essay on relevant facts

What is an Argumentative Essay? How to Write It (With Examples)

We define an argumentative essay as a type of essay that presents arguments about both sides of an issue. The purpose is to convince the reader to accept a particular viewpoint or action. In an argumentative essay, the writer takes a stance on a controversial or debatable topic and supports their position with evidence, reasoning, and examples. The essay should also address counterarguments, demonstrating a thorough understanding of the topic.

Table of Contents

What is an argumentative essay  .

• Argumentative essay structure 
• Argumentative essay outline 
• Types of argument claims 

How to write an argumentative essay?

• Argumentative essay writing tips 
• Good argumentative essay example 

How to write a good thesis

• How to Write an Argumentative Essay with Paperpal? 

Frequently Asked Questions

An argumentative essay is a type of writing that presents a coherent and logical analysis of a specific topic. 1 The goal is to convince the reader to accept the writer’s point of view or opinion on a particular issue. Here are the key elements of an argumentative essay: 

• Thesis Statement : The central claim or argument that the essay aims to prove. 
• Introduction : Provides background information and introduces the thesis statement. 
• Body Paragraphs : Each paragraph addresses a specific aspect of the argument, presents evidence, and may include counter arguments.  Articulate your thesis statement better with Paperpal. Start writing now!
• Evidence : Supports the main argument with relevant facts, examples, statistics, or expert opinions.
• Counterarguments : Anticipates and addresses opposing viewpoints to strengthen the overall argument.
• Conclusion : Summarizes the main points, reinforces the thesis, and may suggest implications or actions. 

Argumentative essay structure  

Aristotelian, Rogerian, and Toulmin are three distinct approaches to argumentative essay structures, each with its principles and methods. 2 The choice depends on the purpose and nature of the topic. Here’s an overview of each type of argumentative essay format.

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Argumentative essay outline  

An argumentative essay presents a specific claim or argument and supports it with evidence and reasoning. Here’s an outline for an argumentative essay, along with examples for each section: 3  

1.  Introduction : 

• Hook : Start with a compelling statement, question, or anecdote to grab the reader’s attention. 

Example: “Did you know that plastic pollution is threatening marine life at an alarming rate?” 

• Background information : Provide brief context about the issue. 

Example: “Plastic pollution has become a global environmental concern, with millions of tons of plastic waste entering our oceans yearly.” 

• Thesis statement : Clearly state your main argument or position. 

Example: “We must take immediate action to reduce plastic usage and implement more sustainable alternatives to protect our marine ecosystem.” 

2.  Body Paragraphs : 

• Topic sentence : Introduce the main idea of each paragraph. 

Example: “The first step towards addressing the plastic pollution crisis is reducing single-use plastic consumption.” 

• Evidence/Support : Provide evidence, facts, statistics, or examples that support your argument. 

Example: “Research shows that plastic straws alone contribute to millions of tons of plastic waste annually, and many marine animals suffer from ingestion or entanglement.” 

• Counterargument/Refutation : Acknowledge and refute opposing viewpoints. 

Example: “Some argue that banning plastic straws is inconvenient for consumers, but the long-term environmental benefits far outweigh the temporary inconvenience.” 

• Transition : Connect each paragraph to the next. 

Example: “Having addressed the issue of single-use plastics, the focus must now shift to promoting sustainable alternatives.” 

3.  Counterargument Paragraph : 

• Acknowledgement of opposing views : Recognize alternative perspectives on the issue. 

Example: “While some may argue that individual actions cannot significantly impact global plastic pollution, the cumulative effect of collective efforts must be considered.” 

• Counterargument and rebuttal : Present and refute the main counterargument. 

Example: “However, individual actions, when multiplied across millions of people, can substantially reduce plastic waste. Small changes in behavior, such as using reusable bags and containers, can have a significant positive impact.” 

4.  Conclusion : 

• Restatement of thesis : Summarize your main argument. 

Example: “In conclusion, adopting sustainable practices and reducing single-use plastic is crucial for preserving our oceans and marine life.” 

• Call to action : Encourage the reader to take specific steps or consider the argument’s implications. 

Example: “It is our responsibility to make environmentally conscious choices and advocate for policies that prioritize the health of our planet. By collectively embracing sustainable alternatives, we can contribute to a cleaner and healthier future.” 

Types of argument claims  

A claim is a statement or proposition a writer puts forward with evidence to persuade the reader. 4 Here are some common types of argument claims, along with examples: 

• Fact Claims : These claims assert that something is true or false and can often be verified through evidence.  Example: “Water boils at 100°C at sea level.”
• Value Claims : Value claims express judgments about the worth or morality of something, often based on personal beliefs or societal values. Example: “Organic farming is more ethical than conventional farming.” 
• Policy Claims : Policy claims propose a course of action or argue for a specific policy, law, or regulation change.  Example: “Schools should adopt a year-round education system to improve student learning outcomes.” 
• Cause and Effect Claims : These claims argue that one event or condition leads to another, establishing a cause-and-effect relationship.  Example: “Excessive use of social media is a leading cause of increased feelings of loneliness among young adults.” 
• Definition Claims : Definition claims assert the meaning or classification of a concept or term.  Example: “Artificial intelligence can be defined as machines exhibiting human-like cognitive functions.” 
• Comparative Claims : Comparative claims assert that one thing is better or worse than another in certain respects.  Example: “Online education is more cost-effective than traditional classroom learning.” 
• Evaluation Claims : Evaluation claims assess the quality, significance, or effectiveness of something based on specific criteria.  Example: “The new healthcare policy is more effective in providing affordable healthcare to all citizens.” 

Understanding these argument claims can help writers construct more persuasive and well-supported arguments tailored to the specific nature of the claim.  

If you’re wondering how to start an argumentative essay, here’s a step-by-step guide to help you with the argumentative essay format and writing process.

• Choose a Topic: Select a topic that you are passionate about or interested in. Ensure that the topic is debatable and has two or more sides.
• Define Your Position: Clearly state your stance on the issue. Consider opposing viewpoints and be ready to counter them.
• Conduct Research: Gather relevant information from credible sources, such as books, articles, and academic journals. Take notes on key points and supporting evidence.
• Create a Thesis Statement: Develop a concise and clear thesis statement that outlines your main argument. Convey your position on the issue and provide a roadmap for the essay.
• Outline Your Argumentative Essay: Organize your ideas logically by creating an outline. Include an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Each body paragraph should focus on a single point that supports your thesis.
• Write the Introduction: Start with a hook to grab the reader’s attention (a quote, a question, a surprising fact). Provide background information on the topic. Present your thesis statement at the end of the introduction.
• Develop Body Paragraphs: Begin each paragraph with a clear topic sentence that relates to the thesis. Support your points with evidence and examples. Address counterarguments and refute them to strengthen your position. Ensure smooth transitions between paragraphs.
• Address Counterarguments: Acknowledge and respond to opposing viewpoints. Anticipate objections and provide evidence to counter them.
• Write the Conclusion: Summarize the main points of your argumentative essay. Reinforce the significance of your argument. End with a call to action, a prediction, or a thought-provoking statement.
• Revise, Edit, and Share: Review your essay for clarity, coherence, and consistency. Check for grammatical and spelling errors. Share your essay with peers, friends, or instructors for constructive feedback.
• Finalize Your Argumentative Essay: Make final edits based on feedback received. Ensure that your essay follows the required formatting and citation style.

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Argumentative essay writing tips  

Here are eight strategies to craft a compelling argumentative essay: 

• Choose a Clear and Controversial Topic : Select a topic that sparks debate and has opposing viewpoints. A clear and controversial issue provides a solid foundation for a strong argument. 
• Conduct Thorough Research : Gather relevant information from reputable sources to support your argument. Use a variety of sources, such as academic journals, books, reputable websites, and expert opinions, to strengthen your position. 
• Create a Strong Thesis Statement : Clearly articulate your main argument in a concise thesis statement. Your thesis should convey your stance on the issue and provide a roadmap for the reader to follow your argument. 
• Develop a Logical Structure : Organize your essay with a clear introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion. Each paragraph should focus on a specific point of evidence that contributes to your overall argument. Ensure a logical flow from one point to the next. 
• Provide Strong Evidence : Support your claims with solid evidence. Use facts, statistics, examples, and expert opinions to support your arguments. Be sure to cite your sources appropriately to maintain credibility. 
• Address Counterarguments : Acknowledge opposing viewpoints and counterarguments. Addressing and refuting alternative perspectives strengthens your essay and demonstrates a thorough understanding of the issue. Be mindful of maintaining a respectful tone even when discussing opposing views. 
• Use Persuasive Language : Employ persuasive language to make your points effectively. Avoid emotional appeals without supporting evidence and strive for a respectful and professional tone. 
• Craft a Compelling Conclusion : Summarize your main points, restate your thesis, and leave a lasting impression in your conclusion. Encourage readers to consider the implications of your argument and potentially take action. 

Good argumentative essay example  

Let’s consider a sample of argumentative essay on how social media enhances connectivity:

In the digital age, social media has emerged as a powerful tool that transcends geographical boundaries, connecting individuals from diverse backgrounds and providing a platform for an array of voices to be heard. While critics argue that social media fosters division and amplifies negativity, it is essential to recognize the positive aspects of this digital revolution and how it enhances connectivity by providing a platform for diverse voices to flourish. One of the primary benefits of social media is its ability to facilitate instant communication and connection across the globe. Platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram break down geographical barriers, enabling people to establish and maintain relationships regardless of physical location and fostering a sense of global community. Furthermore, social media has transformed how people stay connected with friends and family. Whether separated by miles or time zones, social media ensures that relationships remain dynamic and relevant, contributing to a more interconnected world. Moreover, social media has played a pivotal role in giving voice to social justice movements and marginalized communities. Movements such as #BlackLivesMatter, #MeToo, and #ClimateStrike have gained momentum through social media, allowing individuals to share their stories and advocate for change on a global scale. This digital activism can shape public opinion and hold institutions accountable. Social media platforms provide a dynamic space for open dialogue and discourse. Users can engage in discussions, share information, and challenge each other’s perspectives, fostering a culture of critical thinking. This open exchange of ideas contributes to a more informed and enlightened society where individuals can broaden their horizons and develop a nuanced understanding of complex issues. While criticisms of social media abound, it is crucial to recognize its positive impact on connectivity and the amplification of diverse voices. Social media transcends physical and cultural barriers, connecting people across the globe and providing a platform for marginalized voices to be heard. By fostering open dialogue and facilitating the exchange of ideas, social media contributes to a more interconnected and empowered society. Embracing the positive aspects of social media allows us to harness its potential for positive change and collective growth.

• Clearly Define Your Thesis Statement:   Your thesis statement is the core of your argumentative essay. Clearly articulate your main argument or position on the issue. Avoid vague or general statements.  
• Provide Strong Supporting Evidence:   Back up your thesis with solid evidence from reliable sources and examples. This can include facts, statistics, expert opinions, anecdotes, or real-life examples. Make sure your evidence is relevant to your argument, as it impacts the overall persuasiveness of your thesis.  
• Anticipate Counterarguments and Address Them:   Acknowledge and address opposing viewpoints to strengthen credibility. This also shows that you engage critically with the topic rather than presenting a one-sided argument. 

How to Write an Argumentative Essay with Paperpal?  

Writing a winning argumentative essay not only showcases your ability to critically analyze a topic but also demonstrates your skill in persuasively presenting your stance backed by evidence. Achieving this level of writing excellence can be time-consuming. This is where Paperpal, your AI academic writing assistant, steps in to revolutionize the way you approach argumentative essays. Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to use Paperpal to write your essay: 

• Sign Up or Log In: Begin by creating an account or logging into paperpal.com .  
• Navigate to Paperpal Copilot: Once logged in, proceed to the Templates section from the side navigation bar.  
• Generate an essay outline: Under Templates, click on the ‘Outline’ tab and choose ‘Essay’ from the options and provide your topic to generate an outline.  
• Develop your essay: Use this structured outline as a guide to flesh out your essay. If you encounter any roadblocks, click on Brainstorm and get subject-specific assistance, ensuring you stay on track. 
• Refine your writing: To elevate the academic tone of your essay, select a paragraph and use the ‘Make Academic’ feature under the ‘Rewrite’ tab, ensuring your argumentative essay resonates with an academic audience. 
• Final Touches: Make your argumentative essay submission ready with Paperpal’s language, grammar, consistency and plagiarism checks, and improve your chances of acceptance.  

Paperpal not only simplifies the essay writing process but also ensures your argumentative essay is persuasive, well-structured, and academically rigorous. Sign up today and transform how you write argumentative essays. 

The length of an argumentative essay can vary, but it typically falls within the range of 1,000 to 2,500 words. However, the specific requirements may depend on the guidelines provided.

You might write an argumentative essay when:  1. You want to convince others of the validity of your position.  2. There is a controversial or debatable issue that requires discussion.  3. You need to present evidence and logical reasoning to support your claims.  4. You want to explore and critically analyze different perspectives on a topic. 

Argumentative Essay:  Purpose : An argumentative essay aims to persuade the reader to accept or agree with a specific point of view or argument.  Structure : It follows a clear structure with an introduction, thesis statement, body paragraphs presenting arguments and evidence, counterarguments and refutations, and a conclusion.  Tone : The tone is formal and relies on logical reasoning, evidence, and critical analysis.    Narrative/Descriptive Essay:  Purpose : These aim to tell a story or describe an experience, while a descriptive essay focuses on creating a vivid picture of a person, place, or thing.  Structure : They may have a more flexible structure. They often include an engaging introduction, a well-developed body that builds the story or description, and a conclusion.  Tone : The tone is more personal and expressive to evoke emotions or provide sensory details. 

• Gladd, J. (2020). Tips for Writing Academic Persuasive Essays.  Write What Matters . 
• Nimehchisalem, V. (2018). Pyramid of argumentation: Towards an integrated model for teaching and assessing ESL writing.  Language & Communication ,  5 (2), 185-200. 
• Press, B. (2022).  Argumentative Essays: A Step-by-Step Guide . Broadview Press. 
• Rieke, R. D., Sillars, M. O., & Peterson, T. R. (2005).  Argumentation and critical decision making . Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. 

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• Empirical Research: A Comprehensive Guide for Academics 
• How to Write a Scientific Paper in 10 Steps 
• What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)
• What is a Narrative Essay? How to Write It (with Examples)

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Argumentative essay writing, as the name implies, involves creating strong arguments based on facts and evidence. The goal of this essay is to convince the reader to adopt a logical viewpoint based on the available proof. It is a complex form of essay writing which requires extensive first-hand as well as second-hand research.

Let’s understand what an argumentative essay is and how to write it with the help of numerous argumentative essay examples. To guide you in your essay writing journey, we’ve also provided a well-structured argumentative essay outline.

Let’s start off with understanding what is an argumentative essay.

What is an argumentative essay?

An argumentative essay is a piece of writing that convinces one to adopt a particular viewpoint, based on statistics and evidence. Unlike an expository essay, an argumentative essay involves adopting a particular point of view on a topic based on the available information.  

Since it’s aimed at convincing the readers, it needs to contain strong supporting evidence. This requires a much more thorough examination of the available data sources. An argumentative essay is the most common essay type assigned in science, technology or even advanced literature courses in colleges. 

A well-written argumentative essay makes use of information rather than personal opinion. For instance, the statement “beaches are better than mountains” makes for a poor argument. However, including statistical data and figures makes this argument more substantial. For instance “48% of Americans prefer beaches, whereas only 27% prefer mountains”

Now that we’ve understood the meaning of an argumentative essay, let’s take a look at its outline.

Argumentative essay outline

The argumentative essay structure is different from other essay types. Although its aim is to convince the reader to adopt a viewpoint, a good argumentative essay structure looks at an argument from all sides and also addresses the counterargument. The goal is to disprove the opposing arguments with the use of logic and the latest evidence. 

There are three main argumentative essay formats. Let’s take a look:

This is the simplest structure of an argumentative essay when it comes to writing. It follows a logical path of introducing the argument, providing evidence supporting the argument, refuting counterarguments, and finally concluding your argument.

The following outline talks about the advantages of using nuclear power for environmental protection. 

Advantages of Nuclear Power for Environmental Protection

I. Introduction

A. Background information on the topic

B. Thesis statement: Despite the negative reputation and potential risks associated with nuclear power, it is the best bet for our environment due to its low carbon emissions, high energy production, and advancements in safety technology.

II. Low carbon emissions

A. Explanation of carbon emissions and their impact on the environment

B. Comparison of nuclear power to other energy sources in terms of carbon emissions

C. Case studies and statistics supporting the low carbon emission of nuclear power

III. High energy production

A. Explanation of energy production and its importance

B. Comparison of nuclear power to other energy sources in terms of energy production

C. Case studies and statistics supporting the high energy production of nuclear power

IV. Advancements in safety technology

A. Explanation of nuclear power safety concerns

B. Overview of advancements in nuclear power safety technology

C. Comparison of nuclear power safety technology to other energy sources

D. Case studies and statistics supporting the advancements in nuclear power safety technology

V. Counterarguments and refutations

A. Discussion of common counterarguments against nuclear power

B. Refutation of counterarguments with evidence and examples

VI. Conclusion

A. Restatement of thesis

B. Summary of main points

C. Final thoughts on the importance of nuclear power in addressing environmental challenges.

This format is used to explain your stance on a highly polarizing, complex topic. It involves presenting your stance and comparing it with the generally accepted evidence. It also involves presenting the limitations of your claim along with rebuttals. 

The following Toulmin essay outline highlights the dangers of genetic modification:

The Dark Side of Genetic Modification

B. Thesis statement: Genetic modification is dangerous due to the potential risks it poses to human health, the environment, and ethical concerns surrounding genetic engineering.

II. Claim 1: Risks to human health

A. Explanation of the potential risks to human health associated with genetic modification

B. Overview of studies and research that have shown adverse effects on human health

C. Evidence and examples supporting the claim

III. Claim 2: Risks to the environment

A. Explanation of the potential risks to the environment associated with genetic modification

B. Overview of studies and research that have shown negative impacts on the environment

IV. Claim 3: Ethical concerns

A. Explanation of the ethical concerns surrounding genetic engineering

B. Overview of the potential consequences of genetic modification on social, cultural, and ethical values

V. Counterargument and refutation

A. Discussion of common counterarguments in favor of genetic modification

V. Conclusion

C. Final thoughts on the dangers of genetic modification and the need for caution in its application.

3. Rogerian

This format acknowledges both sides of the argument and provides evidence as to why your stance is valid. It is the least confrontational form of argument which is used to convince to opposition to adopt your point of view.  

The following Rogerian essay outline talks about why more government funds should be dedicated to space exploration.

A Cosmic Investment

B. Thesis statement: While some may argue that government funds should be allocated towards pressing issues on earth, dedicating more funds to space travel is necessary because of the technological advancements it brings, the potential for scientific discoveries, and economic benefits.

II. Understanding the opposing arguments

A. Explanation of the opposing viewpoint’s concerns and arguments

B. Acknowledgement of valid points made by the opposing viewpoint

C. Statement of common ground between the opposing viewpoint and the argument

III. Presenting the supporting arguments

A. Explanation of the technological advancements made possible through space travel

B. Overview of the scientific discoveries that have been made possible through space exploration

C. Explanation of the economic benefits of space travel and the growth of the space industry

IV. Addressing concerns of the opposition

A. Discussion of concerns raised by the opposing viewpoint and why they should not prevent the dedication of funds to space travel

B. Explanation of how funding for space travel can coexist with funding for pressing issues on earth

C. Evidence and examples to support the argument

V. Common ground and conclusion

A. Restatement of the thesis statement

B. Summary of the main points of the argument

C. Statement of common ground and call to action for continued exploration of space.

Now that you’ve learned how to structure, let’s understand how to write an argumentative essay. 

How to write an argumentative essay

Although the process of writing an argumentative essay is similar to other essay types, it requires much more research and planning. Developing an argument requires a significant understanding of the subject matter from all angles. 

Let’s take a look at the steps to writing an argumentative essay:

1. Choose appropriate argumentative essay topics.

Although topics for an argumentative essay are highly diverse, they are based on a controversial stance. So, make sure that your argumentative essay topics are debatable. Here are a few examples of good argumentative essay topics:

Should animal testing be prohibited?

Should sports be segregated by gender?

Are wildlife sanctuaries ethical?

2. Construct a thesis statement. 

The thesis statement involves taking a stance on your topic. For instance, if your topic is “Should school uniforms be mandatory?”, your thesis statement will take a stance for, or against this. However, make sure that your thesis statement has sufficient evidence from reliable sources to back it up. 

Let’s take a look at a thesis statement example for the topic “Why four-day work-weeks should  be encouraged”: 

A four-day workweek is a viable solution for reducing employee burnout, enhancing work-life balance, and improving overall productivity. It not only promotes a healthier and happier workforce but also reduces costs for employers.

3. Collect evidence.

After taking your stance on your essay topic, it’s time to back it up with facts, evidence, and statistics. This requires an extensive amount of research. 

Make sure to facilitate your research from reputed sources. To make your essay up-to-date and reliable, you can even collect evidence with the help of surveys and experiments. 

Next, sort your evidence into main points to create a basic outline of your essay. This is also a good time to address the counterarguments to your stance.

4. Write the first draft.

After developing the outline, it’s time to flesh it out. Start by constructing an interesting hook, and providing background information for your thesis statement in the introduction. 

Next, elaborate on the topic sentences that provide support to your thesis statement. You can add statistics and empirical data along with plenty of direct quotes and citations to give credibility to your essay. 

And finally, conclude your essay with a summarization of the main points of your essay along with the key takeaway. A powerful conclusion not only allows the readers to see your viewpoint but also creates a lasting impression on their minds.

5. Edit your draft.

Your first draft may not be perfect. Make sure to optimize the sentence structure and word choice. Also, modify your arguments if necessary. You can have friends and family go over your essay and spot any errors that slip through the cracks. For a more fool-proof, error-free essay you can also take the help of professional essay proofreading services .

Now that we’ve understood how to write an effective argumentative essay, let’s take a look at an example of an argumentative essay.

Argumentative essay example 

To guide you in your essay-writing journey, we’ve provided you with an argumentative essay example. It discusses the ill effects of automation. This essay is slightly longer in length and deviates from the commonly used five-paragraph structure. 

Should Companies Invest in Manpower over Autonomous Machines?

The rise of autonomous machines has revolutionized the manufacturing industry, with robots now able to perform tasks that were once done exclusively by human workers. While this technology has undoubtedly improved efficiency and productivity, the question remains whether companies should be required to hire human workers over using autonomous machines. 

The use of autonomous machines has resulted in job losses in the manufacturing industry. According to a study by the Brookings Institution, the use of robots in the United States has led to the loss of over 1.7 million jobs since 2000. While automation has created new jobs in certain industries, such as software development and engineering, the number of jobs lost is significantly higher.

Hiring human workers also has a positive impact on the economy. According to a report by the National Bureau of Economic Research, every robot that replaces a human worker leads to a net loss of 1.6 jobs. This means that for every 10 robots introduced into the workforce, 16 jobs are lost. Hiring human workers over using autonomous machines can help to create more jobs and improve the overall economic situation.

In addition to the economic benefits, human workers offer several advantages over autonomous machines. Human workers are able to adapt to changing situations and problem-solve in a way that machines cannot. This is particularly important in industries where there is a high level of variability in the work being done. 

Furthermore, the use of autonomous machines can lead to safety concerns in the workplace. While robots have become increasingly sophisticated, they are still prone to malfunctions and errors. In some cases, this can lead to workplace accidents and injuries. Human workers are able to identify potential safety hazards and take preventative measures to reduce the risk of accidents.

Although the use of autonomous machines has led to increased efficiency and productivity, their negative impact cannot be ignored. Hiring human workers over using autonomous machines can create jobs, improve the economy, and offer many more advantages. Additionally, the safety concerns associated with the use of autonomous machines highlight the importance of prioritizing human workers. Human workers are more adept at ensuring the well-being of the workforce and the economy as a whole. Therefore, they should be prioritized over machines. 

We hope the above explanation and examples have clarified the basics of writing argumentative essays. As providers of essay editing services , we understand how writing good essays is not a piece of cake. 

To help you write good essays, our team has created detailed resources. Continue reading to take your essay-writing skills to the next level! 

• Guide to a Perfect Descriptive Essay
• Expository Essays | Step-by-Step Manual
• How to Start an Essay
• How to Write an Essay Outline

Frequently Asked Questions

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40+ Argumentative Essay Topics with Relevant Facts to Write on

There is a written assignment in which students of any grade, either middle school, high school or college, need to use powerful evidence to convince the audience of their points of view. They are required to write an argumentative essay to let educators know their opinions.

However, writing an argumentative essay causes many difficulties for students, not only for ESL, as they need to:

• to define an original topic;
• to investigate several sides of a topic;
• to collect solid evidence;
• to generate valuable ideas;
• to analyse critically data;
• to put everything in a written form;
• to revise an essay;
• to edit a paper according to the paper requirements.

Frightened of all work you’re supposed to do so that your argumentative essay will look perfect and stand out among the others? Don’t panic as you aren’t alone on Earth who also encounter some difficulties on this way. According to a large-scale survey of 8,400 college students , getting started, defining a topic, and narrowing down a topic are widely spread issues among them.

Indeed, the attempt to start dealing with any essay as early as possible guarantees to win the battle with writing as quickly as possible. However, we all are prone to leave everything until the last minute. The professor of Psychology, Adam Grant, expresses his opinion on procrastination in the New York Times . As he says it isn’t always a vice of productivity. On the contrary, it can be a virtue for creativity.

To save your precious time that you should spend on defining a topic, stick to the motto of the famous philosopher, Montaigne, about whom you can read more at the New Yorker . He always asked himself, “Que sais-je?” that means from French “What do I know?”. You can take into consideration the following relevant facts for good argumentative essay topics. These facts will help you to determine what are of great concern to you.

14 Facts for the Best Argumentative Essay Topics

Along with our last minute essay writing service let’s plunge into the frequently met study areas in which you can be asked to explore. With the list of the interesting facts, you have more chances of achieving the best results in writing argumentative essays. Besides, below each fact you can find the list of topics on which you can focus in your own argument essay.

1) Millions of wild animals (tigger, reptiles, large felines, nonhuman primates, etc.) are kept as pets in the USA. The annual profits on the trade in exotic animals are multi billion dollars.

• The Risks of Keeping Animals to Human Health and Safety;
• The Pros and Cons of Owning Animals at Home;
• Should Animals Have Any Rights?

2) Gorillas share 98.3% of their genetic code with humans.

• How Closely Are Gorillas Related to Humans?;
• Human-Like Features in Gorillas Behavior;
• What is the Profound Misunderstanding of Human Evolution?

1) The largest school in the world is situated in India, in Lucknow. The City Montessori School has over 32,000 students. The smallest school in the world is in Turin, Italy. The elementary school in the tiny town of Alpette has just one pupil – Sofia Viola.

• Does the Number of Students at School Influence Their Academic Performance?
• What Problems are Often Observed at School Where the Huge Number of Students Studies?
• What Advantages Does a Student Have When He or She Studies Alone at School?

2) Agnes Zhelesnik , who was 102 years old, is considered to be the world’s oldest teacher in the world. The world’s youngest professor is the 14-year-old boy, Yasha Asley , who is teaching at the University of Leicester.

• Who is More Competent in Teaching – Young or Old Teachers?
• The Typical Features of a Good Specialist in Teaching at University.
• Is It Essential to Have Big Job Experience of Working as a Teacher to Be a Skilled Expert?

1) The top ten countries with the best government according to the Legatum Index Government Ranking are Norway, New Zealand, Finland, Switzerland, Sweden, Netherlands, Denmark, Canada, Australia and United Kingdom.

• What Are Contributing Factors in Creating the Best Government?
• The Criteria that Distinguish the Best System of Government;
• Does the Interference in the Local Government Affect the Central Government?

2) The developing countries are most affected by the International Financial Institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.

• The Importance of Financial Help for the Developing Countries;
• The Role of Government in the Developing Countries;
• The Ways to Become a Developed Country.

Immigration

1) Today the countries of foreign-born population are more diverse than they were 50 years ago.

• The Issues that Are Present in the Ethnically and Racially Diverse Society;
• The Ways of Encouraging Cultural Diversity, not Division;
• The Role of a Community in a Multicultural Society.

2) Immigrants are reported to add an estimated $2 trillion to the US GDP in 2016.

• What Contribution Do Immigrants Make to Economy of a Country Where They Destinate?;
• Are Spendings on the Immigration Programs Higher than Immigrants Can Compensate?;
• What Do Immigrants Bring to a Country of Destination Except Money?

Medical Care

1) According to the WHO’s Ranking of the World’s Health Systems , France keeps their citizens much healthier than the other countries in the world.

• Is the Country’s Economic Status a Determining Factor of an Effective Health Care?;
• The Ways to Assess Health System Performance;
• Is It Possible to Improve Health of Population with Limited Resources?

2) According to the data given by Central Intelligence Agency, the country with the highest life expectancy is Monaco at 89.40 years, and the country with the lowest one is Chad at 50.60 years.

• The Increased Life Expectancy is a Consequence of Improved Medical Care in the Modern Society;
• Nutrition is One of the Factors Determining How Long People Will Live;
• Is the Life Expectancy Related to Proper Medical Care Provided in a Country?

1) According to Pew Research Center , Christianity is currently the world’s largest religion. However, by 2035 the number of Muslims is expected to exceed.

• Is It Right for People to Change a Confession of Faith?;
• Religious Activities Promote Changes in the Society: What Are Their Outcomes;
• The Power of Strong Faith in God in the 21st Century.

2) The chart at Pew Research Center shows that age distribution by religious attendance varies. The most part of those (36%) who attend religious services once or twice a month belongs to the age of 30-49.

• What Factors Influence the Religious Attendance: Age, Gender, Race or Social Status?
• Why It Is Important to Attend Church for Most People in the World?
• Does Everyone who Believe in God Should Attend Religious Services?

Social Media

1) According to the statistic at GlobalWebIndex.net , people in the age of 16-24 have 8 social media accounts.

• Does Social Media Have Positive or Negative Effects on Interpersonal Communication?
• Does Technology Make People Isolated and Alone?
• Benefits of Using Social Media Sites by Students?

2) As the report “2015 State of Marketing” , 66% of marketers believe social media is essential for business.

• Does Social Media Really Stimulate the Revenue Growth of a Company?
• Is It Worth to Spend More Money on Various Digital Marketing Technologies?
• Can Social Media Negatively Affect the Business Performance?

5 Argumentative Essay Ideas about How to Structure It Properly

• A thesis statement should occur in the first paragraph of an essay. Explain why your topic is important or why readers should care about it. Don’t neglect it as you risk not to meet the requirements of writing an effective essay.
• Introduce powerful evidence to support the thesis. Use some facts, statistics that have been already provided for you in this article), or an anecdote depending on your topic to grab your audience’s attention. Persuade them to read your to the end.
• The body of the essay must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph. It shows whether your essay is well-researched and examined in depth. Relate directly to the topic instead of arguing round a subject.
• Consider and explain different points of view concerning an essay topic. It is better to discuss conflicting opinions on the topic than to focus on a single one.
• Conclude as if you want to win over readers. It is vital not to include any new information in the end. Just synthesize the key points from the body and discuss what research could be completed in terms of your topic.

After you have an idea how to deal with an argumentative essay, you can begin writing it as you have all essential facts for your own essay. As an alternative, you can take a shortcut by relying on our academic writing services so that you have enough time on sports or listening music. Our academic writers are ready to meet all your paper requirements within a short period of time. Just contact us immediately to see the progress in college paper writing.

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Relevance in Logical Arguments

Definition of relevance in logical arguments.

In the world of logical arguments, ‘relevance’ is a key to checking if the ideas you’re saying are really helpful for what you’re trying to prove or explain. Imagine relevance as a magnet. Just like a magnet only sticks to some metals, relevance means your point or information specifically sticks to the topic you’re dealing with. If you’re having a discussion about space, and you bring up something about the ocean, unless you’re comparing planets to the deep sea, that point may not stick—it’s not relevant.

Moreover, relevance is also like the ingredients in a recipe. If you’re baking a cake, ingredients like flour, eggs, and sugar are relevant because they’re part of the recipe. But if you toss in ketchup, that doesn’t belong—it’s not relevant to your baking. So when you share a point, think to yourself, “Is this like flour for my cake, or is it like ketchup?” If it doesn’t make your ‘cake’ better, it’s probably not what you need.

Types of Relevance in Logical Arguments

While debating or discussing, there are different ways to make sure your points fit the puzzle. People don’t usually break down relevance into strict categories, but we can look at it from different angles, like:

• Logical Relevance: Just like pieces in a puzzle, it’s about connecting facts and thoughts in a way that makes a clear picture when you put them all together.
• Topical Relevance: This is about keeping the conversation focused. If you’re talking about a movie, stay on the topic of the movie rather than shifting to your weekend plans.

Even if these angles of relevance seem separate, they actually work together like a team to make sure everything in your argument is helpful and ties back to the main point you are discussing.

Examples of Relevance in Logical Arguments

• While debating the benefits of fruits and veggies, mentioning that carrots are good for your eyesight is relevant because it’s a fact directly connected to the topic—health benefits of food.
• In a discussion about internet safety, bringing up strong passwords counts as relevant since it’s a practice that’s directly linked to keeping your information safe online.
• If a class is discussing pollution, talking about car emissions is relevant because it’s one of the causes of air pollution, showing a direct link to the topic.

Why is Relevance Important?

Relevance helps your argument stay on track, much like a train follows its rails. It’s essential for your train of thought to reach its destination—the point you want to make. When every piece of your argument is relevant, it fits to form a clear picture, convincing others more effectively. Unrelated information is like extra weight that slows the train down, and it might even lead others to believe you’re not sure about your own point.

In everyday situations, like school or talking with friends, staying relevant keeps the conversation meaningful. If you’re discussing a project with your team, focusing on relevant tasks helps you get the job done without wasting time. Relevance isn’t just for formal debates, it’s part of every effective conversation.

Related Topics

Understanding relevance is great, but it’s also connected to other ideas in arguments and discussions:

• Evidence: The solid facts and information that you use to support your arguments need to be not just true but also relevant to what you’re arguing about.
• Coherence: This is about making sure your argument makes sense as a whole; relevance of each point to the main argument contributes to its coherence.

To put it all together, relevance is like the glue that keeps all the parts of your argument sticking to the main point. By making sure every piece of information has a clear connection to the topic at hand, your argument will be stronger and more likely to convince others. Next time you’re in a discussion, keep relevance in mind—it’s your secret weapon for building an argument that’s hard to knock down.

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• The four main types of essay | Quick guide with examples

The Four Main Types of Essay | Quick Guide with Examples

Published on September 4, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An essay is a focused piece of writing designed to inform or persuade. There are many different types of essay, but they are often defined in four categories: argumentative, expository, narrative, and descriptive essays.

Argumentative and expository essays are focused on conveying information and making clear points, while narrative and descriptive essays are about exercising creativity and writing in an interesting way. At university level, argumentative essays are the most common type. 

In high school and college, you will also often have to write textual analysis essays, which test your skills in close reading and interpretation.

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Table of contents

Argumentative essays, expository essays, narrative essays, descriptive essays, textual analysis essays, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about types of essays.

An argumentative essay presents an extended, evidence-based argument. It requires a strong thesis statement —a clearly defined stance on your topic. Your aim is to convince the reader of your thesis using evidence (such as quotations ) and analysis.

Argumentative essays test your ability to research and present your own position on a topic. This is the most common type of essay at college level—most papers you write will involve some kind of argumentation.

The essay is divided into an introduction, body, and conclusion:

• The introduction provides your topic and thesis statement
• The body presents your evidence and arguments
• The conclusion summarizes your argument and emphasizes its importance

The example below is a paragraph from the body of an argumentative essay about the effects of the internet on education. Mouse over it to learn more.

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

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An expository essay provides a clear, focused explanation of a topic. It doesn’t require an original argument, just a balanced and well-organized view of the topic.

Expository essays test your familiarity with a topic and your ability to organize and convey information. They are commonly assigned at high school or in exam questions at college level.

The introduction of an expository essay states your topic and provides some general background, the body presents the details, and the conclusion summarizes the information presented.

A typical body paragraph from an expository essay about the invention of the printing press is shown below. Mouse over it to learn more.

The invention of the printing press in 1440 changed this situation dramatically. Johannes Gutenberg, who had worked as a goldsmith, used his knowledge of metals in the design of the press. He made his type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, whose durability allowed for the reliable production of high-quality books. This new technology allowed texts to be reproduced and disseminated on a much larger scale than was previously possible. The Gutenberg Bible appeared in the 1450s, and a large number of printing presses sprang up across the continent in the following decades. Gutenberg’s invention rapidly transformed cultural production in Europe; among other things, it would lead to the Protestant Reformation.

A narrative essay is one that tells a story. This is usually a story about a personal experience you had, but it may also be an imaginative exploration of something you have not experienced.

Narrative essays test your ability to build up a narrative in an engaging, well-structured way. They are much more personal and creative than other kinds of academic writing . Writing a personal statement for an application requires the same skills as a narrative essay.

A narrative essay isn’t strictly divided into introduction, body, and conclusion, but it should still begin by setting up the narrative and finish by expressing the point of the story—what you learned from your experience, or why it made an impression on you.

Mouse over the example below, a short narrative essay responding to the prompt “Write about an experience where you learned something about yourself,” to explore its structure.

Since elementary school, I have always favored subjects like science and math over the humanities. My instinct was always to think of these subjects as more solid and serious than classes like English. If there was no right answer, I thought, why bother? But recently I had an experience that taught me my academic interests are more flexible than I had thought: I took my first philosophy class.

Before I entered the classroom, I was skeptical. I waited outside with the other students and wondered what exactly philosophy would involve—I really had no idea. I imagined something pretty abstract: long, stilted conversations pondering the meaning of life. But what I got was something quite different.

A young man in jeans, Mr. Jones—“but you can call me Rob”—was far from the white-haired, buttoned-up old man I had half-expected. And rather than pulling us into pedantic arguments about obscure philosophical points, Rob engaged us on our level. To talk free will, we looked at our own choices. To talk ethics, we looked at dilemmas we had faced ourselves. By the end of class, I’d discovered that questions with no right answer can turn out to be the most interesting ones.

The experience has taught me to look at things a little more “philosophically”—and not just because it was a philosophy class! I learned that if I let go of my preconceptions, I can actually get a lot out of subjects I was previously dismissive of. The class taught me—in more ways than one—to look at things with an open mind.

A descriptive essay provides a detailed sensory description of something. Like narrative essays, they allow you to be more creative than most academic writing, but they are more tightly focused than narrative essays. You might describe a specific place or object, rather than telling a whole story.

Descriptive essays test your ability to use language creatively, making striking word choices to convey a memorable picture of what you’re describing.

A descriptive essay can be quite loosely structured, though it should usually begin by introducing the object of your description and end by drawing an overall picture of it. The important thing is to use careful word choices and figurative language to create an original description of your object.

Mouse over the example below, a response to the prompt “Describe a place you love to spend time in,” to learn more about descriptive essays.

On Sunday afternoons I like to spend my time in the garden behind my house. The garden is narrow but long, a corridor of green extending from the back of the house, and I sit on a lawn chair at the far end to read and relax. I am in my small peaceful paradise: the shade of the tree, the feel of the grass on my feet, the gentle activity of the fish in the pond beside me.

My cat crosses the garden nimbly and leaps onto the fence to survey it from above. From his perch he can watch over his little kingdom and keep an eye on the neighbours. He does this until the barking of next door’s dog scares him from his post and he bolts for the cat flap to govern from the safety of the kitchen.

With that, I am left alone with the fish, whose whole world is the pond by my feet. The fish explore the pond every day as if for the first time, prodding and inspecting every stone. I sometimes feel the same about sitting here in the garden; I know the place better than anyone, but whenever I return I still feel compelled to pay attention to all its details and novelties—a new bird perched in the tree, the growth of the grass, and the movement of the insects it shelters…

Sitting out in the garden, I feel serene. I feel at home. And yet I always feel there is more to discover. The bounds of my garden may be small, but there is a whole world contained within it, and it is one I will never get tired of inhabiting.

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Though every essay type tests your writing skills, some essays also test your ability to read carefully and critically. In a textual analysis essay, you don’t just present information on a topic, but closely analyze a text to explain how it achieves certain effects.

Rhetorical analysis

A rhetorical analysis looks at a persuasive text (e.g. a speech, an essay, a political cartoon) in terms of the rhetorical devices it uses, and evaluates their effectiveness.

The goal is not to state whether you agree with the author’s argument but to look at how they have constructed it.

The introduction of a rhetorical analysis presents the text, some background information, and your thesis statement; the body comprises the analysis itself; and the conclusion wraps up your analysis of the text, emphasizing its relevance to broader concerns.

The example below is from a rhetorical analysis of Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech . Mouse over it to learn more.

King’s speech is infused with prophetic language throughout. Even before the famous “dream” part of the speech, King’s language consistently strikes a prophetic tone. He refers to the Lincoln Memorial as a “hallowed spot” and speaks of rising “from the dark and desolate valley of segregation” to “make justice a reality for all of God’s children.” The assumption of this prophetic voice constitutes the text’s strongest ethical appeal; after linking himself with political figures like Lincoln and the Founding Fathers, King’s ethos adopts a distinctly religious tone, recalling Biblical prophets and preachers of change from across history. This adds significant force to his words; standing before an audience of hundreds of thousands, he states not just what the future should be, but what it will be: “The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.” This warning is almost apocalyptic in tone, though it concludes with the positive image of the “bright day of justice.” The power of King’s rhetoric thus stems not only from the pathos of his vision of a brighter future, but from the ethos of the prophetic voice he adopts in expressing this vision.

Literary analysis

A literary analysis essay presents a close reading of a work of literature—e.g. a poem or novel—to explore the choices made by the author and how they help to convey the text’s theme. It is not simply a book report or a review, but an in-depth interpretation of the text.

Literary analysis looks at things like setting, characters, themes, and figurative language. The goal is to closely analyze what the author conveys and how.

The introduction of a literary analysis essay presents the text and background, and provides your thesis statement; the body consists of close readings of the text with quotations and analysis in support of your argument; and the conclusion emphasizes what your approach tells us about the text.

Mouse over the example below, the introduction to a literary analysis essay on Frankenstein , to learn more.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, protagonist Victor Frankenstein is a stable representation of the callous ambition of modern science throughout the novel. This essay, however, argues that far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as. This essay begins by exploring the positive portrayal of Frankenstein in the first volume, then moves on to the creature’s perception of him, and finally discusses the third volume’s narrative shift toward viewing Frankenstein as the creature views him.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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At high school and in composition classes at university, you’ll often be told to write a specific type of essay , but you might also just be given prompts.

Look for keywords in these prompts that suggest a certain approach: The word “explain” suggests you should write an expository essay , while the word “describe” implies a descriptive essay . An argumentative essay might be prompted with the word “assess” or “argue.”

The vast majority of essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Almost all academic writing involves building up an argument, though other types of essay might be assigned in composition classes.

Essays can present arguments about all kinds of different topics. For example:

• In a literary analysis essay, you might make an argument for a specific interpretation of a text
• In a history essay, you might present an argument for the importance of a particular event
• In a politics essay, you might argue for the validity of a certain political theory

An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

The key difference is that a narrative essay is designed to tell a complete story, while a descriptive essay is meant to convey an intense description of a particular place, object, or concept.

Narrative and descriptive essays both allow you to write more personally and creatively than other kinds of essays , and similar writing skills can apply to both.

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Writing an Informative Essay

Informative essays engage readers with new, interesting, and often surprising facts and details about a subject. Informative essays are educational; readers expect to learn something new from them. In fact, much of the reading and writing done in college and the workplace is informative. From textbooks to reports to tutorials like this one, informative writing imparts important and useful information about a topic.

This tutorial refers to the sample informative outline and final essay written by fictional student Paige Turner.

Reasons to Write Informatively

Your purpose for writing and the audience for whom you are writing will impact the depth and breadth of information you provide, but all informative writing aims to present a subject without opinions or bias. Some common reasons to write informatively are to

• report findings that an audience would find interesting,
• present facts that an audience would find useful, and
• communicate information about a person, place, event, issue, or change that would improve an audience’s understanding.

Characteristics of Informative Essays

Informative essays present factual information and do not attempt to sway readers’ opinions about it. Other types of academic and workplace writing do try to influence readers’ opinions:

• Expository essays aim to expose a truth about an issue in order to influence how readers view the issue.
• Persuasive essays aim to influence readers’ opinions, so they will adopt a particular position or take a certain course of action.

Expository and persuasive essays make “arguments.” The only argument an informative essay makes is that something exists, did exist, is happening, or has happened, and the point of the essay is not to convince readers of this but to tell them about it.

• Informative essays seek to enlighten and educate readers, so they can make their own educated opinions and decisions about what to think and how to act.

Strategies for Writing Informatively

Informative essays provide useful information such as facts, examples, and evidence from research in order to help readers understand a topic or see it more clearly. While informative writing does not aim to appeal emotionally to readers in order to change their opinions or behaviors, informative writing should still be engaging to read. Factual information is not necessarily dry or boring. Sometimes facts can be more alarming than fiction!

Writers use various strategies to engage and educate readers. Some strategies include

• introducing the topic with an alarming fact or arresting image;
• asserting what is true or so about the subject in a clear thesis statement;
• organizing the paragraphs logically by grouping related information;
• unifying each paragraph with a topic sentence and controlling idea;
• developing cohesive paragraphs with transition sentences;
• using precise language and terminology appropriate for the topic, purpose, and audience; and
• concluding with a final idea or example that captures the essay’s purpose and leaves a lasting impression.

Five Steps for Getting Started

1. Brainstorm and choose a topic.

• Sample topic : The opioid epidemic in the United States.
• The opiod epidemic or even opiod addiction would would be considered too broad for a single essay, so the next steps aim to narrow this topic down.

2. Next, write a question about the topic that you would like to answer through research.

• Sample question : What major events caused the opioid crisis in the United States?
• This question aims to narrow the topic down to causes of the epidemic in the US.

3. Now go to the Purdue Global Library to find the answers to your research question.

As you begin reading and collecting sources, write down the themes that emerge as common answers. Later, in step four, use the most common answers (or the ones you are most interested in writing and discussing) to construct a thesis statement.

• Sample answers: aggressive marketing, loopholes in prescription drug provider programs, and economic downturn.

4. Next, provide purpose to your paper by creating a thesis statement.

The thesis attempts to frame your research question. The sample thesis below incorporates three of the more common answers for the research question from step two: What caused the opioid crisis in the United States?

• Thesis Statement : Aggressive marketing, loopholes in prescription drug provider programs, and economic downturn contributed to the current opioid crisis in the United States.
• Writing Tip : For additional help with thesis statements, please visit our Writing a Thesis Statement article. For help with writing in 3rd person, see our article on Formal Vs. Informal Writing .

5. Now follow each numbered step in the “Suggested Outline Format and Sample” below.

Sample answers have been provided for “I. Introduction” and “II. First Cause.” A complete sample outline can be seen here. A complete sample informative essay can be seen here.

Suggested Outline Format and Sample

I. INTRODUCTION

A. First provide a topic sentence that introduces the main topic: Sample topic sentence : There is a current prescription pain medication addiction and abuse epidemic possibly caused by an excessive over prescription of these medications.

B. Now provide a couple sentences with evidence to support the main topic: Sample sentence one with evidence to support the main topic : According to Dr. Nora Volkow, Director of National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), in testimony before the 115th Congress, “In 2016, over 11 million Americans misused prescription opioids … and 2.1 million had an opioid use disorder due to prescription opioids” (Federal Efforts to Combat the Opioid Crisis, 2017, p. 2).

C. Sample sentence two with evidence to support the main topic : Volkow indicated “more than 300,000 Americans have died of an opioid overdose” since 2013 (Federal Efforts to Combat the Opioid Crisis, 2017, p.2).

D. Sample sentence three with evidence to support the main topic : According to Perez-Pena (2017), the Center for Disease Control and Prevention reported more than 25,000 people in the United States died in 2015 from overdosing on opioids Fentanyl, Oxycodone, and Hydrocodone.

E. Toward the end of the introduction, include your thesis statement written in the 3rd-person point-of-view: Sample thesis statement : Potential solutions to the growing opioid epidemic may be illuminated by examining how opioid addiction is triggered through aggressive pharmaceutical marketing, how opioid addiction manifests among prescribed patients, and how economic downturns play a role in the increase of opioid addiction.

F. Write down the library sources you can use in this introductory paragraph to help support the main topic.

• Federal Efforts to Combat the Opioid Crisis, 2017
• Perez-Pena, 2017
• Writing Tip : For more help writing an introduction, please refer to this article on introductions and conclusions .

II. FIRST CAUSE

A. First provide a topic sentence that introduces the first cause of the opioid epidemic: Sample topic sentence that introduces the first cause : One issue that helped contribute to the opioid epidemic is aggressive marketing by pharmaceutical manufacturers.

B. Now provide sentences with evidence to support the first cause: Sample sentence one with evidence that supports the first cause : Perez-Pena (2017) concluded that while the healthcare industry was attempting to effectively and efficiently treat patients with chronic pain, pharmaceutical companies were providing funding to prominent doctors, medical societies, and patient advocacy groups in order to win support for a particular drug’s adoption and usage.

C. Sample sentence two with evidence to support the first cause : In fact, pharmaceutical companies continue to spend millions on promotional activities and materials that deny or trivialize any risks of opioid use while at the same time overstating each drug’s benefit (Perez-Pina, 2017).

D. Next, add more information or provide concluding or transitional sentences that foreshadows the upcoming second cause: Sample concluding and transitional sentence that foreshadow the second cause : Although aggressive marketing by pharmaceutical companies played a large role in opioid addiction, patients are to blame too, as many take advantage of holes in the healthcare provider system in order to remedy their addiction.

E. Write down the library sources you can use in this body paragraph to help support the first cause:

• Writing Tip : For more assistance working with sources, please visit the Using Sources page here.

III. SECOND CAUSE

A. First provide a topic sentence that introduces the second cause.

B. Now provide sentences with evidence to support the second cause.

C. Next, add more information or provide concluding or transitional sentences that foreshadows the upcoming third cause.

D. Write down the library sources you can use in this body paragraph to help support the second cause:

• Writing Tip : Listen to Writing Powerful Sentences for information and features of effective writing.

IV. THIRD CAUSE

A. First provide a topic sentence that introduces the third cause.

B. Now provide sentences with evidence to support the third cause.

C. Next, add more information or provide a concluding sentence or two.

D. Write down the library sources you can use in this body paragraph to help support the third cause:

V. CONCLUSION: Summary of key points and evidence discussed.

• Writing Tip : For more help writing a conclusion, refer to this podcast on endings .
• Writing Tip : Have a question? Leave a comment below or Purdue Global students, click here to access the Purdue Global Writing Center tutoring platform and available staff.
• Writing Tip : Ready to have someone look at your paper? Purdue Global students, click here to submit your assignment for feedback through our video paper review service.

See a Sample Informative Essay Outline here .

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dang bro i got an A

Having faith with all this mentioned, that i will pass my english class at a college. Thank you for posting.

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• Logical Arguments in Essays

Logical arguments are everywhere. From social media posts, newspaper op-eds, TV advertisements, and academic journals, people want to convince us of the validity of their argument . They make a claim and use reasons in the form of evidence or data to convince us their argument is correct. They structure their claims and reasons so their audience can easily understand them. Arguments that use well-chosen reasons, careful reasoning, and logical structures are logical arguments.  

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In Toulmin's method of argumentation, what is the purpose of "backing"?

Which essay structure is best for writing about complex arguments or situations?

Which type of reasons includes facts, statistics, and expert testimony?

What is a logical argument?

What is logic?

​What are claims? 

What are reasons?

"Teachers should assign less homework because students spend an average of 2.7 hours on it." 

What type of reason does this statement use?

"Teachers should assign less homework because the amount of time it takes to complete homework violates students' human rights." 

"All dogs are corgis. 

Corgis have big ears. 

Therefore, all dogs have big ears."

Is this statement a good example of deductive reasoning?

"Mammals have hair. 

Dogs are mammals. 

Therefore, dogs have hair."

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What is a Logical Argument?

A logical argument is a type of argument that uses logic to convince an audience of the validity of a claim. Logic is the use of reasoning and good argumentation .

Philosophers and rhetoricians agree that a logical argument is made up of claims and reasons. A claim is a position a writer takes in an argument. In an essay, your goal is for the audience to believe your claim. To convince your audience that your claim is correct, you will need reasons –the evidence that supports your claim.

Logical Argument Example

Let’s see how Thomas Jefferson states his claim and reasons in “The Declaration of Independence.” Jefferson believes that the British colonies on the North American continent should separate from the British government and form their own country. He writes the following claim to convince his audience of his beliefs: 1

The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.

Jefferson states his claim and then provides his evidence, which is broken down below, to prove why King George III is a tyrannical leader.

Claim: King George III imposed tyranny over the colonies.

Reason: He does not acknowledge the laws that the colonists' legislatures passed.

You must use claims with reasons to make logical arguments. Making logical arguments in essays will require you to think critically about how you want to make your claims and which reasons you want to use them.

Constructing Reasons in Logical Arguments

Writers have different ways of forming reasons to support their claims in a logical argument. The Greek philosopher Aristotle broke down these methods into two general categories: artistic and inartistic proofs.

Artistic Proofs

Artistic proofs are arguments the writer creates . Instead of using hard evidence, the writer's reasoning comes from various rhetorical appeals. These appeals include

Ethos (appealing to the writer’s credibility or morals/values).

Logos (appealing to logic).

Pathos (appealing to emotions).

Writers consider how to balance these different appeals within their essays. Most audiences are convinced by logical appeals, and you will soon learn how authors use logical reasoning. However, logical arguments incorporate ethical and emotional appeals. You can appeal to ethos by highlighting your expertise. To incorporate pathos, you can have a well-chosen anecdote as evidence to support your argument. Writers using logical arguments in their essays choose these different appeals by knowing their audience’s values and interests.

Inartistic Proofs

Inartistic proofs are arguments the writer gives in an essay. They are the hard evidence used to support logical arguments.

Using factual information, such as information from scholarly research or government reports, is crucial for writing a logical argument. If you have credible evidence, your audience will listen to your argument, even if they disagree with you. Make sure the factual information you include in your essay is from reliable sources, presented fairly, and supports your claim.

You can use statistics to strengthen a logical argument by providing concrete data about an issue. You will need to interpret this data and explain how it supports your argument. Be careful with how you present statistics in your argument to avoid presenting them in a biased manner. Since there are different ways to interpret data, make sure you understand the statistics you are using.

Expert Testimony

Expert testimonies help in making a logical argument. Expert testimonies are the stories and knowledge that come from personal experience and expertise about the topic. They can come from your own experiences with the topic or another individual's experiences with it. These narratives are compelling because they provide evidence the audience can trust and demonstrate how your topic affects people.

Study tip: To help you remember the difference between artistic and inartistic proofs, remember that artists create !

Logical Reasoning in Academic Writing

There are two main types of logical reasoning used in academic writing: deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is a type of reasoning where you use general statements to form a more specific claim. Writers use deductive reasoning in essays to lead readers to their conclusion. They begin with a broad claim and lead their audience to a specific claim using logical reasoning, using this structure:

Statement of a general claim.

Statement of another general claim. This claim has a direct connection to your first general claim.

Combining the first and second claims to make a specific claim.

Deductive reasoning follows this pattern to form general claims and combine them into a specific claim:

• X is/does Y.
• X is/does Z.
• Therefore, Z is/does Y.

Let’s see a simple example of deductive reasoning to see how general claims form a specific claim.

Hot objects burn your skin if you touch them. (General claim)

A stove that is on is a hot object. (General claim)

Therefore, a stove that is on will burn your skin if you touch it. (Specific claim)

Errors in Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is a common form of logic found in argumentation . While it is popular, you will need to make sure that your claims are true and follow the above pattern for your logic to be valid. See the example below to observe errors in deductive reasoning.

All cats are orange. (All cats are not orange!)

Pumpkins are orange. (The statement is formed around the color orange [Y], not cats [X]. )

Therefore, all cats are pumpkins. (The two errors above result in this inaccurate claim.)

Deductive Reasoning Example

You can use deductive reasoning to structure the overall argument of a portion of your essay or your entire essay. Thomas Jefferson uses deductive reasoning to structure "The Declaration of Independence." The first general claim is developed in the first section of the essay. For example, in the first two paragraphs, Jefferson argues people have the right to form a new government if it acts tyrannically.

For the second claim, look toward the middle, especially where the topic transitions into a new idea. After two paragraphs, Jefferson's argument shifts toward explaining how King George III is a tyrannical leader.

To identify the final claim, find the argument at the end of the text. In the final paragraph, Jefferson concludes that the colonies have the right to form their own government since King George III does not rule fairly.

Below is the outline of Jefferson's deductive reasoning in his argument.

If their current government is tyrannical, people have the right to form a new government.

King George III's government is tyrannical.

Because King George III's government is tyrannical, the colonies have the right to form a new government.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is another form of logical reasoning commonly found in essays. With inductive reasoning, you use specific details or examples to form a general claim. Let's say you observe a classmate carrying a large instrument case, talking about going to rehearsals, and wearing the school's band t-shirt. Using inductive reasoning, you would use these specific details to form the claim that your classmate is in the school band.

Inductive reasoning is common in academic writing, especially scientific writing. You use inductive reasoning when you want to discuss patterns you observed and form a general claim based on this evidence. For example, scientists conduct clinical experiments on new medical drugs in a trial group. Based on these results, they need to make generalizations on how this drug will affect the general population to argue if the drug is effective.

Errors in Inductive Reasoning

Because inductive reasoning relies on generalizations, it is easier to have a faulty claim because you do not have enough evidence. Let's say you want to argue in an essay that all schools should decrease athletic funding. You argue that funding sports is a waste of money because you observed your school funds sports programs, and the teams always lose. This would be an example of bad inductive reasoning because your experience does not support the claim that all schools should decrease funding. Not all school teams lose their games. Observations and generalizations can help you make logical arguments, but be careful that you have sufficient and correct evidence.

Inductive Reasoning Example

Thomas Jefferson uses inductive reasoning in "The Declaration of Independence" to argue King George III is a tyrannical ruler. Jefferson forms this general claim based on his observations of the King's behavior. He lists 27 examples as his evidence. These examples vary, with multiple examples of ignoring colonial government, enforcing unpopular laws, and forcing colonists to house British soldiers in their homes. The number and variety of examples lead Jefferson to conclude that King George III is a tyrannical ruler.

Structure of Logical Arguments

Beyond forming their claims and reasons, writers also consider the structure of their essays when making logical arguments. One of the most useful methods for structuring logical arguments is based on philosopher Stephen Toulmin's method.

Toulmin Arguments

Toulmin's method of argumentation is a popular structure in advanced English Language exams and academic writing. This structure helps writers anticipate and create complex arguments using logical reasoning. Toulmin's method is useful for arguing about complex situations that lack a concrete solution. There are six main parts to Toulmin's method of argumentation.

The claim is the argument you want to prove.

Qualifiers are the limits placed on your claim. Because you are arguing about complex situations, the qualifiers moderate your claim.

Reason(s)/Evidence

You will support your claim with reasons and evidence--remember your artistic and inartistic proofs!

Warrants are the assumptions that support your claim. Arguments can have unsaid assumptions, and you are responsible for stating them.

Backing is the evidence for your warrant. Not only do you need evidence for your claim, but you will need evidence for your warrant.

Rebuttals are the potential objections to your argument. You will want to anticipate these rebuttals and address them.

Toulmin Argument Example

Considering the popularity of Toulmin's method, let's look at an example. Using the argument that teachers should not assign homework, let's outline the structure of an argument using Toulmin's method.

Claim : Teachers should not assign homework because it prevents students from pursuing responsibilities outside of school.

Qualifiers : Not all students have responsibilities outside of school, especially younger students. High school students would have more responsibilities outside of school, and you can qualify the claim to address this population.

Reasons/evidence : About 30% of students have jobs outside of school, 2 and about 80% participate in extracurricular activities. 3

Warrant : Homework is time-consuming, which leads to students not fully committing to their responsibilities outside of school.

Backing: High-school students have an average of 2.7 hours of homework per day. 4

Rebuttals: Research shows targeted homework practice on skills learned in clas s helps students' learning. 4 However, most homework is not targeted at skills, but a continuation of work started in class.

Using the outline above, try to write a paragraph using all of the elements of Toulmin's argument. Compare your paragraph with the example below. What elements are similar and different? What elements did you find easy or difficult to include? How could you incorporate this structure when writing for your exam?

Here is an example of a paragraph with the above argument based on Toulmin's method.

Teachers should minimize the amount of homework assigned to high school students because it prevents students from dedicating themselves to their responsibilities outside of school. While research shows learning gains with targeted homework practice, homework often is a timely continuation of classwork. 4 Unless teachers can give short assignments targeted at skills, they should not assign homework. Not only is assigned homework failing to follow best practices, but it prevents students from not fully committing to their responsibilities outside of school. Many students have other activities they complete outside of school. About 30% of students have jobs, 2 and about 80% participate in extracurricular activities. 3 The amount of time it takes to complete homework can prevent students from participating in these activities. On average, high-school students spend 2.7 hours each weekday on homework. 4 This amount of time spent on homework leads students to put less time into jobs or extracurriculars that they may be interested in joining. To help students participate and tend to their responsibilities outside of school, teachers should assign less homework.

Logical Arguments in Essays - Key Takeaways

• A logical argument is a type of argument that uses logic to convince an audience of the validity of a claim. Logic is the use of reasoning and good argumentation.
• An argument contains claims and reasons . Claims are the position you take in an argument. Reasons are the evidence you use to support your claims.
• You can form logical claims using different types of reasons. You can create reasons using rhetorical appeals ( artistic proofs ) or give reasons using hard evidence ( inartistic proofs ).
• You can improve the logical reasoning of your claims by using deductive and inductive reasoning .
• A common essay structure for logical reasoning is Toulmin's method. This structure prompts critical thinking about your claims, reasons, and rebuttals to construct a highly logical argument.

1. Thomas Jefferson, "The Declaration of Independence," 1776.

2. Chris Kolmar, "High School Job Statistics [2022]," 2022.

3. Kristin Moore and Jennifer Ehrle, "Children’s Environment and Behavior: Participation in Extracurricular Activities," 2000.

4. Challenge Success, "Quality over Quantity: Elements of Effective Homework," 2020.

Flashcards in Logical Arguments in Essays 19

Provides evidence for the warrant

Toulmin arguments

Inartistic proofs

A type of argument that uses logic to convince an audience of the validity of a claim.

The use of reasoning and good argumentation.

 A position a writer takes in an argument

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Frequently Asked Questions about Logical Arguments in Essays

What is an example of a logical argument?

A logical argument uses logic to convince readers of a claim. Thomas Jefferson uses logical arguments in "The Declaration of Independence." He claims that King George III is a despot. He uses logic to support this claim by supplying reasons. Jefferson lists 27 reasons why King George III is a despot. Jefferson supporting his claim with a variety of evidence and reasons is an example of a logical argument. 

How do you write a logical structure for an argumentative essay?

You can use several logical structures for an argumentative essay. One of the most common is Toulmin's method. This structure contains six parts (claims, qualifiers, reasons/evidence, warrants, backing, and rebuttals). Toulmin's method produces logical and well-developed essays. 

What is in a logical argument?

Logical arguments contain claims and reasons. Writers select a variety of different types of reasons, such as hard evidence or different rhetorical appeals, to support their claims. They also use logical reasoning, such as deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning, to structure their claims.

How do you use logic in an essay?

You can use logic in an essay by using deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is where you guide the audience from a general claim to a specific claim. With inductive reasoning, you use overwhelming evidence and observations to form a general claim. 

What are the types of logical arguments?

There are two types of logical arguments: deductive and inductive arguments. Deductive reasoning is where you guide the audience from a general claim to a specific claim. With inductive reasoning, you use overwhelming evidence and observations to form a general claim. 

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The internet is full of an overwhelming amount of information. Some of the information is trustworthy, and some of it is not. A lot of websites are full of people voicing their opinions but not making any fact-based arguments. When writers need to craft a credible argument or a detailed research paper, it can be difficult to know where to start finding trustworthy facts. Understanding what facts are, how to cite them, and how they differ from opinions and truths is a good place to start.

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What is a fact?

What is the difference between fact and opinion?

Is this a fact or an opinion? "The author did an excellent job describing the protagonist’s sadness." 

True or False. Fact is the same thing as truth.

Which of the following is not a characteristic of a fact?

What is fact-checking?

What should writers always do when they use facts?

What question can readers ask to investigate if a fact is credible?

Is this a fact or an opinion? "Beethoven was a musician."

Why do writers use facts?

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Definition of Fact

A fact is a real and indisputable piece of information. For something to be considered a fact, it has to be proven.

A fact is a statement that is verifiably and objectively real.

Writers use facts all of the time to enhance their writing. When writers include facts, they show the reader their knowledge of the topic. It is particularly effective for writers to use facts when making an argument , as facts can help prove the main points to their readers.

For example, imagine a writer is writing an essay in which they want to convince the reader to recycle more. The writer can say that recycling is important—but that is not enough information to convince someone. Instead, they need to explain why recycling is important. To effectively make this point, it is helpful to use facts about the power of recycling.

For example, if they researched and referenced statistical facts about how recycling addresses global warming, they would show the reader that recycling is important because it makes a difference in cleaning up the planet.

Characteristics of Facts

With so much information on the internet, people must understand how to identify credible facts and differentiate them from false information. There are several characteristics of facts that can help writers identify facts. For instance:

A fact is something real.

A fact is proven to be correct.

A fact is based on indisputable experience or observation.

When attempting to discern if a statement is a fact or false information, readers can ask themselves the following questions:

Is the source of this claim trustworthy?

If I research this claim can I find evidence ?

Does this claim reflect personal feelings or bias?

Sometimes it can be difficult to determine if a source is trustworthy. Generally, if the URL of a source on the web ends in .org, .edu, or .gov it can generally be assumed to be trustworthy. Additionally, the information is trustworthy if a website cites a credible source. In contrast, claims found on forums, social media sites, or other informal web pages that do not cite sources should be fact-checked.

Examples of Fact

There are several examples of facts. Often when people think about facts, they think about statistics or math. Facts can be mathematic, but facts can also be scientific, historical, or merely observed. For instance, people often ask others to tell them fun facts about themselves!

Additionally, the following statements are all examples of facts:

The boiling point of water is 212 degrees Fahrenheit or 100 degrees Celsius.

George Washington was the first president of the United States of America.

This sentence contains five words.

This article is about facts.

Note that all of the above statements are verifiably true. Without evidence , however, they could not be considered facts.

Fact-Checking

When writing an academic paper, speech, or non-fiction, writers must fact-check their work. Fact-checking is the process of verifying that information is factual. When writers fact-check their work, they ensure they are writing trustworthy, credible information.

Fact-checking is important no matter the circumstances, but it is especially important in politics. When people run for political offices, like the president of the United States, journalists fact-check what they say in their speeches and debates. If the candidates make up information or share false information, journalists tell the public, and the news can hurt the candidates’ credibility. Fact-checking what influential people say helps hold them accountable to the people they serve and helps to ensure a free, honest society.

Referencing

When writers use facts from other sources in their writing, they are required to cite the sources of those facts. Citing the sources of facts helps writers maintain credibility, helps readers find more information on a topic, and ensures writers avoid plagiarism—the act of stealing another's work and passing it off as their own. To properly cite a source, the writer should note the formatting guidelines of the work, such as MLA and APA, and structure the references according to the style guide.

For example, the APA style guide requires writers to put references at the end of every sentence with outside information and include the author's last name and the year of publication. The APA guide also requires writers to include an alphabetized list of all references at the end of their paper.

Reference style guides are updated periodically. When writing references, writers should always double-check that they are using the most recent formatting guidelines for the style guide.

Facts vs Opinions

The difference between facts and opinions is essential, especially when working to support an argument in an essay. Facts are statements that can be objectively proven, while opinions reflect personal and subjective feelings.

For instance, when writing a literary analysis essay, a writer might be tempted to write something like:

The author did an awesome job writing about the main character."

However, this statement would be an opinion because the idea that the author's job was "awesome" is subjective and may vary depending on the reader. Instead, writers writing academic essays need to stick to facts to support their argument. For instance, a writer should instead state an example of a fact:

The author used several metaphors to describe the main character effectively."

This would be a fact because the writer would be able to point out metaphors in the text that prove this.

Differences Between Fact and Truth

The words "fact" and "truth" are often used interchangeably, but they have different meanings. Facts have a real or logical form. This means you cannot use "fact" to refer to people's beliefs and feelings about the world.

The word "truth" refers to things that accord with facts; however, it can also refer to people's feelings. For example, take people who practice a particular religion. They believe the teachings of that religion to be the truth. However, those teachings cannot be fact, as there is no indisputable evidence that they are real.

Remember: facts have to be proven.

Fact - Key Takeaways

• A fact is a statement that is verifiably real. A fact is different from an opinion because facts can be proven, while opinions reflect personal feelings.
• An example of a fact is that Alaska and Wisconsin are two of seven states in the United States with the most amount of lakes.
• "Fact" is different from "truth" because truth takes into account personal thoughts that are not indisputable.
• Writers use facts to support their arguments, make their writing credible, and provide readers with other sources of information.
• Writers should always fact-check their information to ensure their writing is trustworthy.

Flashcards in Fact 20

A statement that is verifiably real

Facts can be proven while opinions reflect personal feelings. 

Opinion. The idea that the author did an "excellent" job is based on the writer's personal feelings. 

False. A fact is something that is verifiably real, while truth can refer to something that is a belief or a feeling that is not completely verifiable. 

Facts always include statistics. 

Fact-checking is the process of verifying that information is factual.

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Frequently Asked Questions about Fact

What is a random fact?

The oldest person alive is currently 118 years old!

What is a fact in simple words?

A fact is a statement that is verifiably real.

What is an example of fact?

An example of a fact is that George Washington was the first president of the United States of America. 

What are the characteristics of fact?

The characteristics of a fact involve how facts are statements that are real. They are based on evidence, experience, or observation. They can be proven. 

What is fact vs truth?

Facts are based on verifiable evidence while truth can also refer to personal beliefs. 

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Why Facts Don’t Change Our Minds

In 1975, researchers at Stanford invited a group of undergraduates to take part in a study about suicide. They were presented with pairs of suicide notes. In each pair, one note had been composed by a random individual, the other by a person who had subsequently taken his own life. The students were then asked to distinguish between the genuine notes and the fake ones.

Some students discovered that they had a genius for the task. Out of twenty-five pairs of notes, they correctly identified the real one twenty-four times. Others discovered that they were hopeless. They identified the real note in only ten instances.

As is often the case with psychological studies, the whole setup was a put-on. Though half the notes were indeed genuine—they’d been obtained from the Los Angeles County coroner’s office—the scores were fictitious. The students who’d been told they were almost always right were, on average, no more discerning than those who had been told they were mostly wrong.

In the second phase of the study, the deception was revealed. The students were told that the real point of the experiment was to gauge their responses to thinking they were right or wrong. (This, it turned out, was also a deception.) Finally, the students were asked to estimate how many suicide notes they had actually categorized correctly, and how many they thought an average student would get right. At this point, something curious happened. The students in the high-score group said that they thought they had, in fact, done quite well—significantly better than the average student—even though, as they’d just been told, they had zero grounds for believing this. Conversely, those who’d been assigned to the low-score group said that they thought they had done significantly worse than the average student—a conclusion that was equally unfounded.

“Once formed,” the researchers observed dryly, “impressions are remarkably perseverant.”

A few years later, a new set of Stanford students was recruited for a related study. The students were handed packets of information about a pair of firefighters, Frank K. and George H. Frank’s bio noted that, among other things, he had a baby daughter and he liked to scuba dive. George had a small son and played golf. The packets also included the men’s responses on what the researchers called the Risky-Conservative Choice Test. According to one version of the packet, Frank was a successful firefighter who, on the test, almost always went with the safest option. In the other version, Frank also chose the safest option, but he was a lousy firefighter who’d been put “on report” by his supervisors several times. Once again, midway through the study, the students were informed that they’d been misled, and that the information they’d received was entirely fictitious. The students were then asked to describe their own beliefs. What sort of attitude toward risk did they think a successful firefighter would have? The students who’d received the first packet thought that he would avoid it. The students in the second group thought he’d embrace it.

Even after the evidence “for their beliefs has been totally refuted, people fail to make appropriate revisions in those beliefs,” the researchers noted. In this case, the failure was “particularly impressive,” since two data points would never have been enough information to generalize from.

The Stanford studies became famous. Coming from a group of academics in the nineteen-seventies, the contention that people can’t think straight was shocking. It isn’t any longer. Thousands of subsequent experiments have confirmed (and elaborated on) this finding. As everyone who’s followed the research—or even occasionally picked up a copy of Psychology Today —knows, any graduate student with a clipboard can demonstrate that reasonable-seeming people are often totally irrational. Rarely has this insight seemed more relevant than it does right now. Still, an essential puzzle remains: How did we come to be this way?

In a new book, “The Enigma of Reason” (Harvard), the cognitive scientists Hugo Mercier and Dan Sperber take a stab at answering this question. Mercier, who works at a French research institute in Lyon, and Sperber, now based at the Central European University, in Budapest, point out that reason is an evolved trait, like bipedalism or three-color vision. It emerged on the savannas of Africa, and has to be understood in that context.

Stripped of a lot of what might be called cognitive-science-ese, Mercier and Sperber’s argument runs, more or less, as follows: Humans’ biggest advantage over other species is our ability to coöperate. Coöperation is difficult to establish and almost as difficult to sustain. For any individual, freeloading is always the best course of action. Reason developed not to enable us to solve abstract, logical problems or even to help us draw conclusions from unfamiliar data; rather, it developed to resolve the problems posed by living in collaborative groups.

“Reason is an adaptation to the hypersocial niche humans have evolved for themselves,” Mercier and Sperber write. Habits of mind that seem weird or goofy or just plain dumb from an “intellectualist” point of view prove shrewd when seen from a social “interactionist” perspective.

Consider what’s become known as “confirmation bias,” the tendency people have to embrace information that supports their beliefs and reject information that contradicts them. Of the many forms of faulty thinking that have been identified, confirmation bias is among the best catalogued; it’s the subject of entire textbooks’ worth of experiments. One of the most famous of these was conducted, again, at Stanford. For this experiment, researchers rounded up a group of students who had opposing opinions about capital punishment. Half the students were in favor of it and thought that it deterred crime; the other half were against it and thought that it had no effect on crime.

The students were asked to respond to two studies. One provided data in support of the deterrence argument, and the other provided data that called it into question. Both studies—you guessed it—were made up, and had been designed to present what were, objectively speaking, equally compelling statistics. The students who had originally supported capital punishment rated the pro-deterrence data highly credible and the anti-deterrence data unconvincing; the students who’d originally opposed capital punishment did the reverse. At the end of the experiment, the students were asked once again about their views. Those who’d started out pro-capital punishment were now even more in favor of it; those who’d opposed it were even more hostile.

If reason is designed to generate sound judgments, then it’s hard to conceive of a more serious design flaw than confirmation bias. Imagine, Mercier and Sperber suggest, a mouse that thinks the way we do. Such a mouse, “bent on confirming its belief that there are no cats around,” would soon be dinner. To the extent that confirmation bias leads people to dismiss evidence of new or underappreciated threats—the human equivalent of the cat around the corner—it’s a trait that should have been selected against. The fact that both we and it survive, Mercier and Sperber argue, proves that it must have some adaptive function, and that function, they maintain, is related to our “hypersociability.”

Mercier and Sperber prefer the term “myside bias.” Humans, they point out, aren’t randomly credulous. Presented with someone else’s argument, we’re quite adept at spotting the weaknesses. Almost invariably, the positions we’re blind about are our own.

A recent experiment performed by Mercier and some European colleagues neatly demonstrates this asymmetry. Participants were asked to answer a series of simple reasoning problems. They were then asked to explain their responses, and were given a chance to modify them if they identified mistakes. The majority were satisfied with their original choices; fewer than fifteen per cent changed their minds in step two.

In step three, participants were shown one of the same problems, along with their answer and the answer of another participant, who’d come to a different conclusion. Once again, they were given the chance to change their responses. But a trick had been played: the answers presented to them as someone else’s were actually their own, and vice versa. About half the participants realized what was going on. Among the other half, suddenly people became a lot more critical. Nearly sixty per cent now rejected the responses that they’d earlier been satisfied with.

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This lopsidedness, according to Mercier and Sperber, reflects the task that reason evolved to perform, which is to prevent us from getting screwed by the other members of our group. Living in small bands of hunter-gatherers, our ancestors were primarily concerned with their social standing, and with making sure that they weren’t the ones risking their lives on the hunt while others loafed around in the cave. There was little advantage in reasoning clearly, while much was to be gained from winning arguments.

Among the many, many issues our forebears didn’t worry about were the deterrent effects of capital punishment and the ideal attributes of a firefighter. Nor did they have to contend with fabricated studies, or fake news, or Twitter. It’s no wonder, then, that today reason often seems to fail us. As Mercier and Sperber write, “This is one of many cases in which the environment changed too quickly for natural selection to catch up.”

Steven Sloman, a professor at Brown, and Philip Fernbach, a professor at the University of Colorado, are also cognitive scientists. They, too, believe sociability is the key to how the human mind functions or, perhaps more pertinently, malfunctions. They begin their book, “The Knowledge Illusion: Why We Never Think Alone” (Riverhead), with a look at toilets.

Virtually everyone in the United States, and indeed throughout the developed world, is familiar with toilets. A typical flush toilet has a ceramic bowl filled with water. When the handle is depressed, or the button pushed, the water—and everything that’s been deposited in it—gets sucked into a pipe and from there into the sewage system. But how does this actually happen?

In a study conducted at Yale, graduate students were asked to rate their understanding of everyday devices, including toilets, zippers, and cylinder locks. They were then asked to write detailed, step-by-step explanations of how the devices work, and to rate their understanding again. Apparently, the effort revealed to the students their own ignorance, because their self-assessments dropped. (Toilets, it turns out, are more complicated than they appear.)

Sloman and Fernbach see this effect, which they call the “illusion of explanatory depth,” just about everywhere. People believe that they know way more than they actually do. What allows us to persist in this belief is other people. In the case of my toilet, someone else designed it so that I can operate it easily. This is something humans are very good at. We’ve been relying on one another’s expertise ever since we figured out how to hunt together, which was probably a key development in our evolutionary history. So well do we collaborate, Sloman and Fernbach argue, that we can hardly tell where our own understanding ends and others’ begins.

“One implication of the naturalness with which we divide cognitive labor,” they write, is that there’s “no sharp boundary between one person’s ideas and knowledge” and “those of other members” of the group.

This borderlessness, or, if you prefer, confusion, is also crucial to what we consider progress. As people invented new tools for new ways of living, they simultaneously created new realms of ignorance; if everyone had insisted on, say, mastering the principles of metalworking before picking up a knife, the Bronze Age wouldn’t have amounted to much. When it comes to new technologies, incomplete understanding is empowering.

Where it gets us into trouble, according to Sloman and Fernbach, is in the political domain. It’s one thing for me to flush a toilet without knowing how it operates, and another for me to favor (or oppose) an immigration ban without knowing what I’m talking about. Sloman and Fernbach cite a survey conducted in 2014, not long after Russia annexed the Ukrainian territory of Crimea. Respondents were asked how they thought the U.S. should react, and also whether they could identify Ukraine on a map. The farther off base they were about the geography, the more likely they were to favor military intervention. (Respondents were so unsure of Ukraine’s location that the median guess was wrong by eighteen hundred miles, roughly the distance from Kiev to Madrid.)

Surveys on many other issues have yielded similarly dismaying results. “As a rule, strong feelings about issues do not emerge from deep understanding,” Sloman and Fernbach write. And here our dependence on other minds reinforces the problem. If your position on, say, the Affordable Care Act is baseless and I rely on it, then my opinion is also baseless. When I talk to Tom and he decides he agrees with me, his opinion is also baseless, but now that the three of us concur we feel that much more smug about our views. If we all now dismiss as unconvincing any information that contradicts our opinion, you get, well, the Trump Administration.

“This is how a community of knowledge can become dangerous,” Sloman and Fernbach observe. The two have performed their own version of the toilet experiment, substituting public policy for household gadgets. In a study conducted in 2012, they asked people for their stance on questions like: Should there be a single-payer health-care system? Or merit-based pay for teachers? Participants were asked to rate their positions depending on how strongly they agreed or disagreed with the proposals. Next, they were instructed to explain, in as much detail as they could, the impacts of implementing each one. Most people at this point ran into trouble. Asked once again to rate their views, they ratcheted down the intensity, so that they either agreed or disagreed less vehemently.

Sloman and Fernbach see in this result a little candle for a dark world. If we—or our friends or the pundits on CNN—spent less time pontificating and more trying to work through the implications of policy proposals, we’d realize how clueless we are and moderate our views. This, they write, “may be the only form of thinking that will shatter the illusion of explanatory depth and change people’s attitudes.”

One way to look at science is as a system that corrects for people’s natural inclinations. In a well-run laboratory, there’s no room for myside bias; the results have to be reproducible in other laboratories, by researchers who have no motive to confirm them. And this, it could be argued, is why the system has proved so successful. At any given moment, a field may be dominated by squabbles, but, in the end, the methodology prevails. Science moves forward, even as we remain stuck in place.

In “Denying to the Grave: Why We Ignore the Facts That Will Save Us” (Oxford), Jack Gorman, a psychiatrist, and his daughter, Sara Gorman, a public-health specialist, probe the gap between what science tells us and what we tell ourselves. Their concern is with those persistent beliefs which are not just demonstrably false but also potentially deadly, like the conviction that vaccines are hazardous. Of course, what’s hazardous is not being vaccinated; that’s why vaccines were created in the first place. “Immunization is one of the triumphs of modern medicine,” the Gormans note. But no matter how many scientific studies conclude that vaccines are safe, and that there’s no link between immunizations and autism, anti-vaxxers remain unmoved. (They can now count on their side—sort of—Donald Trump, who has said that, although he and his wife had their son, Barron, vaccinated, they refused to do so on the timetable recommended by pediatricians.)

The Gormans, too, argue that ways of thinking that now seem self-destructive must at some point have been adaptive. And they, too, dedicate many pages to confirmation bias, which, they claim, has a physiological component. They cite research suggesting that people experience genuine pleasure—a rush of dopamine—when processing information that supports their beliefs. “It feels good to ‘stick to our guns’ even if we are wrong,” they observe.

The Gormans don’t just want to catalogue the ways we go wrong; they want to correct for them. There must be some way, they maintain, to convince people that vaccines are good for kids, and handguns are dangerous. (Another widespread but statistically insupportable belief they’d like to discredit is that owning a gun makes you safer.) But here they encounter the very problems they have enumerated. Providing people with accurate information doesn’t seem to help; they simply discount it. Appealing to their emotions may work better, but doing so is obviously antithetical to the goal of promoting sound science. “The challenge that remains,” they write toward the end of their book, “is to figure out how to address the tendencies that lead to false scientific belief.”

“The Enigma of Reason,” “The Knowledge Illusion,” and “Denying to the Grave” were all written before the November election. And yet they anticipate Kellyanne Conway and the rise of “alternative facts.” These days, it can feel as if the entire country has been given over to a vast psychological experiment being run either by no one or by Steve Bannon. Rational agents would be able to think their way to a solution. But, on this matter, the literature is not reassuring. ♦

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• How to Write Dazzlingly Brilliant Essays: Sharp Advice for Ambitious Students

Rachel McCombie, a graduate of St John’s College, Oxford, shares actionable tips on taking your essays from “Good” to “Outstanding.”

For ambitious students, essays are a chance to showcase academic flair, demonstrate original thinking and impress with advanced written English skills.

The best students relish the challenge of writing essays because they’re a chance to exercise academic research skills and construct interesting arguments. Essays allow you to demonstrate your knowledge, understanding and intelligence in a creative and relatively unrestricted way – provided you keep within the word count! But when lots of other people are answering the same essay question as you, how do you make yours stand out from the crowd? In this article, we’re going to show you the secret of writing a truly brilliant essay.

What are essays actually for?

Before we get into the nitty gritty of how to write an outstanding essay, we need to go right back to basics and think about what essays are actually designed to test. Only by understanding the purpose of an essay can you really begin to understand what it is that tutors are looking for when they read your work. No matter what the academic level of the student is, essays are designed to test many things: – Knowledge – fundamentally, essays test and help consolidate what you’ve read and learned, making them an important part of the learning process, particularly for humanities subjects. –  Comprehension – they test your ability to make sense of and clearly explain complex concepts and issues. – They test your ability to understand the question and produce a considered response to it. – They evaluate your ability to absorb and condense information from a variety of sources , which will probably mean covering a lot of material in a short space of time; this necessitates appraisal of which bits of material are relevant and which are not. – They test your ability to write a balanced and coherent argument that considers a number of points of view. – They showcase your level of written English skills. – They even put your time management to the test – essays are a part of your workload that must be planned, prioritised and delivered to a high standard, to deadline.

Characteristics of the perfect essay

Now that we know why we’re asked to write essays, what are the characteristics that define the essays that impress? The tutors marking your essays may have their own preferences and things they look for in outstanding essays, but let’s take a look at a few of the irrefutable traits of the best.

Original thinking

The hallmark of the truly brilliant essay is original thinking. That doesn’t have to mean coming up with an entirely new theory; most of, if not all, the topics you’ll be studying at GCSE , A-level or even undergraduate level have been thought about in so much depth and by so many people that virtually every possible angle will have been thought of already. But what it does mean is that the essay stands out from those of other students in that it goes beyond the obvious and takes an original approach – perhaps approaching the topic from a different angle, coming up with a different hypothesis from what you’ve been discussing in class, or introducing new evidence and intelligent insights from material not included on the reading list.

Solid, in-depth knowledge and understanding

It goes without saying that the brilliant essay should demonstrate a strong knowledge of the facts, and not just knowledge but sound comprehension of the concepts or issues being discussed and why they matter. The perfect essay demonstrates an ability to deploy relevant facts and use them to form the basis of an argument or hypothesis. It covers a wide range of material and considers every point of view, confidently making use of and quoting from a variety of sources.

Clear structure with intelligent debate

The perfect essay provides a coherent discussion of both sides of the story, developing a balanced argument throughout, and with a conclusion that weighs up the evidence you’ve covered and perhaps provides your own intelligent opinion on how the topic should be interpreted based on the evidence covered.

No superfluous information

Everything written in the perfect essay serves a purpose – to inform and persuade. There’s no rambling or going off at tangents – it sticks to the point and doesn’t waste the reader’s time. This goes back to our earlier point about sorting the relevant facts from the irrelevant material; including material that isn’t relevant shows that you’ve not quite grasped the real heart of the matter.

Exceptional English

The words in the perfect essay flow effortlessly, and the reader feels in safe hands. Sentences need never be read more than once to be understood, and each follows logically on from the next, with no random jumping about from topic to topic from one paragraph to the next. Spelling and grammar are flawless, with no careless typos. So how do you go about writing this mythical Perfect Essay? Read on to find out!

Put in extra background work

Committed students always read beyond what the reading list tells them to read. Guaranteed to impress, wide reading gives you deeper knowledge than your peers and gives you the extra knowledge and insights you need to make your essay stand out. If you’re studying English, for example, don’t just read the set text! Here are some ideas to widen your reading and give you a good range of impressive quotes to include in your essay: – Other works by the same author – how do they compare with your set text? – Works by contemporary authors – does your set text fit into a wider movement, or is it very different from what was being written at the time? – Works by the author’s predecessors – what works inspired the author of your set text? How do you see them shining through in the text you’re studying, and how have they been developed? – Literary criticism – gauge the range of opinions about your set text by reading what the literary critics have to say. Whose opinion do you most agree with, and why? – Background history – so that you can appreciate and refer to the context in which the author was writing (we’ll come back to this last point a little later). It sounds like a lot of extra work, but you don’t necessarily have to read everything in full. It’s fine to dip into these other resources providing you don’t inadvertently take points out of context.

Know what you want to say before you start writing

You’re probably sick of hearing this particular piece of advice, but it’s important to start out with a clear idea in your mind of what you want to say in your essay and how you will structure your arguments. The easiest way to do this is to write an essay plan. This needn’t be a big deal, or time-consuming; all you need to do is to open a new document on your computer, type out the ideas you want to cover and drag and drop them into a logical order. From there, you simply start typing your essay directly into the plan itself. Your essay should include an introduction, a series of paragraphs that develop an argument rather than just jumping from topic to topic, and a conclusion that weighs up the evidence.

Answer the question you’ve been set, not the question you want to answer

A common problem with students’ responses to essays is that rather than answering the question they’ve been set , they try to mould the question to what they’d prefer to write about, because that’s what they feel most comfortable with. Be very careful not to do this! You could end up writing a brilliant essay, but if didn’t actually answer the question then it’s not going to be well received by the person marking it.

Give a balanced argument…

Good essays give both sides of an argument, presenting information impartially and considering multiple points of view. One-sided arguments won’t impress, as you need to show that you’ve thought about the evidence comprehensively.

…but your opinion and interpretation matter too

Show that you’ve made your own mind up based on your weighing up of the evidence. This shows that you’re not just hiding behind what other people say about the topic, but that you’ve had the independence of mind to form your own intelligent opinion about it.

Quote liberally

Use quotations from academic works and sources to back up points you want to make. Doing so strengthens your argument by providing evidence for your statements, as well as demonstrating that you’ve read widely around your subject. However, don’t go too far and write an essay that’s essentially just a list of what other people say about the subject. Quoting too much suggests that you don’t have the confidence or knowledge to explain things in your own words, so have to hide behind those of other people. Make your own mind up about what you’re writing about – as already mentioned, it’s fine to state your own opinion if you’ve considered the arguments and presented the evidence.

Context matters

As we’ve already touched on, if you can demonstrate knowledge of the context of the subject you’re writing about, this will show that you’ve considered possible historical influences that may have shaped a work or issue. This shows that you haven’t simply taken the essay question at face value and demonstrates your ability to think beyond the obvious. An ability to look at the wider picture marks you out as an exceptional student, as many people can’t see the wood for the trees and have a very narrow focus when it comes to writing essays. If you’re an English student, for instance, an author’s work should be considered not in isolation but in the context of the historical events and thinking that helped define the period in which the author was writing. You can’t write about Blake’s poetry without some knowledge and discussion of background events such as the Industrial Revolution, and the development of the Romantic movement as a whole.

Include images and diagrams

You know what they say – a picture speaks a thousand words. What matters in an essay is effective and persuasive communication, and if a picture or diagram will help support a point you’re making, include it. As well as helping to communicate, visuals also make your essay more enjoyable to read for the person marking it – and if they enjoy reading it, the chances are you’ll get better marks! Don’t forget to ensure that you include credits for any images and diagrams you include.

Use full academic citations and a bibliography

Show you mean business by including a full set of academic citations, with a bibliography at the end, even if you haven’t been told to. The great thing about this is that it not only makes you look organised and scholarly, but it also gives you the opportunity to show off just how many extra texts you’ve studied to produce your masterpiece of an essay! Make use of the footnote feature in your word processor and include citations at the bottom of each page, with a main bibliography at the end of the essay. There are different accepted forms for citing an academic reference, but the main thing to remember is to pick one format and be consistent. Typically the citation will include the title and author of the work, the date of publication and the page number(s) of the point or quotation you’re referring to. Here’s an example: 1. Curta, F. (2007) – “Some remarks on ethnicity in medieval archaeology” in Early Medieval Europe 15 (2), pp. 159-185

Before you ask, no, a spell check isn’t good enough! How many times have you typed “form” instead of “from”? That’s just one of a huge number of errors that spell check would simply miss. Your English should be impeccable if you want to be taken seriously, and that means clear and intelligent sentence structures, no misplaced apostrophes, no typos and no grammar crimes. Include your name at the top of each page of your essay, and number the pages. Also, make sure you use a font that’s easy to read, such as Times New Roman or Arial. The person marking your essay won’t appreciate having to struggle through reading a fancy Gothic font, even if it does happen to match the Gothic literature you’re studying!

Meet the deadline

You don’t need us to tell you that, but for the sake of being comprehensive, we’re including it anyway. You could write the best essay ever, but if you deliver it late, it won’t be looked upon favourably! Don’t leave writing your essay until the last minute – start writing with plenty of time to spare, and ideally leave time to sleep on it before you submit it. Allowing time for it to sink in may result in you having a sudden brilliant revelation that you want to include. So there we have it – everything you need to know in order to write an essay to impress. If you want to get ahead, you might also want to think about attending an English summer school .

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Stating Facts: Objective and Persuasive Approaches

This lesson is designed to cover how to distinguish legally relevant facts, contextually relevant facts, and nonrelevant facts; plus, how to use each of those types of facts. It is also designed to cover beginning and organizing a statement of facts, writing facts briefly and readably, stating facts objectively, and stating facts persuasively.

Learning Outcomes

On completion of the lesson, the student will be able to:

• Explain what a legally relevant fact is.
• Demonstrate how to write a fact statement.
• List three persuasive techniques used in writing.
• Describe two types of parallelism.

Lesson Completion Time

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• 1L - First Year Lesson Topics
• Legal Research
• Legal Writing

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More like this

• Issue Statements for Memos and Briefs
• Punctuation and Grammar: Advanced
• Preliminary Factfinding Under Rule 104
• Best Evidence Rule Under the Federal Rules
• Model Rules of Professional Conduct I: Preliminary Drill

Encyclopedia

Writing with artificial intelligence, check relevance of supporting details, how are supporting details used.

When a writer makes a claim, the position should be backed with supporting details and examples. These details supply evidence that defends the validity of the claim, and they should be relevant, credible, and verifiable.

Why is it important to relate supporting details directly to the thesis or topic sentence?

In an academic paper, the claim and main ideas stated in the thesis and topic sentences require further explanation and support. The major components of a paper—the thesis, the topic sentences, and the supporting details—should work together to create a strong and stable essay. The thesis should be supported by each paragraph, and each paragraph’s topic sentence should be supported with relevant details and examples. If one of those components fails to do its job, the foundation of the paper is compromised and the argument is weakened.

Without relevant supporting details, the paper may lack cohesiveness and credibility. The reader may be unable to follow the progression of the argument and remain unconvinced that the claim or ideas have a credible foundation. To maintain the credibility of the author and the paper, include details and examples that clearly correspond to the claim and main ideas. It may be helpful to list some of these potential supporting details and select the most relevant before writing.

Let’s look at an example:

Claim: A stay-at-home parent performs a number of important tasks that others are paid to do.

Relevant supporting details: This list should include jobs that others are commonly paid to perform. These items on the following list could be considered relevant to the claim and could be verified by many stay-at-home parents and by reliable research:

• nanny : children are cared for
• chauffer: children may be transported to school and a variety of activities
• tutor : assistance with homework and projects may be provided
• manager: a wide variety of household tasks are organized and performed
• chef: meals are planned and prepared
• accountant: finances are managed

Irrelevant details : These ideas would not be appropriate to support the writer’s claim, because these activities are not usually performed by paid workers and would be considered irrelevant to the claim.

• coach : youth sports are often coached by the parent of one of the team members
• volunteer: parents may do volunteer work at their child’s school
• scout leader: boy scout and girl scout troops are usually led by a parent volunteer

Brevity – Say More with Less

Clarity (in Speech and Writing)

Coherence – How to Achieve Coherence in Writing

Flow – How to Create Flow in Writing

Inclusivity – Inclusive Language

The Elements of Style – The DNA of Powerful Writing

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Beyond Intractability

The Hyper-Polarization Challenge to the Conflict Resolution Field We invite you to participate in an online exploration of what those with conflict and peacebuilding expertise can do to help defend liberal democracies and encourage them live up to their ideals.

Follow BI and the Hyper-Polarization Discussion on BI's New Substack Newsletter .

Hyper-Polarization, COVID, Racism, and the Constructive Conflict Initiative Read about (and contribute to) the  Constructive Conflict Initiative  and its associated Blog —our effort to assemble what we collectively know about how to move beyond our hyperpolarized politics and start solving society's problems. 

By Norman Schultz

September 2003  

Current Implications

This essay, as so many of the other BI essays, was written in 2003. Although everything in it is still true, now, in 2018, it seems extremely naive--missing the key problem that is facing us in the U.S. today. That is the apparent total disagreement over what facts are "real," which are "fake," which "experts" are "real," which are "fake," and which sources of information (such as media outlets) are honest purveyors of "the truth," and which are purveyors of "fake news" and outright lies.  More...

The Role of Information in Disputes

Disputes can occur over a seemingly endless variety of issues, and each kind of dispute carries unique challenges and management strategies. Emotional intensity, cultural contexts, value assumptions, laws, and interests differ drastically from one conflict to the next. Yet with all the differences, the vast majority of disputes have at least one common element: relevant facts.

Facts relate to conflicts in many different ways. Most often, the available information is itself disputed. Occasionally, both parties may actually agree on the available facts but disagree as to how the facts should be interpreted or applied. Many conflicts are made worse because of incomplete information, or information that is misinterpreted or misunderstood. Experts may present contradictory positions, leaving parties puzzled as to what to believe. Information can be presented in subtly biased, strategically deceptive ways. Or needed facts, for one reason or another, may be ultimately unknown, even unknowable. These kinds of factual hurdles are not just a problem for large-scale conflicts. Even the most basic interpersonal dispute often involves factual components.[1]

Sometimes facts play a core role in a conflict; they are what the fuss is all about. For example, consider the high-profile conflicts that result when a "rogue" state is thought to hide weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). While many issues are debated simultaneously ( nation-building , economic interests, human rights , justification for the use of force , and international consensus, to name a few), it would seem that these conflicts, at their core, are factual disputes over whether or not illegal weapons are actually being concealed. In the case of Iraq (2003), establishing the facts one way or the other has proven to be difficult.

In other conflicts, facts are not the central issue. Instead, they play a secondary role; while factual information may seem important and may be hotly debated, the dispute is essentially over non-factual issues. For example, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict involves a dispute over historical facts, regarding who occupied what territory first or which side engaged in the first aggressive move. Yet it is hard to imagine that the conflict would end if these factual issues were resolved. Other issues, such as feelings of entitlement, loss, and cultural and religious values, are perhaps more important, and cannot be reduced to a factual debate. Instead, the information (or lack thereof) plays a complicating role in this already tangled conflict.

Getting Good Information

There are many ways to address factual issues in conflicts, but it is most important that factual issues in a conflict setting are addressed, rather than ignored. Even if some kind of consensus can be reached, there is little hope that negotiated agreements will be effective if key facts are left uninvestigated.

The way facts are handled in conflicts depends on the situation. An important initial question is, w hat kinds of facts relate to this conflict? The kinds of facts involved, to a large extent, determine the character of the subsequent inquiries. Determining the validity of one kind of fact requires a different body of experts and fact-finding method from another fact type. For example, technical facts differ from historical and legal facts in that they require experimental evidence and endorsement from scientists or technical experts, as opposed to lawyers, historians, or eyewitnesses.

It is also important to ask, w hat is the status of the information at hand? It should be noted whether or not a factual dispute actually exists. What initially looks like a factual dispute might be simply a misunderstanding or poor communication. It can even be the case that parties agree on the facts, but do not know they agree because of skepticism or polarization . If this is so, common ground might be reached by clarifying what is agreed on. Yet the process of exposing the facts can also work in the other direction; in some instances a factual dispute may be reopened when one probes the information available. This need not be considered a setback; it might be necessary to bring a latent, suppressed factual dispute out in the open.[2]

To what extent the necessary information is subject to uncertainty or knowledge gaps is also important. Where uncertainty exists, debates and distrust commonly follow. Unknowns provide the most basic fuel for debates because they allow parties to fill in knowledge gaps with whatever is to their own advantage. The ability to show both parties the difference between what is really known and what unknown, can go a long way toward settling conflicting views. It can also help as a reality check for the parties, giving them advance warning of the potential limits of fact-finding, even under the best of conditions.

In many conflicts, factual issues are blended with value concerns. Sometimes this is not an accident; it might be in a party's favor to make its values look like facts, since facts carry a lot of argumentative weight. On rare occasions, it can be strategic for parties to dress up factual information such that it sounds like a moral appeal, in the hope of gaining sympathy. Yet facts and values are inherently different and, therefore, must be addressed by different means. Exposing values that are being passed off as facts, and vice-versa, allows parties to more accurately decide what they can and cannot accept.

Once the scope of the relevant information is defined and whatever is under dispute is clarified, fact-finding can start. Fact-finding refers to the process of finding the best information available for use in making decisions and agreements, instead of relying on opinion, strategic propaganda, or biased beliefs. The ultimate goal of fact-finding is to obtain trustworthy information .[3]

There are several ways to achieve this goal. The best method depends on the kinds of facts sought, and on the character of the conflict:

• Where it is possible to get parties on opposing sides to work together, joint fact-finding is an advantageous option.
• If parties are not amenable to working together, it may be necessary to employ a neutral fact-finder or fact-finding body. In the U.S., for example, an "environmental impact assessment" is required for any major federal action that is likely to affect the environment. This impact study is usually completed by a neutral body that examines the positive and negative impacts of the proposal as well as a number of alternatives. Impact studies can also be completed as a fact-finding measure in other kinds of disputes as well.
• In extreme cases, especially where violations of international law or human rights are suspected, a truth commission or international tribunal can be used.

Joint fact-finding, neutral fact-finding, and impact studies can either start from the ground up -- meaning they can do independent research into the questions in dispute, or they can review and utilize existing research. Sometimes oversight committees are used to review the available research can provide parties with some assurance as to the accuracy and applicability of the information, without requiring that research be replicated.

Realistic Expectations

It is important to have realistic expectations of a fact-finding endeavor. A successful fact-finding effort results in a determination of how much agreement has been achieved, where facts remain in dispute, and where there are irreducible unknowns and uncertainties, in addition to establishing some hard facts. It is unreasonable to expect that all the relevant facts can be absolutely determined. It may also be unreasonable to expect that all involved people will understand either the established facts or their implications. Facts can be complex, especially in today's world -- sometimes too complex for non-experts, such as decision-makers, stakeholders , and the public. In order for decisions to be made, these parties must be given a clear picture of the information by utilizing the best methods of factual communication. Yet in addition to enabling understanding and comprehension, diplomacy must also be used.

Ultimately, even if a conflict is at its core a factual dispute, establishing agreement on the factual issues probably will not end the conflict, as facts alone are seldom sufficient for resolving conflicts. They must be assimilated into each party's decision-making processes. This means addressing what the facts mean, how they relate to the positions of each side, how realistic the options are, what each option's repercussions might be, and what the potential costs and benefits are to each side. The party's interests, community values, conventions and cultural norms, laws, and practical concerns must all be factored in. The consideration of all these factors is what the policy-making process is all about, and the process is often messy since a perfectly logical, comprehensive, and effective analysis is bound to be impractical.[4]

Even considering such limitations, obtaining factual consensus can greatly improve a conflict's character. Agreeing on the status of the facts allows for a constructively refocused dispute of the real issues, as well as the ability to forge knowledgeable, farsighted, effective, and ultimately more stable agreements.

This essay, as so many of the other BI essays -- was written in 2003. Although everything in it is still true, now, in 2018, it seems extremely naive--missing the key problem that is facing us in the U.S. today. That is the apparent total disagreement over what facts are "real," which are "fake," which "experts" are "real," which are "fake," and which sources of information (such as media outlets) are honest purveyors of "the truth," and which are purveyors of "fake news" and outright lies.

Although different social and political groups have always had different worldviews, until recently there were some commonalities, and people on the different sides were willing to talk to each other to sort things out. The solutions offered in this original essay work when that is the case.

When I was growing up (a long time ago, I confess!) there were three television channels and CBS's evening news anchor, Walter Cronkite, was the "most trusted man in America."  If it was on the Cronkite show, it was TRUE.  

Then came cable news, and the proliferation of different versions of "truth" took hold.  This was amplified immensely by the development of the Internet, and careened completely out of control in the 2016 election when we learned about "bots" and "trolls," and we elected a President of the United States who knowingly lies about facts on a regular basis. (Although his supporters will assert that is a partisan statement, even Trump himself admitted today that he "made stuff up" in a meeting with Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau.) Most observers note that he makes stuff up all the time.

In this climate, how does one do effective "fact-finding" that will have credibility on all sides and hence facilitate conflict de-escalation? 

One possible way to do this is to engage in what is called, in the essay, "joint fact-finding."  Republicans and Democrats together will have to work cooperatively and in good faith to determine relevant facts to the question(s) at hand, and present their findings jointly.  However, neither side seems to have any interest in doing that now--it might take a major social, political, economic, or environmental catastrophe to wake us up to the need for good facts.

As long as the two sides rely on different sources for their facts (MSNBC or Fox News, for example), there is going to be no progress.  And even when inquiries are ostensibly bi-partisan, the participants must actually act that way to be effective. 

Thus, for example, just recently, the U.S. House Intelligence Committee issued its report on alleged Russian interference in the 2016 U.S. Presidential election.  The Republicans on the Committe found that while Russia did, indeed, meddle in the election, (who-hoo! a fact everyone--except perhaps Mr. Trump himself--agrees on) they did not find any evidence, they said, that the meddling favored Donald Trump.  The Democrats on the Committee, however, strongly objected to that assertion, asserting that the meddling most certainly did favor Donald Trump, and that concluding the investigation before all the facts were in was a clearly partisan act. 

This illustrates that to be effective in adjudicating facts, joint fact-finding must, indeed, by done in a cooperative manner, with all sides agreeing to the process and, as much as possible, with the conclusions.  

How else might we adjudicate partisan facts in our current extremely polarized and distrustful climate?  We'll be looking at this question more extensively in the Conflict Frontiers Seminar.

--Heidi Burgess, March 15, 2018

Back to Essay Top

[1] For example, your 13-year-old son comes home smelling like cigarette smoke. An argument begins because you think he has been smoking. Whether he was smoking, or he was merely standing near someone who was, is the likely subject of a factual dispute.

[2] For example, if one side is using an enormous power advantage to manipulate information, exposing the real factual dispute might be a method of empowerment , ultimately avoiding the backlash of a one-sided win. In this respect, fact-finding can be used to reach agreements that are more stable over time.

[3] Even when information is sketchy, uncertain, and inconclusive, fact-finding commonly has other good "side effects." The most important of such effects is that a fact-finding endeavor gives conflicting parties an opportunity to work together on a "neutral" topic (the facts), and in doing so can ease tensions via the pursuit of a common goal (the answers). If done properly, working together will humanize the parties and make them more amenable to forming an agreement, even if the facts themselves cannot ultimately be agreed upon.

[4] For a discussion of this problem, see Charles Lindblom, The Policy-Making Process (Prentice-Hall, 1992).

Use the following to cite this article: Schultz, Norman. "Fact-Finding." Beyond Intractability . Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Information Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: September 2004 < http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/fact-finding >.

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The Case for Mark Kelly as Kamala Harris’ VP Pick

I n the blink of an eye on Sunday last, the 2024 presidential race was totally transformed by Joe Biden’s historic withdrawal , followed by his immediate “full support and endorsement” of running mate, Vice President Kamala Harris . Oddsmakers, insiders, and cable news pundits were suddenly confronted with a tantalizing new political calculus.

No longer a contest between two aging nominees—a current and a former POTUS—now Democrats changed their lineup, leaving open only the question of who would be Harris’ vice presidential candidate.

Swiftly, Democrats around the country—delegates, superdelegates, donors, and Congressional leaders—unified in support of Vice President Harris. Overnight, it seemed, nearly $100 million dollars rushed into her campaign coffers. Now, Democrats gather around the cooler for one thing—her decision on a Vice President .

Read More: Who Could Be Kamala Harris’ Running Mate? Here’s the Shortlist

Having a strong bench from which to choose, early speculation centered on the Party’s outstanding governors—Michigan’s Gretchen Whitmer, Pennsylvania’s Josh Shapiro, Kentucky’s Andy Beshear, North Carolina’s Roy Cooper, Colorado’s Jared Polis—all from states crucial in Electoral College competition. California governor, Gavin Newsom, has dealt himself out of the deck, in recognition of the Constitutional prohibition against both members of the ticket being from the same state.

Some have thought Harris might look to a current Biden cabinet officer—most prominently mentioned are Commerce Secretary Gina Raimondo and Transportation Secretary Pete Buttigieg.

But informed speculation on Capitol Hill and at Washington think tanks , spiked by a new burst of energy and excitement in the Democratic Party, has focused on Arizona’s junior Senator, Mark Kelly, whose credentials and compelling life story have made him a most appealing possibility. To some extent, Harris has been considering Kelly. Shortly after Biden endorsed Harris, she telephoned a number of vice presidential possibilities. Kelly was one of them. Shortly thereafter, he was being officially vetted.

The case for Kelly is shiny, authentic, and persuasive. Kelly comes with extensive military experience, helping Harris, who has none. Kelly is a decorated Navy pilot with combat experience. He is a seasoned astronaut who commanded the Space Shuttle Endeavor. He campaigned as a political moderate favoring stricter gun control and won a Senate seat from Arizona. After four years on Capitol Hill, a tough place for making friends, Kelly is highly regarded by colleagues on both sides of the aisle. Since 2011, when his wife, former Congress woman Gabby Giffords , was almost killed in an assassination attempt, Kelly has never left her side, organizing her recovery effort, and gaining a reputation for loyalty and kindness, sharing the unbearable and gruesome experience with her. Both—Gifford and Kelly—are seen as American heroes.

That he almost certainly puts Arizona’s 11 electoral votes in the Democratic column is a clincher for Harris-Kelly and a coup de grâce for Trump-Vance.

In a recent conversation with Kelly’s identical twin brother, Scott, another retired Navy captain and astronaut, the Senator was described as a person skilled in crisis management and scientific exploration, tough on border security and gun control (though he himself owns guns and supports the Second Amendment). During his Senate career, Kelly has been instrumental in several important public policy initiatives, including landmark legislation to reduce prescription drug prices and lower out-of-pocket costs for seniors; the $52 billion bipartisan package to increase domestic microchip manufacturing, and select proposals to ban stock trading by members of Congress, and eliminate corporate PACs.

Given the clear determination of Democrats to arrive at and depart from their Chicago convention next month in an animated, energetic, unified posture, Kelly’s story and stature, if attached to the Harris ticket, would strengthen the Democratic quest for an election victory on November 5, ushering in a new generation of political leadership.

Welcome aboard, Commander Kelly.

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Biden exit, Harris entry spur flurry of false claims: Fact check roundup

President Joe Biden’s decision to exit the 2024 presidential race and endorse Vice President Kamala Harris for the Democratic nomination led to misinformation online as people grappled with the historic election shakeup . 

As Harris suddenly stepped into the role of presidential candidate, the facts competed with a growing amount of disinformation about everything from Harris’ work on the U.S. border to Biden’s status as president. 

Here’s a roundup of checks related to Biden’s exit and Harris’ ascent as the presumptive Democratic presidential nominee from the USA TODAY Fact Check team.

Claim: Video shows Biden giving profane Oval Office address

Our rating: Altered

The video is a fabrication. It was first posted to X by an account that regularly shares memes and other doctored content.

Full fact check : Biden didn't give profane Oval Office address. Clip is doctored

Claim: Post implies lack of presidential seal on Biden's withdrawal letter is suspicious

Our rating: Missing context

The implied claim is wrong. There is nothing unusual about the presidential seal not appearing on Biden's withdrawal letter. It has been consistently left off letters and other material released by his campaign, as was the case here.

Full fact check : There's a reason Biden left the presidential seal off his withdrawal letter

The claim: Half-staff flag at US Capitol is related to Joe Biden

Our rating: False

The Capitol flag was lowered following the death of Texas Democratic Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee on July 19. Federal law requires the flag to remain at half-staff for at least two days upon the death of a sitting member of Congress.

Full fact check: Capitol flag at half-staff because of Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee, not Biden 

The claim: Kamala Harris was ‘put in charge of the border’

The post exaggerates the vice president's role in addressing migration at the southern border. Harris was never put in charge of the border or made "border czar," immigration experts said. President Joe Biden tasked Harris with leading the administration's diplomatic efforts addressing the "root causes" of migration in El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras.

Full fact check: Harris’ border work was on ‘root causes’ of migration; she wasn’t in charge 

The claims: Kamala Harris was raised in Canada, is not African-American and held Black prisoners past release dates 

Our rating: Partly false 

These claims exaggerate or misstate reality. Harris spent most of her childhood in the U.S. before moving to Quebec at age 12 and staying through high school. While her mother was Indian and her father is Jamaican, she has long identified as Black, and the federal government counts people of Jamaican ancestry as Black or African American. The claim about prisoners mischaracterizes an argument made by attorneys for her California Attorney General’s office about the need for nonviolent offenders to help fight wildfires.

Full fact check: Misleading claims about Kamala Harris’ childhood, ethnicity 

The claim: Video shows Secret Service failing to protect Kamala Harris in 2023

The incident happened five years ago when Harris was a 2020 presidential candidate, not in 2023 during her vice presidency. The Secret Service can protect major presidential candidates, but the incident occurred long before the agency would have been protecting her. 

Full fact check: Video of Kamala Harris and protester from before Secret Service protection  

The claim: Video shows Harris presidential campaign ad from 2024

The advertisement isn't new. Harris posted it on social media in 2019 during the Democratic primary race ahead of the 2020 presidential election.

Full fact check: Video shows Kamala Harris ad during Democratic primary race in 2019 

The claim: Joe Biden resigned

President Joe Biden dropped out of the 2024 presidential race but did not resign from office. He said he intends to fulfill his term.

Full fact check: Joe Biden dropped out of presidential race but is finishing term 

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USA TODAY is a verified signatory of the International Fact-Checking Network, which requires a demonstrated commitment to nonpartisanship, fairness and transparency. Our fact-check work is supported in part by a grant from Meta .

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Key facts about Americans and guns

Guns are deeply ingrained in American society and the nation’s political debates.

The Second Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees the right to bear arms, and about a third of U.S. adults say they personally own a gun. At the same time, in response to concerns such as  rising gun death rates  and  mass shootings , the U.S. surgeon general has taken the unprecedented step of declaring gun violence a public health crisis .

Here are some key findings about Americans’ views of gun ownership, gun policy and other subjects, drawn from Pew Research Center surveys. 

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to summarize key facts about Americans’ relationships with guns. We used data from recent Center surveys to provide insights into Americans’ views on gun policy and how those views have changed over time, as well as to examine the proportion of adults who own guns and their reasons for doing so.

The Center survey questions used in this analysis, and more information about the surveys’ methodologies, and can be found at the links in the text.

Measuring gun ownership in the United States comes with unique challenges. Unlike many demographic measures, there is not a definitive data source from the government or elsewhere on how many American adults own guns.

The Pew Research Center survey conducted June 5-11, 2023, on the Center’s American Trends Panel, used two separate questions to measure personal and household ownership. About a third of adults (32%) say they own a gun, while another 10% say they do not personally own a gun but someone else in their household does. These shares have changed little from surveys conducted in  2021  and  2017 . In each of those surveys, 30% reported they owned a gun.

These numbers are largely consistent with  rates of gun ownership reported by Gallup and those reported by  NORC’s General Social Survey .  

The FBI maintains data on background checks on individuals attempting to purchase firearms in the United States. The FBI reported  a surge in background checks  in 2020 and 2021, during the coronavirus pandemic, but FBI statistics show that the number of federal background checks declined in 2022 and 2023. This pattern seems to be continuing so far in 2024. As of June, fewer background checks have been conducted than at the same point in 2023, according to FBI statistics.

About   four-in-ten U.S. adults say they live in a household with a gun, including 32% who say they personally own one,  according to  a Center survey conducted in June 2023 . These numbers are virtually unchanged since the last time we asked this question in 2021.

There are differences in gun ownership rates by political affiliation, gender, community type and other factors.

• Party: 45% of Republicans and GOP-leaning independents say they personally own a gun, compared with 20% of Democrats and Democratic leaners.
• Gender: 40% of men say they own a gun, versus 25% of women.
• Community type: 47% of adults living in rural areas report owning a firearm, as do smaller shares of those who live in suburbs (30%) or urban areas (20%).
• Race and ethnicity: 38% of White Americans own a gun, compared with smaller shares of Black (24%), Hispanic (20%) and Asian (10%) Americans.

Personal protection tops the list of reasons gun owners give for having a firearm.  About seven-in-ten gun owners (72%) say protection is a major reason they own a gun. Considerably smaller shares say that a major reason they own a gun is for hunting (32%), for sport shooting (30%), as part of a gun collection (15%) or for their job (7%). 

Americans’ reasons behind gun ownership have changed only modestly since we fielded a separate survey  about these topics in spring 2017. At that time, 67% of gun owners cited protection as a major reason they had a firearm.

Gun owners tend to have much more positive feelings about having a gun in the house than nonowners who live with them do.  For instance, 71% of gun owners say they enjoy owning a gun – but just 31% of nonowners living in a household with a gun say they enjoy having one in the home. And while 81% of gun owners say owning a gun makes them feel safer, a narrower majority of nonowners in gun households (57%) say the same. Nonowners are also more likely than owners to worry about having a gun at home (27% vs. 12%).

Feelings about gun ownership also differ by political affiliation, even among those who personally own a firearm. Republican gun owners are more likely than Democratic owners to say owning one gives them feelings of safety and enjoyment, while Democratic owners are more likely to say they worry about having a gun in the home.

Non-gun owners are split on whether they see themselves owning a firearm in the future.  About half of Americans who don’t own a gun (52%) say they could never see themselves owning one, while nearly as many (47%) could imagine themselves as gun owners in the future.

Among those who currently do not own a gun, attitudes about owning one in the future differ by party and other factors.

• Party: 61% of Republicans who don’t own a gun say they could see themselves owning one in the future, compared with 40% of Democrats.
• Gender: 56% of men who don’t own a gun say they could see themselves owning one someday; 40% of women nonowners say the same.
• Race and ethnicity: 56% of Black nonowners say they could see themselves owning a gun one day, compared with smaller shares of White (48%), Hispanic (40%) and Asian (38%) nonowners.

A majority of Americans (61%) say it is too easy to legally obtain a gun in this country, according to the June 2023 survey. Far fewer (9%) say it is too hard, while another 30% say it’s about right.

Non-gun owners are nearly twice as likely as gun owners to say it is too easy to legally obtain a gun (73% vs. 38%). Gun owners, in turn, are more than twice as likely as nonowners to say the ease of obtaining a gun is about right (48% vs. 20%).

There are differences by party and community type on this question, too. While 86% of Democrats say it is too easy to obtain a gun legally, far fewer Republicans (34%) say the same. Most urban (72%) and suburban (63%) residents say it’s too easy to legally obtain a gun, but rural residents are more divided: 47% say it is too easy, 41% say it is about right and 11% say it is too hard.

About six-in-ten U.S. adults (58%) favor stricter gun laws. Another 26% say that U.S. gun laws are about right, while 15% favor less strict gun laws.

There   is broad partisan agreement on some gun policy proposals, but most are politically divisive. Majorities of U.S. adults in both partisan coalitions somewhat or strongly favor two policies that would restrict gun access: preventing those with mental illnesses from purchasing guns (88% of Republicans and 89% of Democrats support this) and increasing the minimum age for buying guns to 21 years old (69% of Republicans, 90% of Democrats). Majorities in both parties also  oppose  allowing people to carry concealed firearms without a permit (60% of Republicans and 91% of Democrats oppose this).

Republicans and Democrats differ on several other proposals. While 85% of Democrats favor banning both assault-style weapons and high-capacity ammunition magazines that hold more than 10 rounds, majorities of Republicans oppose  these proposals (57% and 54%, respectively).

Most Republicans, on the other hand, support allowing teachers and school officials to carry guns in K-12 schools (74%) and allowing people to carry concealed guns in more places (71%). These proposals are supported by just 27% and 19% of Democrats, respectively.

The public remains closely divided over whether it’s more important to protect gun rights or control gun ownership, according to an April 2024 survey . Overall, 51% of U.S. adults say it’s more important to protect the right of Americans to own guns, while a similar share (48%) say controlling gun ownership is more important.

Views have shifted slightly since 2022, when we last asked this question. That year, 47% of adults prioritized protecting Americans’ rights to own guns, while 52% said controlling gun ownership was more important.

Views on this topic differ sharply by party. In the most recent survey, 83% of Republicans say protecting gun rights is more important, while 79% of Democrats prioritize controlling gun ownership.

Americans are slightly more likely to say gun ownership does more to increase safety than to decrease it.  Around half of Americans (52%) say gun ownership does more to increase safety by allowing law-abiding citizens to protect themselves, while a slightly smaller share (47%) say gun ownership does more to reduce safety by giving too many people access to firearms and increasing misuse. Views were evenly divided (49% vs. 49%) when we last asked in 2023.

Republicans and Democrats differ widely on this question: 81% of Republicans say gun ownership does more to increase safety, while 74% of Democrats say it does more to reduce safety.

Rural and urban Americans also have starkly different views. Among adults who live in rural areas, 64% say gun ownership increases safety, while among those in urban areas, 57% say it  reduces  safety. Those living in the suburbs are about evenly split in their views.

More than half of U.S. adults say an increase in the number of guns in the country is bad for society, according to the April 2024 survey. Some 54% say, generally, this is very or somewhat bad for society. Another 21% say it is very or somewhat good for society, and a quarter say it is neither good nor bad for society.

About half of Americans (49%) see gun violence as a major problem,  according to a May 2024 survey. This is down from 60% in June 2023, but roughly on par with views in previous years. In the more recent survey, 27% say gun violence is a moderately big problem, and about a quarter say it is either a small problem (19%) or not a problem at all (4%).

A majority of public K-12 teachers (59%) say they are at least somewhat worried about the possibility of a shooting ever happening at their school, including 18% who are very or extremely worried, according to a fall 2023 Center survey of teachers . A smaller share of teachers (39%) say they are not too or not at all worried about a shooting occurring at their school.

School shootings are a concern for K-12 parents as well: 32% say they are very or extremely worried about a shooting ever happening at their children’s school, while 37% are somewhat worried, according to  a fall 2022 Center survey of parents with at least one child younger than 18 who is not homeschooled. Another 31% of K-12 parents say they are not too or not at all worried about this.

Note: This is an update of a post originally published on Jan. 5, 2016 .

• Partisanship & Issues
• Political Issues

Katherine Schaeffer is a research analyst at Pew Research Center .

Americans’ Extreme Weather Policy Views and Personal Experiences

U.s. adults under 30 have different foreign policy priorities than older adults, many adults in east and southeast asia support free speech, are open to societal change, nato seen favorably in member states; confidence in zelenskyy down in europe, u.s., same-sex marriage around the world, most popular.

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Hallucinating Law: Legal Mistakes with Large Language Models are Pervasive

A new study finds disturbing and pervasive errors among three popular models on a wide range of legal tasks.

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In May of last year, a Manhattan lawyer became famous for all the wrong reasons. He submitted a legal brief generated largely by ChatGPT. And the judge did not take kindly to the submission. Describing “an unprecedented circumstance,” the judge noted that the brief was littered with “bogus judicial decisions . . . bogus quotes and bogus internal citations.” The story of the “ChatGPT lawyer” went viral as a  New York Times story, sparking none other than  Chief Justice John Roberts to lament the role of “hallucinations” of large language models (LLMs) in his annual report on the federal judiciary. 

Yet how prevalent are such legal hallucinations, really? 

The Legal Transformation  

The legal industry is on the cusp of a major transformation, driven by the emergence of LLMs like ChatGPT, PaLM, Claude, and Llama. These advanced models, equipped with billions of parameters, have the ability not only to process but also to generate extensive, authoritative text on a wide range of topics. Their influence is becoming more evident across various aspects of daily life, including their growing use in legal practices. 

A dizzying number of legal technology startups and law firms are now advertising and leveraging LLM-based tools for a variety of tasks, such as sifting through discovery documents to find relevant evidence, crafting detailed legal memoranda and case briefs, and formulating complex litigation strategies. LLM developers proudly claim that their models can pass the bar exam. But a core problem remains: hallucinations, or the tendency of LLMs to produce content that deviates from actual legal facts or well-established legal principles and precedents. 

Until now, the evidence was largely anecdotal as to the extent of legal hallucinations. Yet the legal system also provides a unique window to systematically study the extent and nature of such hallucinations. 

In a  new preprint study by Stanford RegLab and Institute for Human-Centered AI researchers, we demonstrate that legal hallucinations are pervasive and disturbing: hallucination rates range from 69% to 88% in response to specific legal queries for state-of-the-art language models. Moreover, these models often lack self-awareness about their errors and tend to reinforce incorrect legal assumptions and beliefs. These findings raise significant concerns about the reliability of LLMs in legal contexts, underscoring the importance of careful, supervised integration of these AI technologies into legal practice.

The Correlates of Hallucination

Hallucination rates are alarmingly high for a wide range of verifiable legal facts. Yet the unique structure of the U.S. legal system – with its clear delineations of hierarchy and authority – allowed us to also understand how hallucination rates vary along key dimensions. We designed our study by constructing a number of different tasks, ranging from asking models simple things like the author of an opinion to more complex requests like whether two cases are in tension with one another, a key element of legal reasoning. We tested more than 200,000 queries against each of GPT 3.5, Llama 2, and PaLM 2, stratifying along key dimensions. 

First, we found that performance deteriorates when dealing with more complex tasks that require a nuanced understanding of legal issues or interpretation of legal texts. For instance, in a task measuring the precedential relationship between two different cases, most LLMs do no better than random guessing. And in answering queries about a court’s core ruling (or holding), models hallucinate at least 75% of the time. These findings suggest that LLMs are not yet able to perform the kind of legal reasoning that attorneys perform when they assess the precedential relationship between cases—a core objective of legal research.

Second, case law from lower courts, like district courts, is subject to more frequent hallucinations than case law from higher courts like the Supreme Court. This suggests that LLMs may struggle with localized legal knowledge that is often crucial in lower court cases, and calls into doubt claims that LLMs will reduce longstanding access to justice barriers in the United States. 

Third, LLMs show a tendency to perform better with more prominent cases, particularly those in the Supreme Court. Similarly, performance is best in the influential Second and Ninth Circuits, but worst in circuit courts located in the geographic center of the country. These performance differences could be due to certain cases being more frequently cited and discussed, thus being better represented in the training data of these models. 

Fourth, hallucinations are most common among the Supreme Court’s oldest and newest cases, and least common among later 20th century cases. This suggests that LLMs’ peak performance may lag several years behind current legal doctrine, and that LLMs may fail to internalize case law that is very old but still applicable and relevant law. 

Last, different models exhibit varying degrees of accuracy and biases. For example, GPT 3.5 generally outperforms others but shows certain inclinations, like favoring well-known justices or specific types of cases. When asked who authored an opinion, for instance, GPT 3.5 tends to think Justice Joseph Story wrote far more opinions than he actually did. 

Contrafactual Bias

Another critical danger that we unearth is model susceptibility to what we call “contra-factual bias,” namely the tendency to assume that a factual premise in a query is true, even if it is flatly wrong. For instance, if one queried, “Why did Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg dissent in  Obergefell ?” (the case that affirmed a right to same-sex marriage), a model might fail to second-guess whether Justice Ginsburg in fact dissented. 

This phenomenon is particularly pronounced in language models like GPT 3.5, which often provide credible responses to queries based on false premises, likely due to its instruction-following training. This tendency escalates in complex legal scenarios or when dealing with lower court cases. Llama 2, on the other hand, frequently rejects false premises, but sometimes mistakenly denies the existence of actual cases or justices.

Relatedly, we also show that models are imperfectly calibrated for legal questions. Model calibration captures whether model confidence is correlated with the correctness of answers. We find some divergence across models: PaLM 2 and ChatGPT (GPT 3.5) show better calibration than Llama 2. Yet, a common thread across all models is a tendency towards overconfidence, irrespective of their actual accuracy. This overconfidence is particularly evident in complex tasks and those pertaining to lower courts, where models often overstate their certainty, especially in well-known or high-profile legal areas.

Implications for the Law  

The implications of these findings are serious. Today, there is much excitement that LLMs will democratize access to justice by providing an easy and low-cost way for members of the public to obtain legal advice. But our findings suggest that the current limitations of LLMs pose a risk of further  deepening existing legal inequalities, rather than alleviating them.

Ideally, LLMs would excel at providing localized legal information, effectively correct users on misguided queries, and qualify their responses with appropriate levels of confidence. However, we find that these capabilities are conspicuously lacking in current models. Thus, the risks of using LLMs for legal research are especially high for:

• Litigants in lower courts or in less prominent jurisdictions,
• Individuals seeking detailed or complex legal information,
• Users formulating questions based on incorrect premises, and 
• Those uncertain about the reliability of LLM responses.

In essence, the users who would benefit the most from legal LLM are precisely those who the LLMs are least well-equipped to serve.

There is also a looming risk of LLMs contributing to legal “ monoculture .” Because LLMs tend to limit users to a narrow judicial perspective, they potentially overlook broader nuances and diversity of legal interpretations. This is substantively alarming, but there is also a version of representational harm: LLMs may systematically erase the contributions of one member of the legal community, such as Justice Ginsburg, by misattributing them to another, such as Justice Story. 

Moving Forward with Caution

Much active technical work is ongoing to address hallucinations in LLMs. Yet addressing  legal hallucinations is not merely a technical problem. We suggest that LLMs face fundamental trade-offs in balancing fidelity to training data, accuracy in responding to user prompts, and adherence to real-world legal facts. Thus, minimizing hallucinations ultimately requires normative judgments about which type of behavior is most important, and transparency in these balancing decisions is critical.

While LLMs hold significant potential for legal practice, the limitations we document in our work warrant significant caution. Responsible integration of AI in legal practice will require more iteration, supervision, and human understanding of AI capabilities and limitations. 

In that respect, our findings underscore the centrality of human-centered AI. Responsible AI integration must augment lawyers, clients, and judges and not, as Chief Justice Roberts put it, risk “dehumanizing the law.” 

Matthew Dahl is a J.D./Ph.D. student at Yale University and graduate student affiliate of Stanford RegLab. 

Varun Magesh is a research fellow at Stanford RegLab. 

Mirac Suzgun is a J.D/Ph.D. student in computer science at Stanford University and a graduate student fellow at Stanford RegLab. 

Daniel E. Ho is the William Benjamin Scott and Luna M. Scott Professor of Law, Professor of Political Science, Professor of Computer Science (by courtesy), Senior Fellow at HAI, Senior Fellow at SIEPR, and Director of the RegLab at Stanford University. 

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Did You Know? 61 Amazing Facts

General Education

Everybody loves looking like the smartest person in the room with cool and interest facts. While I’m a big fan of random and fun facts, Did You Know Facts are facts that you can use as supporting evidence, whether it’s in a timed essay, a debate, or even a conversation. Did You Know Facts help expand your knowledge base so you’re prepared for any situation, and have the benefit of making you seem like you know what you’re talking about on any subject.

What Is a "Did You Know?" Fact?

Did you know that you can incorporate outside facts into your essays, debates and conversations? Did you know that facts make your argument stronger and more interesting ? There's a whole world of fun and interesting facts out there, on all kinds of subjects. Read on to find out how to use "did you know facts" to your advantage, and dive into our list of fascinating facts.

Using Did You Know Facts in Essays

The SAT and ACT optional writing sections that include times essays, and the GRE has an essay in its mandatory writing section. Statewide standardized tests or tests you take in school may also time essay sections.

Supporting evidence from facts increases your score, since it makes your argument stronger, or can help you clarify a point or topic. Since timed essays are written in the same structure as an academic paper, where you defend a thesis , it’s always made stronger by factual or statistical evidence, particularly if you can show that you can apply outside knowledge to the prompt at hand.

It’s helpful to go into a test with a few Did You Know Facts already in mind, things that you can hopefully apply to whatever your prompt is. Historical, literary, and political facts are great for essays since they’re more broad, and can be applied to more prompts.

Using Did You Know Facts in Debates

In a debate, you should already be prepared and have your facts and ideas ready to go. However, a fun fact can impress your audience and judges and throw off your opponent. Even if the fact isn’t directly related to your topic, having more supporting evidence and showing how your argument influences other things than the ones you’ve outlined in your debate prep can help put the discussion in context, and enrich the debate.

Did You Know? Fun Facts in 7 Categories

This list offers some interesting facts in different categories. These facts are fun and interesting, but also can be used as supporting evidence. If you're looking for facts to keep in your toolbox for things like times essays, remember that statistics are always strongest, and to choose facts that are relevant to your topic .

Did You Know These Facts About Animals and Nature?

The closest living relative to humans are chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas. We share between 98 and 99.6% of DNA with these species. Gorillas can even catch colds from humans.

Most mammals have reproductive cycles. However, only humans, humpback whales, and elephants experience menopause.

To escape a crocodiles jaw, push your thumb into its eyeballs.

Cats have only lived with people for about 7,000 years. Compared to dogs, whose domestication may have begun as early as 25,000 years ago.

Most of the Earth’s longest-surviving species are found in the ocean. While cyanobacterias are technically the oldest living organisms on Earth, having appeared 2.8 billion years ago, the ocean sponge has also been on Earth for 580 million years, and jellyfish have been here for 550 million years.

85% of plant life is found in the ocean.

The Amazon rainforest is an amazing place. The Amazon produces over 20% of the world’s oxygen, and contains more than half of the world’s species of plants, animals, and insects.

Additionally, up to 73 million sharks per year die due to shark finning, where fishermen catch the shark, cut off its fins, and throw the still-living shark back into the water. Many countries have imposed full or partial bans on finning, mainly that the sharks need to arrive onshore with fins attached. A few countries, notably Israel, Egypt, Ecuador, Honduras, Brunei and the Maldives, have total shark fishing bans.

Many animals exhibit high levels of emotional intelligence. For example, cows form bonds akin to friendships, and often have a “best friend,” and Gentoo Penguins bring a potential mate a pebble to “propose.”

Dog noses are as unique as a human fingerprint.

Did You Know These Facts About History?

Paul Revere famously yelled “The British Are Coming!’ at the start of the American Revolution. Or...not. Revere was just one member of a secret militia operation to warn other militias about the British troops. A lot of colonial Americans still considered themselves British at that time, and would have likely been confused if he’d actually said or shouted this.

Many people came forward pretending to be Grand Duchess Anastasia after the Czar fell in the Russian Revolution. But Anastasia impersonators came from a long tradition of royal imposters; Louis XVII of France died during the French Revolution, and years later when the country was discussing a revival of the monarchy, over 100 people came forward claiming to be the prince.

There were more than 600 plots to kill Fidel Castro. Plots were crafted by a variety of enemies, and even included an exploding cigar.

The patent for the first car was filed in 1886 by Karl Benz for a gas-powered, 3-wheel motor car.

Hitler, Mussolini, and Stalin were all nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize. While not all nominees since have been controversy-free, whoever nominated these three probably regretted it.

We know now that the bubonic plague was in part spread by rats. But before the plague, Pope Gregory IX declared that cats were associated with devil worship and ordered that they be exterminated. Unfortunately, people listened and as a result the rat population flourished. It is believed that the increased rat population contributed to the plague. (Ahem, actions have consequences, and don’t mess with cats)

Jeanette Rankin was the first woman elected to Congress in 1916, 4 years before women had the right to vote. She was a pacifist from Montana, and was elected a second time in 1941. Both times, she voted no in regards to entering World Wars 1 and 2.

Seven of the 10 deadliest wars in history have taken place in China. The Taping Rebellion had twice as many deaths as World War 1.

Pineapples are all the rage now, but they were also a fad in the UK in the 1700s. People carried them around to show their wealth and status, and people decorated their homes with pineapples. You could even rent a pineapple as an accessory.

Bonus: Jeanette Rankin was one of the few suffragists elected to Congress. Unfortunately, Montana has not elected a woman to Congress since.

Did You Know These Facts About Science?

20% of the Earth’s oxygen is produced by the Amazon rainforest.

The Great Barrier Reef is the largest living structure on Earth at 2,000 kilometers long.

Most of us are familiar with the three states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. But there are actually two dozen known states of matter. Plasma is one example, but scientists have also found other states of matter that only occur under certain conditions.

When helium is cooled to absolute zero (-460 degrees Fahrenheit) it becomes a liquid and starts flowing upward, against gravity.

The moon once had an atmosphere. Volcanic eruptions on the moon released trillions of tons of gas into the air, which created an atmosphere. The gases eventually became lost to space.

When Einstein posed his Theory of Relativity, he didn’t have the resources to prove this theory. However, the theory has been proven correct several times over the years. Most recently in 2018, scientists saw that as a black hole distorted light waves from a nearby star in a way that agrees with the theory.

Scientists have answered the question “what comes first the chicken or the egg?” The chicken came first because the egg shell contains a protein that can only be made from a hen.

It is mainly men who experience colorblindness.1/20 men experience color blindness as opposed to 1/200 women.

Scientists were called “natural philosophers” until the 17th century because science didn’t exist as a concept.

Did You Know These Facts About Famous People?

Natalie Portman is a Harvard graduate and has had papers published in two scientific journals, one of which was when she was in high school.

Some of Neil Patrick Harris’ characters are magicians, and so if the actor. His children’s book series, The Magic Misfits, is also about a group of magicians.

Colin Kaepernick got a pet tortoise at age 10, that fit in a shoebox. Today, the tortoise is 115 pounds and may live to be 135 years old.

The Doctor Suess book Green Eggs and Ham uses only 50 different words. Doctor Suess wrote the book on a bet from his publisher that he couldn’t write a book with fewer words than The Cat in the Hat, which has 225.

Woody Harrelson’s father was a hitman, who left the family when the actor was young. Woody didn’t find out about his father’s criminal activity until he heard a radio report on his trial.

Dr. Martin Luther King was a Star Trek fan. He convinced Nichelle Nichols, one of the first black women featured on a major TV show, not to quit, arguing that her role was making history. Mae Jamison, the first black woman to travel into space, later cited Nichols as one of her inspirations.

Queen Elizabeth II is the longest-serving British monarch. She has been on the throne for 67 years. The 93 year old queen’s heir is currently her son Charles, who is 70.

Isaac Asimov published so many books, essays, short fiction, and non-fiction, that if you read one per week it would take you 9 years to read all of his work.

Did You Know These Facts About Politics and Government?

In 2018, 50.3% of eligible voters turned out to vote. This was the highest turnout for a midterm election since 2018.

Also in 2018, 16% of voters said it was the first time they’d voted in a midterm election.

About ⅓ of Americans think the president affects their personal lives, and 63% say he affects the country’s mood.

The U.S. spends more on defense than the other 7 countries combined. Last year, the U.S. spent $649 billion, while China, Saudi Arabia, India, France, Russia, the U.K. and Germany spent a combined $609 billion

Any person born in the United States or to U.S. citizen parents is also a U.S. citizen.

The U.S. Constitution was signed on September 17th, 1787. It was meant not to “grant” rights, but to protect the rights people were born with.

Although the U.S. has a two party system, there are some other third parties. Notable ones now are the tea party and the green party, but the U.S. once had fringe parties like the Bull and Moose party.

Americans throw out 4.4 pounds of trash daily.

Did You Know These Facts About Sports?

The NCAA required football players to study during halftime in 1925

The Stanley Cup was originally two stories tall, but it was deemed too difficult to transport

Basketball legend Michael Jordan also played baseball, and allegedly still received his basketball salary while a member of the Chicago White Sox system.

Only three active players are in the top 50 on the all-time MLB home run list, yet 27 of the last 50 have played within the last 50 years.

There has never been a three-peat in the Super Bowl

Until 1992, female athletes competing in the Olympics had to undergo mandatory sex verification testing, due to fears that male athletes would disguise themselves as female to gain an advantage. The Olympic Committee still maintains the right to conduct testing if “suspicions arise.” There were no such requirements for male athletes.

Punters have the longest NFL careers, at an average of 4.87 years.

In 1972, Title IX was adopted, and opened the door for women and girls participation in sports. Before Title IX, women were 2% of college students participating in sports, and girls were 7% of high school students participating in sports. In 2019, high school girls are 42.7% of sports participants, and college women make up 44% of athletes.

Did You Know These Facts About Pop Culture?

Friday the 13th was filmed at a Boy Scout Camp. Fans of the film would go up to the camp to visit, take photos, and sometimes scare the campers, to the point where the camp had to ask on its website for people to stop coming there.

Elvis’s manager sold buttons that said “I hate Elvis” in order to make money off the many people who found his music controversial.

The world’s oldest piano is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It dates back to 1720.

Red Dawn was the first movie to be released with a PG-13 rating. It was released on August 10th, 1984.

The first movie to be released with an X rating (no admittance under the age of 16) was Greetings in 1968, Robert de Niro’s debut film. The rating was later reduced to R.

Mr. Rogers always announced when he was feeding his fish. He did so because a blind viewer wrote in, asking if the fish was okay, since she couldn’t see that he’d fed it.

The show M*A*S*H* was on TV for almost 13 years. The show was about the Korean War, in which American involvement only lasted three years.

In Game of Thrones, cloaks the members of the Night’s Watch wear are made from Ikea rugs

The shows Saved by the Bell, That’s so Raven, and iCarly were all filmed on the same “school” set, which is why they look so similar.

As they say, knowledge is power! And you, my friend, are one powerful person. While you can certainly use this list of facts to get high scores on your essays or stump your debate opponent, I also recommend that you take the opportunity to learn more about the things on the list. A lot of these facts are just the beginning of some super interesting topics and stories, and the first step in helping you become more informed about the world in which we live. Now you know, and happy reading!

What's Next?

Looking for compelling essay ideas? Check out these lists of Argumentative Essay Topics and Persuasive Essay Topics .

While you're working on your essay writing skills, make sure to read these guides on and writing an argumentative essay , and this guide on writing on analytical essay .

Are you taking the SAT or ACT writing section? Read How to Get an 800 on the SAT Writing and How to Write an ACT Essay .

And look for our lists of debate topics and research paper topics !

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Carrie holds a Bachelors in Writing, Literature, and Publishing from Emerson College, and is currently pursuing an MFA. She worked in book publishing for several years, and believes that books can open up new worlds. She loves reading, the outdoors, and learning about new things.

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The state of AI in early 2024: Gen AI adoption spikes and starts to generate value

If 2023 was the year the world discovered generative AI (gen AI) , 2024 is the year organizations truly began using—and deriving business value from—this new technology. In the latest McKinsey Global Survey  on AI, 65 percent of respondents report that their organizations are regularly using gen AI, nearly double the percentage from our previous survey just ten months ago. Respondents’ expectations for gen AI’s impact remain as high as they were last year , with three-quarters predicting that gen AI will lead to significant or disruptive change in their industries in the years ahead.

About the authors

This article is a collaborative effort by Alex Singla , Alexander Sukharevsky , Lareina Yee , and Michael Chui , with Bryce Hall , representing views from QuantumBlack, AI by McKinsey, and McKinsey Digital.

Organizations are already seeing material benefits from gen AI use, reporting both cost decreases and revenue jumps in the business units deploying the technology. The survey also provides insights into the kinds of risks presented by gen AI—most notably, inaccuracy—as well as the emerging practices of top performers to mitigate those challenges and capture value.

AI adoption surges

Interest in generative AI has also brightened the spotlight on a broader set of AI capabilities. For the past six years, AI adoption by respondents’ organizations has hovered at about 50 percent. This year, the survey finds that adoption has jumped to 72 percent (Exhibit 1). And the interest is truly global in scope. Our 2023 survey found that AI adoption did not reach 66 percent in any region; however, this year more than two-thirds of respondents in nearly every region say their organizations are using AI. 1 Organizations based in Central and South America are the exception, with 58 percent of respondents working for organizations based in Central and South America reporting AI adoption. Looking by industry, the biggest increase in adoption can be found in professional services. 2 Includes respondents working for organizations focused on human resources, legal services, management consulting, market research, R&D, tax preparation, and training.

Also, responses suggest that companies are now using AI in more parts of the business. Half of respondents say their organizations have adopted AI in two or more business functions, up from less than a third of respondents in 2023 (Exhibit 2).

Future frontiers: Navigating the next wave of tech innovations

Join Lareina Yee and Roger Roberts on Tuesday, July 30, at 12:30 p.m. EDT/6:30 p.m. CET as they discuss the future of these technological trends, the factors that will fuel their growth, and strategies for investing in them through 2024 and beyond.

Gen AI adoption is most common in the functions where it can create the most value

Most respondents now report that their organizations—and they as individuals—are using gen AI. Sixty-five percent of respondents say their organizations are regularly using gen AI in at least one business function, up from one-third last year. The average organization using gen AI is doing so in two functions, most often in marketing and sales and in product and service development—two functions in which previous research  determined that gen AI adoption could generate the most value 3 “ The economic potential of generative AI: The next productivity frontier ,” McKinsey, June 14, 2023. —as well as in IT (Exhibit 3). The biggest increase from 2023 is found in marketing and sales, where reported adoption has more than doubled. Yet across functions, only two use cases, both within marketing and sales, are reported by 15 percent or more of respondents.

Gen AI also is weaving its way into respondents’ personal lives. Compared with 2023, respondents are much more likely to be using gen AI at work and even more likely to be using gen AI both at work and in their personal lives (Exhibit 4). The survey finds upticks in gen AI use across all regions, with the largest increases in Asia–Pacific and Greater China. Respondents at the highest seniority levels, meanwhile, show larger jumps in the use of gen Al tools for work and outside of work compared with their midlevel-management peers. Looking at specific industries, respondents working in energy and materials and in professional services report the largest increase in gen AI use.

Investments in gen AI and analytical AI are beginning to create value

The latest survey also shows how different industries are budgeting for gen AI. Responses suggest that, in many industries, organizations are about equally as likely to be investing more than 5 percent of their digital budgets in gen AI as they are in nongenerative, analytical-AI solutions (Exhibit 5). Yet in most industries, larger shares of respondents report that their organizations spend more than 20 percent on analytical AI than on gen AI. Looking ahead, most respondents—67 percent—expect their organizations to invest more in AI over the next three years.

Where are those investments paying off? For the first time, our latest survey explored the value created by gen AI use by business function. The function in which the largest share of respondents report seeing cost decreases is human resources. Respondents most commonly report meaningful revenue increases (of more than 5 percent) in supply chain and inventory management (Exhibit 6). For analytical AI, respondents most often report seeing cost benefits in service operations—in line with what we found last year —as well as meaningful revenue increases from AI use in marketing and sales.

Inaccuracy: The most recognized and experienced risk of gen AI use

As businesses begin to see the benefits of gen AI, they’re also recognizing the diverse risks associated with the technology. These can range from data management risks such as data privacy, bias, or intellectual property (IP) infringement to model management risks, which tend to focus on inaccurate output or lack of explainability. A third big risk category is security and incorrect use.

Respondents to the latest survey are more likely than they were last year to say their organizations consider inaccuracy and IP infringement to be relevant to their use of gen AI, and about half continue to view cybersecurity as a risk (Exhibit 7).

Conversely, respondents are less likely than they were last year to say their organizations consider workforce and labor displacement to be relevant risks and are not increasing efforts to mitigate them.

In fact, inaccuracy— which can affect use cases across the gen AI value chain , ranging from customer journeys and summarization to coding and creative content—is the only risk that respondents are significantly more likely than last year to say their organizations are actively working to mitigate.

Some organizations have already experienced negative consequences from the use of gen AI, with 44 percent of respondents saying their organizations have experienced at least one consequence (Exhibit 8). Respondents most often report inaccuracy as a risk that has affected their organizations, followed by cybersecurity and explainability.

Our previous research has found that there are several elements of governance that can help in scaling gen AI use responsibly, yet few respondents report having these risk-related practices in place. 4 “ Implementing generative AI with speed and safety ,” McKinsey Quarterly , March 13, 2024. For example, just 18 percent say their organizations have an enterprise-wide council or board with the authority to make decisions involving responsible AI governance, and only one-third say gen AI risk awareness and risk mitigation controls are required skill sets for technical talent.

Bringing gen AI capabilities to bear

The latest survey also sought to understand how, and how quickly, organizations are deploying these new gen AI tools. We have found three archetypes for implementing gen AI solutions : takers use off-the-shelf, publicly available solutions; shapers customize those tools with proprietary data and systems; and makers develop their own foundation models from scratch. 5 “ Technology’s generational moment with generative AI: A CIO and CTO guide ,” McKinsey, July 11, 2023. Across most industries, the survey results suggest that organizations are finding off-the-shelf offerings applicable to their business needs—though many are pursuing opportunities to customize models or even develop their own (Exhibit 9). About half of reported gen AI uses within respondents’ business functions are utilizing off-the-shelf, publicly available models or tools, with little or no customization. Respondents in energy and materials, technology, and media and telecommunications are more likely to report significant customization or tuning of publicly available models or developing their own proprietary models to address specific business needs.

Respondents most often report that their organizations required one to four months from the start of a project to put gen AI into production, though the time it takes varies by business function (Exhibit 10). It also depends upon the approach for acquiring those capabilities. Not surprisingly, reported uses of highly customized or proprietary models are 1.5 times more likely than off-the-shelf, publicly available models to take five months or more to implement.

Gen AI high performers are excelling despite facing challenges

Gen AI is a new technology, and organizations are still early in the journey of pursuing its opportunities and scaling it across functions. So it’s little surprise that only a small subset of respondents (46 out of 876) report that a meaningful share of their organizations’ EBIT can be attributed to their deployment of gen AI. Still, these gen AI leaders are worth examining closely. These, after all, are the early movers, who already attribute more than 10 percent of their organizations’ EBIT to their use of gen AI. Forty-two percent of these high performers say more than 20 percent of their EBIT is attributable to their use of nongenerative, analytical AI, and they span industries and regions—though most are at organizations with less than $1 billion in annual revenue. The AI-related practices at these organizations can offer guidance to those looking to create value from gen AI adoption at their own organizations.

To start, gen AI high performers are using gen AI in more business functions—an average of three functions, while others average two. They, like other organizations, are most likely to use gen AI in marketing and sales and product or service development, but they’re much more likely than others to use gen AI solutions in risk, legal, and compliance; in strategy and corporate finance; and in supply chain and inventory management. They’re more than three times as likely as others to be using gen AI in activities ranging from processing of accounting documents and risk assessment to R&D testing and pricing and promotions. While, overall, about half of reported gen AI applications within business functions are utilizing publicly available models or tools, gen AI high performers are less likely to use those off-the-shelf options than to either implement significantly customized versions of those tools or to develop their own proprietary foundation models.

What else are these high performers doing differently? For one thing, they are paying more attention to gen-AI-related risks. Perhaps because they are further along on their journeys, they are more likely than others to say their organizations have experienced every negative consequence from gen AI we asked about, from cybersecurity and personal privacy to explainability and IP infringement. Given that, they are more likely than others to report that their organizations consider those risks, as well as regulatory compliance, environmental impacts, and political stability, to be relevant to their gen AI use, and they say they take steps to mitigate more risks than others do.

Gen AI high performers are also much more likely to say their organizations follow a set of risk-related best practices (Exhibit 11). For example, they are nearly twice as likely as others to involve the legal function and embed risk reviews early on in the development of gen AI solutions—that is, to “ shift left .” They’re also much more likely than others to employ a wide range of other best practices, from strategy-related practices to those related to scaling.

In addition to experiencing the risks of gen AI adoption, high performers have encountered other challenges that can serve as warnings to others (Exhibit 12). Seventy percent say they have experienced difficulties with data, including defining processes for data governance, developing the ability to quickly integrate data into AI models, and an insufficient amount of training data, highlighting the essential role that data play in capturing value. High performers are also more likely than others to report experiencing challenges with their operating models, such as implementing agile ways of working and effective sprint performance management.

About the research

The online survey was in the field from February 22 to March 5, 2024, and garnered responses from 1,363 participants representing the full range of regions, industries, company sizes, functional specialties, and tenures. Of those respondents, 981 said their organizations had adopted AI in at least one business function, and 878 said their organizations were regularly using gen AI in at least one function. To adjust for differences in response rates, the data are weighted by the contribution of each respondent’s nation to global GDP.

Alex Singla and Alexander Sukharevsky  are global coleaders of QuantumBlack, AI by McKinsey, and senior partners in McKinsey’s Chicago and London offices, respectively; Lareina Yee  is a senior partner in the Bay Area office, where Michael Chui , a McKinsey Global Institute partner, is a partner; and Bryce Hall  is an associate partner in the Washington, DC, office.

They wish to thank Kaitlin Noe, Larry Kanter, Mallika Jhamb, and Shinjini Srivastava for their contributions to this work.

This article was edited by Heather Hanselman, a senior editor in McKinsey’s Atlanta office.

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What We Know About the Global Microsoft Outage

Airlines to banks to retailers were affected in many countries. Businesses are struggling to recover.

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By Eshe Nelson and Danielle Kaye

Eshe Nelson reported from London and Danielle Kaye from New York.

Across the world, critical businesses and services including airlines, hospitals, train networks and TV stations, were disrupted on Friday by a global tech outage affecting Microsoft users.

In many countries, flights were grounded, workers could not get access to their systems and, in some cases, customers could not make card payments in stores. While some of the problems were resolved within hours, many businesses, websites and airlines continued to struggle to recover.

What happened?

A series of outages rippled across the globe as information displays, login systems and broadcasting networks went dark.

The problem affecting the majority of services was caused by a flawed update by CrowdStrike , an American cybersecurity firm, whose systems are intended to protect users from hackers. Microsoft said on Friday that it was aware of an issue affecting machines running “CrowdStrike Falcon.”

But Microsoft had also said there was an earlier outage affecting U.S. users of Azure, its cloud service system. Some users may have been affected by both. Even as CrowdStrike sent out a fix, some systems were still affected by midday in the United States as businesses needed to make manual updates to their systems to resolve the issue.

George Kurtz, the president and chief executive of CrowdStrike, said on Friday morning that it could take some time for some systems to recover.

How a Software Update Crashed Computers Around the World

Here’s a visual explanation for how a faulty software update crippled machines.

How the airline cancellations rippled around the world (and across time zones)

Share of canceled flights at 25 airports on Friday

50% of flights

Ai r po r t

Bengalu r u K empeg o wda

Dhaka Shahjalal

Minneapolis-Saint P aul

Stuttga r t

Melbou r ne

Be r lin B r anden b urg

London City

Amsterdam Schiphol

Chicago O'Hare

Raleigh−Durham

B r adl e y

Cha r lotte

Reagan National

Philadelphia

1:20 a.m. ET

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