definition of methodology in education

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[2023] What Is Your Teaching Methodology? A Comprehensive Guide

• August 4, 2023
• Instructional Coaching

Quick Answer: Your teaching methodology refers to the strategies and techniques you use to deliver instruction and facilitate learning in the classroom. It encompasses your approach to lesson planning, classroom management, assessment, and student engagement. The most effective teaching methodologies are those that are student-centered, promote critical thinking, and cater to diverse learning styles. Developing a well-rounded teaching methodology is essential for creating a positive and productive learning environment for your students.

Table of Contents

• Quick Answer

Quick Tips and Facts

Definitions.

• Direct Instruction
• Inquiry-Based Learning
• Cooperative Learning
• Differentiated Instruction
• Project-Based Learning
• Flipped Classroom

The Role of Teaching Methodologies in Society

The role of institutions in shaping teaching methodologies, factors of educational success, education studies, history of teaching methodologies, what is your teaching methodology examples, what is your teaching methodology answer, which teaching methodology is best, what is your learning methodology, how do teaching methodologies impact student learning outcomes, recommended links, reference links.

• Your teaching methodology plays a crucial role in student learning and engagement.
• Effective teaching methodologies are student-centered and promote critical thinking.
• It is important to adapt your teaching methodology to cater to diverse learning styles.
• Incorporating various teaching methodologies can enhance student understanding and retention.
• Continuous professional development can help you stay updated with the latest teaching methodologies.

Teaching Methodology: The strategies and techniques used by educators to deliver instruction and facilitate learning in the classroom.

Pedagogy: The theory and practice of teaching, including the principles, methods, and techniques used to educate students.

Andragogy: The theory and practice of teaching adult learners, focusing on self-directed learning and problem-solving.

Types of Teaching Methodologies

1. Direct Instruction

Direct instruction is a teacher-centered approach that involves explicit teaching of knowledge and skills. It typically includes lectures, demonstrations, and guided practice. This methodology is effective for introducing new concepts and building foundational knowledge.

• Provides clear and structured instruction.
• Allows for efficient delivery of content.
• Suitable for large class sizes.
• May not cater to individual learning styles.
• Limited opportunities for student engagement.
• Relies heavily on teacher-led activities.

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2. Inquiry-Based Learning

Inquiry-based learning encourages students to explore and discover knowledge through questioning, investigation, and problem-solving. It promotes critical thinking, collaboration, and independent learning.

• Fosters curiosity and a love for learning.
• Develops critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
• Encourages student engagement and ownership of learning.
• Requires careful planning and facilitation.
• May take longer to cover content.
• Students may need guidance in developing effective inquiry skills.

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3. Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning involves students working together in small groups to achieve shared learning goals. It promotes collaboration, communication, and the development of social skills.

• Encourages teamwork and cooperation.
• Enhances communication and social skills.
• Provides opportunities for peer learning and support.
• Requires effective group management strategies.
• Individual accountability may be a challenge.
• May require additional time for group work.

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4. Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated instruction involves tailoring instruction to meet the diverse needs of students. It recognizes that learners have different learning styles, abilities, and interests, and aims to provide targeted support and challenge.

• Addresses individual student needs and learning styles.
• Promotes inclusivity and equity in the classroom.
• Enhances student engagement and motivation.
• Requires careful planning and preparation.
• May require additional resources and materials.
• Assessing and tracking individual progress can be challenging.

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5. Project-Based Learning

Project-based learning involves students working on extended projects that require them to apply knowledge and skills to real-world problems or challenges. It promotes collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity.

• Engages students in authentic and meaningful learning experiences.
• Encourages creativity and innovation.
• Requires careful planning and scaffolding.
• May require additional time for project completion.
• Assessing individual contributions can be challenging.

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6. Flipped Classroom

The flipped classroom model involves students learning new content independently outside of class through videos or readings, and using class time for collaborative activities, discussions, and application of knowledge.

• Allows for personalized and self-paced learning.
• Maximizes class time for active learning and application.
• Facilitates student-centered and inquiry-based approaches.
• Requires access to technology and resources outside of class.
• May require additional planning and preparation.
• Students may need guidance in navigating self-directed learning.

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Teaching methodologies play a crucial role in shaping the future of society by equipping students with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes they need to succeed. They contribute to the development of critical thinking, problem-solving, creativity, and collaboration skills, which are essential for individuals to thrive in an ever-changing world.

Effective teaching methodologies also foster a love for learning, promote social and emotional development, and help students become responsible and engaged citizens. By incorporating student-centered approaches, teaching methodologies empower learners to take ownership of their education and become lifelong learners.

Educational institutions, such as schools and universities, play a significant role in shaping teaching methodologies. They establish guidelines, curricula, and assessment frameworks that influence teaching practices. Institutions also provide professional development opportunities for educators to enhance their teaching skills and stay updated with current research and best practices.

It is important for institutions to create a supportive and collaborative environment that encourages innovation and experimentation with teaching methodologies. By embracing diverse teaching approaches, institutions can cater to the unique needs of their students and promote inclusive and effective education.

Several factors contribute to educational success, and teaching methodologies are a crucial component. Here are some key factors that influence student learning outcomes:

• Effective Instruction : Well-planned and engaging instruction that aligns with learning objectives and incorporates research-based teaching strategies.
• Teacher-Student Relationship : Positive and supportive relationships between teachers and students that foster trust, motivation, and a sense of belonging.
• Classroom Environment : A safe, inclusive, and well-managed classroom environment that promotes active engagement and collaboration.
• Student Engagement : Active participation and involvement in learning activities that stimulate curiosity and promote deep understanding.
• Assessment and Feedback : Regular and meaningful assessment practices that provide feedback to students and inform instructional decisions.
• Parental Involvement : Collaborative partnerships between teachers, parents, and families that support student learning and well-being.

By considering these factors and implementing effective teaching methodologies, educators can create an optimal learning environment that maximizes student success.

Education studies encompass research and scholarly work on various aspects of teaching and learning. They explore the effectiveness of different teaching methodologies, the impact of educational policies, and the factors that influence student achievement.

Education studies provide valuable insights into the best practices and strategies for effective teaching. Educators can benefit from staying informed about current research in the field to continuously improve their teaching methodologies and enhance student learning outcomes.

Teaching methodologies have evolved over time in response to changing educational philosophies, societal needs, and advancements in technology. Here is a brief overview of the history of teaching methodologies:

• Traditional Methods : In the early years of formal education, teaching was often based on rote memorization and direct instruction.
• Progressive Education : In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, progressive educators like John Dewey advocated for student-centered approaches that focused on hands-on learning and real-world experiences.
• Behaviorism : In the mid-20th century, behaviorism influenced teaching methodologies, emphasizing the use of rewards and punishments to shape student behavior.
• Cognitive Revolution : In the 1960s and 1970s, cognitive psychology led to a shift towards constructivist approaches that emphasized active learning, problem-solving, and critical thinking.
• 21st Century Approaches : In recent years, teaching methodologies have embraced technology-enhanced learning, personalized instruction, and the integration of 21st-century skills.

Today, educators draw from a diverse range of teaching methodologies to meet the needs of their students and create engaging and effective learning experiences.

Teaching methodologies can vary based on the subject, grade level, and individual teaching style. Here are some examples of teaching methodologies:

• Direct Instruction : Lectures, demonstrations, and guided practice.
• Inquiry-Based Learning : Questioning, investigation, and problem-solving.
• Cooperative Learning : Group work and collaboration.
• Differentiated Instruction : Tailoring instruction to meet individual student needs.
• Project-Based Learning : Extended projects that apply knowledge to real-world problems.
• Flipped Classroom : Independent learning outside of class and collaborative activities in class.

As educators, our teaching methodology is a combination of various approaches that cater to the diverse learning needs of our students. We believe in creating a student-centered learning environment that promotes critical thinking, collaboration, and active engagement. Our methodology includes elements of inquiry-based learning, cooperative learning, and differentiated instruction to foster a love for learning and empower students to become lifelong learners.

There is no one-size-fits-all answer to this question, as the best teaching methodology depends on various factors such as the subject, grade level, and individual student needs. However, effective teaching methodologies are those that are student-centered, promote critical thinking, and cater to diverse learning styles. It is important for educators to adapt their teaching methodologies based on the specific needs of their students and the learning outcomes they aim to achieve.

Our learning methodology is centered around active engagement, critical thinking, and collaboration. We believe in providing students with opportunities to explore, question, and discover knowledge through hands-on activities, discussions, and problem-solving. Our methodology encourages students to take ownership of their learning, develop 21st-century skills, and become lifelong learners.

Teaching methodologies have a significant impact on student learning outcomes. Effective teaching methodologies promote student engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills, which are essential for deep understanding and knowledge retention. By catering to diverse learning styles and providing opportunities for active learning, teaching methodologies enhance student motivation, confidence, and overall academic achievement.

Developing a well-rounded teaching methodology is essential for creating a positive and productive learning environment for your students. By incorporating student-centered approaches, promoting critical thinking, and catering to diverse learning styles, you can enhance student engagement, foster a love for learning, and empower students to succeed academically and beyond. Remember to continuously explore and adapt your teaching methodologies to meet the evolving needs of your students and stay updated with the latest research and best practices.

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• https://www.edutopia.org/
• https://www.teachthought.com/
• https://www.learning-theories.com/
• https://www.researchgate.net/

Marti is a seasoned educator and strategist with a passion for fostering inclusive learning environments and empowering students through tailored educational experiences. With her roots as a university tutor—a position she landed during her undergraduate years—Marti has always been driven by the joy of facilitating others' learning journeys.

Holding a Bachelor's degree in Communication alongside a degree in Social Work, she has mastered the art of empathetic communication, enabling her to connect with students on a profound level. Marti’s unique educational background allows her to incorporate holistic approaches into her teaching, addressing not just the academic, but also the emotional and social needs of her students.

Throughout her career, Marti has developed and implemented innovative teaching strategies that cater to diverse learning styles, believing firmly that education should be accessible and engaging for all. Her work on the Teacher Strategies site encapsulates her extensive experience and dedication to education, offering readers insights into effective teaching methods, classroom management techniques, and strategies for fostering inclusive and supportive learning environments.

As an advocate for lifelong learning, Marti continuously seeks to expand her knowledge and skills, ensuring her teaching methods are both evidence-based and cutting edge. Whether through her blog articles on Teacher Strategies or her direct engagement with students, Marti remains committed to enhancing educational outcomes and inspiring the next generation of learners and educators alike.

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Teaching Methods and Strategies: The Complete Guide

You’ve completed your coursework. Student teaching has ended. You’ve donned the cap and gown, crossed the stage, smiled with your diploma and went home to fill out application after application.

Suddenly you are standing in what will be your classroom for the next year and after the excitement of decorating it wears off and you begin lesson planning, you start to notice all of your lessons are executed the same way, just with different material. But that is what you know and what you’ve been taught, so you go with it.

After a while, your students are bored, and so are you. There must be something wrong because this isn’t what you envisioned teaching to be like. There is.

Figuring out the best ways you can deliver information to students can sometimes be even harder than what students go through in discovering how they learn best. The reason is because every single teacher needs a variety of different teaching methods in their theoretical teaching bag to pull from depending on the lesson, the students, and things as seemingly minute as the time the class is and the subject.

Using these different teaching methods, which are rooted in theory of different teaching styles, will not only help teachers reach their full potential, but more importantly engage, motivate and reach the students in their classes, whether in person or online.

Teaching Methods

Teaching methods, or methodology, is a narrower topic because it’s founded in theories and educational psychology. If you have a degree in teaching, you most likely have heard of names like Skinner, Vygotsky , Gardner, Piaget , and Bloom . If their names don’t ring a bell, you should definitely recognize their theories that have become teaching methods. The following are the most common teaching theories.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is the theory that every learner is essentially a “clean slate” to start off and shaped by emotions. People react to stimuli, reactions as well as positive and negative reinforcement, the site states.

Learning Theories names the most popular theorists who ascribed to this theory were Ivan Pavlov, who many people may know with his experiments with dogs. He performed an experiment with dogs that when he rang a bell, the dogs responded to the stimuli; then he applied the idea to humans.

Other popular educational theorists who were part of behaviorism was B.F. Skinner and Albert Bandura .

Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Theory is typically spoken about at the early childhood level because it has to do with critical thinking with the biggest concept being the idea of play, according to Edwin Peel writing for Encyclopedia Britannica . Though Bandura and Lev Vygotsky also contributed to cognitive theory, according to Dr. Norman Herr with California State University , the most popular and first theorist of cognitivism is Piaget.

There are four stages to Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development that he created in 1918. Each stage correlates with a child’s development from infancy to their teenage years.

The first stage is called the Sensorimotor Stage which occurs from birth to 18 months. The reason this is considered cognitive development is because the brain is literally growing through exploration, like squeaking horns, discovering themselves in mirrors or spinning things that click on their floor mats or walkers; creating habits like sleeping with a certain blanket; having reflexes like rubbing their eyes when tired or thumb sucking; and beginning to decipher vocal tones.

The second stage, or the Preoperational Stage, occurs from ages 2 to 7 when toddlers begin to understand and correlate symbols around them, ask a lot of questions, and start forming sentences and conversations, but they haven’t developed perspective yet so empathy does not quite exist yet, the website states. This is the stage when children tend to blurt out honest statements, usually embarrassing their parents, because they don’t understand censoring themselves either.

From ages 7 to 11, children are beginning to problem solve, can have conversations about things they are interested in, are more aware of logic and develop empathy during the Concrete Operational Stage.

The final stage, called the Formal Operational Stage, though by definition ends at age 16, can continue beyond. It involves deeper thinking and abstract thoughts as well as questioning not only what things are but why the way they are is popular, the site states. Many times people entering new stages of their lives like high school, college, or even marriage go through elements of Piaget’s theory, which is why the strategies that come from this method are applicable across all levels of education.

The Multiple Intelligences Theory

The Multiple Intelligences Theory states that people don’t need to be smart in every single discipline to be considered intelligent on paper tests, but that people excel in various disciplines, making them exceptional.

Created in 1983, the former principal in the Scranton School District in Scranton, PA, created eight different intelligences, though since then two others have been debated of whether to be added but have not yet officially, according to the site.

The original eight are musical, spatial, linguistic, mathematical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic and most people have a predominant intelligence followed by others. For those who are musically-inclined either via instruments, vocals, has perfect pitch, can read sheet music or can easily create music has Musical Intelligence.

Being able to see something and rearrange it or imagine it differently is Spatial Intelligence, while being talented with language, writing or avid readers have Linguistic Intelligence. Kinesthetic Intelligence refers to understanding how the body works either anatomically or athletically and Naturalistic Intelligence is having an understanding of nature and elements of the ecosystem.

The final intelligences have to do with personal interactions. Intrapersonal Intelligence is a matter of knowing oneself, one’s limits, and their inner selves while Interpersonal Intelligence is knowing how to handle a variety of other people without conflict or knowing how to resolve it, the site states. There is still an elementary school in Scranton, PA named after their once-principal.

Constructivism

Constructivism is another theory created by Piaget which is used as a foundation for many other educational theories and strategies because constructivism is focused on how people learn. Piaget states in this theory that people learn from their experiences. They learn best through active learning , connect it to their prior knowledge and then digest this information their own way. This theory has created the ideas of student-centered learning in education versus teacher-centered learning.

Universal Design for Learning

The final method is the Universal Design for Learning which has redefined the educational community since its inception in the mid-1980s by David H. Rose. This theory focuses on how teachers need to design their curriculum for their students. This theory really gained traction in the United States in 2004 when it was presented at an international conference and he explained that this theory is based on neuroscience and how the brain processes information, perform tasks and get excited about education.

The theory, known as UDL, advocates for presenting information in multiple ways to enable a variety of learners to understand the information; presenting multiple assessments for students to show what they have learned; and learn and utilize a student’s own interests to motivate them to learn, the site states. This theory also discussed incorporating technology in the classroom and ways to educate students in the digital age.

Teaching Styles

From each of the educational theories, teachers extract and develop a plethora of different teaching styles, or strategies. Instructors must have a large and varied arsenal of strategies to use weekly and even daily in order to build rapport, keep students engaged and even keep instructors from getting bored with their own material. These can be applicable to all teaching levels, but adaptations must be made based on the student’s age and level of development.

Differentiated instruction is one of the most popular teaching strategies, which means that teachers adjust the curriculum for a lesson, unit or even entire term in a way that engages all learners in various ways, according to Chapter 2 of the book Instructional Process and Concepts in Theory and Practice by Celal Akdeniz . This means changing one’s teaching styles constantly to fit not only the material but more importantly, the students based on their learning styles.

Learning styles are the ways in which students learn best. The most popular types are visual, audio, kinesthetic and read/write , though others include global as another type of learner, according to Akdeniz . For some, they may seem self-explanatory. Visual learners learn best by watching the instruction or a demonstration; audio learners need to hear a lesson; kinesthetic learners learn by doing, or are hands-on learners; read/write learners to best by reading textbooks and writing notes; and global learners need material to be applied to their real lives, according to The Library of Congress .

There are many activities available to instructors that enable their students to find out what kind of learner they are. Typically students have a main style with a close runner-up, which enables them to learn best a certain way but they can also learn material in an additional way.

When an instructor knows their students and what types of learners are in their classroom, instructors are able to then differentiate their instruction and assignments to those learning types, according to Akdeniz and The Library of Congress. Learn more about different learning styles.

When teaching new material to any type of learner, is it important to utilize a strategy called scaffolding . Scaffolding is based on a student’s prior knowledge and building a lesson, unit or course from the most foundational pieces and with each step make the information more complicated, according to an article by Jerry Webster .

To scaffold well, a teacher must take a personal interest in their students to learn not only what their prior knowledge is but their strengths as well. This will enable an instructor to base new information around their strengths and use positive reinforcement when mistakes are made with the new material.

There is an unfortunate concept in teaching called “teach to the middle” where instructors target their lessons to the average ability of the students in their classroom, leaving slower students frustrated and confused, and above average students frustrated and bored. This often results in the lower- and higher-level students scoring poorly and a teacher with no idea why.

The remedy for this is a strategy called blended learning where differentiated instruction is occurring simultaneously in the classroom to target all learners, according to author and educator Juliana Finegan . In order to be successful at blended learning, teachers once again need to know their students, how they learn and their strengths and weaknesses, according to Finegan.

Blended learning can include combining several learning styles into one lesson like lecturing from a PowerPoint – not reading the information on the slides — that includes cartoons and music associations while the students have the print-outs. The lecture can include real-life examples and stories of what the instructor encountered and what the students may encounter. That example incorporates four learning styles and misses kinesthetic, but the activity afterwards can be solely kinesthetic.

A huge component of blended learning is technology. Technology enables students to set their own pace and access the resources they want and need based on their level of understanding, according to The Library of Congress . It can be used three different ways in education which include face-to-face, synchronously or asynchronously . Technology used with the student in the classroom where the teacher can answer questions while being in the student’s physical presence is known as face-to-face.

Synchronous learning is when students are learning information online and have a teacher live with them online at the same time, but through a live chat or video conferencing program, like Skype, or Zoom, according to The Library of Congress.

Finally, asynchronous learning is when students take a course or element of a course online, like a test or assignment, as it fits into their own schedule, but a teacher is not online with them at the time they are completing or submitting the work. Teachers are still accessible through asynchronous learning but typically via email or a scheduled chat meeting, states the Library of Congress.

The final strategy to be discussed actually incorporates a few teaching strategies, so it’s almost like blended teaching. It starts with a concept that has numerous labels such as student-centered learning, learner-centered pedagogy, and teacher-as-tutor but all mean that an instructor revolves lessons around the students and ensures that students take a participatory role in the learning process, known as active learning, according to the Learning Portal .

In this model, a teacher is just a facilitator, meaning that they have created the lesson as well as the structure for learning, but the students themselves become the teachers or create their own knowledge, the Learning Portal says. As this is occurring, the instructor is circulating the room working as a one-on-one resource, tutor or guide, according to author Sara Sanchez Alonso from Yale’s Center for Teaching and Learning. For this to work well and instructors be successful one-on-one and planning these lessons, it’s essential that they have taken the time to know their students’ history and prior knowledge, otherwise it can end up to be an exercise in futility, Alonso said.

Some activities teachers can use are by putting students in groups and assigning each student a role within the group, creating reading buddies or literature circles, making games out of the material with individual white boards, create different stations within the classroom for different skill levels or interest in a lesson or find ways to get students to get up out of their seats and moving, offers Fortheteachers.org .

There are so many different methodologies and strategies that go into becoming an effective instructor. A consistent theme throughout all of these is for a teacher to take the time to know their students because they care, not because they have to. When an instructor knows the stories behind the students, they are able to design lessons that are more fun, more meaningful, and more effective because they were designed with the students’ best interests in mind.

There are plenty of pre-made lessons, activities and tests available online and from textbook publishers that any teacher could use. But you need to decide if you want to be the original teacher who makes a significant impact on your students, or a pre-made teacher a student needs to get through.

Read Also: – Blended Learning Guide – Collaborative Learning Guide – Flipped Classroom Guide – Game Based Learning Guide – Gamification in Education Guide – Holistic Education Guide – Maker Education Guide – Personalized Learning Guide – Place-Based Education Guide – Project-Based Learning Guide – Scaffolding in Education Guide – Social-Emotional Learning Guide

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• Discover Your Learning Style – Comprehensive Guide on Different Learning Styles
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Teaching Methods

Choosing optimal methods to support learning outcomes.

On this page:

The importance of teaching methods.

Teaching methods are the broader techniques used to help students achieve learning outcomes, while activities are the different ways of implementing these methods. Teaching methods help students:

• master the content of the course
• learn how to apply the content in particular contexts

Instructors should identify which teaching methods will properly support a particular learning outcome. Its effectiveness depends on this alignment. To make the most appropriate choice, an instructor should consider learning outcomes, student needs and the learning environment.

Consider the following example:

• Learning outcome: Solve a complex math equation.
• Learning environment: An in person, upper-level math course with 20 students.
• Teaching method: Guided instruction. First, the instructor facilitates learning by modeling and scaffolding. Students take time to  ask questions and receive clarifications. Next, students practice applying these skills together and then independently. The instructor uses formative assessment to check for understanding.

This example demonstrates alignment of what the instructor wants students to do, and how they are supported in these tasks. If the instructor choses a different teaching method, such as a traditional lecture, students would need to process the lecture’s content and apply principles simultaneously. This is very difficult to do and would lead to less successful outcomes.

Choosing the appropriate teaching method brings instruction to life while encouraging students to actively engage with content and develop their knowledge and skills.

The chart below provides a number of teaching methods to choose from. Teaching methods vary in their approach, some are more student-centered while others are more instructor centered, and you will see this reflected in the chart. Choose methods that will best guide your students to achieve the learning outcomes you’ve set and remember that your teaching approach, teaching methods and activities all work together.

Table adapted from: Nilson (2016)

Choose Your Methods

Using the Course Design Template   explore the aspects that will likely affect your course.

• Step 1: Review your learning outcomes.
• Step 2: Identify the teaching methods that best align to these learning outcomes and fill in the appropriate column.
• Step 3: Consider possible activities which will next be examined in further detail.

Now that you’ve reviewed a variety of teaching methods and considered which ones align with your learning outcomes, the next step is to consider activities.

• Nilson, L. B. (2016). Teaching at Its Best: A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors (Fourth). John Wiley & Sons.

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Teaching Methods: Definition, Types, Best Teaching Methods For All Levels

Teaching methods, as it pertains to education, are the techniques and strategies teachers use to help students succeed. Teaching methods can be classified into three categories: instructional design (teacher-led), student-centered (learner-directed), and collaborative/cooperative (group-oriented).

Learning is a process that can be assisted by various methods and techniques. The most common and best method of teaching and learning is the lectures method. Lectures are one of the many different teaching methods used to teach students about the course content. This blog post will discuss what teaching methods are, how they work, and other various types of teaching methods!

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What is a Teaching Method?

The teaching method is the strategy used to convey information for students to learn, it involves careful educational evaluation and assessments in ensuring the right knowledge is passed on to the pupils. Teaching methods can vary from institution to institution, but lectures are a standard method used in the classroom. The best method of teaching focuses on the best way to convey information for students of all different types. However, lectures are one of the more effective ways to do this because they allow instructors to use the best teaching method possible by covering a lot of ground for their lessons to be clearly understood!

A teaching method is a specific way in which teachers teach students. There are many different types and styles of education that teachers use when they interact with students. These methods may be used by either private or public school educators depending on their personal preference or state requirements for teacher certification. The type of education title you obtain will also depend upon your choice of educational style since there are several titles associated with each particular method. However, there are certain vital factors that you should consider before selecting your favorite technique for pedagogy, such as:

• What age group will be studying?
• What level of education does everyone have?
• Are they beginners or experts in their field already?
• How much time do I have to work with them, and how long can my attention span last when working individually/in groups?
• Do I want more information about the topic than just the basics. So, is it an educational experience, or do I need something fun and entertaining for people who don’t know anything about the subject matter at hand?

9 Types of Teaching Methods

1. lecture mode.

Lecture learning is one of the most common methods for teaching and learning in higher institutions of seminar. This method involves a teacher standing in front of students and talking about course content they need to know or understand. Some benefits of lectures include: students can ask questions if they do not understand something, teachers have complete control over what information gets shared with students during this type of instruction, and sometimes allow time so students can take notes on important concepts taught by the instructor. However, some challenges are associated with lecture learning, including how it may be boring for students who prefer more hands-on activities and lack engagement between instructors and their learners.

The lecture method help to break the topic into different segments and present them in smaller chunks. Instructors can use PowerPoint slides, videos, or online resources to help teach students about the course content. In addition, lecture methods are best used when instructors need more time to prepare for their lessons . Lectures can also be best used when instructors need to cover a lot of material in the shortest amount of time possible!

How Do Lectures Work?

Lectures work best when instructors have a lot of material to cover in the classroom. This method is best used when there isn’t enough time for students to engage with their course content from other perspectives, such as through group projects, small group activities, or hands-on learning. Lecture methods are best taught by teachers who can keep students’ attention and clearly share information so everyone can understand what is being said.

2. Problem Solving

This method of teaching involves having students work on specific problems or challenges directly related to course content being taught in class. Some benefits include increased engagement, students learning more deeply about the material, and allowing for more hands-on activities with instructors who may be standing at a whiteboard working through solutions together with their learners. However, there are some cons associated with this form, including the time needed for preparation if not familiarized beforehand with the topic/concepts covered during instruction. It can also be challenging to monitor all learners’ progress.

How Does Problem Solving Work?

Problem-solving involves the instructor presenting a problem or challenge to the students and then breaking up into small groups to work together on finding solutions. This method of teaching best suits visual, auditory, or kinesthetic learners because it allows students to engage with the material in different ways. During this type of instruction, teachers should closely monitor student progress, so all individuals make significant contributions and stay on task. They should also be engaged throughout each lesson period.

3. Role Playing

This teaching method involves having students dress up as characters and act out different situations/scenarios related to the material being taught at hand. Some benefits include increased engagement, allowing for hands-on activities with instructors who may participate, and opportunities for student practice before applying these newly learned skills outside their classroom. However, role-playing challenges include the time needed for preparation if not familiarized beforehand with the topic/concepts covered during instruction.

How Does Role-Playing Work?

The best way that role-playing can work is by allowing the instructor to present topics or concepts covered during the lecture time frame while also incorporating small groups into acting out scenarios related to these lessons. During this type of instruction, teachers should monitor student progress closely, so all individuals make significant contributions and everyone stays on task.

4. Group Work

Group work involves having students work with their classmates cooperatively on different assignments related to the material they are being taught at hand. Some benefits include increased engagement and learning more deeply about concepts through collaboration. However, there are drawbacks associated with group work, including the time needed for students’ preparation if not familiarized beforehand with the topic/concepts.

How does group work functions best in a learning environment?

First, students must be familiarized beforehand with the concepts and content they will learn. Then instructors must give their students specific instructions on how best to complete an assignment or project so that each student can best participate and contribute to the overall group effort. Students should also be given time for individual learning before applying these newly learned skills during group work.

5. Games Method of Teaching

Another type of teaching method includes games or activities. It involves having students participate in interactive elements such as board games related to the concepts being taught. Some benefits include increased engagement, learning more deeply about the material through hands-on activities with instructors who may actively participate, and shortening lesson times.

Games can be used to reinforce material that students have already learned. For example, after a lecture has been given on the French Revolution and its causes, instructors may choose to play Jeopardy with their classes using terms like “monarchy,” “revolution,” and other concepts discussed in the lecture. It helps students review and retain information from a previous lesson while encouraging them to participate with one another.

How Does The Game Method of Teaching Work?

In this teaching approach, students are divided into groups. Each group has a different task in the game that they must complete before receiving points or “credits” to move on in their games. For example, one group might have to identify specific countries or continents on the board in a geography course while another has to list capital cities. Instructors can incorporate concepts into these games by rewarding groups who correctly answer questions with more credits than other teams.

6. Flipped Classroom

How does flipped classroom work.

The flipped classroom method of teaching has allowed students to familiarize themselves with course materials outside of class time to participate more actively during classroom lectures. Several benefits come along with this form of learning, including increased student engagement and instructor feedback during the lesson itself. This method also provides students more opportunities for practice before applying what they have learned to other tasks outside their classroom environment. However, there are some difficulties associated with using the flipped class model as well. One major drawback is that instructors may not have enough time to prepare for their lectures because they are limited by the amount of preparation they can do before students come into class. Additionally, students may not be as closely monitored by their instructors because they now have the responsibility of completing homework assignments on their own.

7. Self-Paced Learning

In a self-paced learning environment, there is no set time when the class meets. When using this method, students take responsibility for their learning.

In these environments, instructors offer little to no guidance or feedback during instruction, allowing students to learn independently. Some benefits include increased engagement and student independence in terms of doing coursework. It can also be seen as giving self-study opportunities that previously would not have been available due to lack of instructor availability/time. However, some challenges are associated with this form, including less time spent together outside class which could lead to feelings of isolation or loneliness. Students may not always understand the concepts and may have to take time out of their day to seek help from peers. Many examples of student projects completed using self-paced learning include research papers, science fairs, presentations, art projects, etc.

How Does Self-Paced Learning Work?

Instructors create self-paced learning courses to help students complete coursework on their own time. Students work at their own pace and meet with an instructor when they need assistance understanding a concept or completing a major assignment/project.

Self-paced learning is unique in that it doesn’t rely on meetings or set times for students and instructors to meet. Students are responsible for working independently, making this method different from other methods where the instructor schedules classes. This teaching method also allows students with busy schedules more flexibility, as they can work on coursework at their own pace without having to miss class due to conflicting work/school schedules.

8. Student-Centered Learning

Finally, there is another approach called “Student-Centered Learning”. In this environment, instructors are more hands-off during lectures, allowing students to discuss topics at hand. Some benefits include increased engagement among classmates as it creates a classroom community feeling where everyone feels comfortable being themselves. However, some challenges are associated with this form. They include a lack of structure, which can also be seen as overwhelming by some learners who prefer clear guidelines on what needs completing throughout the semester. Also, students may feel as though they have not been given clear instructions on what to do, which may lead them to feelings of confusion or lack of motivation.

How Does Student-Centered Learning Work?

Some instructors may be highly involved in lecture sessions, while others give students more opportunities to work together or ask questions. The latter is generally the case when teaching introductory courses, which require less guidance than advanced topics. In this type of learning environment, students are expected to be active members in learning. The instructor needs to ensure that each student has an equal opportunity to master course content.

9. Montessori Teaching Method

This is the new cool for elementary schools. That is from pre-school to nursery and down to primary school level. It is now the most adopted method of teaching practiced amongst educationists. This method of teaching involves using creative tools that physically and mentally help kids to easily understand and memorize what is being taught. Montessori teachers are highly trained tutors who know how to impart knowledge into the kids using the Montessori teaching materials. Amongst all the teaching methods for Nursery and Primary school level, the Montessori method of teaching is the best.

A typical Montessori class room.

Having defined Teaching method, listed and explained in full, the types of teaching method, we can deduce from above the best method of teaching.

What is Best Method of Teaching?

The best method depends on various factors and circumstances. all teaching methods listed above depends on the institutional grade which in-turn has a direct relationship with the mental capacity of the students or pupils being taught. For example, for nursery and primary school level otherwise known as the elementary of foundational level, the Montessori method of teaching is the best due to the level of assimilation.

Gaming method is another practical method of teaching that best suits primary and secondary school level. The lecture mode of teaching is best suitable for a larger crowd because its conveys the lecturer’s message and students jot down. Lectures are one of the best methods of teaching for higher institution because they allow instructors to convey information quickly and efficiently. There is no better way to explain something than by doing it yourself! Having an instructor explain course content firsthand is beneficial for students who may be visual learners, auditory learners, or any other type of learner.

As said earlier, choosing the best teaching method is relative and it depends on the circumstance and environment that best suits convey seamlessly the message being passed to the students.

Various teaching methods can be used when instructing students at all levels of education, including elementary school through university or college-level courses. We can use lectures, games, activities, demonstrations, and many other teaching methods in the classroom to teach students about concepts and ideas that will hopefully remain for a long time. In addition to these traditional methods, exploring  top masterclass courses  can offer students a unique opportunity to learn from leading experts in various fields, further enriching their educational journey.

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What Is a Teaching Methodology?

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A teaching methodology is essentially the way in which a teacher chooses to explain or teach material to students so they can learn the material. There are many different methodologies that can be utilized by a teacher, and the methods chosen often depend on the educational philosophy and preferences of a teacher. It is also not uncommon for a teacher to utilize multiple methods within a single lesson or over the course of several lessons. A methodology of teaching can include the use of lecturing, group or small group discussion activities, and engaging students as teachers for their peers.

It is important to understand that a teaching methodology is not the same as an educational philosophy for a teacher, though they can often be related. The philosophy a teacher chooses usually indicates how the teacher believes students can best learn new material, and the ways in which students and teachers should relate and interact in the classroom. This philosophy often impacts the choices a teacher can make regarding which teaching methodology or methodologies he or she chooses to use, but they are not necessarily directly connected. Teachers commonly refer to their preferred teaching methods and philosophies together, to give other teachers or students an understanding of their approach to education.

While a number of different methodologies can be used by a teacher, one common and traditional teaching method is often referred to as lecturing or explaining. This is essentially an approach to education that regards the teacher as an expert on a subject, and he or she provides information to students who are expected to absorb and understand the material. Sometimes derisively referred to as a “sage on the stage” approach, this teaching methodology has lost favor in recent years with many instructors. Even those teachers who do still use this method often supplement it with other methodologies.

Some increasingly popular methodologies focus on the importance of the student in the learning process. One such teaching methodology utilizes group discussions with an entire classroom, or smaller group discussions with numerous small groups at once. Students are encouraged to take responsibility for their education and to be active participants in the learning process.

This can also be utilized with a teaching methodology in which students take on the role of teacher to instruct other students in the class. Small group discussions, for example, are often followed by larger group discussions in which each group presents what they learned or discussed to the rest of the class. Similarly, individual students may be charged with researching a particular subject, and then teaching that material to the other students in the class.

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methodology

Definition of methodology

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Methodology and Science

The methodology employed in an experiment is essential to its success, and bad methodology has spoiled thousands of research projects. So whenever a piece of research is published in a scientific or medical journal, the researchers always carefully describe their methodology; otherwise, other scientists couldn't possibly judge the quality of what they've done.

Examples of methodology in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'methodology.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

New Latin methodologia , from Latin methodus + -logia -logy

1800, in the meaning defined at sense 1

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Teaching Methodologies

• by teachmint@wp

What is Teaching Method Definition? 

Teaching methodologies refer to a set of practices and principles used by teachers to make the process of teaching and learning highly effective for their students. Teaching methodologies, also known as teaching methods, are usually also based on various beliefs regarding the nature of the language used, and how it is learned.

In a classroom, teachers usually apply a combination of different teaching methods to better fit the needs of that particular batch of students. These methods can be customized to solve problems that are faced specifically by the students in reference. Apart from that, teaching methodologies are also based on different goals that learners may have from that particular course. 

For example, if the goal of an arts and crafts class is to provide refreshments to students, the teaching methodologies will be based on such a goal. Alternately, if the goal of an arts and crafts class is to help students master that particular art/craft form, then the teaching method will change drastically.

Many factors help teachers decide which methodologies to use while conducting their classes. Some of the factors include the age group of the students attending the class, the gender of students, the experience in the said lesson or coursework of the students, as well as their expectations and interests.

Now that you understand what is teaching method let’s know some of its time. Here are some of the teaching methods:

Lecture Method- The teacher presents information to students through oral presentation. This is the traditional method of teaching.

Active Learning- Students participate actively in the learning process through discussions, group activities, and hands-on experiences.

Socratic Method- Involves asking questions to stimulate critical thinking and encourage students to arrive at conclusions independently. This is used to improve independent thinking.

Project-Based Learning – Students engage in extended projects or tasks that require research, problem-solving, and creativity.

Flipped Classroom – Students study the instructional content at home through multimedia resources and use classroom time for discussions and application of knowledge.

Collaborative Learning – In this teaching method definition students learn by working in groups to complete tasks, solve problems, and learn from each other.

Role-Playing – Students act out scenarios or characters to understand complex concepts or practice interpersonal skills.

Demonstration Method: The teacher demonstrates a process or procedure to help students understand practical applications.

The selection of a teaching method depends on the subject matter, the level at which the student wants to engage, the learning objectives, and the overall classroom environment. A skilled teacher will often use a combination of various teaching methods to create an effective and encouraging learning curve for their students. The teacher needs to know what is  teaching method and how it has to be used.

Direct instruction, differentiated instruction, personalized learning, flipped classroom, project-based learning, cooperative learning, gamification, etc. are some of the types of teaching methodologies.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Methodologies for Conducting Education Research

Introduction, general overviews.

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Methodologies for Conducting Education Research by Marisa Cannata LAST REVIEWED: 15 December 2011 LAST MODIFIED: 15 December 2011 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0061

Education is a diverse field and methodologies used in education research are necessarily diverse. The reasons for the methodological diversity of education research are many, including the fact that the field of education is composed of a multitude of disciplines and tensions between basic and applied research. For example, accepted methods of systemic inquiry in history, sociology, economics, and psychology vary, yet all of these disciplines help answer important questions posed in education. This methodological diversity has led to debates about the quality of education research and the perception of shifting standards of quality research. The citations selected for inclusion in this article provide a broad overview of methodologies and discussions of quality research standards across the different types of questions posed in educational research. The citations represent summaries of ongoing debates, articles or books that have had a significant influence on education research, and guides to those who wish to implement particular methodologies. Most of the sections focus on specific methodologies and provide advice or examples for studies employing these methodologies.

The interdisciplinary nature of education research has implications for education research. There is no single best research design for all questions that guide education research. Even through many often heated debates about methodologies, the common strand is that research designs should follow the research questions. The following works offer an introduction to the debates, divides, and difficulties of education research. Schoenfeld 1999 , Mitchell and Haro 1999 , and Shulman 1988 provide perspectives on diversity within the field of education and the implications of this diversity on the debates about education research and difficulties conducting such research. National Research Council 2002 outlines the principles of scientific inquiry and how they apply to education. Published around the time No Child Left Behind required education policies to be based on scientific research, this book laid the foundation for much of the current emphasis of experimental and quasi-experimental research in education. To read another perspective on defining good education research, readers may turn to Hostetler 2005 . Readers who want a general overview of various methodologies in education research and directions on how to choose between them should read Creswell 2009 and Green, et al. 2006 . The American Educational Research Association (AERA), the main professional association focused on education research, has developed standards for how to report methods and findings in empirical studies. Those wishing to follow those standards should consult American Educational Research Association 2006 .

American Educational Research Association. 2006. Standards for reporting on empirical social science research in AERA publications. Educational Researcher 35.6: 33–40.

DOI: 10.3102/0013189X035006033

The American Educational Research Association is the professional association for researchers in education. Publications by AERA are a well-regarded source of research. This article outlines the requirements for reporting original research in AERA publications.

Creswell, J. W. 2009. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches . 3d ed. Los Angeles: SAGE.

Presents an overview of qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods research designs, including how to choose the design based on the research question. This book is particularly helpful for those who want to design mixed-methods studies.

Green, J. L., G. Camilli, and P. B. Elmore. 2006. Handbook of complementary methods for research in education . Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Provides a broad overview of several methods of educational research. The first part provides an overview of issues that cut across specific methodologies, and subsequent chapters delve into particular research approaches.

Hostetler, K. 2005. What is “good” education research? Educational Researcher 34.6: 16–21.

DOI: 10.3102/0013189X034006016

Goes beyond methodological concerns to argue that “good” educational research should also consider the conception of human well-being. By using a philosophical lens on debates about quality education research, this article is useful for moving beyond qualitative-quantitative divides.

Mitchell, T. R., and A. Haro. 1999. Poles apart: Reconciling the dichotomies in education research. In Issues in education research . Edited by E. C. Lagemann and L. S. Shulman, 42–62. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Chapter outlines several dichotomies in education research, including the tension between applied research and basic research and between understanding the purposes of education and the processes of education.

National Research Council. 2002. Scientific research in education . Edited by R. J. Shavelson and L. Towne. Committee on Scientific Principles for Education Research. Center for Education. Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

This book was released around the time the No Child Left Behind law directed that policy decisions should be guided by scientific research. It is credited with starting the current debate about methods in educational research and the preference for experimental studies.

Schoenfeld, A. H. 1999. The core, the canon, and the development of research skills. Issues in the preparation of education researchers. In Issues in education research . Edited by E. C. Lagemann and L. S. Shulman, 166–202. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Describes difficulties in preparing educational researchers due to the lack of a core and a canon in education. While the focus is on preparing researchers, it provides valuable insight into why debates over education research persist.

Shulman, L. S. 1988. Disciplines of inquiry in education: An overview. In Complementary methods for research in education . Edited by R. M. Jaeger, 3–17. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

Outlines what distinguishes research from other modes of disciplined inquiry and the relationship between academic disciplines, guiding questions, and methods of inquiry.

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Teaching Learning Methods

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• First Online: 23 November 2019

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• Ane Landøy   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8589-2789 4 ,
• Daniela Popa   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4538-7136 5 &
• Angela Repanovici   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8748-5332 6  

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After completing this learning unit, you will be able to:

Identify the characteristics of each method;

Differentiate between types of teaching and learning methods;

Argue the necessity of the adequacy of a didactic method to the proposed learning approach.

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• Active-participatory teaching methods
• Graphical viewing methods
• Metacognition facilitation methods

Problem solving methods

In this chapter we present an overview of pedagogical perspective from which we interpreted teaching information literacy. In order to achieve an effective teaching, we combined the techniques and methods considered classic with the modern ones (Blummer 2009 ). But the literature highlights that not only the technical aspects of a training determine the achievement of educational goals (Mackey and Jacobson  2007 ; Harkins et al. 2011 ). The human resource is a very important factor. Thus we believe that team teaching (teacher and librarian), creating a curriculum designed by a team of specialists information literacy, librarians and experts in teaching and learning are essential to achieve effective teaching learning. This belief was the basis of the collaboration between the authors of this book, combining the different areas of expertise to produce a product that can be considered, hopefully, a useful help to the trainer.

The way we teach is influenced by the way we perceive learning. Learning theories are closely related to IQ theories. The latter highlights the existence of a general intelligence that determines the level of development of learning capacity (Muijs and Reynolds 2017 ) as well as the existence of multiple intelligences (Gardner 1987 ).

One of the most popular classifications of learning theories has as a main criterion the historical period in which these theories and paradigms of psychology emerged. From this point of view, we group the theories of learning into: behavioural, cognitive, humanistic, and constructivist.

The functions that these theories fulfil are:

Informational, referential , giving an overview of the described reality;

Explanatory trying to answer the question of why the phenomenon of learning occurs;

Predictive or anticipatory through which can be predicted phenomena that cannot be explained in themselves;

Systematisers summarising a substantial amount of information in order to make theoretical generalisations; and

Praxiological, normative and prescriptive allowing practitioners to use certain methodological guidelines (Panţuru 2010 ).

Learning patterns are derived from learning theories. The most discussed are: behavioural models, the direct training model, models centred on information processing, person-centred models, models centred on a social dimension, the mastery learning model, and the modular approach model.

Training models guide the manner of implementing of teaching strategies. Didactical or Educational Strategies are those that designate the manner of pedagogical action, in order to achieve predetermined goals. Depending on the scope of the concept, we find the existence of two types of strategies: the macro type (developed for medium and long time periods) and the micro type (built for short time periods).

Structurally, teaching strategies consist of:

Models of learning experiences;

Learners’ learning styles;

Learner motivation for learning;

Methods and training procedures used in the didactic approach ;

The resources available for education;

Specific information content;

Particularities of learning tasks;

Forms of organising the teaching activity; and

Type of assessment considered (Bocos and Jucan 2008 ).

10.1 Teaching Strategies

Teaching strategies become appropriate to an educational approach by choosing them according to certain criteria such as:

The pedagogical conception of the teacher dependent on the paradigms on which he bases his opinions;

The pedagogical conception of the historical period to which reference is made, the trends in pedagogical practice;

Didactic principles that delineate the educational process;

Competencies to be developed;

Age and pupil’s level of schooling;

Informational specific of the specialised discipline;

Psychosocial characteristics of the group or class of students;

The time set for achieving the objectives; and

The specificity of the school unit to which the class or group of students belongs.

By degree of generality :

General strategies (used in multiple learning situations or school disciplines); and

Particular strategies (specific to less generalisable approaches, to specific disciplines);

According to the field of predominant instructional activities and the nature of operational objectives (Iucu 2005 ):

Cognitive strategies;

Psychomotor or action strategies;

Emotional strategies; and

Mixed strategies;

By the logic and strategies of student’s thinking (Cerghit 2002 ):

Inductive strategies;

Deductive strategies (axiomatic);

Analogue strategies;

Transductive strategies; and

By the level of directive/non-directive of learning :

Algorithmic/prescriptive strategies :

Explanatory-reproductive (expositive);

Explanatory-intuitive (demonstrative);

Algorithmic; and

Programmed;

Heuristic/non-algorithmic strategies :

Explanatory-investigatory (semi-disciplined discovery);

Conversation-heuristic;

Independent discovery;

Problematised;

Investigative observation;

Inductive-experimental; and

Mixed strategies (Bocos and Jucan 2008 )

Algoritmico-heuristic.

10.2 Methods and Training Procedures

The methods and the training procedures used in the didactic approach are elements of a didactic strategy. Although many other structural elements of educational strategy are equally important, field practitioners tend to focus especially on didactic methods as the visible part of the didactic iceberg. We intended to invite the reader of this paper to reflection, presenting very briefly some of the most well-known didactic strategies to discover the importance and interdependence of each element of the strategy with the others.

The method is a term of Greek origin “methodos” (“metha” translating to through and “odos” meaning direction, road ), namely it can be translated by the phrase “the way to”. The didactic method is a way through which the teacher conducts and organises the training of the trainees.

We define the method as “the assembly or the system of processes or modes of execution of the operations involved in the learning process, integrated into a single flow of action, in order to achieve the objectives proposed” (Cerghit 2006 , p. 46). The degree of freedom and of directing depends on the pedagogical conception at the core of the pedagogical approach.

It is recommended that the choice of teaching-learning methods to be made according to training objectives, the skills of the trainees and trainer and the information content to be mastered.

At present, pedagogues prefer less structured approaches, ambiguous contexts that allow students to discover by themselves the most appropriate way to introduce new information into their own knowledge systems. Although this orientation is predominant, the student-centered curriculum, literature is abundant in studies that still call into question a student centered approach (Garrett 2008 ; Sawant and Rizvi 2015 ; Jacobs et al. 2016 ).

The functions which teaching-learning methods carry out are:

The cognitive function , representing the way of access to knowledge, and information, necessary for its plenary development;

The formative-educational function through exercising skills, certain motor and psychic functions at the same time as discovering scientific facts;

The motivational function inspiring the student, transforming the learning activity into an attractive, stimulating activity;

The instrumental function allows the method to be positioned between the objectives and the results of the didactic activity, being a working tool, a means to efficiently achieve the plan and achieve the intended purpose; and

The normative function of optimising action is highlighted by the prescriptions, rules and phases that the method brings in achieving the objective (Cerghit 2006 ).

10.2.1 The Relationship Between the Method and Procedure

Some of the constituent elements of the methods are training procedures. These are required operations chained into a hierarchical and logical structure to ensure the effectiveness of the teaching method. Between the method and procedure there are subordinate relationships, with structural and functional connotations. Sometimes a method can become a procedure if it is used for a short period of time. A relevant example is that of the explanation method. Rarely, the method is used as the main approach of a lesson, but often, regardless of the method used, we use explanation in a training process.

10.3 Classifications of Teaching—Learning Methods

There are various classifications in the literature according to different criteria. Due to the multiple functions that methods can perform as well as the different variants they may have, the rankings in certain categories are relative. Thus, a method may belong to different categories, depending on classification criteria. The most popular classifications have as main criteria: the person/persons on whom the teaching activity is centered, the type of training/lesson, the type of activity predominantly targeted, the degree of activism/passivity of the pupils, the preponderant means of communication (oral, written).

We continue by presenting a classification of teaching and learning methods, which contains examples of methods in certain categories, without claiming to be exhaustive.

By the criterion of the persons on whom the teaching activity is centered or by degree of student activity:

Centred on the teacher—expository methods :

Lecture/exposure;

Story telling;

Explanation; or

Instruction.

Focused on the interaction between teacher and student

Conversation;

Collective discussion;

Problem solving;

Troubleshooting;

Demonstration;

Case analysis or study; or

Didactic game.

Student centred or active-participatory methods :

Methods of organising information and graphic visualisation:

Cube method;

Method of mosaic or reciprocal teaching;

Conceptual map;

Diagrams; or

Training on simulator.

Methods of stimulating creativity:

Brainstorming;

Philips 6–6;

6/3/5 Technique;

SINECTICA; or

Panel discussions.

Methods to facilitate metacognition:

The Know/Want/Learn method;

Reflective reading;

Walking through the pictures; or

The Learning Log.

10.4 Descriptions of the Methods Used in the Examples in Previous Chapters

Expository Methods :

It is considered a traditional, verbal, and exponential didactic method. Although some authors treat the lecture differently from exposure, the great similarities between them lead us to treat them together. Pedagogical practice highlights several forms of lecture according to the age of educators, their life experience, exposure time and scientific discipline: school lecture story, explanation, university lecture, lecture with opponent, and lecture—debate.

Except for the lecture with an opponent, the method involves passing a consistent volume of information in a verbal form in a monologue from the teacher to the students. As it generates a high degree of passivity among students, exposure methods have been strongly criticised but have also experienced improvements following these criticisms.

The school lecture requires the presentation of a series of ideas, theories, interpretations of scientific aspects, allowing the formation of a coherent image of the designated reality.

The story is used predominantly in educational contexts where trainees have limited life experience. It consists in presenting the information in a narrative form, respecting a sequence of events.

The explanation is an presentation in which rational logical reasoning is obvious, clarifying blocks of information such as theorems, or scientific laws.

The university lecture focuses more on descriptive—explanatory presentation of the results of recent scientific research, due to the fact that the particularities of the age and the level of education of the participants is different. The time allocated to it is longer than for the other exposure methods.

Lecture with an opponent involves the intervention of another teacher or a well-informed student by asking questions or requesting additional information. It creates an effect as in a role play that ensures dynamism of presentation.

The lecture—the debate is based on the teacher’s presentation of essential information and its deepening through debate with the students. The success of the method is requires that the target audience should have a minimum knowledge in advance.

In an attempt to reduce its limits, several conditions have been observed to achieve a high level of efficiency:

Information content should be logically connected, essentialised, without redundant information;

The quantity of information is appropriate to the psycho-pedagogical peculiarities of the educated;

Use examples to connect theory to practice;

Use language appropriate to the audience’s competency, explaining less-known scientific terms;

Maintaining an optimal verbal rhythm (approximately 60–70 words per minute) and an intensity adapted to the particularities of the audience;

Increased attention to expressive elements of verbal and nonverbal communication;

Maintaining visual contact with the public, adjusting speech according to their reactions;

Use of means of scientific expression to help communication (diagrams, schemes, or semantic maps);

Providing recapitulative loops to maintain the logical connection of ideas; and

Providing breaks or alternating scientific discourse with less formal or fun aspects that allow defocusing and refocusing the audience’s attention.

Advantages of a lecture :

A consistent amount of knowledge can be transmitted within a relatively short time frame;

Stimulates curiosity and stimulates pupils’ interest in the subject;

It presents a coherent presentation model and manner to systematise a theme and organise information;

Pupils know modalities to express and express themselves; and

Students can receive additional information that helps explain the interpretation of a scientific reality.

Disadvantages of lecture :

Presents fewer formative and more informative links;

Generates passivity among students;

Mild loss of attention and boredom;

Does not allow individualising the pedagogical discourse;

Induces a high degree of uniformity in behaviour; and

Few opportunities to check understanding of the discourse.

Conversation

Conversation consists in the didactic use of the questions through in-depth examination of a theme, capitalising on pupils’ answers in order to develop the logical reasoning of thinking. The conversation has several forms including: heuristic, examiner, collective discussion, and debate.

In its application, it is necessary to observe several conditions for the method to be considered effective. Thus, the teacher must ensure a socio-emotional climate appropriate to the conversation that will follow, to raise interest in the subject to be debated, to manage the number of participants in the discussion (maximum 20 people are considered optimal), and to allow each member to express their opinion. If the number of participants is higher, it is recommended to build several smaller discussion groups. The teacher will pay attention to the ergonomics of the space, facilitating the settlement of people in a way that they can communicate easily. The arrangement of the participants in a circle is preferable. Also, the teacher will assign the role of discussion moderator, will temper the tendencies of some to monopolise discussions and stimulate the involvement of the more reserved. Students will know the topic under discussion, they will be taught to present ideas in a smooth, appropriate way and allow others to express themselves. The teacher will also give importance to time, so that all the topics proposed are discussed.

Requirements for Formulating Questions :

To be correctly expressed, logically and grammatically;

The question contains limited content in need of clarifications, to be precise;

Questions can be varied: some claiming data, names, definitions, explanations, others expressing problematic situations;

Giving the necessary thinking time, depending on the difficulty of the questions; and

Students will be stimulated to ask questions that require complex answers, avoiding those which suggest the answer or have closed answers (yes/no).

Response Form Requirements :

Be grammatically and logically correct, regardless of the school discipline in which it is formulated;

The answer is as complete as possible and appropriate to the question; and

Avoid fragmented, or vague responses.

The heuristic , Socratic, mauvetic conversation was designed to lead to the “discovery” of something new for the learner. Presumes related series of questions and answers at the end of which to shape out, as a conclusion, new scientific facts for the student. Essential in this method is combining questions and answers in compact structures, each new question having as its origin or starting point the answer to the previous question. A disadvantage in its application is the conditioning of a pupil’s knowledge experience, which allows the formulation of answers necessary to the questions that are addressed to him.

Advantages of using the method :

Flexibility of logical operations, hypothetical-deductive reasoning of thinking;

Developing the vocabulary, organising ideas in elevated communication structures;

Forming a personal communication style.

Disadvantages of using the method :

It is dependent on the student’s previous knowledge and experience;

Lack of interest on certain topics may generate passivism or negativity;

Difficulty in involving all participants;

Some important aspects may remain undiscussed.

Methods of Direct and Indirect Exploration

Exercise Method

The method aims to obtain a high level of skill in the use of algorithms, to form or to strengthen a skill or ability. It can apply to any school discipline. The method consists of performing a repetitive and conscious action to learn a performance model or to automate the steps required to achieve high performance.

Depending on the form criterion of the exercise, they may be: oral, written or practical. Given their purpose and complexity, one can distinguish between exercises: introductory (done with the teacher), to consolidate a model of reasoning or movement (performed under the supervision of the teacher or independently), exercises with the role of integrating information, skills and abilities into ever larger systems, creative exercises or heuristics.

In order to achieve the optimal exercise, it is necessary to comply with certain conditions such as:

Conscious and correct assimilation of the model;

Using exercises that vary in form, to avoid negative emotions and stiffness;

Observing the didactic principle of grading the difficulty as far as mastering the previous levels;

(Self) applying corrective feed back immediately; and

Use an optimal number of exercises.

Advantages of using the method

The method allows the formation of skills or their consolidation in the shortest possible time, avoiding learning by trial and error. It produces positive emotional states due to satisfaction through success. Generates growth at a motivational level. It may be the basis for the formation of perseverance and will.

Disadvantages of using the method

It can generate rigidity in learning behaviour, stagnation in learning. If different forms of exercise are not used, it will cause fatigue, the impossibility of identifying similar structures that require the same type of exercises. Not scheduling learning can lead to adverse effects on the maintenance of new information, knowledge or formed skills.

Demonstration

The method consists in condensing the information that the student receives into a concrete object, a concrete action, or the substitution of objects, actions or phenomena.

Demonstration with objects involves the use of natural materials (rocks, plants, chemicals) in an appropriate educational context (used in a laboratory or natural environment). This type of demonstration is extremely convincing due to the direct, unmediated character of the lesson.

Demonstration with actions consists of a concrete example, not “mimed” by the teacher, along with the teacher’s explanations, followed by student practice.

Demonstration with substitutes (maps, casts, sheets, three-dimensional materials) is required when the object, the phenomenon we want to explain, is not directly accessible.

Combined demonstration —demonstration through experiences (combination of the above). One form of combined demonstration is that of a didactic drawing, combining the demonstration with action with that with a substitute.

Demonstration by technical means using multimedia, audio-visual means, highlighting aspects impossible or difficult to reproduce in another context and that can be repeated many times.

The method requires certain conditions for organising the space where the demonstrations take place (such as opaque curtains, lab, or niche.); special training for the teacher in maintaining the equipment, devices, materials used for this purpose.

Access to concrete objects or phenomena that cannot be accessed within limits of time and space;

Using substitutes simplifies, through visualising or schematising, the understanding of the composition of objects or phenomena;

Can be used for a long time;

The use of substitutes or technical means is less expensive than originals; and

Some aspects of reality cannot be reduced to be explained in a teaching environment.

The lack of correlation of this method with the modeling and the exercise may lead to didactic inefficiency;

Requires special technical equipment;

Students receive ready-made knowledge, thus not practising independent thinking;

Use of complicated procedures and pretentious language can distract the student from the essence of the activity.

This method can be used to deliver effective models (a simplified reproduction of the original) of action or thought. Uses several procedures:

Changing the dimensions of natural aspects to a usable scale (models, casts);

Concretising abstract notions (use of objects or forms to understand the figures);

Abstraction (rendering by numerical and/ or letter formulas of certain categories of objects, actions); and

Analogy (creating a new object comparable to the structure or functionality of a similar object).

Using the model involves activating/energising the student; and

Allows an efficient way of action.

Can form rigid behaviours; and

Insufficient practice of divergent thinking.

The Cube Method

The cube model is ideal for exercising students’ analysis capabilities and exploring multiple dimensions of a subject’s interpretation. It is based on an algorithm with the following sequences: description, comparison, analysis, association, application and discussion. It is ideal for usage by sub-groups or pairs of students.

It is done on a cube that on each of whose faces one of the following operations can be written: describes, compares, analyses, associates, applies, or discusses. It is recommended that the sides of the cube are covered in the above mentioned order, following the steps from simple to complex. If the method is applied to groups of students experienced in the use of such methods, each subgroup, team, or pair may receive a random assignment from the ones listed above.

The topic of the lesson or the issue to be analysed is announced. Six activity teams are formed, the activity procedure will be explained. Specify the task of each team, starting from the subject under consideration, the study material shared by all groups. The order of the stages will be kept, therefore: the first team will describe the subject matter in question; the second will compare the subject with that previously learned; the third will associate the central concept with the other; the fourth will analyse the phenomenon, the discussed subject matter, insisting on highlighting the details; the fifth team will highlight the applicability of the theme; and the sixth will discuss cons or pros.

The teams will present the results of their work, they will fill in new details that come up after the discussions. A variation of the method requires that the presentation of the contents of each team to be done within six minutes, giving one minute for each face of the cube. The results are displayed or recorded on the board to be commented by all participants (Fig.  10.1 ).

The advantages of this method are the demand for attention and thought, giving students the opportunity to develop the skills needed for a complex and integrative approach. Individual work, working in teams or the participation of the whole class in meeting the requirements of the cube is a challenge and results in a race to prove correct and complete assimilation of knowledge.

Requires more rigorous and lengthy training; may not be used in any lessons; information content is smaller; requires increased attention of students; and their ability to make connections and find the answers themselves.

The Mosaic Method

The method is based on group cooperative learning and teaching the acquisition of each team member to each other (intertwining individual and team learning). The mosaic is a method that builds confidence in the participants’ own strengths; develops communication skills (listening and speaking); reflection; creative thinking; problem solving; and cooperation.

Steps in engaging the activity

The teacher asks for the formation of teams of four students. Each team member receives a number from one to four. Students are grouped according to the received numbers. They are cautioned not to forget the composition of the original groups. Newly formed teams receive personalised cards that contain parts of larger material (the material has as many parts as the groups are formed). The teacher explains the topic to be addressed. Expert groups analyse the material received, consult each other and decide how to present the information to the members of the original groups.

Experts return to the initial teams and teach the information to others. If, until this stage, the teacher has only the role of monitoring the work of the groups, he can now intervene, clarifying unclear aspects. Teaching will be done in the logical order of material distribution that must coincide with scientific logic. At the end of the activity, a systematisation of the acquired knowledge will be presented before all the groups. The teacher can ask questions to discover the level of understanding the information studied.

All students contribute to the task. Students practise active listening and cooperate in solving requests. They are also encouraged to discover the most appropriate means of transmitting information and explaining to colleagues. Students are trained in the efficient organisation of working time. Students have freedom to choose their method of learning and teaching colleagues.

One of the biggest drawbacks of the method is the high cost of time. There is a risk that some groups may not finish their tasks in a timely manner and slow the activity of the whole group. It is also possible to generate formalism with pupils being superficially involved in didactic activity.

The best-known methods in this category are questioning, problem solving, and learning through discovery. They are based on the creation of a situation, or structures with insufficient data that give rise either to a socio-cognitive conflict, or a cognitive dissonance where the knowledge previously acquired by the student is insufficient or incomplete to solve the difficulty or a problem situation in which the student must apply his knowledge under new conditions. The problem-solving approach is a context in which the student learns something new.

In order for students to become consciously and positively involved in a problematic situation, they must be trained gradually in this educational approach. The teacher is responsible for explaining the problematic situation and providing guidance in solving it. Students, in their problem solving effort: analyse the problem’s data; select significant details; find correlations between data; use creative imagination; build solutions; and choose the right solution.

Stimulates students’ interest;

Exercises the operating schemes of thinking; and

Stimulates creativity.

Problems may be inadequate for the level of cognitive development and level of student knowledge, thus causing students to withdraw from such situations.

Methods of Information Management and Graphics Visualization :

Conceptual Map

Being able to make connections between acquired knowledge, to organise it in a well-defined structure is just as important as having a lot of complex information. Conceptual maps or cognitive maps are graphical renderings of an information system or concepts in a hierarchical or logical order. They can be used in all three processes: teaching, learning, or evaluation. Depending on the particularities of the trainees and the specificity of the educational discipline, the conceptual maps may be different. For conceptual schematics, circles, stars, and cottages can be used. Single or bidirectional arrows or lines can represent connections. A conceptual map contains at most one or two main themes, 10–15 subtopics, and tertiary subtitles, if there are significant details supporting the structure or relevant examples. The first concepts that are plotted, as well as the relationships between them, are the main ones, then the secondary ones are drawn. If needed, the tertiary ones are drawn. Then the relationships are drawn between them, and words can be used to explain relationships (they are written on the arrows).

It is important to get students to work with them because their construction involves the practice of cognitive operations such as: analysis, synthesis, comparison, systematisation, classification, hierarchy, argumentation, and evaluation. By building these maps, the student actively participates in their own training, seizing the structures that further develop the strength of the links between knowledge, and learning much more easily. Conceptual maps facilitate easy updating of information systems.

In evaluating conceptual charts, account will be taken of the correctness of concepts, the relevance of those identified and the relationships established between them.

Facilitates the storage and updating of information systems;

Visual memory is exercised;

The imagination, and creativity is exercised;

Forms logical thinking;

Usable in several school subjects;

Can be a pleasant and coherent way of systematisation, and consolidation of knowledge; and

Are flexible structures that can undergo improvements, and enrichments.

Requires a high degree of activism and involvement of student’s in their training;

May require mental effort too demanding for some students; and

Those with a visual learning style are advantaged.

Venn Diagram

This method calls for students’ analysis and comparison capabilities, asking for the graphical organisation of information in two partially superimposed circles, which represent two notions, aspects, ideas, processes, or facts to be debated (Marzano 2015 ). In the overlapping area, the common attributes of the analysed concepts are placed, and in the free parts will be placed the aspects specific only to each concept. They are useful in all stages of the learning process: teaching, learning, and evaluation. Two types of Venn diagrams are commonly used: linear and stack.

Venn linear :

See Fig.  10.2 .

Venn linear

Venn in stack :

See Fig.  10.3 .

Develops the ability to hierarchise concepts;

Practice ability to grasp relationships between related issues; and

Exercises the ability to reason.

The Grape Bunches Method

“The grape bunches” method aims to integrate past knowledge and fill it with new information. It is a method that can be used both individually and in groups. It is also a technique that allows connections to be made between concepts. It is useful in recapitulative tasks or knowledge building lessons, in summative assessment of a unit of learning but also in teaching new content, because it allows students to think freely. It can be combined with other techniques or become a technique in another method.

The method involves several distinct steps:

Students are informed that they will use the bunch method and how to use it;

Groups will be formed, if it is a group activity;

The group designates the member who will build the clusters or if the activity is carried out individually, each one will draw the diagram;

If the activity is from the front, then the teacher will draw the diagram on the blackboard;

The teacher presents the key concept that will be analysed. He presents the chosen way of work, either by free expression or by updating previous contents. The teacher asks students to make connections between the concepts, phrases or ideas produced by the key term or central issue through lines or arrows, thus building up the cluster structure;

If it is a pairactivity, desk mates or teams will consult and work out the result of their work; and

The final results are discussed in front of the class, a question mark is added to incorrect concepts, necessary explanations are given and the final result is corrected. Also, trainees are invited to create new connections with aspects not taken into discussion.

The role of the teacher is to organise, monitor and support students’ work, to synthesise the information they receive, to ask questions and request additional information and to stimulate the production of new links between concepts or new ideas.

Developing cognitive capabilities for interpretation, identification, classification and definition;

Develop reflection, evaluation and self-assessment capabilities;

The method encourages the participation of all students;

Evaluate each student’s way of thinking;

Stimulates students to make connections between concepts;

It is a flexible method because it can be used successfully to evaluate a content unit, but also during teaching;

Stimulates student’s logical thinking;

Increases learning efficiency (students can learn from each other); and

The method helps the teacher to assess the extent to where students are relative to curriculum standards (Fig.  10.4 ).

Bunch method

Students can deviate from the topic discussed since it is a method that is based on creativity;

The method takes a long time to process ideas; and

There is a possibility for each student not to actively participate.

Tree Schemes

These may be horizontal or vertical. Among the horizontal ones we mention: horizontal cause—effect type; situation—problem—explanation type; and classification type. Some of the best-known vertical tree schemes are Tree of Ideas and Concept Tree.

Starbursting

The method is considered a method of information management and graphic visualisation. It is a useful method in problem solving and one to stimulate the creativity of the trainers, similar to brainstorming. The difference is in the organisation of known information according to some key questions.

Write the issue or concept that will be debated on a whiteboard or flip chart and frame in a star. The teacher adds as many questions as possible to that concept. Each question will be framed in one star. Initial questions used will be essential questions, such as: who; what; when; where; and why; which may then give rise to other complex questions (Fig.  10.5 ).

Starbursting method

Proposing the problem, and the concept;

Organising the class in several subgroups, each of them stating the problem on a sheet of paper;

The elaboration in each group of a list of various questions related to the issue to be discussed;

Communicating the results of the group activity; and

Highlighting the most interesting questions and appreciating teamwork.

This is a method considered by students to be relaxing and enjoyable;

Stimulates individual and group creativity, the manifestation of spontaneity;

It is easy to apply, suitable for many types of student groups with different psychoindividual characteristics;

It develops the spirit of cooperation;

It creates the possibility of contagion of ideas;

Develops teamwork skills;

Stimulation of all participants in the discussion; and

There is no need for elaborate explanations, as it is very easy to understand by all students.

It takes a long time for application; and

Lack of involvement from some students.

Methods to Facilitate Metacognition :

The “I Know/I Want to Know/I Learned” method

The method consists in valuing previous experience of the subject matter and discussing the prerequisites. The premise behind this method is to reconsider students’ previous or pre-requisite knowledge when introducing new insights. It can also be an excellent formative assessment of the lesson, an instrument for stimulating metacognition, but also a means for the teacher to get feedback on the understanding of new knowledge by students.

Method of implementation:

Presentation of the theme of the activity;

Dividing the class of students into sub-groups;

The teacher distributes the support sheets and asks students to inventory everything they know about the subject;

Students fill in the columns “KNOWN” and “WANT TO KNOW” of the worksheet table. In the column “KNOWN”, students will add all known aspects related to the subject matter under discussion. In the column “WANT TO KNOW”, those questions that arise in relation to the subject under consideration will be passed. Questions are identified as having an important role in guiding and personalising reading;

Individual reading of the text;

Fill in the column “LEARNED” in close connection with previously asked questions, highlighting those who receive such an answer;

In the next step, students will compare the results of the three analysis fields; and

Final discussions and drawing conclusions in a plenary.

Active reading from students;

Development and exercise categorisation capacity;

Increasing the motivation of students to engage in activity;

Stimulating students’ creativity; and

Good retention of the information presented during the course.

Difficulties can arise in formulating proper questions about the topic being debated;

The teacher must exercise the roles of organizer and facilitator in order for the activity to be accomplished and to achieve its objectives; and

May be demanding and tiring for younger participants.

Methods of Stimulating Creativity :

Brainstorming

The method stimulates students’ productivity and creativity. The basic principle of the method is “quantity generates quality”. By using this method students are encouraged and requested to participate actively avoiding the beaten path. Brainstorming facilitates exercising capabilities to critically analyse real situations, a random association that allows discovering unpredictable sources of inspiration, and making decisions about choosing the most appropriate solutions. This way, creativity is practised and allows a person to express himself genuinely. It has a beneficial effect on interpersonal relationships among the group of students.

The method’s steps:

The theme is chosen and the task is announced;

Students are asked to express as quickly, as concisely as possible all ideas as they come to their mind in solving a problem situation. They can associate with the ideas of their colleagues; they can take over, complete or transform their ideas. Any kind of criticism is prohibited, not to inhibit creative effort. The principle governing activity is “quantity generates quality”;

All ideas are recorded;

Leave a few minutes to “settle” ideas that were given and received;

The ideas issued are repeated, and students build criteria to assemble concepts given by categories, and key words;

The class of students is divided into subgroups, according to ideas, for debate. A variation at this stage is a debate in a large group, critically analysing and evaluating ideas; and

The results of each subgroup are communicated in varied and original forms such as: schemes, verbal constructions, images, songs, mosaic, and role-plays.

It stimulates creativity;

The development of critical thinking and the ability to argue;

The development communication skills;

Active participation of all students/learners;

Low application costs, broad applicability;

Enhancing the self-confidence and the spirit of initiative of a student; and

The development of a positive educational climate.

Time-consuming;

Success of the method depends on the moderator’s ability to lead the discussion in the desired direction;

It can be tedious and demanding for the participants; and

It proposes possible solutions to solve the problem, not an effective solution.

Applications/Exercises

Write a short essay on the subject: Didactic methods between normality and creativity .

Bibliographic Recommendations

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Garrett, T. (2008). Student-centered and teacher-centered classroom management: A case study of three elementary teachers. The Journal of Classroom Interaction , 34–47.

Harkins, M. J., Rodrigues, D. B., & Orlov, S. (2011). ‘Where to start?’ Considerations for faculty and librarians in delivering information literacy instruction for graduate students. Practical Academic Librarianship: The International Journal of the SLA Academic Division, 1 (1), 28–50.

Iucu, R. B. (2005). Teoria şi metodologia instruirii . Bucureşti: PIR.

Jacobs, J. C., van Luijk, S. J., van der Vleuten, C. P., Kusurkar, R. A., Croiset, G., & Scheele, F. (2016). Teachers’ conceptions of learning and teaching in student-centred medical curricula: the impact of context and personal characteristics. BMC Medical Education, 16 (1), 244.

Mackey, T. P., & Jacobson, T. (2007). Developing an integrated strategy for information literacy assessment in general education. The Journal of General Education , 56(2), 93–104.

Marzano, R. J. (2015). Arta și știința predării. Un cadru cuprinzător pentru o instruire eficientă. București: Ed Trei.

Muijs, D., & Reynolds, D. (2017). Effective teaching: Evidence and practice. Sage.

Panțuru, S. (coord.), (2010). Teoria și metodologia instruirii și Teoria și metodologia evaluării. Brașov: Ed. Universității Transilvania din Brașov.

Sawant, S. P., & Rizvi, S. (2015). Study of passive didactic teacher centered approach and an active student centered approach in teaching anatomy. International Journal of Anatomy and Research, 3 (3), 1192–1197. https://doi.org/10.16965/ijar.2015.147 .

Webography for the Whole Book

Erasmus+ CBHE Project 561987, “Library Network Support Services (LNSS): modernising libraries in Western Balkans through library staff development and reforming library services” 2015–2018 https://lnss-projects.eu/bal/module-7-access-to-libraries-and-society-for-learners-with-special-needs-disabilities/ .

Tempus Project. (2019). http://www.lit.ie/projects/tempus/default.aspx .

Transylvania University of Brasov also participated in two Erasmus + CBHE Projects: (561633) “Library Network Support Services (LNSS): modernising libraries in Armenia, Moldova and Belarus through library staff development and reforming library services” 2015–2018. https://lnss-projects.eu/amb/curriculum/module-7-access-to-libraries-and-society-for-learners-with-special-needs/ .

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Landøy, A., Popa, D., Repanovici, A. (2020). Teaching Learning Methods. In: Collaboration in Designing a Pedagogical Approach in Information Literacy. Springer Texts in Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34258-6_10

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Sage research methods online.

The  SAGE Research Methods Online  database provides access to encyclopedias, journal articles, and books that discuss methodology.

Learn about research methods, design your research study, and explore different methodologies. Little Green Books: discuss topics in quantitative methodology. Little Blue Books: discuss topics in qualitative methodology.

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Quantitative

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Mixed Method

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methodology

[ meth- uh - dol - uh -jee ]

• a set or system of methods, principles, and rules for regulating a given discipline, as in the arts or sciences.
• the underlying principles and rules of organization of a philosophical system or inquiry procedure.
• the study of the principles underlying the organization of the various sciences and the conduct of scientific inquiry.
• Education. a branch of pedagogics dealing with analysis and evaluation of subjects to be taught and of the methods of teaching them.

/ ˌmɛθəˈdɒlədʒɪ; ˌmɛθədəˈlɒdʒɪkəl /

• the system of methods and principles used in a particular discipline
• the branch of philosophy concerned with the science of method and procedure

Derived Forms

• ˌmethodoˈlogically , adverb
• ˌmethodˈologist , noun
• methodological , adjective

Other Words From

• meth·od·o·log·i·cal [ meth-, uh, -dl-, oj, -i-k, uh, l ] , adjective
• meth·od·ol·o·gist noun

Word History and Origins

Origin of methodology 1

Example Sentences

In the global race for a Covid vaccine, different researchers are trying a variety of methodologies and platforms.

The issue, he added, is that there isn’t a clear methodology or adjudication system for publishers or platforms to dispute Chrome’s decision making over what constitutes a “heavy” ad.

Firefox has been an aggressive champion of consumer privacy and not necessarily a friend to digital marketers, most of whom would have preferred to keep third-party cookies and existing tracking and targeting methodologies intact.

Before you dive in, it may help to read our summary of the state of the race, or at least skim our very detailed methodology guide.

We work with Google to find the most advanced and highest impact advertising strategies, as well as new advertising features, and we reveal some of our new methodologies which we normally do not share.

Geisbert was also quick to mention how the methodology of the study could be affecting the current results.

Germane and relevant in their way, but wielding a different methodology.

The UN methodology affords its team a little more flexibility.

“Food Chains” shows how the CIW is using a completely new methodology—contract law—to make a difference in the growing fields.

Alt cert critics often argue that there are flaws in the methodology of some of these studies.

The next two Partes contain a discussion of the methodology of note-taking and are not directly bibliographical in nature.

I bring together here different studies relating more or less directly to questions of scientific methodology.

Some expense for the development of computer systems and computer systems methods is justifiable as an investment in methodology.

The arguments used by these despisers of methodology are strong enough in all appearance.

The study of these processes of historical construction forms the second half of Methodology.

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8 methodologies that every 21st century teacher should know

New teaching methodologies are changing the educational environments around the world and driving better academic performance among students. We go over some of the main innovative approaches that educators have forged over the last few years and that every 21st century teacher should be acquainted with.

Flipped Classroom

One of the modern methodologies that has gained more popularity in recent years, Flipped Classroom is a pedagogical approach in which the traditional elements of the lesson taught by the teacher are reversed – the primary educational materials are studied by the students at home and, then, worked on in the classroom.

The main objective of this methodology is to optimize time in class by dedicating it, for example, to meet the special needs of each individual student, develop cooperative projects or work on specific tasks.

Project-Based Learning

With the arrival of new information and communication technologies to schools, both new teaching methodologies as well as  new versions of existing methodologies , now revised and updated for the digital generation, have emerged. One of the most used in class at present is Project-Based Learning (PBL).

In its essence, PBL allows students to acquire key knowledge and skills through the development of projects that respond to real-life problems.

The teaching based on projects or integrated tasks, is today the best didactic guarantee for an effective development of key skills while also acquiring the knowledge of the curriculum’s content.

Starting from a concrete problem, instead of the traditional theoretical and abstract model,  sees notable improvements in students’ ability to retain knowledge as well as the opportunity to develop complex competencies such as critical thinking, communication, collaboration or the problem solving.

Cooperative Learning

“Stronger together”. This concept in a simple way cooperative learning, a methodology that teachers use to group students together and, thus, impact on learning in a positive way.

The proponents of this model theorize that working in a group improves the attention, involvement and acquisition of knowledge by students.

The final goal is always group-oriented and will be achieved if each of the members successfully perform their tasks.

The main characteristic is that it is structured based on the formation of groups of 3-6 people, where each member has a specific role and to reach the objectives it is necessary to interact and work in a coordinated manner.

In a cooperative learning context, the final goal is always common and will be achieved if each of the members successfully performs their tasks. On the other hand, individual learning has students focusing on achieving their objectives without having to depend on the rest of their classmates.

Gamification

The integration of game mechanics and dynamics in non-ludic environments, or gamification, has been practiced for a long time. Over the past few years, however, and particularly due to the evolution of videogames, the phenomenon has gathered unprecedented dimension, and is one of the most talked about as a current and future trend of the EdTech industry.

Since, in the 80’s, games with an international vocation such as the “Carmen Sandiego” series or “Reader Rabbit” (see infographic below) have gained worldwide popularity, the development of educational titles has increased consistently. Not only those aimed at the general public but, ever more often, those specifically designed for students and particular courses.

This trend was consolidated with the increasing inclusion of gamification in school curricula and it is estimated that this inclusion will continue to grow in the future.

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4th Survey on the Use of Technology in Education

Problem-Based Learning

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a cyclic learning process composed of many different stages, starting with asking questions and acquiring knowledge that, in turn, leads to more questions in a growing complexity cycle.

Putting this methodology into practice does not only mean the exercise of inquiry by students, but convert it into useful data and information. According to several educators , the four great advantages observed with the use of this methodology are:

• The development of critical thinking and creative skills
• The improvement of problem solving abilities
• Increased student motivation
• Better knowledge sharing in challenging situations

Design Thinking

Education has always been a prolific space for innovation. Teachers all over the world are constantly coming up with new ideas and methodologies to introduce in the classroom making the best of the tools at their disposal.

Design Thinking (DT) applied stems from industrial designers and their unique method to solve problems and satisfy the needs of their clients. Applied to education, this model makes possible to identify with greater accuracy the individual problems of each student and generate in their educational experience the creation and innovation towards the satisfaction of others, which then becomes symbiotic.

Thinking-Based Learning

Beyond the debate around the effectiveness of learning by memorizing facts and data when discussing education, one of the most talked about aspects is the need to show students how to work with the information they receive at school. Teach them to contextualize, analyze, relate, argue… In short, convert information into knowledge.

This is the goal of Thinking-Based Learning (TBL), developing thinking skills beyond memorization and, in doing so, developing effective thinking on part of the students.

Competency-Based Learning

By definition, all learning methodologies have the acquisition of knowledge, the development of skills and the establishment of work habits as their main goals. Competency-Based Learning (CBL) represents a set of strategies to achieve this.

Through assessment tools such as rubrics, teachers can go through the academic curriculum without significant deviations but focusing it in a different way, putting into practice real examples and, thus, transmitting to their students a more tangible dimension of the lessons.

Photo:   VFS Digital Design

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Definition of methodology noun from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary

methodology

• recent changes in the methodology of language teaching
• research methodologies
• Different people adopt different methodologies.
• Police methodologies have been questioned in recent years.

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Questionnaire on Institutions Supporting Country Participation in Cross-National Assessments

This questionnaire collects information on donors that may provide technical or financial assistance for countries to participate learning assessments.

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UOE Questionnaire on Population Data

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Frequently Asked Questions

• Frequently Asked Questions about Education Statistics

Answers to the most frequently asked questions about how the UIS collects, produces and disseminates education data.

• UIS Education Data – Collection, Production and Dissemination
• UIS database
• Education Indicator Methodology
• International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED)
• Statistics on Internationally Mobile Students
• Statistics on Education Finance

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1. UIS Education Data - Collection, Production and Dissemination

What is the role of the UIS?

The Institute produces internationally-accepted methodologies to measure and monitor trends at national and global levels. It delivers comparative data for countries at all stages of development to provide a cross-national perspective on education; science, technology and innovation; culture; and communication.

Based in Montreal (Canada), the UIS was established in 1999 to meet the growing need for reliable and policy-relevant data. The Institute serves Member States, UNESCO and the UN system, as well as a range of intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, research institutes and universities. More about the UIS

What is the role of the UIS within the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted by UN Member States on 25 September 2015?

As the official source of cross-nationally-comparable data on education, the UIS has the mandate to develop the methodologies, standards and indicators needed to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) on education and key targets in science and innovation, culture and communication. More about SDG 4

Which international organizations use education statistics produced by the UIS?

The UIS is the main source of education data for the Global Education Monitoring Report (UNESCO ), the Sustainable Development Goals Report and the related databases ( UNSD ), the Minimum Set of Gender Statistics (UNSD), the World Development Indicators and the World Development Report ( World Bank) , the Human Development Report ( UNDP ), the State of the World’s Children ( UNICEF ) and many others.

Does the UIS provide the education data used in the calculation of the Human Development Index in UNDP’s Human Development Report?

The education component of the Human Development Index (HDI) in the Human Development Report by UNDP is calculated from two indicators generated by the UIS: expected years of schooling and mean years of schooling. Data on expected years of schooling are published in UIS.stat  under the name ‘school life expectancy’. Data on mean years of schooling (MYS), also available in UIS.stat , are calculated by the UIS from data on educational attainment. For countries without UIS estimates of MYS, UNDP uses MYS estimates from the Barro-Lee dataset on educational attainment, as well as its own calculations. Estimates by Barro and Lee are based on educational attainment statistics from the UIS and other sources.  More about educational attainment and mean years of schooling

What are the main sources of UIS data on education?

Administrative data are based on information generally collected annually by national ministries of education to help manage the education system. Administrative data are a common data source for many SDG 4 thematic indicators. Most countries around the world have fairly-developed systems in place, where common education statistics, such as enrolment, number of graduates and teachers by levels of education, are collected, stored and disseminated. Although these systems normally collect data by basic individual characteristics, such as sex, age and location, they are more limited in terms of other types of disaggregation. Some countries still face data quality issues in collecting accurate information on teachers and students.

Household surveys are an important source of data, including access to school, participation in school, literacy levels and educational attainment. National surveys differ in terms of coverage, frequency, purpose and questionnaire design. In contrast to administrative data, household survey data are collected less frequently and by a variety of organizations and countries. International surveys, like the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS, funded by USAID) and the Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS, funded by UNICEF), are typically carried out in participating countries every three to five years. Population censuses are usually conducted by national statistical offices every five or ten years.

Learning assessments include national school-based assessments (or home-based where relevant), designed to measure specific learning outcomes at a particular age or grade. Cross-national initiatives (either regional or global) are based on a commonly-agreed framework and follow similar procedures to yield comparable data on learning outcomes. The number of national and cross-national assessments undertaken in countries has grown, especially in two regions – Latin America and the Caribbean and sub-Saharan Africa. While assessments generally cover primary education well, they are more limited in regard to learning levels of youth and adults.

Financial and expenditure data include information on government spending on education, such as teacher salaries, which are maintained by ministries of finance and/or education. Public finance data are more widely reported, but there are persistent difficulties in updating and maintaining information on private and other funding sources. To fully understand education expenditure, it is often necessary to rely on other data sources, such as household surveys for private expenditure and ministries or other organizations responsible for overseas development assistance.

How does the UIS collect education data?

The UIS collects education statistics annually from official national statistical authorities. Each Member State designates the statistical authorities which respond to UIS questionnaires. In many cases, it is the ministry of education or the national statistical office which submits education data to the UIS. The information collected includes data on education programmes and outcomes, education attainment, access to school, participation in school, progression through the education system, completion rates, internal efficiency, literacy levels, and human and financial resources for all levels of education.  More about UIS questionnaires

What steps does the UIS take to review national data and produce cross-nationally comparable indicators?

First, data are carefully reviewed to ensure that they are complete and comply with international standards and definitions, such as the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED). A series of automatic checks are then run to detect errors within the data submission and data are compared to available time series.

Second, the UIS sends a detailed data report to the respondent who submitted the country data, documenting the issues found during data processing and requesting clarification and/or updated figures. Typical issues include the lack of metadata to explain why data are partial or missing and inconsistencies within the data submitted. During this review, the UIS encourages countries to make estimates for missing data so that data are internationally comparable and complete. After this consultation, the UIS considers the data ready for indicator calculation. On average, it takes two months to complete this data review process.

Third, in order to produce complete and internationally-comparable datasets, the UIS must sometimes generate estimates and impute missing data. The Institute’s estimates are based on information in national publications, official websites and other reliable sources of data (e.g. household surveys). Once the estimates have been generated, indicators are calculated and then standard checks are performed for quality assurance.

Finally, the UIS sends a file with calculated education indicators to national authorities for their review. This file includes indicators from 1999 to the latest year submitted by the country. If no concerns are raised, the indicators are published by the UIS.

How should UIS data be cited?

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) database, http://data.uis.unesco.org , [date of extraction].

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2. UIS Database

Why is the UIS the leading source of cross-nationally comparable statistics on education?

UIS.Stat is the only online database which provides internationally-comparable statistics in the areas of education; science, technology and innovation; culture; and communication which cover countries at all stages of development. The UIS database contains the most up-to-date statistics to monitor progress towards the education targets of international goals such as the new  Sustainable Development Goals . The UIS employs rigorous standards and methodologies in its indicator calculation to ensure that its data are cross-nationally comparable. In fact, the UIS is the primary data source for education statistics in many other online databases, such as the World Bank EdStats .

How often are education data updated in the online UIS database?

As of September 2018, the UIS has moved to one education data release in September of each year. This release includes national data and regional averages for the school or reference year ending in the previous year and includes data collected from administrative and household surveys, including educational attainment and literacy statistics (every two years).

Following this release, national data are updated in February of the following year, completing the UIS publication of educational data for the round of  surveys conducted in the previous reference year.

Why is there a delay in the release of current education data?

The UIS strives to provide the most recent data available by aligning its data collections with national data production cycles.

A combination of factors contributes to the time lag which exists between the current year and the reference year of education data published. First, the timing of the academic year varies across countries: broadly speaking, the school year in countries north of the Equator occurs from September to June, while in countries south of the Equator it occurs from January to December. This affects when national enrolment data are collected and sent to the UIS. Once data are received, they are validated with national authorities through a multi-stage process to produce and publish internationally-comparable data series. This process also adds to the time delay.

Why are certain data or indicators missing in the online UIS database?

There are a variety of reasons why data are missing for a country or indicator. Most commonly, the UIS did not receive all data necessary to calculate the indicator for the country in a particular year. Sometimes, indicators are not published if the UIS or the country identifies inconsistencies in data that have been reported. In such cases, the UIS will engage in discussions with the country to resolve the issue.

Where can I find the most recent literacy and educational attainment statistics?

• Go to UIS.stat: http://data.uis.unesco.org  
• Click on Education > Education
• In the next menu, open "Literacy" or "Educational Attainment"

Data can also be downloaded from the UIS API .

How often are literacy and educational attainment data updated in UIS.stat?

Literacy data are updated every two years in September to mark International Literacy Day (8 September) each year.

Educational attainment data and estimates for mean years of schooling (MYS) are updated annually in September as part of the main education data release.

Why are literacy data missing for most developed countries?

Literacy statistics in the database of the UIS generally refer to the “ability to read and write, with understanding, a short, simple statement about one’s everyday life”. National data on literacy are typically collected with household surveys or population censuses that rely on this definition of literacy although the questions asked in the surveys vary between countries. An overview of national definitions is available in the file “ General metadata on national literacy data ” in UIS.stat. In many cases, UIS literacy statistics are based on data sources that use a self-declaration method: respondents are asked whether they and the members of their household are literate, as opposed to being asked a more comprehensive question or to demonstrate the skill.

Most industrialised countries have reached a level of development at which the majority of the population is considered to be able to read and write. For this reason, most of these countries no longer collect data that divide the population into those who are “literate” or “illiterate”.

Instead of asking about the simple “ability to read and write, with understanding, a short, simple statement about one’s everyday life” these countries are interested in the level of literacy skills of individuals. For this, more detailed assessments of literacy are required, for example the Survey of Adult Skills that was carried out as part of the  Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies  (PIAAC) by the OECD. Data like those collected with PIAAC are not directly comparable with the results of simple self-declaration of the ability to read and write in a household survey or census.

What kind of education data (prior to 1999) does the UIS have? Where can I find such data?

UIS data on enrolment, repeaters, teachers and all related indicators are available from the reference year 1970. Literacy data are also available from 1970.

• Go to UIS.Stat: http://data.uis.unesco.org
• Click on  “Education” in the left menu
• Choose one of the tables that appear under the different themes (Participation, Progress, Human Resources, etc.).
• Click "Customise" > "Selection", then click  “Time”
• Historical data can be found by selecting either a “time range” or “time period” and selecting the required years from 1970 onwards. 

Where can I send questions or requests for UIS data?  

Please send your data requests to [email protected] g

3. Education Indicator Methodology

Why do national and international education data sometimes differ?

Education statistics produced by the UIS may differ from those in national statistical yearbooks or other national publications. Most discrepancies are due to differences in the underlying data (population or economic data), methodology used to calculate indicators, or the classification of education systems.

National and international education statistics use the same basic education data (e.g. school enrolment). However, the data used for the denominator can vary (e.g. population estimates). Population estimates are used to calculate a wide range of education statistics based on age, such as net enrolment rates. In most cases, national and international population estimates are extracted from the same data source (a recent census or household survey), but they may not use the same methodology. To ensure methodological consistency across all countries, the UIS uses the United Nations Population Division  population estimates . These are based on a single, reliable methodology that is internationally accepted. United Nations agencies use these estimates to calculate a variety of socioeconomic and health indicators, including those related to the Sustainable Development Goals. These estimates are updated every two years and disaggregated by sex and single year of age.

Similar concerns of international comparability apply to the use of economic data, which are used to calculate education finance statistics. The UIS uses World Bank economic data on national income and output, such as gross domestic product. Differences between education finance statistics from the UIS and other sources may therefore arise due to the source of the economic data.

In addition, education statistics may appear to differ due to differences in the classification of education systems at the national or international level. For example, a country may provide statistics on a basic education programme lasting nine years. However, at the international level, these statistics might be disaggregated into two levels of education: primary (e.g. grades 1 to 6) and lower secondary education (e.g. grades 7 to 9). The UIS uses the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) to ensure its indicators for primary, secondary and tertiary education are internationally comparable. More about ISCED .

What kind of disaggregated data does the UIS produce?

In general, UIS education statistics are calculated for the total, male and female populations, in order to measure progress on sex-based disparities. The UIS also prepares averages for countries grouped by geographical region (according to UNESCO, UNICEF and other partner agency regional classifications) and by income group (according to World Bank classifications). Where these groupings are not included in UIS.Stat, they can be requested by writing to [email protected] . Regional averages for country groups linked by another factor, such as religion or language, are not available.

Data submitted by national authorities are generally acquired from administrative sources, which often do not include information on area of residence (urban or rural) or household wealth. However, education statistics based on household surveys generally include several sociodemographic characteristics which make analysis of these and other sub-national groups possible, for example by the educational attainment of the household head, location or household wealth quintile.

Does the UIS collect data on special education and students with disabilities?

UIS education data include students with disabilities and special education needs participating in formal education programmes. Disaggregated data on this group of students are calculated through household survey data.

Does the UIS collect data on non-formal or adult education?

The main UIS education data collection currently gathers data on formal education systems including both formal initial education and formal adult education. Formal initial education is the institutionalised and intentional education of individuals before their first entrance to the labour market. It is planned through public organisations and recognised public bodies. Formal adult education may be designed as second chance programmes for youth or adults and offered in the same or similar formal settings as initial education. They do not have the same typical entry age as equivalent programmes in initial education and may have a different, usually shorter, duration.  

Why does the UIS revise certain indicator estimates over time?

Indicators may be revised when the UIS receives updated underlying data, such as population estimates, economic data or information about the education system.

Every two years, the United Nations Population Division (UNPD) releases new population projections and revised estimates for previous years. These population estimates are a key component in the calculation of many UIS education indicators. The UIS systematically revises its data according to the new estimates in order to provide the most accurate information possible and allow comparison of trends over time. For example, revised estimates for high-population countries can have a significant impact on national, regional and global calculations of the number of out-of-school children.

Similarly, indicators based on economic data, such as education finance, are revised in line with biannual data updates from the World Bank.

Revisions to UIS indicators also result from efforts to improve the classification of education systems. The UIS works closely with national statisticians to map their education systems according to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED). Changes in these mappings   can result in revised indicator estimates.

From time to time, countries may review their past data and submit amendments to the UIS, which result in changes to certain indicator estimates.

How does the UIS calculate regional averages?

Regional averages for education data

When calculating regional averages for education indicators, there are generally missing data. In these cases, the regional average is an approximation of the unknown real value.

At the UIS, regional averages are derived from both publishable and imputed national data. Publishable data are the data submitted to the UIS by Member States or the result of an explicit estimation made by the Institute based on pre-determined standards. In both cases, these data are sent to Member States for review before they are considered publishable by the UIS.

When data are not available for all countries in the region, the UIS imputes national data for the sole purpose of calculating regional averages. These imputed data are not published.

There are two basic steps in the calculation of regional figures:

i)       Complete the data series by estimating the values for missing data using imputation methodology;

ii)      Once the data series is complete, the calculation method of regional figures differs depending if the indicator is an absolute number (such as the number of children out of school) or a ratio (such as the net enrolment rate).

a)      In the case of absolute numbers, the regional or global average is simply the sum of publishable and imputed values of the given indicator for the countries in the given region.

b)      In the case of ratios, the regional average is calculated as the weighted average of the given ratio using its denominator as weight. For example, the regional average of the gross enrolment ratio is weighted according to the country’s school-age population with respect to the region.

The UIS assigns a quality rating to regional averages based on two factors: the extent to which it is based on imputed values and (where applicable) the time lag between the year of the publishable value used in the imputation and the reference year of the regional average. In other words, an imputed value for a country based on publishable data which is two years older than the reference year is generally considered of higher quality than an imputed value based on publishable data which is five years older.

Published regional averages are thus assigned one of the following qualifiers:

Regional averages without any qualifier: at least 60% of the weighted data used are publishable for countries in the region;

Regional averages marked as a UIS estimate:

• less than 60% of the weighted data used are publishable for countries in the region, and
• at least 33% of the weighted data used are publishable, or
• at least 33% of the weighted data used are imputed based either on:

a) publishable data from one year before or after the missing year;

b) publishable time series data from before and after the missing year, where there is no more than four years of time lag between the closest available year and the missing year.

Regional averages for literacy data

Regional averages for literacy data are based on national data where available. Imputations for missing data are based on the   Global Age-Specific Literacy Projections  (GALP). An average for each year, weighted by the population of the country or territory within the region, is used to calculate the regional or global figures. All countries and territories with UN or national population estimates are included in the regional figures. More about UIS Regional Averages and Indicator Development

How are missing values imputed to calculate regional averages?

To calculate a robust regional average, all countries in a given region must have data available. However, due to the lack of education data from some countries, the UIS must impute or generate a value for the missing data in order to create a complete regional data set. These imputed national data are produced by the UIS for the purpose of generating regional averages and are not published. The UIS assigns a quality rating to all regional averages to indicate the extent to which the calculation was based on imputed data.

The UIS imputation methodology aims to produce estimates that are as unbiased as possible. The quality of the imputations depends strongly on the quality of available information. The UIS imputation methodology takes into consideration the trend over time of a given indicator. In general, using time series information in the imputation of missing data renders an estimate of higher quality than an imputation without such information.

The UIS uses an automated ‘‘single imputation method’’ which creates a single estimate to replace the missing value and complete the data set. The following methods can be used:

i) The preferred method is to use statistically correlated indicators to impute the missing value of the given indicator. For example, if the pupil-teacher ratio for total primary education (both public and private sectors) is missing in a given year but data on the public sector are available for another year, the rate of change of the public sector ratio between the two years could be applied to derive the total pupil-teacher ratio for the missing year. This approach assumes that the pupil-teacher ratio in private primary education changes in the same way as in public primary education.

ii) Missing values are imputed from available data for the closest year(s) for the indicator in question.

• If values of the indicator are only available for years previous to the year of the missing value, the most recent year’s value is used as the imputed value for the missing year.
• If values of the indicator are only available for years more recent than the year of the missing value, the earliest year’s value is used as the imputed value for the missing year.
• If values of the indicator are available for years before and after the year of the missing value, data are imputed using linear interpolation between the two years that are closest to the year of the missing data.

iii) Where no information is available for a country, the unweighted regional group mean of the given indicator is used as the imputed value. Because this method is sensitive to the weight of countries in the region, the rule is not applied to countries with substantial relative weights with respect to their region (for example, China in East Asia and the Pacific). In such cases, manual imputation is required even if it results in a non-publishable estimate. Currently such estimates are made for about a dozen countries.  

What does it mean if the value is a UIS estimation?

When data are not available from the country, the UIS may produce its own estimations for missing data using established standards. The estimation method used depends on the availability of related data, such as time series data. The resulting value is sent to the country for validation. These estimates are called UIS estimations and are labeled with a double dagger (‡) in UIS.Stat .

What is the difference between the net enrolment rate, the adjusted net enrolment rate and the gross enrolment ratio?

The primary net enrolment rate (NER) is the percentage of children of primary school age who are enrolled in primary education. Net enrolment rates are a measure of enrolment of children in a level of education intended for their age. The primary adjusted net enrolment rate (ANER) is the percentage of children of primary school age who are enrolled in primary or secondary education. It is always greater than or equal to the NER and is used for the calculation of the out-of-school rate (for example, 100%–primary ANER = primary out-of-school rate). The gross enrolment ratio (GER) is the number of children enrolled in primary school expressed as a percentage of the number of primary school-age children. It is both a measure of the capacity of the education system (total enrolment relative to the size of the population of official age for a given level of education) and enrolment of children who are over-age or under-age. The NER and ANER have a range from 0% to 100%, whereas the GER can exceed 100% in cases of over-age or under-age enrolment.

• NER: The primary school-age range in a country is from 6 to 11 years. Of 100 children aged 6 to 11, 80 are enrolled in primary education. The primary NER is 80/100=80%.
• ANER: The primary school-age range in a country is from 6 to 11 years. Of 100 children aged 6 to 11, 80 are enrolled in primary education and 5 are enrolled in secondary education. The primary ANER is (80+5)/100=85%.
• GER: The primary school-age range in a country is from 6 to 11 years. Of 100 children aged 6 to 11, 80 are enrolled in primary education. In addition, 30 children younger than 6 years or older than 11 years are enrolled in primary education. In total, 110 children are enrolled in primary education and the primary GER is (80+30)/100=110%.

What is the difference between the net enrolment rate and the net attendance rate?

The net enrolment rate is calculated from the data submitted by national authorities, generally acquired from administrative sources. This data is collected by the UIS in its annual Survey of Formal Education. The net attendance rate is derived from household survey data. Household survey-based education indicators are calculated primarily from data from USAID’s Demographic and Health Surveys ( DHS ) and UNICEF’s Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys ( MICS ).

School participation in administrative data sources is measured by whether pupils or students are officially registered in a given grade or level of education during the academic reference year. Therefore, indicators of school participation derived from administrative data refer to enrolment: e.g. “net enrolment rate” or “adjusted net enrolment rate”. An out-of-school child is a child who was not enrolled in formal primary or secondary school during the reference academic year.

School participation in household surveys and censuses is commonly measured by whether pupils or students attended a given grade or level of education at least one day during the academic reference year. Therefore, indicators of school participation derived from household survey data refer to attendance: e.g. “net attendance rate” or “adjusted net attendance rate”. An out-of-school child is a child who did not attend formal primary or secondary school at any time during the reference academic year.

Why is the gross enrolment ratio available for more countries than the net enrolment rate?

The gross enrolment ratio (GER) can be calculated without information on the age of children enrolled in school. It is the number of children enrolled in primary school, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the number of children of primary school age. To calculate the net enrolment rate (NER), it is necessary to have information on the ages of all children enrolled in school. The NER is the percentage of children of primary school age who are enrolled in primary education. Because the age of all pupils is not known in all countries, the GER is available for more countries than the NER.

How is the out-of-school rate calculated?

The UIS calculates out-of-school rates for children of primary and lower secondary school age. Children in these age groups who are enrolled in primary or secondary education are counted as in school; children not in primary or secondary education are counted as out of school.

Example: The primary school-age range in a country is from 6 to 11 years. Of 100 children aged 6 to 11, 80 are enrolled in primary education and 5 are enrolled in secondary education. 85 children of primary school age are in school and 15 are out of school. The primary out-of-school rate is then 15/100=15%. More about out-of-school children .

Why are there two types of out-of-school rates for children of primary or lower secondary school age in the UIS database?

The UIS database features out-of-school children estimates calculated from both administrative and household survey sources. Administrative records and household surveys are two data sources which differ in fundamental ways: who collects the data, as well as how, when and for what purpose. As a result, the out-of-school children estimates calculated from one data source may not match those based on other data sources.

Why does the UIS include children participating in pre-primary and non-formal education in its estimates of out-of-school children?

Primary and lower secondary school-age children are considered as being in school if they are enrolled in primary or secondary education.

Children of primary school age who attend pre-primary education are considered to be out of school for several reasons. First, the educational properties of pre-primary education and the pedagogical qualifications of its teaching staff may not meet the standards applied to primary education. Also, enrolment data on pre-primary education are not available for all countries which makes the calculation of global and regional estimates of pre-primary participation difficult.

Nevertheless, participation in any kind of educational activity is different from no exposure to school at all. UIS.stat includes an indicator that measures how many out-of-school children of primary school age are in pre-primary education. More about out-of-school children.

Children participating in non-formal education programmes are considered to be out of school primarily because of the nature of these programmes and limited data availability. In addition, non-formal education programmes are more often targeted at older age groups, including adults. Participation in non-formal education can only be considered as being in school if the programme is recognised as equivalent to formal primary or secondary education.

How does the UIS estimate the global demand for teachers?

Teacher projections are made based on the assumption of full enrolment in 2030 using population projections from the United Nations Population Division (UNPD).  There is also a quality improvement aspect to the projections, which assumes, from the base year to the target year of projection, (i) a reduction by one-half in primary and secondary-level grade repetition and (ii) a pupil-teacher ratio no higher than 40:1 for primary education and 25:1 for secondary education. The calculation uses, where available, national annual teacher attrition rates - which generally range between 2.5% and 7.5% - to project the total number of teachers required to achieve universal primary and secondary education. When estimates of the annual teacher attrition rate are not available for a country, an overall rate of 5% is assumed. More information on the projection methodology

Where can I learn more about how specific indicators are calculated? For example, the survival rate by grade or school life expectancy?

The UIS Glossary provides detailed information for a wide range of indicators including: definitions, data requirements, calculation methods, data sources and translations of terms in the six official UN languages (in development). In addition, the glossary provides an explanation of how to interpret the values of a given indicator.

Are cross-nationally comparable statistics on technical and vocational education and training (TVET) available?

It is difficult to provide a comprehensive perspective of the TVET sector given its broad scope and diversity of programmes. Currently, cross-nationally comparable statistics on TVET collected by the UIS only comprise vocational education data and indicators for programmes in the formal education system. Vocational programmes provided by ministries other than education (e.g. ministries of agriculture, health, labour etc.) should be included in UIS surveys of education if they meet the requirements defined by the ISCED and UIS data collection manuals. Often, the main national counterparts of the UIS (i.e. the education ministry or the national statistical office) do not have comprehensive information on formal technical and vocational programmes provided or supervised by other ministries and this is why the UIS encourages its regular national counterparts to collect and include these data in their national submissions. It is important to note that vocational education in the formal education system may represent a small part of the whole TVET sector and therefore it cannot be used as a proxy of all TVET activity. Instead, it would be more appropriate to compare formal TVET provision  with general education programmes to analyse the diversity of formal education programmes. The UIS Document Library features the publication “ Participation in Formal Technical and Vocational Education and Training Programmes Worldwide: An Initial Study ”, which describes these measurement problems and explains why traditional education indicators cannot be used to analyse TVET. 

4. International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED)

What is ISCED?

The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) is the framework used to compare statistics on the education systems of countries worldwide. It is an important tool used to facilitate international comparisons and to benchmark and monitor progress on international education goals. It is used to produce comparable data and indicators that reflect today’s education priorities and policies. ISCED covers all formal and non-formal education programmes  offered at any stage of life. ISCED was first developed by UNESCO in 1976. The classification was updated in 1997, 2011 and 2013. 

ISCED belongs to the United Nations International Family of Economic and Social Classifications and is the global reference classification for assembling, compiling and analysing cross-nationally comparable data on education. As education systems evolve, the framework needs to be updated to ensure that it reflects current structures. The UIS is responsible for the maintenance, updating and revision of ISCED.  More about ISCED

What was the process for revising the framework?

In 2007, Member States formally requested that UNESCO revise the framework. In response, the UIS established a technical advisory panel (TAP), which brought together 16 experts on international education policies and statistics. The panel included national statisticians, ministerial experts, representatives of international organizations and education researchers from around the world. The panel undertook a complete review of ISCED 1997 in order to identify the most pressing – and the most feasible – areas for revision. TAP members worked closely with the UIS to develop thematic proposals, which were discussed during a series of expert meetings that were organized in all the major regions by the UIS, OECD and Eurostat .   Based on feedback from the regional discussions, the UIS prepared a draft text that was the subject of a global consultation (June to October 2010). The text was sent to all UNESCO Member States, including ministries of education and national statistical offices, as well as to regional experts and relevant international organizations. Following the consultation the document was further revised and approved by the technical advisory panel.   In November 2011, the proposed revision was approved by the Education Commission of the 36th General Conference of UNESCO. It was formally adopted by Member States on 10 November 2011.

How does the revised framework differ from the previous version? How will these changes affect international education statistics?

ISCED has always been used to classify programmes by levels of education – from pre-primary to the highest levels of tertiary education. Previously, the first level (ISCED 0) encompassed only pre-primary education programmes designed for children from the age of three to the official primary school entrance age. In the new version, this level has been expanded to include an additional sub-category of education programmes designed for children below the age of three. These types of educational programmes for very young children are becoming increasingly important and prevalent. The new provision will make it easier to compare data on this sub-level for the first time.   On the other end of the scale, the classification of tertiary levels of education has changed substantially. The revised ISCED has four levels of tertiary education compared to two categories in the current version. A major reason behind this change was to better reflect the tertiary education structure (Bachelor, Master and Doctorate) that is found around the world but also has been more recently introduced across Europe following the Bologna Process in 1999.   Another significant innovation is the introduction of educational attainment into the framework. For the first time, ISCED will offer a system to classify qualifications into educational attainment levels. This will enable governments to better assess their human capital resources.

When was ISCED 2011 implemented?

The UNESCO General Conference adopted ISCED 2011 in November 2011. Over the following two years, the UIS and its data collection partners ( Eurostat and OECD ) worked with countries to map their education systems to the new classification and revise data collection instruments accordingly. An operational manual and other training material were also developed. The first international data collections based on the new ISCED were carried out in 2014. Implementation of the new ISCED in household surveys and censuses occurred in 2015.

What are the statistical units of ISCED?

The statistical units of ISCED are the educational programmes and the resulting qualification. These statistical units are classified into a hierarchy of educational levels, based on increasing complexity of educational content.

What are ISCED mappings and where can I find the latest versions?

ISCED mappings are a visual representation of how national programmes of education are classified according to ISCED. They are based on each Member State’s response to the UIS Questionnaire on National Education Programmes. ISCED mappings are validated by the UIS and the respective country before they are made available on the UIS website. They support the transparency of UIS statistics and also help analysts to better understand and interpret the resulting data and indicators in our international education database.

The UIS publishes two mappings: one based on ISCED97 and the other on the latest classification, ISCED2011. The most recent ISCED mappings based on ISCED 2011 are added to the site as they become available.

Why can’t I find ISCED mappings for certain countries on the UIS website?

ISCED mappings  published on the UIS website must be validated by both the UIS and the respective countries. ISCED mappings are typically created based on a country’s submission of the UIS Questionnaire on National Education Programmes. The UIS reviews the mapping and, if required, discusses with the country the classification of education programmes to the ISCED standard. Therefore, a country’s ISCED mapping may not be on the UIS website because either it is still under review or the relevant information has not been submitted to the Institute.

Are UIS Questionnaires on National Education Programmes submitted every year?

Once the UIS Questionnaire on National Education Programmes has been submitted by a country and has been validated by UIS, the questionnaire does not need to be submitted again, unless there is a change in the education system or new education programmes are introduced. Respondents to the UIS survey are asked to review the latest ISCED submission and mapping each year and to submit a new questionnaire if there are changes.

How can I find the ISCED classification of the degree/qualification that I received from a specific learning institution?

ISCED mappings  provide general information about the classification of national education programmes. National mappings include information on the qualifications or degrees that are usually obtained upon successful completion of these programmes. They include the name of the programme and a description of the main qualifications awarded in the national language but they do not list specific learning institutions. It is important to note that ISCED was designed to facilitate the statistical comparison of national education systems at international levels and is not intended as an instrument to assess the equivalence of specific degrees or qualifications obtained in different learning institutions or countries. 

5. Statistics on Internationally Mobile Students

Where can I find data on mobile students?

The latest UIS data on internationally mobile students can be found in UIS.stat .

• Click on “Education”.
• Click on “International student mobility in tertiary education”.
• The tables under the data categories “Inbound students”, “Outbound students and “Mobility indicators” feature the UIS data available on mobile students

What is an “internationally mobile student”? How are “internationally mobile students” different from “foreign students”? Which definition does the UIS use?

An internationally mobile student is an individual who has physically crossed an international border between two countries with the objective to participate in educational activities in a destination country, where the destination country is different from his or her country of origin.

The country of origin can be defined in several different ways (e.g. based on usual residence, citizenship or the country in which specific educational qualifications have been obtained).  UNESCO, OECD and Eurostat have agreed that for measuring international mobility in education, the preferred definition should be based on students’ education careers prior to entering tertiary education. Where countries are unable to report data according to this definition, they can use the country of usual or permanent residence to determine students’ country of origin. Where this too is not possible and no other suitable measure exists, students’ country of citizenship can be used as a last resort.

By comparison, foreign students are students who do not have citizenship in the destination (host) country.

Are students who are citizens of the destination country but received their prior upper secondary certificate abroad (i.e. 'Homecoming nationals') counted as internationally mobile students?

Yes. Since 2015 (or data referring to school year ending in 2013) as long as students have physically crossed an international border and enrolled in education programmes, they are internationally mobile students. Does the UIS collect data on the number of universities in each country and the number of students in each university?

No. The UIS collects the total number of students enrolled in tertiary-level education programmes in a given country. The UIS does not gather data on the number of universities or the number of students in a particular university.

Why is the number of international students published by the UIS different from the numbers published by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) or the Institute of International Education’s Project Atlas?

The difference between the numbers published by the UIS, OECD and Project Atlas is mainly due to differences in definition and coverage of international student data.

Regarding the difference between data published by the UIS and OECD, prior to 2015 (or data referring to school year ending in 2013), the UIS and OECD used different operational definitions of international students. The UIS prioritised using prior education and usual residence to define internationally mobile students, and citizenship was used as the last resort when the two measures did not exist. By comparison, the OECD published data on foreign students, which are defined based on citizenship. Because international students are a subgroup of foreign students by definition, OECD’s global number of foreign students was usually higher than the UIS number of internationally mobile students.

However, since 2015 (or data referring to school year ending in 2013) there should be no discrepancies between the numbers published by the UIS and OECD because both organizations have agreed to use the same order of criteria in their operational definitions of internationally mobile students: prior education, usual residence and citizenship.

As far as the difference between the numbers published by the UIS and Project Atlas is concerned, internationally mobile student data from the UIS include students physically crossing a national border to enrol in a degree or diploma programme at the tertiary level (so called “degree mobile students”) and exclude students who are in exchange programmes to undertake part of their studies at educational institutions abroad but are credited at their home institutions (so called “credit mobile students”). In contrast, Project Atlas data cover both degree mobile and credit mobile students in tertiary education.

The following example illustrates how different definitions and coverage can impact numbers published by the UIS and IIE. China reported to the UIS that its tertiary education institutions enrolled 96,409 degree-seeking international students in 2013. By contrast, the Project Atlas website shows over 356,000 international students in China in 2013, but this number includes not only degree-seeking students but also students who participate in short-term programmes of less than one year. 

6. Statistics on Education Finance

Where can I find data on education finance?

The latest UIS data on educational finance can be found in UIS.Stat:

• Click on “Financial Resources”.
• The tables under the different categories feature available UIS data on education finance.

UIS work on education finance - including statistical capacity building projects - can be found at Education Finance.

What are the most recent UIS publications on education finance and expenditure?

Recent publications on education finance include:

• Who Pays for What in Education? The Real Costs Revealed through National Education Accounts
• Methodology of National Education Accounts
• A Roadmap to Better Data on Education Financing

Why are data on education finance and expenditure important?

Data on education finance and expenditure are essential for effectively addressing critical education policy questions. These data help decision makers to determine the financial feasibility of achieving both quantitative and qualitative education goals and decide on how to achieve equity in the provision of educational opportunities. They are also used to determine which particular financial policies and programmes can have the greatest impact on reaching objectives such as improved access, completion and learning, as well as to recognise the trade-offs and implications that can arise from the implementation of any particular set of education financing decisions.

What does the UIS data collection on education expenditure include?

The UIS data collection on finance statistics covers the following:

• Expenditure on education by source: government (central, regional, local), international (foreign donors) and private (households and other private entities such as NGO or corporations).
• Expenditure on education by type of funding flow: direct expenditure for public and private educational institutions, and transfers between sources of funding.
• Expenditure on education by nature in public and private educational institutions: staff compensation (teachers and non-teachers), current expenditure other than staff compensation (school books and teaching materials, ancillary services, and administration and other costs), and capital expenditure.
• Household expenditure on educational goods and services purchased outside educational institutions (e.g. teaching materials, uniforms, or private classes outside of school).

Data on public and international education expenditure are derived from administrative records compiled typically by the ministry of finance, ministry of education or national statistical office, whereas data on private household expenditure are derived from household expenditure surveys usually run by national statistical offices.

For more information on definitions and concepts related to education finance statistics, please refer to the Instruction Manual: Survey of Formal Education (2017) and UOE Data Collection on Formal Education: Manual on concepts, definitions, and classifications (2016).

Which indicators are traditionally used to measure governmental efforts toward education?

Two of the most common indicators used to measure government investment in education are:

• Expenditure on education as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP), which represents - in a broad sense - the availability of resources for education; and
• Expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure (all sectors), which represents the commitment of governments to education compared to other public spending priorities.

Which indicators are traditionally used to compare public expenditure per student among countries? Two of the most common indicators used for international comparison of the allocation of financial resources per student are:

• Government expenditure per student as a percentage of GDP per capita, which allows the analysis of average government spending compared to national income levels; and
• Government expenditure per student in purchasing power parity dollars (PPP$), which allows for direct comparison across countries of the relative value of the funding provided annually for education. PPP is a rate of currency conversion which eliminates differences in price levels among countries. This means that a given sum of money, when converted into U.S. dollars at PPP rates, will buy the same basket of goods and services in all countries.

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What is methodology?  An essential guide

A dictionary definition of methodology is a system of methods used in a particular area of study or activity

This is a very brief guide.  For more in this area, see the list of related guides, linked at the end.

There are two common ways to define methodology in English Language Teaching and, graphically, this is how they look:

The left-hand set was developed by Anthony in 1963.  The right-hand set was developed from Anthony's definition later and appears in Richards and Rogers, 2001.  Briefly:

It actually doesn't matter all that much which breakdown you accept.  Both are fairly arbitrary and subjective ways of breaking down a complex area.

It is worth pointing out that not all methodologies will fit neatly into the categories above. For example, Communicative Language Teaching, the current dominant methodology, has a good theory of language but little to say concerning a theory of learning.  Some earlier methodologies such as Situational Language Teaching were similarly deficient but some, audio-lingualism, for example, had very clear theories both of what language actually is and how people learn languages.

The extent to which, if at all, the various models and concepts of language and learning actually reflect reality is, of course, quite another matter.

It is, however, often quite possible to work backwards from what is observed in the classroom (techniques and procedures) and deduce the approach a teacher favours or to work from the materials an institution uses (the method or design) to see what principles (the approach) the institution is favouring.  The Delta examination, e.g., explicitly asks you to do that.

It is common for some ways of doing things to be referred to as method or methodology but this is to misunderstand the terms as they are used in our field.  In non-technical language, of course, method just means a way of doing something but that is not how it should be used in ELT.  For example:

• Structuring a lesson along the lines of Test > Teach > Test or Presentation > Practice > Production is not to use a methodology.  It is simply a way to arrange procedures and tasks in a lesson.  Both these structures can inhabit very different methodologies.
• Taking an inductive approach in which learners are asked to figure out the patterns and rules from language examples or a deductive approach in which learners are given the rule and asked to apply it to language are just ways to approach making things learnable and accessible.  Neither qualifies as a methodology.
• Making lessons learner centred by, for example, negotiating the syllabus with the learners, making feedback routines come from the class rather than the teacher or encouraging peer-teaching and peer-correction does not count as a methodology.  It may be an approach to classroom management but it is not a methodology.
• Even approaches taken by people who claim to be employing a methodology may not really qualify.  Dogme, for example, is an approach to teaching which sits comfortably within Communicative Language Teaching so it is probably better described as an approach to lesson design rather than grandly calling it a methodology.  Task-Based Learning and Teaching is another example of something often called a methodology but one that fits more comfortably into Anthony's concept of a Method or Richards and Rogers' category of Design because the methodology into which it fits is clearly communicative.

For more on the differences between theories of learning and language, hypotheses about learning, procedures and techniques, see the guide to methodology refined, linked below.

If you yearn for more in this area, follow the links here.

References: Anthony, EM, 1963, Approach, Method, and Technique , ELT Journal (2): 63–43, Oxford: Oxford University Press Richards, J, and Rodgers, T, 2001, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

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Prehistoric and primitive cultures

• Mesopotamia
• North China
• The Hindu tradition
• The introduction of Buddhist influences
• Classical India
• Indian influences on Asia
• Xi (Western) Zhou (1046–771 bce )
• Dong (Eastern) Zhou (770–256 bce )
• Qin autocracy (221–206 bce )
• Scholarship under the Han (206 bce –220 ce )
• Introduction of Buddhism
• Ancient Hebrews
• Education of youth
• Higher education
• The institutions
• Physical education
• The primary school
• Secondary education
• Early Roman education
• Roman modifications
• Education in the later Roman Empire
• Ancient Persia
• Elementary education
• Professional education
• Early Russian education: Kiev and Muscovy
• Influences on Muslim education and culture
• Aims and purposes of Muslim education
• Organization of education
• Major periods of Muslim education and learning
• Influence of Islamic learning on the West
• From the beginnings to the 4th century
• From the 5th to the 8th century
• The Irish and English revivals
• The cultural revival under Charlemagne and his successors
• Influences of the Carolingian renaissance abroad
• Education of the laity in the 9th and 10th centuries
• Monastic schools
• Urban schools
• New curricula and philosophies
• Thomist philosophy
• The Italian universities
• The French universities
• The English universities
• Universities elsewhere in Europe
• General characteristics of medieval universities
• Lay education and the lower schools
• The foundations of Muslim education
• The Mughal period
• The Tang dynasty (618–907 ce )
• The Song (960–1279)
• The Mongol period (1206–1368)
• The Ming period (1368–1644)
• The Manchu period (1644–1911/12)
• The ancient period to the 12th century
• Education of the warriors
• Education in the Tokugawa era
• Effect of early Western contacts
• The Muslim influence
• The secular influence
• Early influences
• Emergence of the new gymnasium
• Nonscholastic traditions
• Dutch humanism
• Juan Luis Vives
• The early English humanists
• Luther and the German Reformation
• The English Reformation
• The French Reformation
• The Calvinist Reformation
• The Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation
• The legacy of the Reformation
• The new scientism and rationalism
• The Protestant demand for universal elementary education
• The pedagogy of Ratke
• The pedagogy of Comenius
• The schools of Gotha
• Courtly education
• The teaching congregations
• Female education
• The Puritan reformers
• Royalist education
• The academies
• John Locke’s empiricism and education as conduct
• Giambattista Vico, critic of Cartesianism
• The condition of the schools and universities
• August Hermann Francke
• Johann Julius Hecker
• The Sensationists
• The Rousseauists
• National education under enlightened rulers
• Spanish and Portuguese America
• French Québec
• New England
• The new academies
• The middle colonies
• The Southern colonies
• Newfoundland and the Maritime Provinces.
• The social and historical setting
• The pedagogy of Pestalozzi
• The influence of Pestalozzi
• The pedagogy of Froebel
• The kindergarten movement
• The psychology and pedagogy of Herbart
• The Herbartians
• Other German theorists
• French theorists
• Spencer’s scientism
• Humboldt’s reforms
• Developments after 1815
• Girls’ schools
• The new German universities
• Development of state education
• Elementary Education Act
• Secondary and higher education
• The educational awakening
• Education for females
• New Zealand
• Education under the East India Company
• Indian universities
• The Meiji Restoration and the assimilation of Western civilization
• Establishment of a national system of education
• The conservative reaction
• Establishment of nationalistic education systems
• Promotion of industrial education
• Social and historical background
• Influence of psychology and other fields on education
• Traditional movements
• Progressive education
• Child-centred education
• Scientific-realist education
• Social-reconstructionist education
• Major trends and problems
• Early 19th to early 20th century
• Education Act of 1944
• The comprehensive movement
• Further education
• Imperial Germany
• Weimar Republic
• Nazi Germany
• Changes after World War II
• The Third Republic
• The Netherlands
• Switzerland
• Expansion of American education
• Curriculum reforms
• Federal involvement in local education
• Changes in higher education
• Professional organizations
• Canadian educational reforms
• The administration of public education
• Before 1917
• The Stalinist years, 1931–53
• The Khrushchev reforms
• From Brezhnev to Gorbachev
• Perestroika and education
• The modernization movement
• Education in the republic
• Education under the Nationalist government
• Education under communism
• Post-Mao education
• Communism and the intellectuals
• Education at the beginning of the century
• Education to 1940
• Education changes during World War II
• Education after World War II
• Pre-independence period
• The postindependence period in India
• The postindependence period in Pakistan
• The postindependence period in Bangladesh
• The postindependence period in Sri Lanka
• South Africa
• General influences and policies of the colonial powers
• Education in Portuguese colonies and former colonies
• German educational policy in Africa
• Education in British colonies and former colonies
• Education in French colonies and former colonies
• Education in Belgian colonies and former colonies
• Problems and tasks of African education in the late 20th century
• Colonialism and its consequences
• The second half of the 20th century
• The Islamic revival
• Migration and the brain drain
• The heritage of independence
• Administration
• Primary education and literacy
• Reform trends
• Malaysia and Singapore
• Philippines
• Education and social cohesion
• Education and social conflict
• Education and personal growth
• Education and civil society
• Education and economic development
• Primary-level school enrollments
• Secondary-level school enrollments
• Tertiary-level school enrollments
• Other developments in formal education
• Literacy as a measure of success
• Access to education
• Implications for socioeconomic status
• Social consequences of education in developing countries
• The role of the state
• Social and family interaction
• Alternative forms of education

What was education like in ancient Athens?

How does social class affect education attainment, when did education become compulsory, what are alternative forms of education, do school vouchers offer students access to better education.

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• Academia - Return on Education Using the Concept of Opportunity Cost
• National Geographic - Geography
• World History Encyclopedia - Education in the Elizabethan Era
• Table Of Contents

What does education mean?

Education refers to the discipline that is concerned with methods of teaching and learning in schools or school-like environments, as opposed to various nonformal and informal means of socialization .

Beginning approximately at the end of the 7th or during the 6th century, Athens became the first city-state in ancient Greece to renounce education that was oriented toward the future duties of soldiers. The evolution of Athenian education reflected that of the city itself, which was moving toward increasing democratization.

Research has found that education is the strongest determinant of individuals’ occupational status and chances of success in adult life. However, the correlation between family socioeconomic status and school success or failure appears to have increased worldwide. Long-term trends suggest that as societies industrialize and modernize, social class becomes increasingly important in determining educational outcomes and occupational attainment.

While education is not compulsory in practice everywhere in the world, the right of individuals to an educational program that respects their personality, talents, abilities, and cultural heritage has been upheld in various international agreements, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948; the Declaration of the Rights of the Child of 1959; and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966.

Alternative forms of education have developed since the late 20th century, such as distance learning , homeschooling , and many parallel or supplementary systems of education often designated as “nonformal” and “popular.” Religious institutions also instruct the young and old alike in sacred knowledge as well as in the values and skills required for participation in local, national, and transnational societies.

School vouchers have been a hotly debated topic in the United States. Some parents of voucher recipients reported high levels of satisfaction, and studies have found increased voucher student graduation rates. Some studies have found, however, that students using vouchers to attend private schools instead of public ones did not show significantly higher levels of academic achievement. Learn more at ProCon.org.

Should corporal punishment be used in elementary education settings?

Whether corporal punishment should be used in elementary education settings is widely debated. Some say it is the appropriate discipline for certain children when used in moderation because it sets clear boundaries and motivates children to behave in school. Others say can inflict long-lasting physical and mental harm on students while creating an unsafe and violent school environment. For more on the corporal punishment debate, visit ProCon.org .

Should dress codes be implemented and enforced in education settings?

Whether dress codes should be implemented and enforced in education settings is hotly debated. Some argue dress codes enforce decorum and a serious, professional atmosphere conducive to success, as well as promote safety. Others argue dress codes reinforce racist standards of beauty and dress and are are seldom uniformly mandated, often discriminating against women and marginalized groups. For more on the dress code debate, visit ProCon.org .

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education , discipline that is concerned with methods of teaching and learning in schools or school-like environments as opposed to various nonformal and informal means of socialization (e.g., rural development projects and education through parent-child relationships).

(Read Arne Duncan’s Britannica essay on “Education: The Great Equalizer.”)

Education can be thought of as the transmission of the values and accumulated knowledge of a society. In this sense, it is equivalent to what social scientists term socialization or enculturation. Children—whether conceived among New Guinea tribespeople, the Renaissance Florentines, or the middle classes of Manhattan—are born without culture . Education is designed to guide them in learning a culture , molding their behaviour in the ways of adulthood , and directing them toward their eventual role in society. In the most primitive cultures , there is often little formal learning—little of what one would ordinarily call school or classes or teachers . Instead, the entire environment and all activities are frequently viewed as school and classes, and many or all adults act as teachers. As societies grow more complex, however, the quantity of knowledge to be passed on from one generation to the next becomes more than any one person can know, and, hence, there must evolve more selective and efficient means of cultural transmission. The outcome is formal education—the school and the specialist called the teacher.

As society becomes ever more complex and schools become ever more institutionalized, educational experience becomes less directly related to daily life, less a matter of showing and learning in the context of the workaday world, and more abstracted from practice, more a matter of distilling, telling, and learning things out of context. This concentration of learning in a formal atmosphere allows children to learn far more of their culture than they are able to do by merely observing and imitating. As society gradually attaches more and more importance to education, it also tries to formulate the overall objectives, content, organization, and strategies of education. Literature becomes laden with advice on the rearing of the younger generation. In short, there develop philosophies and theories of education.

This article discusses the history of education, tracing the evolution of the formal teaching of knowledge and skills from prehistoric and ancient times to the present, and considering the various philosophies that have inspired the resulting systems. Other aspects of education are treated in a number of articles. For a treatment of education as a discipline, including educational organization, teaching methods, and the functions and training of teachers, see teaching ; pedagogy ; and teacher education . For a description of education in various specialized fields, see historiography ; legal education ; medical education ; science, history of . For an analysis of educational philosophy , see education, philosophy of . For an examination of some of the more important aids in education and the dissemination of knowledge, see dictionary ; encyclopaedia ; library ; museum ; printing ; publishing, history of . Some restrictions on educational freedom are discussed in censorship . For an analysis of pupil attributes, see intelligence, human ; learning theory ; psychological testing .

Education in primitive and early civilized cultures

The term education can be applied to primitive cultures only in the sense of enculturation , which is the process of cultural transmission. A primitive person, whose culture is the totality of his universe, has a relatively fixed sense of cultural continuity and timelessness. The model of life is relatively static and absolute, and it is transmitted from one generation to another with little deviation. As for prehistoric education, it can only be inferred from educational practices in surviving primitive cultures.

The purpose of primitive education is thus to guide children to becoming good members of their tribe or band. There is a marked emphasis upon training for citizenship , because primitive people are highly concerned with the growth of individuals as tribal members and the thorough comprehension of their way of life during passage from prepuberty to postpuberty.

Because of the variety in the countless thousands of primitive cultures, it is difficult to describe any standard and uniform characteristics of prepuberty education. Nevertheless, certain things are practiced commonly within cultures. Children actually participate in the social processes of adult activities, and their participatory learning is based upon what the American anthropologist Margaret Mead called empathy , identification, and imitation . Primitive children, before reaching puberty, learn by doing and observing basic technical practices. Their teachers are not strangers but rather their immediate community .

In contrast to the spontaneous and rather unregulated imitations in prepuberty education, postpuberty education in some cultures is strictly standardized and regulated. The teaching personnel may consist of fully initiated men, often unknown to the initiate though they are his relatives in other clans. The initiation may begin with the initiate being abruptly separated from his familial group and sent to a secluded camp where he joins other initiates. The purpose of this separation is to deflect the initiate’s deep attachment away from his family and to establish his emotional and social anchorage in the wider web of his culture.

The initiation “curriculum” does not usually include practical subjects. Instead, it consists of a whole set of cultural values, tribal religion, myths , philosophy, history, rituals, and other knowledge. Primitive people in some cultures regard the body of knowledge constituting the initiation curriculum as most essential to their tribal membership. Within this essential curriculum, religious instruction takes the most prominent place.