible workers and employers, and potentially trigger a psychological contract violation ( Pate & Scullion, 2018 ) hindering the sustainability of such arrangements over time. In contrast, a strong health and security culture and duty of care principles in organisations can enhance desirable prevention behaviour and the overall experience of flexible global workers ( Berg et al., 2011 ). As we demonstrate in our review, future studies should seek to collaborate with multidisciplinary fields such as psychology and medicine in particular to more fully appreciate the cognitive and physiological effects of flexible global work over time ( Mäkelä & Kinnunen, 2018 ).

More empirical work and clarity is also needed on the impact of broader contextual factors particularly cultural and institutional differences between home and host countries on the sustainability of FGWAs. Given the significant challenges flexible global workers face in bridging cultures between home and host countries there is a need for scholars to explore the scaffolding supports for these in continuously adjusting to a diversity of cultural settings. Specifically, we have a limited understanding of how existing pre-departure training programmes for expatriates are redesigned, tailored, and adapted to account for issues of cultural diversity and multiplicity across a broad range of contexts ( Conroy et al., 2018 ). Performing flexible global work effectively requires a highly diversified skillset involving language proficiency and cultural intelligence as well as being socially and politically adept in addressing complexity, contradiction, and conflict. It may also be useful for scholars to explore how effective bicultural or multicultural individuals are in performing this type of work or even how individuals develop multiple cultural identities when carrying out flexible global work over time ( Lücke, Kostova, & Roth, 2014 ). These issues may have broader implications on how individuals are selected for certain forms of flexible global work but to date there is very little research in this area.

Equally, broader disruptions in the geo-political, socio-economic, and health landscape can disrupt the deployment and flow of flexible global workers to certain locations, so it is important to explore how MNEs adapt their portfolio of arrangements to accommodate these contextual shocks. The COVID-19 pandemic has led to travel restrictions across the globe and has seen MNEs turn towards virtual substitutes. Even with travel bans being lifted gradually, perceptions towards FGWAs may change among mobile employees and organisations ( Caligiuri et al., 2020 ). As such, another potential way that MNEs can look to support and sustain this type of work is by developing a more sophisticated virtual architecture that acts as a complement to how individuals sustain the amount of flexible global work they carry out. This may require organisations to enhance their technological infrastructure and upskill workers that need training and development in utilising these forms of communication. Although much work has been carried out on the challenges and effectiveness of global virtual teams (e.g. Kramer, Shuffler, & Feitosa, 2017 ), more empirical research is needed on the way in which virtual platforms and remote working can be leveraged to create a more sustainable scenario.

Organisations may benefit from considering more comprehensively the actual benefits from their use of FGWAs. Relatedly, we posit that balancing flexible global work with virtual based interactions will help in offsetting grand challenges on environmental sustainability and climate change in that MNEs will engage less in frequent business travel, unless it is a strategic imperative. More research is needed on the significance of flexible global work and its relationships with, or impact on, global climate change. This issue also requires a multidisciplinary approach from IHRM scholars that could, for example, draw from work on Climate Science and Environmental Geography in addressing how FGWAs are more effectively deployed and utilised. Ultimately, there are many fruitful avenues to further advance knowledge on FGWAs in terms of its link to sustainable careers, IHRM support structures for health and well-being, virtual platforms, and broader climate change issues.

8. Conclusion

In recognising the ever-shifting boundaries of global work and addressing the existing shortcomings in current studies on global mobility, this paper provides a systematic review of and research agenda for FGWAs. While the IHRM literature focuses on expatriate management ( Cooke et al., 2019 ), alternative forms of global working have increasingly been employed by MNEs ( Deloitte, 2019 ) due to a need for greater flexibility. Despite significant potential value identified (e.g. relationship building, knowledge transfer, and leadership development), there appears to be a distinct lack of strategic linkages to the IHRM function which we argue severely limits the value-creating capacity of these forms of global work. In addition, the research illustrates many concerning health and well-being implications that can emanate from these work arrangements, but there is no evidence as to how these are considered by organisations.

We conclude that the research stream of flexible global work is still in its infancy, and while several important studies have been published in the past two decades, further empirical and conceptual research is required. Moreover, methodologies employed so far provide scope for improvement and elaboration. Given the emergence of new frontier economies, research on the importance of context ( Cooke, 2018 ) and considering more dispersed geographical regions would also add to a more holistic approach towards FGWAs. Considering gender perspectives ( De Cieri, 2009 ) more closely would similarly contribute to such an approach. To date, theoretical development is scarce in this research stream. Given the wide range of questions addressed as part of the flexible global work discussion and the different foci on individual and organisations, which arguably require different perspectives and theories, it is somewhat understandable that no single theory dominates. There is however a need for further theorisation and conceptualisation, particularly considering a multiplicity of intellectual capital lenses and holistic occupational health frameworks. The trajectory of research to date is positive in that a multi-disciplinary approach has been applied. The review demonstrates the relevance of FGWAs for domains beyond HRM and therefore offers opportunities for much more multi-disciplinary research. As internationalisation strategies, foreign direct investment location choices, and ownership strategies are becoming more complex in MNEs ( Belderbos, Du, & Goerzen, 2017 ; Verbeke & Kano, 2016 ), FGWAs should be considered across a range of fields including IHRM, international business, global strategy, economical geography, supply chain management, and risk management, among others. This would arguably lead to greater ‘comprehensiveness, connectedness and complexity’ ( Sullivan, 1998 , p.837) and perhaps creativity ( Buckley, Devinney, & Louviere, 2007 ) when researching the phenomena of global work.

At the same time, there is a need for caution not to disconnect FGWAs from HR. More so, we suggest a stronger integration with strategic IHRM, noting that organisational settings and the global work itself have not been adequately discussed. While there is undoubtedly more empirical and conceptual research required on the individuals themselves, we emphasise a need for more research at business unit and organisational levels to better understand policies and procedures in MNEs and their implementation across subsidiaries. We therefore propose a more balanced research agenda taking on a mutual-benefits perspective ( Farndale, Pai, Sparrow, & Scullion, 2014 ); considering the views and experiences of individuals on FGWAs, while at the same time securing effective implementation and a better understanding of the HR function's role and responsibility. Ultimately, in responding to volatile and ambiguous changes, MNEs need to balance the double-edged sword of FGWAs, in developing a strategic and sustainable approach to enhancing the value-creating capacity of its global workforce.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

1 Articles marked with an asterisk (*) were included in the systematic literature review.

Appendix A. Coding structure

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Types of Global Mobility Assignment (A Guide!)

Anne morris.

• 19 September 2019

IN THIS SECTION

To achieve the flexibility and agility required to respond to changing business demands while operating within a cost-effective and compliant infrastructure, organisations should explore different types of global mobility assignments.

With a varied global mobility portfolio, organisations can optimise the return and value of its mobility activity by ensuring the most appropriate and cost-effective type of assignment is utilised for any given need, such as duration of assignment (short term, long term, permanent?), location (developed or emerging nation?) and overall strategic aim of the assignment (overseas expansion, talent development?).

Types of Global Mobility: Business travel

Business travel involves short-term trips, typically enabling individual employees to carry out specific business-related activities, such as attending conferences and meetings, negotiating contracts and networking, in a different country for a brief period.

Compared with other mobility types, business trips may be less costly and less administratively onerous where employees travel without a work permit. However, for many organisations, the volume of business travel is such that as a whole, it acts as the biggest drain on mobility budgets.

Since business travel tends to occur without triggering any organisational global mobility procedure or support, it can be challenging for organisations to have an accurate understanding of the total financial outlay. This is further complicated by expenses, with reimbursement processes for globally mobile employees creating an additional lawyer of cost and budget management.

Business travel also presents a range of immigration and tax compliance risks for both the employer and employee.

Local immigration laws constantly change and current trends in global immigration policy are seeing a move towards more stringent monitoring and management of business travellers. Where employees travel without first checking against local immigration rules, any reliance on a visa not specifically designed for business purposes, or travelling without express, prior work permission for the intended activity, could see the employee detained at the border at the discretion of the immigration officials.

Employees who travel extensively on business could also become ‘accidental expats’ by involuntarily or unknowingly triggering legal or tax rules that re-classify them as resident in the host country.

In response, employers are advised to support their travelling employees through ongoing training and explore technology solutions to improve data collection and storage in relation to monitoring business travellers’ movements and managing the associated compliance with immigration and tax regulations.

Types of Global Mobility: Short-term assignments

Short-term overseas assignments can be a flexible approach to developing talent within your organisation, by offering key employees highly valuable international exposure and experience, with potential career progression into managerial, executive and leadership roles on their return.

Short-term assignments can also enable employees to gain first-hand insight and industry knowledge to bring back and use to improve performance and operations in their home workplace.

There are however various inherent risks of short-term assignments, including seeking the relevant immigration approvals, which can become onerous and costly given the short-term nature of the assignment.

You will also need to ensure that the employee is aware of the relevant legal and cultural differences to enable them to maximise their time on assignment, and avoid any adverse impact on the success of the assignment or falling foul of the law.

Types of Global Mobility: Long-term assignments

Long-term overseas assignments can support longer-term business growth objectives either by establishing a foothold in a new regional market or driving growth efficiency programmes through existing operations.

Deploying existing employees can also be a more effective alternative to recruiting overseas in achieving the commercial objective, where knowledge of the organisation is critical and timescales are challenging.

One of the main challenges in long-term assignments however is controlling costs and ensuring their commercial viability.

In particular, you will need to factor in relocation costs for both the employee and their family, operational costs of providing ongoing support for supporting the assignee and ensuring the compensation package is at a level, which offers an attractive financial incentive that will motivate the employee. When assessing the value and return on investment of a long-term overseas assignment, you will also need to consider the cost of repatriation at the end of the assignment.

Failure to sufficiently invest in the assignment, either from the outset or throughout the lifecycle, especially any failure to offer sufficient personal support for a long-term assignee during their time abroad, can result in expatriate failure , early repatriation and employee attrition.

As an employer you have a moral responsibility and a duty of care, not to mention a vested financial interest, not only to ensure the personal safety of an employee but also their overall wellbeing and happiness.

Indeed, ensuring that you maintain a supportive, open and communicative working relationship throughout a long-term assignment can mean the difference between retaining the services of an employee either during or at the end of the assignment, and losing their global talent to a competitor.

Types of Global Mobility: Permanent relocations

For employers, permanent relocation is increasingly being seen as a cost and resource-intensive option, which may be too rigid and long term for the organisation’s requirement.

Administering the move and preparing the employee and their family for relocation is a financial commitment from initial orientation, destination and arrival services onwards.

Pre-travel training for the employee and their family will also be essential, for example, to overcome any language or cultural barriers.

It does however provide a more secure alternative to hiring someone local who cannot offer the organisational insight and knowledge necessary to drive forward a specific business aim, such as a regional reorganisation programme or expansion strategy.

Importantly, local visa rules may restrict and determine the availability of a permanent relocation as an option for global mobility. This means this type of global mobility is generally not suited to anything other than to fill skills gaps and to manage operations. If you are looking, for example, to transfer expertise or develop new talent within your company or organisation, either short-term or long-term assignments or even frequent business travel, are likely to be viable options from an immigration perspective.

Managing a global mobility portfolio

Global mobility can offer many advantages but also carries risks , depending on the type of global mobility assignment involved.

Importantly, travel and work rights between the EU and the UK are likely to be overhauled following Brexit, and organisations will need to quickly adapt to maintain a legally compliant global mobility programme involving employee movement into, out of and through Europe.

When assessing the benefits and risks of the different types of global mobility, there are various ways that you can help to maximise the potential success of an overseas assignment. In particular, by planning ahead, giving assignees sufficient support, training and time to prepare for their trip, both practically and mentally, will be critical factors in the overall programme outcome .

More and more, employers are segmenting their expatriation policy, not just by assignment duration (long-term versus short-term) but also by expatriate assignment purpose (strategic assignment versus developmental moves or moves requested by the employees themselves) to achieve better alignment between the mobility programs and the business/talent needs of the organisation.

Policy segmentation is a way to address the limitations of the one-size-fits-all types of policies, reconcile the cost control versus international expansion dilemma in a context of budget constraint by shifting budget from less essential moves to assignment that are critical to the business, present options to management to understand the cost and business implications of sending expatriates, manage effectively exceptions into well-defined framework and process as opposed to one-to-one ad-hoc deals and reconcile talent management and reward.

Founder and Managing Director Anne Morris is a fully qualified solicitor and trusted adviser to large corporates through to SMEs, providing strategic immigration and global mobility advice to support employers with UK operations to meet their workforce needs through corporate immigration.

She is a recognised by Legal 500 and Chambers as a legal expert and delivers Board-level advice on business migration and compliance risk management as well as overseeing the firm’s development of new client propositions and delivery of cost and time efficient processing of applications.

Anne is an active public speaker, immigration commentator , and immigration policy contributor and regularly hosts training sessions for employers and HR professionals

• Anne Morris https://www.davidsonmorris.com/author/anne/ UK Visa Supporting Documents Checklist 2024
• Anne Morris https://www.davidsonmorris.com/author/anne/ Overcoming a UK Visa Refusal: Tips & Steps
• Anne Morris https://www.davidsonmorris.com/author/anne/ MAC Publishes Report into UK Graduate Route
• Anne Morris https://www.davidsonmorris.com/author/anne/ UK Visa Guide: Requirements & Process 2024

About DavidsonMorris

As employer solutions lawyers, DavidsonMorris offers a complete and cost-effective capability to meet employers’ needs across UK immigration and employment law, HR and global mobility .

Led by Anne Morris, one of the UK’s preeminent immigration lawyers, and with rankings in The Legal 500 and Chambers & Partners , we’re a multi-disciplinary team helping organisations to meet their people objectives, while reducing legal risk and nurturing workforce relations.

Legal Disclaimer

The matters contained in this article are intended to be for general information purposes only. This article does not constitute legal advice, nor is it a complete or authoritative statement of the law, and should not be treated as such. Whilst every effort is made to ensure that the information is correct at the time of writing, no warranty, express or implied, is given as to its accuracy and no liability is accepted for any error or omission. Before acting on any of the information contained herein, expert legal advice should be sought.

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Will it boost or harm your career?

• February 1, 2021

There is no suspicion that working abroad is romantic. Living in a culture with different languages, habits, and working styles is an exciting and once-in-a-lifetime experience. It can not only much promote your career development, but also broaden your horizons. However, what many companies now call “global” assignments has some disadvantages. Some parts of the world are indeed dangerous for some visitors, but in most postings worldwide, the challenges are related to different cultures and ways of doing business. Here are some pros and cons of an international assignment to help you decide if it is a smart career move.

Table of Contents

Pros of international assignment, international work experience.

Indeed, the world is growing and becoming more and more mobile and accessible. This is the main driving force. Business leaders today are not geographically constrained. Work experience in an international corporate environment and culture is often described as a prerequisite for most senior positions at major international companies. Instantly add diverse and multicultural elements to your portfolio and experiences to make them more appealing to your position on a global scale.

Global companies are paying more and more attention to international diversity, and there is no sign that this trend stops. Therefore, the overseas experience gained by international mission professionals will help those seeking senior management positions. If you are one of these ambitious professionals, the question should be whether you can afford not to participate in the international assignment?

The company devotes substantial resources to expats international assignments. Allocation itself is usually performed for a specific purpose, and ROI is an important goal. For example, you can transfer assignees with specific skills to a new location to lead a project that is considered essential. Therefore, being selected for a job is usually a compliment, but it is also an opportunity. A successful project overview allows you to prove that you are the assignee and develop your career from the benefits of success. If you can withstand the pressure, then your international assignment can prove beneficial. Are you ready to move forward and succeed?

Experience Different Ways of Doing Business

Learning a particular field and working in that field in the same country means a fairly fixed set of expectations and assumptions. Overall, understanding how other countries treat your industry and business can be an excellent way to open yourself to new ways of doing things. The best part? Wherever you are, you will get these learning outcomes.

Diversify Your Income

When it is difficult to predict what will happen politically, earning income in different currencies is an excellent way to diversify risks and protect the financial future. For example, in the past two years, the pound sterling value has changed 30% from the value of the euro. If you are particularly interested in the domestic economy, relocation is still a way to obtain better salaries and employment opportunities in a more stable business environment.

Explore the world

If you are passionate about traveling, nothing is better than working abroad. Not only you experience the country more deeply, but you can also get rewarded for it. You do not need to spend two weeks to get to know the country’s culture and personality directly. This is also an excellent opportunity to explore neighboring countries. If you are learning a language, immersion in the countryside is also an excellent way to quickly improve your skills.

Cross-Cultural Communication

Cons of an international assignment, emotional problems.

Life as an expat is a rewarding experience. However, it can be challenging. Loneliness, culture shock, and nostalgia usually overwhelm foreigners, and not all migrants are ready to face this strong, perhaps new emotion. The combination of pain and diligence described above has reportedly resulted in high burnout among professional immigrants.

Less Job Flexibility

You love your new country, but do you hate work? Unlike going home, if your position is not suitable for you, you can shop here. Working abroad may mean that your job is linked to your visa. Even if you are not restricted by a visa, your lack of language skills and local experience may limit your escape options.

Interrupted Career Progression

For outsiders, “Out of sight, out of mind” can be a very familiar word. Even if you live in the same company, you do not go out every day or work in different time zones. This means that good impressions are slowly disappearing and are no longer the number one promotion. In the country of visit, it may be necessary to take a junior position due to a lack of local experience or limited language skills, which can feel like a step back professionally.

Cultural and Language Barriers

Among foreigners who cannot establish the necessary business relationships or live daily lives, posting emails in places where there is a tremendous cultural difference or where communication in a new language is required can cause trouble. Non-traditional families, such as gay couples, may face cultural resistance and pressure, making assignment management difficult in the long run

Legal risks

Domestic work laws and regulations regarding wages, taxes, and pensions usually differ between residents and foreigners. As with immigration requirements, compliance with legal requirements must be ensured.

Technological change

Your country’s technology can lag foreign countries for several years. After returning home, it may take several months to digest all the changes.

As global mobility increases, many employees want foreign stamps on their passports to support their personal growth and career development. They are increasingly looking for commuters, rotational, expatriate, or other alternative jobs to build resumes. International assignments are an essential tool for international career development. In this case, employees with international experience are the greater wealth for the organization.

Some potential business traveling international career in which global travel is usually necessary like international accountant, marketing and sales International missions help improve cultural literacy, promote foreign language learning, expand professionals’ network, and broaden their horizons. But of course there are always pros and cons of an international assignment.

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The Globexs experience

At globexs we all agree that our job is making people feel welcome. globexs is, in essence, a people-company: people working for people. us working for expats. we are the little tap on your shoulder and the voice whispering in your ear that everything will be allright 👌., this is the globexs experience, and this is what distinguishes us from traditional rental companies..

Pros and Cons of International Expat Assignment 

Are you trying to work out if a short-term international assignment is for you you may be considering applying for an opportunity or you may have an offer of an overseas role on the table, either way there’s a lot to think about. making the decision to work overseas, even in the short-term, has the potential to have long-term repercussions for your life and career., what is a short-term international assignment [sia].

A short-term international assignment is the deployment of an employee overseas to complete a task usually within a period of three months to a year.

Short-term international assignments became popular early in the millennium as a means of addressing recruitment gaps, talent shortages and focusing on strategic global projects. Their popularity grew during the financial crises as a less expensive form of global mobility.

In the post-Covid world, SIAs are a means of offering increased flexibility to employees who want to gain some international experience without committing to the traditional three to five years overseas.

Like every decision in life, there are positives and potentially some challenges when it comes to moving abroad for work.

What are the pros of a short-term  international assignment?

Opportunity to work overseas, increased experience of global marketplace, leadership potential, improved network.

Working overseas will enable you to broaden your network. While completing a short-term expat assignment you are likely to work with:

·         Global mobility team

·         Human Resources/People Department

·         Senior Management

·         Colleagues at all levels in your new office

·         A new range of stakeholders

·         Customers in a different market

Opportunity to travel 

Opportunity to learn a new language.

Depending on where your short-term assignment is based it may provide an opportunity to learn a new language. You do not necessarily need to be fluent in a language for it to have positive benefits for your career.

Attempting to speak another language allows you to engage with colleagues in your short-term home in a more meaningful and immediate way. It has also been shown to have cognitive benefits too. People who speak more than one language have improved:

·         Critical thinking skills

·         Problem solving skills   

·         Memory

Spouse can retain their career

Children can stay in their current school, what are the cons of a short-term international assignment.

Of course, any kind of change has potential negative side effects to be aware of too. What these are will depend on your circumstances, but some potential downsides may include:

1. Potential for interrupted career progression

Moving overseas may mean you are ‘out of sight, out of mind’. Depending on your company, not being around every day and difference in time zones may mean the good work you are doing is not as visible to centralised management. This isn’t always a difficulty, but it might be something to be aware of depending on your business. 

2. Pressure to deliver 

As a short-term assignee, you are likely to be under pressure to hit the ground running and achieve a lot in a short period of time. You are unlikely to have the luxury of spending the first few months settling in. There may be pressure on you to make changes quickly before you have had a chance to build relationships or get colleagues at a local level on board.

3. Culture shock

The risk of culture shock is even higher with short-term assignees because you may not have the same time to adjust as your long-term counterparts. Comprehensive pre-departure training is important, so you have as much information as possible about life in your temporary home. 

4. Expat loneliness

If you decide leaving family in your home country is the best option then there is a chance you may suffer from expat loneliness while you are away. Building new and maintaining existing relationships while overseas is really important. If you feel lonely , check whether your international health insurance has an expat assistance programme that provides you with access to a trained professional for assistance. 

5. Maintaining relationships at home

Your relationships with friends and family at home are important. Leaving may prove difficult but technology makes it easier than ever to stay in touch. 

6. Relationship issues

If you decide to take the assignment, your partner may have to remain at home for work or family commitments. This can impact your relationship . While you struggle with a new role in a new country, they are left carrying the emotional load at home and often completing all the tasks you used to help with. 

7. Repatriation

Do not underestimate the challenge of returning home once your assignment is complete . Particularly if you settled well and enjoyed the work. Changes may have happened in your home office that mean:

• You are not returning to the same role you left

• Goals and objectives may have changed since

• You may have to readjust your ways of working once again 

Agreeing to an international assignment is a big decision for a range of professional and personal reasons. We hope this will help you to work out what yours are so you can make the right decision for your circumstances. 

If you do decide to accept an assignment, don’t forget you will need international health insurance to access private healthcare should you need it while you are away.

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Common Writing Assignments

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These OWL resources will help you understand and complete specific types of writing assignments, such as annotated bibliographies, book reports, and research papers. This section also includes resources on writing academic proposals for conference presentations, journal articles, and books.

Understanding Writing Assignments

This resource describes some steps you can take to better understand the requirements of your writing assignments. This resource works for either in-class, teacher-led discussion or for personal use.

Argument Papers

This resource outlines the generally accepted structure for introductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions in an academic argument paper. Keep in mind that this resource contains guidelines and not strict rules about organization. Your structure needs to be flexible enough to meet the requirements of your purpose and audience.

Research Papers

This handout provides detailed information about how to write research papers including discussing research papers as a genre, choosing topics, and finding sources.

Exploratory Papers

This resource will help you with exploratory/inquiry essay assignments.

Annotated Bibliographies

This handout provides information about annotated bibliographies in MLA, APA, and CMS.

Book Report

This resource discusses book reports and how to write them.

Definitions

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Essays for Exams

While most OWL resources recommend a longer writing process (start early, revise often, conduct thorough research, etc.), sometimes you just have to write quickly in test situations. However, these exam essays can be no less important pieces of writing than research papers because they can influence final grades for courses, and/or they can mean the difference between getting into an academic program (GED, SAT, GRE). To that end, this resource will help you prepare and write essays for exams.

Book Review

This resource discusses book reviews and how to write them.

Academic Proposals

This resource will help undergraduate, graduate, and professional scholars write proposals for academic conferences, articles, and books.

In this section

Subsections.

Module 16: Globalization and Business

Effective training for international assignments, learning outcomes.

• Differentiate between documentary training, cultural simulations, and field simulation training.

Living and working in an international community, such as Hong Kong, can be rewarding and challenging—if you are adaptable and prepared for what to expect.

Types of Training for Global Workers

Global companies often send managers from the home country office to work in foreign subsidiaries. Sometimes this is done for the development of the manager, so she can gain experience in the global operations of the company. It may also be so the company can exert more control over the subsidiary. When the assignment is for a long period, the manager’s family may also be sent. This represents a significant investment for the company, and it does not want to see the manager fail and return home early. The cost of a three-year assignment averages $1 million. [1] One way the company can help the manager succeed is to provide training before she leaves so she knows what to expect.

What constitutes an effective training program depends a lot on its “rigor,” or how thorough and challenging the program is. If the employee is going for a relatively short time, say less than a month, then a low-rigor program may suffice. If the employee and his family are moving for a year or more with the intent of living in the host country, then high-rigor training is required. With a brief assignment, adequate training may involve watching some videos on local culture, going to lectures, and attending briefings on company operations in the host (destination) country. For longer assignments, extensive experiential learning, interactions with host country nationals, and language training may be offered not just for the employee but for the whole family. Studies have shown that international assignments are more effective when the employee’s family is included and consulted in the relocation and training processes.

Documentary Training

Documentary training is textbook and classroom learning, which focuses on looking at differences between cultures and is a key part of both low-rigor and high-rigor training approaches. Differences are examined because they are potential friction points that create misunderstandings and hurt feelings. You have probably heard many examples of cultural differences involving common human interactions, such as greetings, gender relations, and the giving of gifts. For example, Asian business people defer to authority very differently from Westerners. They will not correct their managers nor will they make suggestions in public that would cause their managers embarrassment. Food in China is served hot, and to be offered cold food may be offensive or off-putting.

The perception of sickness and disease differs greatly in different cultures even among closely related ethnicities. A British worker would probably not take kindly to what you consider to be sympathetic inquiries about his latest illness and treatment. Americans, on the other hand, tend to “over share” and be more frank about personal health issues. Americans also tend to be casual about invitations and don’t like to pressure people on the spot. An expatriate in India may invite a coworker to a party he is having on the weekend and then follow up with “Come over if you want to.” To many cultures this is heard as “We don’t really care if you come or not.” There are many excellent sources of information on specific cultural traditions and norms of various countries, but multinational businesses often arrange for professional cross-cultural trainers to provide onsite lectures, videos, or workshops on cultural differences.

Cultural Simulation Training

After learning the cultural “do’s and don’ts” of a host country, many companies will ask their employees to participate in cultural simulations in which they will role play various situations and practice responding in culturally sensitive ways. This process is most effective when the training takes place in the host country or when the trainer can include people from the actual host country to help. The goal is to duplicate as closely as possible scenarios that the employees may face, such as having to question or to reprimand a local employee, making a presentation to host country upper-level managers, or how to approach a person of the opposite gender in countries where the sexes do not mix as freely as in the United States.

Field Simulation Training

When the company believes that the employees have successfully passed the “survival training” stage, it is time for field simulation training . The employee (and family) visits a neighborhood of the same ethnic background as the destination or, if the trainees are already in-country, then they move out to the “real world.” Depending upon the conditions, an individual may be dropped into a rural area with limited resources and told to get back to the office. Or a family may be moved into temporary housing so that they can meet their neighbors, shop for food, locate transportation, and just explore the area. When the simulation is over, the trainees come back to the center to compare notes and share experiences.

Benefits of Rigorous Training Programs

For extended assignments, a rigorous training program benefits both the employee and the employer. It prepares an employee (and family) for success by the following:

• Providing practical assistance for relocation efforts. Some questions the employee might have about the new location include: How long will it take to get there? What kind of money will I be using? How far is the office from my home? Do I need a car? What medicines can I get and what must I bring with me? What should I bring in the way of technology, and will I have to pay duties on imported goods?
• Giving the employee information that will allow her to make an informed decision about the assignment.
• Providing emotional security about the change. A rigorous training program greatly reduces the chance that the employee will leave the assignment early because of a misunderstanding.
• Increasing the cultural sensitivity of the employee. By training employees on cultural matters, the company lessens the likelihood that its reputation will suffer among the host country employees.

The disadvantage to the company involves the cost of the training and the out-of-office time of the employee to undergo the training, but this is a small price to pay considering the potential benefits.

Finally, companies preparing their employees for an expatriate experience should also offer readjustment counseling when the employee is due to return. Re-entering the home country can produce a reaction called reverse culture shock that describes the bewilderment and distress experienced by individuals suddenly exposed to a new, strange, or foreign social and cultural environment—in this case, their own.

• J. Stewart Black and Hal Gregerson, “The Right Way to Manage Expats,” April 1999, accessed July 31, 2017, https://hbr.org/1999/03/the-right-way-to-manage-expats ↵
• Effective Training for International Assignments. Authored by : John/Lynn Bruton and Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Image: Hong Kong. Authored by : AndyLeungHK. Located at : https://pixabay.com/en/hong-kong-hongkong-asia-city-2291752/ . License : CC0: No Rights Reserved

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Should you give job applicants an assignment during the interview process? Be thoughtful about the ask

Hiring is a time-consuming and expensive endeavor. Companies need candidates who offer the right skills and experience for a given role, and who align with their organization’s vision and mission.

To find the best fit, many companies still lean on a strategy that continues to generate debate : the assignment. Some candidates believe their experience and interviews should give prospective employers enough information to determine whether they will fit the role. Employers have to ask themselves whether they are willing to turn off a strong candidate by asking them to do additional work.

Is the assignment valuable enough to the evaluation process that they cannot move someone forward without it? Sometimes it is—sometimes they help an employer decide between two strong candidates. And if they are necessary, how can employers make assignments fair and equitable for the candidate or candidates?

When done right, assignments help assess practical skills and problem-solving abilities, giving a clearer picture of a candidate beyond what their resume or interview reveals. But employers should be thoughtful about the ask. While it may make sense for roles that require specific technical expertise or creative thinking, it isn’t appropriate for all roles—so assignments should always be given with a clear reason for why they are needed.

Plus, they don’t just benefit the employer. For job seekers, an assignment during the interview process might also help them stand out from the competition. It can also offer a window into what their day-to-day in the new role might entail. Remember that the candidate should be interviewing the company, too. Having a test run of the work they’d be asked to do is a great way to see whether they believe the role is a fit.

However, there is a rift in how people perceive the assignment as part of the interview process. Workers today span many generations, each with unique values and expectations. Whereas older workers often prioritize stability and loyalty, younger millennials and Gen Zers are more focused on flexibility and work well-being, Indeed data shows .

This mindset impacts the amount of time and energy a candidate is willing to devote to each application. After multiple rounds of interviews and prep, taking on an in-depth assignment may feel like a bridge too far—especially if the expectations for the assignment are not clearly communicated ahead of time.

Some candidates are wary of providing free labor to a company that may use their work and not hire them. Hiring managers should be clear about how the work will be used. They may also consider offering compensation if the assignment requires more than a couple hours of someone’s time, or if they plan to use the work without hiring the candidate.

The key for early career candidates in particular is to ensure their time and efforts are respected. This is a win-win for employers: By providing clarity and transparency, they not only elicit the additional information they want from candidates, but they demonstrate that the organization is transparent and fair.

Equity is also imperative: Which candidates are being asked to complete assignments? Is the hiring team consistent in giving out assignments across ages, experience levels, and roles? There should always be a process and clear evaluation criteria in place to ensure fairness.

As we adapt to the rapidly evolving world of work, we must continue to think critically about each step in the hiring process. Candidate assignments can be a valuable tool, but only with appropriate respect for job seekers’ time and contributions.

With the right strategy, we can bridge the gap between generations in the workplace and build a hiring culture that values efficiency, talent, and integrity.

Eoin Driver is the global vice president of talent at Indeed.

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