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Leadership Research Paper Topics

The exploration of leadership research paper topics is a vital task for students studying management. These topics delve into the theory and practice of leadership, offering valuable insights into the dynamics of organizational success. The following guide provides a comprehensive list of leadership research paper topics categorized into ten areas, from leadership theories and styles to the role of women in leadership. This guide will also discuss the breadth and depth of leadership as a research area, advise on how to choose the right topic, and share tips on writing an excellent leadership research paper. We will then introduce the custom paper writing services offered by iResearchNet, which can provide expert, tailored assistance for any leadership research topic. The text concludes with a compelling call-to-action, encouraging students to leverage iResearchNet’s services for their research paper needs. The central aim is to facilitate students’ journey in leadership studies, fostering academic growth and development.

100 Leadership Research Paper Topics

Studying leadership calls for a comprehensive variety of topics, reflecting the broad and deep nature of this area of study. This section presents a vast array of potential topics, categorized into ten key areas, each featuring ten unique subjects for investigation. This presents a multitude of directions for students to dive deep into their leadership research papers.

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Get 10% off with 24start discount code, 1. leadership theories:.

Analysis of the evolution of leadership theories from trait to situational theories.
A comparative study of transformational and transactional leadership models.
A deep dive into the contingency theories of leadership.
A practical exploration of the path-goal theory in modern organizations.
An examination of servant leadership theory’s applicability in non-profit organizations.
Exploring the role of emotional intelligence in the framework of authentic leadership.
Evaluating the impact of charismatic leadership on employee motivation and productivity.
Adaptive leadership theory in crisis management: an exploration.
A detailed study of the correlation between leadership theories and personality traits.
Leadership theories’ applications and implications in team management and dynamics.

2. Leadership Styles:

The implications of autocratic leadership on employee satisfaction and morale.
How democratic leadership fosters innovation and creativity in the workplace.
The role and effects of laissez-faire leadership in creative industries.
An investigation of transformational leadership’s influence on organizational culture.
Evaluating the impact of transactional leadership on performance metrics.
Applicability and effectiveness of servant leadership in corporate settings.
Pros and cons of paternalistic leadership in different organizational structures.
An examination of strategic leadership in the rapidly evolving tech industry.
Analyzing the effects of adaptive leadership in the complex field of healthcare.
A correlation study of leadership styles and employee retention rates.

3. Leadership and Ethics:

Ethical leadership’s role in shaping and promoting corporate social responsibility.
Analysis of the ethical dilemmas encountered by leaders in healthcare organizations.
How ethical leadership moulds and influences organizational culture.
A study on the corporate scandals resulted from unethical leadership.
The ethical considerations in leadership decision-making processes.
The relationship between ethical leadership and employees’ moral judgments.
A sector-focused analysis of leadership ethics in the banking industry.
Measuring the impact of ethical leadership on brand reputation.
Exploring the influence of ethical leadership on corporate sustainability strategies.
Leadership ethics in political organizations: an in-depth study.

4. Leadership and Diversity:

The impact of diverse leadership on an organization’s inclusivity.
Cultural diversity’s influence on leadership styles in multinational organizations.
A study on the challenges faced by women in leadership roles.
Evaluating the role of leadership in promoting gender equity in corporate organizations.
The effect of diverse leadership on fostering innovation in multinational corporations.
An examination of racial diversity in leadership and its effect on corporate image.
Understanding the benefits and challenges of age diversity in leadership roles.
Unraveling the opportunities and difficulties faced by LGBT+ individuals in leadership positions.
Leadership strategies to effectively manage and promote diversity in the workplace.
Leadership diversity’s impact on corporate social responsibility initiatives.

5. Leadership in Different Industries:

The pivotal role of leadership in tech startups’ growth trajectory.
Leadership in the healthcare industry: navigating through challenges and seizing opportunities.
An exploration of military leadership principles and their potential application in a corporate setting.
Characteristics of effective leadership in the hospitality industry: a detailed study.
The significance of impactful leadership in the functioning of non-profit organizations.
Leadership strategies that drive success in the retail industry.
The role of leadership in driving innovation in the automotive industry.
The best practices of effective leadership in the education sector.
The influence of leadership on team performance in professional sports.
Defining the traits of successful leadership in the fast-paced entertainment industry.

6. Leadership and Change Management:

Exploring the impact of transformational leadership on change management processes.
The role of leadership in shaping and implementing successful change initiatives.
Understanding the leadership styles most effective for managing organizational change.
A detailed study on leadership’s role in overcoming resistance to change.
Leadership in driving and managing technological change in digital companies.
An examination of adaptive leadership during organizational restructuring.
The correlation between strategic leadership and successful change management.
Influence of leadership on change acceptance and adaptation among employees.
The role of leadership communication in managing change effectively.
Examining the impact of leadership in change management across different industries.

7. Leadership and Employee Motivation:

Impact of transformational leadership on employee motivation and job satisfaction.
How leadership can influence employee motivation through effective communication.
An exploration of the relationship between leadership styles and employee motivation levels.
How servant leadership enhances employee motivation and engagement.
Evaluating the role of leadership in developing effective reward systems for employee motivation.
Examining the effects of charismatic leadership on employee motivation.
The influence of leadership behavior on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Leadership strategies for fostering a motivating work environment.
How leadership can use job design to enhance employee motivation.
The impact of leadership recognition on employee motivation and performance.

8. Leadership Development:

Understanding the role of mentoring in leadership development.
Examining the importance of continuous learning in leadership development.
The impact of coaching on leadership skill development.
Analyzing the effectiveness of various leadership development programs.
The role of experiential learning in the development of leadership skills.
Influence of leadership development on succession planning in organizations.
Investigating the role of self-awareness in leadership development.
Evaluating the role of feedback in the leadership development process.
The impact of leadership development initiatives on organizational performance.
Understanding the importance of emotional intelligence in leadership development.

9. Leadership and Organizational Culture:

The role of leadership in shaping and sustaining organizational culture.
Analyzing the influence of leadership style on organizational culture.
A study on how effective leadership can instill a culture of innovation.
Investigating the relationship between leadership and organizational culture in multinational corporations.
Exploring the effects of leadership communication on organizational culture.
How transformational leadership influences a culture of teamwork.
The role of leadership in promoting an ethical organizational culture.
The influence of servant leadership on organizational culture.
Leadership’s role in the creation and management of a customer-oriented culture.
The impact of leadership transition on organizational culture.

10. Leadership and Decision Making:

The role of leadership in strategic decision making.
The influence of different leadership styles on decision-making processes.
Evaluating the impact of leadership on ethical decision making in organizations.
An exploration of how leadership affects group decision-making processes.
The role of leadership intuition in decision making.
Leadership strategies for effective crisis decision making.
The influence of leadership in data-driven decision making.
The impact of transformational leadership on innovative decision making.
Leadership and decision-making under uncertainty: a comprehensive study.
How leadership influences employee involvement in decision making.

These varied topics allow students to explore different aspects of leadership, spanning theory, styles, ethics, diversity, industry specifics, change management, employee motivation, development, organizational culture, and decision making. The broad range enables students to select a topic that aligns with their personal interests and professional aspirations. This extensive list also gives students the freedom to narrow their focus and delve deep into a specialized area of leadership. Thus, creating a foundation for an insightful and meaningful research paper.

The Range of Leadership Research Paper Topics

Leadership is an inherently complex and multifaceted concept, embodying various dimensions of organizational functioning. It is a dynamic process involving influence, direction, and facilitation towards achieving a common objective. Therefore, leadership has a profound influence on the behaviors, attitudes, and overall performance of an organization, making it a fertile ground for extensive and diverse research.

The range of leadership research paper topics is vast, reflecting the wide-ranging implications of leadership in different contexts. This breadth allows students to delve into various aspects of leadership, from exploring various leadership styles such as transformational, transactional, autocratic, democratic, and servant leadership, to understanding their effects on team dynamics, employee performance, motivation, and job satisfaction.

For instance, research into the various leadership styles provides critical insights into how different approaches to leadership can influence an organization’s effectiveness. Transformational leadership, for example, emphasizes the leader’s role in inspiring and motivating followers, fostering innovation, and driving change. In contrast, transactional leadership focuses on clear role and task definitions, rewards, and punishments as motivational tools.

Moreover, the intersection of leadership and ethics is another prolific area of research. Ethical leadership explores how leaders can integrate ethical principles into their decision-making processes, cultivate ethical behaviors within their teams, and ultimately foster an ethical organizational culture. Research in this field can range from examining the influence of ethical leadership on employee behavior to investigating the strategies leaders can employ to navigate ethical dilemmas.

Diversity in leadership, a critical aspect in the current globalized business environment, offers another area of intriguing research potential. Diverse leadership promotes a plethora of viewpoints, encourages creativity and innovation, and enhances organizational adaptability. Research topics in this category can involve investigating the effect of diverse leadership on team performance, the challenges and strategies in managing a diverse leadership team, or understanding how leadership can promote diversity and inclusion within an organization.

Research on leadership in different industrial and organizational contexts also offers a wealth of research paper topics. This can include leadership in healthcare, exploring how leaders can effectively manage healthcare professionals, improve patient outcomes, and drive change in the healthcare system. Leadership in educational settings, examining how school leaders can impact educational outcomes, foster a conducive learning environment, and navigate the unique challenges in the education sector.

Leadership’s role in change management is another critical area of research. Change is a constant factor in any organization, and effective leadership is critical in navigating this change successfully. Research topics here can focus on the various leadership strategies in implementing change, the challenges leaders face in this process, and the critical role leadership plays in overcoming resistance to change.

The impact of leadership on employee motivation also provides a rich area for investigation. The influence a leader has on an employee’s motivation levels can significantly affect job satisfaction, productivity, and retention. Topics here can explore the different leadership strategies that can enhance employee motivation, the role of leadership in developing effective reward systems, or how leadership behavior affects intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Leadership development is another theme rich in research opportunities. The creation of effective leaders is crucial to an organization’s success. Therefore, investigating leadership development programs, the role of coaching and mentoring in leadership development, or the impact of leadership development initiatives on organizational performance are all meaningful research directions.

In conclusion, the diversity in leadership research paper topics allows students to explore and investigate various areas of leadership theory and practice. From understanding different leadership styles and their effects, to delving into leadership ethics, diversity, industry-specific leadership, change management, motivation, and leadership development, the possibilities are extensive. This breadth and depth enable students to gain a comprehensive understanding of leadership and its vital role in shaping organizational success. The explorative journey into these leadership research paper topics lays a robust foundation for future leaders, providing them with essential insights into effective leadership practices.

How to Choose Leadership Research Paper Topics

Choosing the right topic for a leadership research paper is a critical first step in the process of writing a top-notch research paper. The right topic is not just a subject you find interesting, but one that is unique, manageable, and relevant to your course of study. In this section, we provide ten comprehensive tips to guide you in choosing the best leadership research paper topic.

Identify Your Interest : Start by identifying what aspects of leadership interest you the most. Are you more drawn to the psychological aspects of leadership, such as how leaders motivate their teams, or are you more interested in the organizational aspects, such as how leadership styles impact company culture? Personal interest in a topic can make the research process more engaging and the writing process more enjoyable.
Brainstorm : Spend time brainstorming potential topics. Write down everything that comes to mind, no matter how broad or specific. This process can help you to identify potential areas of interest and narrow down your options.
Research Existing Literature : Before settling on a topic, take some time to read up on existing literature in the field of leadership. This can help you to identify gaps in knowledge that your research could fill, or controversial issues that could be the focus of your paper.
Consider the Scope : Consider the scope of your research paper. If it’s a shorter paper, you’ll need a narrower topic. Conversely, for a longer paper, you can choose a broader topic that you can explore in detail.
Consult Your Supervisor or Peers : Discuss potential topics with your supervisor or classmates. They may offer a fresh perspective or suggest areas of interest that you hadn’t considered.
Check for Resources : Ensure that there are enough resources available for your chosen topic. This can include books, peer-reviewed articles, and credible online sources. Having enough sources will make your research process smoother and more productive.
Relevance to Your Course : The topic you choose should be relevant to your course and future career. For example, if you plan to work in the non-profit sector, you might choose a topic related to leadership in non-profit organizations.
Flexibility : Be flexible with your topic. As you start your research, you may find that your initial topic is too broad, too narrow, or not as interesting as you thought. Don’t be afraid to refine and modify your topic as needed.
Uniqueness : While it’s good to align with current research trends, strive for uniqueness in your topic. Don’t just rehash old studies; instead, seek to contribute something new and meaningful to the field of leadership research.
Practical Implications : Lastly, consider the practical implications of your research. Good research not only contributes to academic knowledge but also has practical applications. Choose a topic that could potentially inform leadership practices in real-world settings.

In conclusion, choosing a topic for a leadership research paper involves careful consideration of your interests, the scope of the paper, available resources, and the potential impact of your research. While the process can be challenging, the result is a topic that you’re passionate about and invested in, which ultimately makes for a higher quality research paper. Remember, the topic you choose sets the foundation for your entire paper, so take the time to choose wisely!

How to Write a Leadership Research Paper

Writing a leadership research paper is an intricate process that requires careful planning, thorough research, and detailed writing. A well-written research paper not only demonstrates your understanding of leadership principles but also your ability to critically analyze information, formulate arguments, and present your ideas in a clear and coherent manner. Below are ten comprehensive steps to guide you in writing an outstanding leadership research paper.

Understanding the Assignment : Before you begin the actual writing process, make sure you understand the assignment requirements. What is the length of the paper? What is the deadline? Are there specific sources or citation styles you need to use? Understanding these requirements will help guide your research and writing process.
Choose a Topic : If you haven’t been assigned a specific topic, use the tips provided in the previous section to choose a suitable topic for your leadership research paper. Make sure it’s a topic you’re interested in and one that is relevant to the course.
Conduct Preliminary Research : Conduct initial research to get an overview of your chosen topic. Use this research to refine your topic and formulate a preliminary thesis statement. This statement will guide your further research and help focus your paper.
Develop a Thesis Statement : Your thesis statement should clearly express the main point or argument of your research paper. It should be concise, specific, and arguable. A good thesis statement will guide your research and provide a roadmap for your paper.
Create an Outline : An outline helps to organize your thoughts and ensure that you cover all the necessary points. It should include an introduction, body paragraphs (each with a sub-point supporting your thesis), and a conclusion. Outlining can also help you identify gaps in your research or arguments.
Conduct In-Depth Research : At this point, dive deeper into your research. Utilize various sources, including books, academic journals, reputable websites, and interviews. Remember to evaluate the credibility of your sources and to take detailed notes, including the source information for citation purposes.
Write the First Draft : Using your outline as a guide, start writing the first draft of your paper. Don’t worry about making it perfect; focus on getting your ideas down first. Start with the body paragraphs, then write the introduction and conclusion.
Revise and Edit : Review your first draft, looking for any inconsistencies, redundancies, or areas that lack clarity. Check the flow of your arguments, the strength of your thesis statement, and the organization of your paper. Also, ensure that each paragraph has a clear topic sentence and that it supports the thesis statement.
Proofread : After revising your content, proofread for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. You can use proofreading software, but also consider reading your paper aloud or having someone else proofread it.
Cite Your Sources : Lastly, properly cite all the sources you used in your paper. Ensure that your in-text citations and reference list comply with the citation style required for your assignment (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, Harvard).

In conclusion, writing a leadership research paper is a step-by-step process that requires thorough research, careful planning, and detailed writing. It may be a challenging task, but it’s also an opportunity to deepen your understanding of leadership and hone your academic writing skills. With commitment, patience, and the right strategies, you can successfully write a high-quality leadership research paper.

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Expert Degree-Holding Writers : iResearchNet is home to a team of professional writers who hold advanced degrees in various fields, including management and leadership. These experts bring a wealth of knowledge and hands-on experience, making them perfectly suited to handle any leadership research paper.
Custom Written Works : We pride ourselves in providing custom written papers. Our expert writers start every assignment from scratch, ensuring each paper is unique, authentic, and specifically tailored to meet the individual needs and expectations of the client.
In-depth Research : Each research paper is built on a foundation of in-depth research. Our writers understand the significance of thorough and detailed research, and they use reliable sources to gather relevant information, ensuring your paper is comprehensive and insightful.
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Leadership Dissertation Topics

Published by Grace Graffin at January 4th, 2023 , Revised On May 30, 2024

Leadership is an attribute of leading and guiding subordinates for collective wellness. Many people aspire to become leaders, but only a few succeed. This is because leadership and management are two relatively different concepts. A manager is not always a leader, and a leader cannot always be a manager. So, a leader knows how to manage a group without having distinguished power.

That said, leadership is an exciting discipline to explore and study. If you have aimed to write your dissertation about leadership and are direly looking for some exceptional leadership research topics, do not worry; we have got your back. Find out the most relevant and striking list of leadership topics for the research.

You can start your leadership dissertation by requesting a brief research proposal from our writers on any of these topics, which includes an introduction to the problem, research question , aim and objectives, literature review , along with the proposed methodology of research to be conducted. Let us know if you need any help in getting started.

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List Of Top New Dissertation Topics On Leadership

Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Leadership Development
How to Lead Through Crisis in a Volatile World
How Leaders Can Drive Employee Engagement Through Shared Goals
The Impact of Remote Work on Leadership Styles and Team Dynamics
Building Trust and Transparency in a Hybrid Work Environment
Developing Emotional Intelligence for Effective Leadership in a Digital Age
Can servant leadership foster employee Wellbeing and productivity?
The Gig Economy and the Challenges of Leading a Dispersed Workforce
The Influence of Social Media on Leadership Communication and Public Perception
The Impact of Agile Leadership on Project Management and Team Performance
An Analysis on the impact of Analytics on Making Informed Decisions and Driving Results
How Leaders Can Create a Risk-Taking Environment for Growth
The Evolving Role of Mentorship in Leadership Development Programmes
The Role of Leadership in Managing Conflict within Teams and Organisations
The Impact of Leadership on Employee Wellbeing and Mental Health in the Workplace
How Leaders Can Effectively Navigate Organisational Transformation
How Leaders Can Set Positive Standards and Inspire Ethical Behaviour
How Leaders Can Motivate Teams Through Recognition and Appreciation
The Importance of Strategic Thinking for Effective Leadership
The Role of Leadership in Building a Strong Organisational Culture
The Impact of Leadership on Organisational Reputation and Public Perception
The Evolving Skills Needed for Effective Leadership in the 21st Century
The Impact of Leadership on Customer Satisfaction and Brand Loyalty
How Leaders Can Empower Their Teams for Greater Success
Handling Rapid Change and Disruption in Business
The Importance of Effective Time Management for Leaders
The Role of Leadership in Building High-Performing Teams
The Impact of Leadership on Employee Turnover and Retention Rates
The Power of Networking for Leaders

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Topic 2: Investigate the suitable leadership attributes for handling crises and the financial stability of the business.

Research Aim: The research aims to investigate the suitable leadership attributes for handling crises and the financial stability of the business.

To analyse the leadership attributes ideal for handling crises and unpredictable situations.
To evaluate the factors impacting the financial stability of businesses.
To investigate the suitable leadership attributes for handling crises and the financial stability of the business.

Topic 3: Analysis of the medical leadership response in the NHS during the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK.

Research Aim: The research aims to analyse the medical leadership response in the NHS during the initial stages of the Covid-19 pandemic in the UK.

To analyse the impact of medical leadership on staff morale and the quality of patient care.
To determine the medical leadership in the NHS and its impact on staff productivity and efficiency.
To investigate the medical leadership response in the NHS during the initial stages of the Covid-19 pandemic in the UK.

Topic 4: How does poor leadership impact the overall organisational revenue and culture?

Research Aim: The research aims to analyse how poor leadership impacts the overall organisational revenue and culture.

To analyse the ramifications of poor leadership in organisations.
To evaluate the factors contributing to organisational revenue generation and shaping the organisational culture.
To analyse the impact of poor leadership on overall organisational revenue and culture.

Topic 5: Analysis of the potential use of AI for enhancing leadership performance and decision-making.

Research Aim: The research aims to analyse the potential use of AI for enhancing leadership performance and decision-making.

To analyse how AI contributes to leadership decision-making.
To identify the factors impacting leadership performance and the role of technology.
To analyse the potential use of AI for enhancing leadership performance and decision-making.

Topic no.1: Significance of leadership in business

Research Aim: In times like the present, when there is wavering financial stability, it is imperative for businesses to become as strong as they can be. Only good leaders in a company can help make the right and timely decisions to make it successful. The research will deeply analyse and study the importance of leadership in a business. It will figure out the challenges posed to business due to poor or absence of good leadership.

Topic no.2: Leadership and management

Research Aim: Leadership and management are two different things, but they go hand in hand. But it is significant to understand in what premises and situations leadership becomes more crucial than management and vice versa. It is also significant to find whether or not one is independent of the other. The main of the research will be to find out the answers to all of the aforementioned questions.

Topic no.3: Political leadership; the ramifications of poor leadership

Research Aim: The aim of the research would be to analyse and evaluate political leadership and study the consequences of poor leadership. The researcher can study different political leaders, their model of leadership and their repercussions on the citizens of their state.

Topic no.4: Role of women in educational leadership

Research Aim: Women are no less than men in any field, especially leadership. In fact, women leaders have proved themselves over and over again throughout history. The aim of the research would be to identify and analyse women’s role in educational leadership. It will find out the women who played a centrifugal role in the sector of educational leadership.

Topic no.5: Climate leadership

Research Aim: Fairly a new avenue of leadership, climate leadership is one of the most needed and prospering kinds of leadership. When it comes to saving the earth, many are raising their voices, and some are taking crucial actions. The research would aim to explore the nature of leadership predominating for climate preservation, who are the key leaders at the forefront, what approaches they are using to inhibit global warming, and what recommendations would be in that regard.

Topic no.6: Impact of leadership style on the performance of employees

Research Aim: The aim of the research would be to understand the interrelation of leadership style and the performance of employees. The researcher will evaluate the performance of employees under different types of leadership styles, i.e., authoritative leadership, participative leadership, delegation leadership, transactional leadership, and transformational leadership. It will evaluate the psychological and behavioural traits of employees under each specified type of leadership.

Topic no.7: Traits of Good Corporate Leadership

Research Aim: The aim of the research is to identify the features and characteristics of good corporate leadership and design a model that can be followed to achieve business goals.

Also Read : How to Write Dissertation Aims and Objectives?

Topic no.8: Leadership responses during the pandemic

Research Aim: The aim of the research is to study the role of leaders in crisis management, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research will study the leadership responses of different countries and evaluate their measures and their repercussion in response to the outbreak.

Topic no.9: Leadership and economy

Research Aim: The economy of a country depends largely on how the leaders are amending the bogus policies and creating effective, updated ones for economic growth. In essence, it is the leaders whose policies lead to a thriving economy. The aim of the research is to find the relationship between leadership and the economy and how good leaders lead to a better economy.

Topic no.10: How leaders are using AI for their optimal performance

Research Aim: The aim of the research is to find out how(if) global leaders are using technology to improve their performances in their respective fields. There are many leaders, apart from technological leaders, who are using different forms of technology to boost their performance and interact with their subordinates.

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ResearchProspect writers can send several custom topic ideas to your email address. Once you have chosen a topic that suits your needs and interests, you can order for our dissertation outline service which will include a brief introduction to the topic, research questions , literature review , methodology , expected results , and conclusion . The dissertation outline will enable you to review the quality of our work before placing the order for our full dissertation writing service !

Topic no.11: Digital leaders of the future

Research Aim: The aim of the research would be to understand and analyse how digital leaders use information and technology to help an organisation become more receptive to customer needs and changing business requirements.

Topic no.12: Leadership culture

Research Aim: The leadership culture is how leaders interact and communicate with the group of people they are commanding. The aim of the research is to study and evaluate the leadership culture prevalent in our society versus how it should ideally be.

Topic no.13: Leadership and Managing Adversity

Research Aim: The prime aim of the research would be to understand the art of managing adversity and adversaries that leaders employ to swipe off the obstructions that hinder their goals. In order to become a good leader, it is eminent to get familiar with the strategies to get rid of the oppositions that cause damage to the goals.

Topic no.14: Leadership and emotional intelligence:

Research Aim: Emotional intelligence is more important than IQ, and for leaders, it is more than important to hold their nerves to pass the testing times. The aim of the research is to identify and explore the importance of emotional intelligence in leaders and how they use it strategically to cope with difficult times.

Topic no.15: Women's leadership styles vs men's leadership style

Research Aim: Leaders are leaders, and they have nothing to do with gender, but it is said that there are a few differences between women’s leadership and men’s leadership. The aim of the research would be to analyse each one’s leadership styles and determine their differences.

Topic no.16: Leadership and ethical paradigms

Research Aim: The aim of the research would be to analyse leadership in the context of five ethical paradigms. It will understand and evaluate how leaders company different levels of ethics during their period of management.

Topic no.17: A case study of Jacinda Ardern's leadership

Research Aim: New Zealand was the first country to wipe off the covid 19 cases from the first wave. It was attributed to the policies of the state and leadership for impressive achievement. The main aim of the research is to study and analyse the role of Jacinda Ardern in crisis management.

Topic no.18: A case study of Margret Thatcher- the iron lady

Research Aim: Probably no one would be unaware of the first woman prime minister of Britain, Margret Thatcher. The aim of the research is to analyse and evaluate the leadership style that earned her the title of Iron Lady.

Topic no.19: Leadership and Education

Research Aim: Leadership in the education sector is as important as in any other field. The aim of the research is to study the inclusive or exclusive relationship between leadership and education. It will also provide suggestions about how to improve leadership approaches in education.

Topic no.20: Transformational and transactional leadership; the right approach to lead a business

Research Aim: Two main types of leadership include transformational and transactional leadership styles. The aim of the research would be to analyse and evaluate both styles, suggest the benefits and downsides of each style, and determine which approach is the best.

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Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior

Volume 9, 2022, review article, the science of leadership: a theoretical model and research agenda.

Andrew M. Carton 1
View Affiliations Hide Affiliations Affiliations: Management Department, The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA; email: [email protected]
Vol. 9:61-93 (Volume publication date January 2022) https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012420-091227
First published as a Review in Advance on November 10, 2021
Copyright © 2022 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved

I review the empirical literature on leadership, focusing on papers published since 2010. To do so, I introduce a framework composed of two features: whether theories ( a ) involve the study of leaders or leading (i.e., the person versus the process) and ( b ) conceptualize leadership as a cause or a consequence (i.e., an independent versus dependent variable). This framework can enable future research to accumulate in a more programmatic fashion and help scholars determine where their own studies are located within the landscape of leadership research. I end the review by critically evaluating existing work, arguing that the most popular subcategory of leadership research—lumped conceptualizations of leading, in which scholars examine multiple leader behaviors within a single construct—has significant limitations and may need to be replaced by a greater focus on split conceptualizations of leading, wherein scholars isolate single leader behaviors.

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Research Question Examples 🧑🏻‍🏫

25+ Practical Examples & Ideas To Help You Get Started

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | October 2023

A well-crafted research question (or set of questions) sets the stage for a robust study and meaningful insights. But, if you’re new to research, it’s not always clear what exactly constitutes a good research question. In this post, we’ll provide you with clear examples of quality research questions across various disciplines, so that you can approach your research project with confidence!

Research Question Examples

Psychology research questions
Business research questions
Education research questions
Healthcare research questions
Computer science research questions

Examples: Psychology

Let’s start by looking at some examples of research questions that you might encounter within the discipline of psychology.

How does sleep quality affect academic performance in university students?

This question is specific to a population (university students) and looks at a direct relationship between sleep and academic performance, both of which are quantifiable and measurable variables.

What factors contribute to the onset of anxiety disorders in adolescents?

The question narrows down the age group and focuses on identifying multiple contributing factors. There are various ways in which it could be approached from a methodological standpoint, including both qualitatively and quantitatively.

Do mindfulness techniques improve emotional well-being?

This is a focused research question aiming to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific intervention.

How does early childhood trauma impact adult relationships?

This research question targets a clear cause-and-effect relationship over a long timescale, making it focused but comprehensive.

Is there a correlation between screen time and depression in teenagers?

This research question focuses on an in-demand current issue and a specific demographic, allowing for a focused investigation. The key variables are clearly stated within the question and can be measured and analysed (i.e., high feasibility).

Free Webinar: How To Find A Dissertation Research Topic

Examples: Business/Management

Next, let’s look at some examples of well-articulated research questions within the business and management realm.

How do leadership styles impact employee retention?

This is an example of a strong research question because it directly looks at the effect of one variable (leadership styles) on another (employee retention), allowing from a strongly aligned methodological approach.

What role does corporate social responsibility play in consumer choice?

Current and precise, this research question can reveal how social concerns are influencing buying behaviour by way of a qualitative exploration.

Does remote work increase or decrease productivity in tech companies?

Focused on a particular industry and a hot topic, this research question could yield timely, actionable insights that would have high practical value in the real world.

How do economic downturns affect small businesses in the homebuilding industry?

Vital for policy-making, this highly specific research question aims to uncover the challenges faced by small businesses within a certain industry.

Which employee benefits have the greatest impact on job satisfaction?

By being straightforward and specific, answering this research question could provide tangible insights to employers.

Examples: Education

Next, let’s look at some potential research questions within the education, training and development domain.

How does class size affect students’ academic performance in primary schools?

This example research question targets two clearly defined variables, which can be measured and analysed relatively easily.

Do online courses result in better retention of material than traditional courses?

Timely, specific and focused, answering this research question can help inform educational policy and personal choices about learning formats.

What impact do US public school lunches have on student health?

Targeting a specific, well-defined context, the research could lead to direct changes in public health policies.

To what degree does parental involvement improve academic outcomes in secondary education in the Midwest?

This research question focuses on a specific context (secondary education in the Midwest) and has clearly defined constructs.

What are the negative effects of standardised tests on student learning within Oklahoma primary schools?

This research question has a clear focus (negative outcomes) and is narrowed into a very specific context.

Need a helping hand?

Examples: Healthcare

Shifting to a different field, let’s look at some examples of research questions within the healthcare space.

What are the most effective treatments for chronic back pain amongst UK senior males?

Specific and solution-oriented, this research question focuses on clear variables and a well-defined context (senior males within the UK).

How do different healthcare policies affect patient satisfaction in public hospitals in South Africa?

This question is has clearly defined variables and is narrowly focused in terms of context.

Which factors contribute to obesity rates in urban areas within California?

This question is focused yet broad, aiming to reveal several contributing factors for targeted interventions.

Does telemedicine provide the same perceived quality of care as in-person visits for diabetes patients?

Ideal for a qualitative study, this research question explores a single construct (perceived quality of care) within a well-defined sample (diabetes patients).

Which lifestyle factors have the greatest affect on the risk of heart disease?

This research question aims to uncover modifiable factors, offering preventive health recommendations.

Examples: Computer Science

Last but certainly not least, let’s look at a few examples of research questions within the computer science world.

What are the perceived risks of cloud-based storage systems?

Highly relevant in our digital age, this research question would align well with a qualitative interview approach to better understand what users feel the key risks of cloud storage are.

Which factors affect the energy efficiency of data centres in Ohio?

With a clear focus, this research question lays a firm foundation for a quantitative study.

How do TikTok algorithms impact user behaviour amongst new graduates?

While this research question is more open-ended, it could form the basis for a qualitative investigation.

What are the perceived risk and benefits of open-source software software within the web design industry?

Practical and straightforward, the results could guide both developers and end-users in their choices.

Remember, these are just examples…

In this post, we’ve tried to provide a wide range of research question examples to help you get a feel for what research questions look like in practice. That said, it’s important to remember that these are just examples and don’t necessarily equate to good research topics . If you’re still trying to find a topic, check out our topic megalist for inspiration.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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Good Leadership Is About Asking Good Questions

John Hagel III

You don’t need to pretend to have all the answers.

Especially when they find themselves in the midst of crisis and uncertainty, leaders should ask powerful and inspiring questions. Asking questions well can put you on the path to solving intractable problems and will also help you connect with others and, counterintuitively, to earn their trust. Those questions should be big in scope: What new opportunities have emerged that we don’t want to miss? How might we use new technologies to change our business model? And you should involve others in answering those questions —employees, stakeholders, and even customers. Doing so can not only help you generate better answers, it can also help you to change your organization’s culture.

Leaders today need to revisit an overlooked skill: asking questions. In my 40 years as an executive and advisor in Silicon Valley, I’ve often seen leaders assume that people look to them for answers — bold assertions that build people’s confidence in their competence. But in reality, that kind of approach erodes trust, especially at a time when so much is manifestly uncertain. You think you have the answers to all important questions? That suggests that you are either clueless — you have no idea how rapidly the world is changing — or that you are lying. In either case, you won’t find that trust that you’ve been looking for.

John Hagel III recently retired from Deloitte, where he founded and led the Center for the Edge , a research center based in Silicon Valley. A long-time resident of Silicon Valley, he is also a compulsive writer, having published eight books, including his most recent one, The Journey Beyond Fear . He will be establishing a new Center to offer programs based on the book.

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Are Leadership and Management Essential for Good Research? An Interview Study of Genetic Researchers

Alison l. antes.

1 Washington University School of Medicine

Adelina Mart

James m. dubois.

Principal investigators are responsible for a myriad of leadership and management activities in their work. The practices they employ to navigate these responsibilities ultimately influence the quality and integrity of research. However, leadership and management roles in research have received scant empirical examination. Semi-structured interviews with 32 National Institutes of Health (NIH)-funded genetic researchers revealed that they considered leadership and management essential for effective research, but their scientific training inadequately prepared them. We also report management practices that the researchers described employing in their labs, as well as their perceptions of a proposed intervention to enhance laboratory leadership. These findings suggest best practices for the research community, future directions for scientific training, and implications for research on leadership and management in science.

Introduction

A recent article describes why researchers were referred by their institutions for research compliance or integrity remediation training ( DuBois, Chibnall, Tait, & Vander Wal, 2016 ). The authors, who run the training program, found that most researchers who were referred are successful and never intended to break research rules. The most common reason for referral (49%) was failure to provide adequate oversight of their labs or studies, which in turn led to more serious lapses in compliance or research integrity. These oversight failures were frequently related to deficiencies in managing workloads and setting priorities.

The quality and integrity of scientific work depends largely on the leadership and management practices of investigators. Activities such as cultivating a lab culture, mentoring trainees, assembling teams, training and supervising staff, solving technical problems, and improving work processes are integral to good research ( Adamo, Bauer, Berro, Burnette, & Hartman, 2012 ; Arnon, 1989b ; Bennett, Gadlin, & Levine-Finley, 2010 ; Cohen, 2012 ; Gray, 2008 ; Nosek et al., 2015 ; Roberts, Kavussanu, & Sprague, 2001 ; Sapienza, 2004 ). Yet, how scientists navigate the numerous social and organizational dimensions of scientific research has received virtually no attention ( Hurley, 2003 ; Robledo, Peterson, & Mumford, 2012 ). This is notable given the sizeable scientific workforce, the immense investments made in research, and the social consequences of the work ( Freedman, Cockburn, & Simcoe, 2015 ; Hurley, 2003 ; Ladd, Lappé, McCormick, Boyce, & Cho, 2009 ; McCormick, Boyce, Ladd, & Cho, 2012 ). Thus, there is a pressing need to examine the role of leadership in science.

Leadership in science exists at multiple levels ( Robledo et al., 2012 ). Leadership and management activities essential to the scientific enterprise are performed by institutional administrators ( Ball, 2007 ; Billot, 2010 ; Hansson & Monsted, 2008 ), project coordinators and lab managers ( Pryor, Habermann, & Broome, 2007 ; Rico-Villademoros et al., 2004 ), and principal investigators ( K. Barker, 2010 ; Kvaskoff & McKay, 2014 ). Our focus in the present effort is principal investigators (PIs) and the leadership and management responsibilities they encounter as they lead their research labs.

We explored the perspectives of National Institutes of Health (NIH)-funded genetic researchers regarding leadership and management in their research. Specifically, our intention was to gather evidence to understand whether investigators attribute significance to leadership and management in their performing research. We also sought to understand how prepared investigators felt to perform leadership and management responsibilities after completing their scientific training and to identify practices that they employ.

What Are Leadership and Management?

Leadership may be the most written about phenomenon in human life ( Hogan & Kaiser, 2005 ; Zaccaro, 2014 ). Indeed, an extensive literature examining leadership and management in organizations exists in the psychology and management disciplines ( Bass & Bass, 2008 ; Day, 2014 ; DeRue, Nahrgang, Wellman, & Humphrey, 2011 ; Schein, 2010 ; Yukl, 1989 ). In this literature, scholars debate the importance of distinguishing between leadership and management; indeed they are both essential and often overlap ( National Research Council, 2015b ; Northouse, 2013 ).

The many models and theories of leadership and management reflect in part their complexity and context-dependent nature ( Marion & Uhl-Bien, 2001 ; National Research Council, 2015b ). Some scholars describe leadership as having a longer-term orientation and management a shorter-term focus. Leaders are forward-thinking and change-oriented while managers focus on consistency and efficiency in accomplishing tasks ( Kotter, 2008 ; Maccoby, 2000 ). Thus, theories of leadership often emphasize mechanisms such as vision, inspiration, and relationships aimed at influencing people , and models of management emphasize mechanisms such as planning, directing, and organizing aimed at overseeing work ( Bass, 1990 ; Conger, 1999 ; Maccoby, 2000 ; Zaleznik, 1977 ).

Overall, leadership and management may be defined as the social mechanisms and organizational processes by which people achieve success through collective effort ( Kaiser, Hogan, & Craig, 2008 ). Notably, effective leadership may require hierarchical and distributed forms of influence ( Pearce, 2004 ); however, contemporary leadership theories increasingly define leadership as a dynamic, shared social process, rather than a quality of specific individuals per se ( Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009 ).

How Are Leadership and Management Germane to Scientific Research?

In the existing small body of empirical evidence, leadership in scientific groups and organizations is associated with research team attitudes and scientific performance outcomes ( Andrews & Farris, 1967 ; Barnowe, 1975 ; Baumgartel, 1957 ; Knorr, Mittermeir, Aichholzer, & Waller, 2009 ). While we know very little about leadership and management in scientific research, it is clear that leadership is particularly critical when the nature of work is complex and creative ( Frankel, Leonard, & Denham, 2006 ; M. Mumford, Gibson, Giorgini, & Mecca, 2014 ; M. Mumford, Scott, Gaddis, & Strange, 2002 ). Leaders of creative work identify and coordinate requisite expertise for projects, create shared mindsets about mission direction, define strategies for carrying out the work, and orchestrate an environment characterized by intellectual stimulation, communication, and productive conflict ( Gemmill & Wilemon, 1994 ; M. Mumford & Licuanan, 2004 ; Robledo et al., 2012 ).

In performing these key activities, leaders engage in a complex array of behaviors—some more traditionally associated with “management” (e.g., planning, obtaining resources, providing feedback) and others more traditionally associated with “leadership” (e.g., coaching, modeling, building relationships, and providing socio-emotional support, particularly in the face of obstacles and setbacks) ( M. Mumford, Scott, & Gaddis, 2003 ; National Research Council, 2015b ). The scientific community describes some interpersonal elements of scientific work (e.g., communication, shared values, and trust) in the mentoring and team science literatures ( Adams, 2014 ; Bird, 2001 ; Gewin, 2015 ; Straus, Johnson, Marquez, & Feldman, 2013 ), but generally the social dynamics of the research context are overlooked. The collective nature of scientific research ( Adams, 2014 ; Binz-Scharf, Kalish, & Paik, 2015 ; Ledford, 2015 ) suggests models of shared and distributed leadership may be appropriate in scientific work ( Bolden, 2011 ; Drath et al., 2008 ; Friedrich, Vessey, Schuelke, Ruark, & Mumford, 2009 ). These models emphasize the need to draw on requisite expertise at necessary points during projects, and they construe leadership as the collective mindsets and practices that facilitate direction, alignment, and commitment.

Additionally, scientific research is highly project-based. This implies that what constitutes effective leadership may vary at different stages ( Buijs, 2007 ; Robledo et al., 2012 ). Thus, PIs likely need to be highly adaptive as they manage different projects and teams, particularly as they engage different individuals, from staff to students, post-docs, peers, and superiors ( Chi, 2010 ; Cohen, 2012 ; Bonetta, 2006 ). Models of leadership emphasizing pragmatic forms of leadership—employing technical expertise and problem-solving strategies as means to enhance individual and group capacity to perform work effectively—may also be particularly appropriate in the scientific context ( M. Mumford et al., 2003 ; M. Mumford & Van Doorn, 2001 ).

Finally, considerations about integrity, transparency, and ethics are integral to performing scientific work ( Bird, 2014 ; Buck, 2015 ; Devereaux, 2014 ; Macrina, 2014 ). In orchestrating research, some of the considerations researchers encounter include employing best practices to ensure data integrity, avoiding biases that undermine objective methods and interpretations, executing peer review fairly, complying with research regulations, and managing competition and pressure ( De Vries, Anderson, & Martinson, 2006 ; DuBois, 2004 ; DuBois et al., 2016 ; Nuzzo, 2015 ; Parker, Vermeulen, & Penders, 2011 ). Furthermore, scientists must model responsible behaviors to those whom they train, mentor, and manage ( Bird & Sprague, 2001 ; Ripley, Markowitz, Nichols-Casebolt, Williams, & Macrina, 2012 ). Navigating this environment requires leadership and management skills in their highest form. Individuals must engage in self-evaluation and continually scrutinize and improve work processes and practices ( Ashford & DeRue, 2012 ; Unsworth & Mason, 2012 ). Although moral and positive forms of leadership are not the only viable models of leadership ( M. Mumford & Fried, 2014 ), matters of integrity and ethics are elemental to notions of scientific work ( Kalichman, 2014b ). Thus, models of leadership in scientific research should consider practices, such as modeling ethical behavior and creating ethical work climates ( Barnett & Vaicys, 2000 ; Brown & Trevino, 2006 ), associated with rigorous, transparent and ethical research.

Overall, models of leadership in science are in their infancy. Future work must examine leadership in science as its own phenomenon as existing models (which typically focus on corporate and political settings) may be inadequate for explaining leadership in this unique context ( Arnon, 1989a ; National Research Council, 2015b ; Robledo et al., 2012 ). In the healthcare setting, for example, attempts to adopt Six Sigma management strategies—which have been successful in transforming manufacturing industries—have yielded limited evidence of their effectiveness ( DelliFraine, Wang, McCaughey, Langabeer, & Erwin, 2013 ).

Why Have Leadership and Management in Scientific Research Been Overlooked?

There are several potential reasons that the scientific community has overlooked leadership and management in performing scientific work. These reasons relate primarily to assumptions about the nature of researchers and the nature of scientific work.

Researchers tend to be autonomous, self-driven individuals who are intrinsically motivated by their work ( M. Mumford et al., 2003 ). Thus, the notion that researchers require external motivation, such as motivation provided through the influence of a leader, seems dubious ( M. Mumford et al., 2014 ; Robledo et al., 2012 ). Indeed, given the self-confident, conscientious, and achievement-oriented nature of scientists, it may be difficult for leaders to engage in influence attempts ( M. Mumford et al., 2003 ; Robledo et al., 2012 ). But, as outlined above, models of distributed and pragmatic leadership may be appropriate. Furthermore, although tenuous, there may be an assumption that scientific work can advance even in spite of poor leadership ( Hogan & Kaiser, 2005 ; Sapienza, 2004 ).

The contemporary scientific community recognizes that scientific work is not a sole endeavor ( Bennett et al., 2010 ; Hemlin, Allwood, Martin, & Mumford, 2013 ). However, the romantic notion of an individual scientist working alone to achieve breakthroughs lingers in thinking about scientific work ( M. Mumford et al., 2003 ). This notion may account at least in part for the neglect of the social nature of the modern scientific enterprise. Additionally, researchers view the scientific process as an objective, dispassionate endeavor—one potentially devoid of significant human and social elements ( Markowetz, 2105 ; McCormick et al., 2012 ). But, the recent recognition of the fallibilities of the scientific process ( Collins & Tabak, 2014 ; Nuzzo, 2015 ) have highlighted that science is, in fact, a deeply human endeavor. Nonetheless, these notions may have fostered the sidelining of the social dimensions of science.

Research Questions

In sum, researchers work in a complex professional environment on multi-faceted, high-demand work. This work requires leadership and management. The objective of the present study was to provide initial empirical evidence regarding the importance that genetic researchers attach to leadership and management in their scientific work. Overall, we addressed the questions: Do PIs perceive leadership and management activities as essential to conducting effective research and how prepared did they feel for these activities after completing their scientific training? Additionally, we identified management practices that successful, funded investigators employ in their work, and inquired about their openness to an intervention aimed at fostering effective lab practices.

Study Design and Sample

We conducted semi-structured interviews with NIH-funded genetic researchers at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, a research-intensive medical center which has one of the four human genome sequencing centers funded by the National Human Genome Research Institute. Our target sample was biomedical researchers conducting diverse types of research (e.g., lab, human, and animal) funded across NIH institutes but sharing a common focus on genetic or genomic science. At this stage, to foster interpretation of our findings we focused within one academic medical center to minimize the potential for differences attributable to varied institutional cultures.

We identified PIs funded through R (research), P (center), U (collaborative), or K (career development) grants using the NIH RePORTER database. We sought investigators diverse in career stage, hence our inclusion of PIs funded on K grants. A keyword search (e.g., gene, genetic, genomic, exome) of project abstracts active as of September 2014 yielded 407 unique project PIs at Washington University. We utilized institutional or lab websites to identify the gender of the investigators so that we could stratify our sample proportionally for gender representation among the funded investigators (70% male, 30% female). We also stratified our sample across the NIH institutes that had funded the research.

We randomly sampled 30–35 investigators at a time across the two strata in each of four rounds of recruitment. To refine the initial RePORTER query, we reviewed the project descriptions to ensure that the projects did involve a primary or secondary aim in genetics or genomics and replaced (at random) those that did not. In total, we emailed 135 investigators inviting them to participate in a 30–45 minute telephone or in-person interview focused on “understanding the challenges and practices of researchers in genetic and genomics.” We followed up after one week with a second email and a phone call. We received responses from 7 (5%) declining to participate, 11 (8%) indicating they did not consider themselves genetic researchers, and 32 (24%) agreeing to participate. The Washington University in St. Louis institutional review board approved this study (ID# 201409169). PIs received a consent information sheet via email before participating in the study and had the opportunity to ask questions before the interviews began.

Data Collection

The interview script consisted of open-ended questions with follow-up questions used as needed and as time permitted. The experience of the senior investigator (J.M.D.), and his research on professionalism and responsible conduct in research ( DuBois, 2004 ; DuBois et al., 2016 ), as well as the first author’s familiarity with the leadership literature ( Antes & Mumford, 2012 ; Antes & Schuelke, 2011 ; M. Mumford, Antes, Caughron, & Friedrich, 2008 ) guided generation of interview questions. However, questions were intentionally broad in focus to avoid priming participants to discuss leadership and management. Our opening question was simply, “Thinking about what it takes to do your research effectively, in addition to scientific knowledge and technical expertise, what skills have you found that you need?” The overall focus of our interview was to understand whether PIs viewed leadership and management as important to their research and to discover practices they utilize. Additionally, we asked the participants for their reactions to a potential program aimed at providing PIs with guidance in lab leadership and management. A secondary area of focus was PIs’ perspectives on ethical and social issues in research. In this manuscript, we report on the primary focus—leadership and management.

A member of our study team (A.M.) conducted the interviews, after training provided by the first author. For the convenience of the PIs, we allowed them to choose whether to participate via telephone (n = 20) or in-person (n = 12). The average length of the interviews was 34 minutes ( SD = 16). All of the participants gave consent for us to audio-record the interview. To obtain demographics, we asked participants to describe their career stage and type of research. We collected data on their degrees and whether they were originally from the U.S. or an international background via biographical information posted online on institutional or lab websites. We began to achieve saturation of themes at about 20 interviews, but completed 32 to interviews to ensure that the themes remained consistent upon achieving a fuller, more representative sample in terms of gender and career stage. A professional transcriptionist transcribed the interviews verbatim.

Data Analysis

We performed a content analysis of the interview transcripts ( Roller & Lavrakas, 2015 ; Vogt, Vogt, Gardner, & Haeffele, 2014 ) using an inductive coding scheme developed from the participants’ responses. First, one member of the study team (A.L.A.), an organizational psychologist, read the transcripts to identify themes and subthemes present in the responses and to develop a coding guide consisting of the themes and their descriptions. The senior author (J.M.D.) reviewed the coding guide. Next, A.L.A. and A.M. met to discuss the coding scheme before applying it to 10% of the interviews. Both coders read the transcripts and indicated whether each theme was present or not present by entering 1 ( present ) or 0 ( not present ) in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet used to manage the data. After independent coding, the coders met to discuss issues that had arisen in applying the coding scheme and reached consensus about any differences in interpretation. Before A.M. proceeded to code the remaining transcripts, we established that the guide could be applied with satisfactory inter-rater agreement (Kappa = 0.74). We report frequencies and percentages for the themes that emerged in the interviews and provide quotes to illustrate the PIs’ responses.

As shown in Table 1 , the participants consisted of 32 NIH-funded investigators who described their career stage as very junior (16%), somewhat junior (25%), mid-career (41%), or senior (19%); 69% where male and 31% female. Their research included human (41%), animal (63%), bench (59%), and computational/statistical (28%) research; many investigators (66%) indicated that their research involved multiple types. The majority of participants (69%) had a PhD degree and 31% had a MD and PhD degree. Approximately 41% were originally from an international location. Nearly all of the investigators reported having multiple ongoing collaborations at the institution and external to the institution. All but a small subgroup of the “very junior” investigators reported having post-docs, graduate students, and/or undergraduates working in their labs.

Sample Demographics

	# of researchers	% of researchers

Human	13	41%
Animal	20	63%
Bench	19	59%
Computational/Statistical	9	28%

Very Junior/Early Career	5	16%
Somewhat Junior	8	25%
Mid-Career	13	41%
Senior	6	19%

PhD only	22	69%
MD/PhD both	10	31%

Male	22	69%
Female	10	31%

U.S.	18	56%
International	13	41%
Unknown	1	3%

PIs Spontaneously Reported That Leadership and Management Skills Are Essential

Our first question was general before we probed more specifically about issues related to leadership and management. We began by asking investigators to describe what skills, in addition to scientific knowledge and technical expertise, they have found that they need to do research effectively. As shown in Table 2 , leadership and management skills emerged as the dominant theme. Nearly all investigators (97%) indicated one or more leadership or management skill. (The one investigator who did not mention a leadership or management skill was a member of the “very junior” group.)

Leadership and Management Skills Needed for Effective Research

	Illustrative Quotes	# of times addressed	% of researchers
Management skills	“One big thing is management, and that’s the thing that I kind of wasn’t quite expecting when I started, but it is a pretty big responsibility ... that is a component in my career.” “Managing people, and every PI I’ve ever talked to, this is where we have no idea what we’re doing.”	18	56%
Collaboration skills	“You need to be able to negotiate and collaborate well with multiple people from multiple different backgrounds.” “Being able to rely on other people, and to be able to bring lots of different groups together is a skill that I definitely rely on.”	14	44%
Interpersonal skills	“Being able to communicate with people in my lab that are coming from all sorts of different diverse areas and backgrounds, both domestic and foreign researchers.” “Interact in a productive way with other people ... communicating with them ... and listening to them.”	13	41%
Business skills	“Figuring out budget issues and how much to pay people, how to you know, write job ads, interview people” “How to budget a lab, I’ve never learned that, I sort of really have to learn on the fly.”	11	34%
Intellectual qualities	“Curiosity and perseverance are the most important things.” “Organization, logical thinking, reasoning, and perseverance, these are all important characteristics.”	10	31%
Leadership skills	“Being an effective leader to motivate them for what needs to be done for the lab.” “In terms of environment ... it’s critical for me that people who come to the lab ... demonstrate an innate ability to care about each other. Most of science is failure ... so you need people who will care for you.”	5	16%
Mentoring skills	“A PI is also a mentor, so we really need to train students in the science the right way. They’re not just coming to the lab to work for the lab, they came here for their training”	3	9%

Note. N = 32. The only additional response provided was writing skills, which 12 (38%) PIs mentioned.

The most common responses included management skills (56%). Investigators described needing to manage people in particular, but also projects. Next, investigators highlighted the importance of collaboration skills (44%), including being able to bring together multiple people and work well with diverse individuals. Relatedly, investigators reported needing interpersonal skills (41%)—skills that foster their ability to interact well with people and communicate with them.

A small sub-group of investigators (16%) specifically mentioned leadership skills, or activities related to leadership, such as motivating or inspiring people and creating a caring environment. Overall, investigators utilized “management” more commonly in their terminology to describe their work-related tasks. Notably, just 9% of investigators mentioned “mentoring,” or mentoring activities, such as developing the skills of others, teaching, supporting, or guiding. This is interesting considering that, of the terms used in scientific research, mentoring is more common than management or leadership.

PIs Described Learning Necessary Skills through Trial-and-Error

We asked researchers how they learned the skills that they need that are not scientific in nature. As shown in Table 3 , the most common response, provided by 73% of the investigators, was that they learned to navigate management and leadership responsibilities “on-the-job” through “trial-and-error.” Investigators described a process of making mistakes and then trying something new, and they portrayed the learning process as occurring “on the fly,” through “osmosis,” through “trial by fire,” or by “playing it totally by ear.”

Methods for Learning Necessary Skills

	Illustrative Quotes	# of times addressed	% of researchers
On-the-job, trial- and-error	“When you start your own lab it’s sort of the ultimate on the job training because before that you’re taught how to be a scientist, you’re not taught how to be a lab manager.” “I set up my own lab, and so there were a lot of mistakes made right away, but I think I always look back on myself and reflect on myself and the situations and learn through those mistakes.” “Navigating that is totally by trial and error. I’m not even sure, I’m getting better, I’m probably better now over time, but you know, it needs constant refinement.”	22	73%
Mentors or other models	“I think I learned by observing my former advisor. I was very lucky to be a student and a post doc with two fantastic mentors.” “Seeing what’s worked in other labs and doing those things, and what hasn’t worked in other labs, and trying not to do those things.”	12	40%
Graduate or post-doctoral experience	“I trained a grad student before, especially when I was a post-doc, so it’s not a total shock to me.” “I was very fortunate to be in a really large, well-funded lab in my post doc where I was allowed to do a fair amount of mentoring there.”	10	33%
Natural ability	“I’m a people person; I like to interact with people.” “Some of it, I think, comes from temperament.”	4	13%
Medical residency	“Being a resident and running resident teams or being a fellow and running a clinical team, kind of helped translate into how do you get everybody to work together towards a common goal.” “For the people aspect of it, the residency actually was really a great training ... it involved a lot of interaction with people.”	3	30%

Note. N = 30 (2 un-codeable responses).

Several PIs specifically noted the lack of formal training on these issues, and many emphasized the need to learn these skills earlier. Additionally, several described their lack of skills and the slow learning process as “haphazard and hazardous” and “high-stakes.” One described worrying about having detrimental effects on the careers of individuals in the lab stating, “You hope that you don’t ruin someone’s life in the process. It’s pretty high stakes to be learning on-the-job.”

Many of the investigators specifically noted that their graduate or post-doctoral experience did not adequately prepare them; however, 33% reported that their graduate training or post-doctoral experience provided some development in this regard. Another 40% mentioned learning some of these skills from mentors or other models. However, a sub-set of these individuals reported learning practices to avoid by working with poor models. Finally, 30% of the researchers who were also physicians (those with MD/PhD degrees) mentioned that their medical residency assisted in learning skills necessary for interacting well with others.

PIs Reported Being Unprepared for Lab Management Responsibilities

We asked PIs how well prepared they felt when they started their careers to navigate issues in research that are not scientific in nature or to mentor trainees and manage staff. Most were forthcoming about lacking preparation. Overall, 50% felt that they were inadequately prepared, and 40% described being modestly prepared. Notably, just 10% stated that they were prepared (N = 30, two responses were un-codeable due to unclear answers). Several mentioned that they had been overly confident, and others noted that training for science is different than the skills needed for running a lab. A couple speculated that they might be further ahead in their careers if they had been better prepared. As illustrated in the following quotes, the PIs described the early stages of their careers, in particular, as challenging. One researcher noted, “I would say that’s [management] something that I wasn’t prepared for, it was sort of like jumping into the deep end as far as that goes.” Another described the transition to running a lab as follows, “[It’s] shocking the dramatic transition that occurs, the type of responsibilities and time management from going from post-doc to running a lab ... you go from doing the work to managing the work and redefine what works means.”

PIs Described Key Leadership and Management Practices

We asked the PIs to describe their mentoring practices or management style at this point in their careers. With the exception of a couple “very junior” investigators, most PIs were able to articulate their approach to managing their labs. Overall, the themes included a constructive set of practices (shown in Table 4 ). Although most of the mid-career and senior PIs reported feeling fairly confident in their approach at this stage, some noted the need for continual refinement, feedback, and adjustment. Additionally, a couple noted that they recognized that they may need to change practices such as being rigid about deadlines, too “hands off,” or “micro-managing.”

Mentoring and Management Practices

	Illustrative Quotes	# of times addressed	% of researchers
Foster open communication	“If something isn’t working out, there’s a communication that occurs; how do we try to fix that?” “I really encourage the people in the lab to speak their mind, I listen to them, I consult with them on many, many things before I make a decision.”	13	41%
Meet regularly	“Meet with everybody on a regular basis, at least once a week, to have them update me with what’s going on.” “Review everybody’s work at least once a week pretty thoroughly to go through all of the technical details ... usually I talk with them briefly [on a daily basis]”	12	38%
Personalize approach to each individual	“I take time to get to know people, trying to understand their level of expertise, their strengths ... maybe gaps exist in their training ... I establish a relationship... then try to be attentive to different styles and different individual needs.” “I tend to adapt my management style to individual needs.”	10	31%
Guide while encouraging independence	“They’re supposed to be learning how to be independent, so I try to encourage that I give advice and they comment, but I try to give them opportunity to really shape their own research.” “I think on one hand, to be really close to my trainees and trying to understand what they are doing, advising them, and at the same time giving them significant freedom in what they are doing from day to day.”	9	28%
Create positive environment	“I want everyone in this lab to be happy I want to make sure this is an environment I provide. I try very hard to make everybody comfortable and happy.” “Research is never going to be a very smooth process ... people in my lab deal with that very well For my part, you have to have patience ... we always stick together and try to find the solution for the problems.”	9	28%
Set clear deadlines	“I set pretty firm guidelines in terms of what I expectI don’t tell them how to get them done, I just kind of set the bar.” “We usually discuss what the projects for the week are, and what our goals are for when those projects are complete ... and how to adjust plans if things aren’t going according to the plan.”	8	25%
Expect self-motivation	“My expectation is you drive yourself You need to be self-driven.” “I expect people to be self-motivated, and to generate their own thoughts I work well with people who are kind of self-driven.”	5	16%

Note. N = 32.

Of the themes reported, the top responses included fostering open communication (41%) and meeting regularly (38%). The underlying theme of these responses was problem-solving. Open communication and regular meetings allowed the lab to address problems immediately and move projects forward. Several PIs also noted being available daily for ad-hoc meetings. Some (28%) emphasized the critical importance of finding a balance between guiding people while also encouraging them to be independent. Additionally, one-third (31%) noted the importance of personalizing one’s management or mentoring style to individual needs. Other themes included creating a positive environment (28%) and setting clear deadlines (25%).

PIs Welcomed a Proposed Management Intervention

We wanted to ascertain whether investigators would welcome programs intended to assist them with lab leadership and management. Rather than asking them about their general interest, we contextualized this question by asking the PIs about their reactions to a specific hypothetical intervention—one that would be intensive in terms of the commitment required of a PI. We described a feedback and coaching intervention that would utilize a lab climate survey to obtain feedback about lab practices and culture from members of the lab and the PIs own self-assessment. Subsequently, PIs would receive aggregated results and coaching in areas of desired change in lab practices. After developing an initial plan for change, coaching would take place quarterly via telephone to assist PIs with following through on their plans.

A majority of PIs (74%) strongly supported the program and described it as valuable (N = 31, one response was missing due to running out of time). A small group (19%) was unsure about the proposed intervention or thought it could be potentially useful. Only 2 individuals (6%) stated that it was not a good idea, citing that it may be time-consuming or difficult to get anonymous feedback from members of the lab. Several of the PIs’ statements illustrated their openness to improving their management practices and reiterated their recognition of the importance of lab management. One researcher indicated, “I would welcome it. I would always like to improve my lab, improve the culture in the lab, and any advice or help that I can get from the outside I would welcome.” Our question prompted another researcher to note, “As I said, you’re not taught management.... Am I managing most efficiently? I don’t know.... I would be open to hearing about ideas ... I’d be flexible to change; it would be good to have feedback.” Finally, another investigator stated:

If I look back ... and I look at the single thing that I’ve screwed up the most it would be management ... management and management practices, and execution. Anything that helps that game would be better, and especially if people are like, you know, particularly focused on science.

Although what we proposed was intensive, several of the PIs stressed that they liked the tailored nature of the program, and that there is a need generally for leadership and management resources tailored to scientists. About half of those who supported the proposed program emphasized that PIs at early career stages in particular might benefit. However, one PI’s comment highlighted the importance of the timing of interventions, noting that something like this might be most appropriate once one’s research team started to get particularly complicated.

I would say I wouldn’t have felt much value for it maybe five years ago. It’s kind of at a point where there’s enough going on in a lab where it starts to get complicated personnel wise; then that would start to be really useful. In a small lab with junior faculty, I wouldn’t necessarily find value in it, but at this point I would.... You don’t even know what your issues are going to be until you’re kind of in the middle of it.

Our interviews with NIH-funded genetic researchers revealed that researchers consider leadership and management essential for performing research effectively. However, PIs reported that they were inadequately prepared to navigate the social and organizational elements of their scientific careers based solely on their scientific training. They emphasized that they learned the necessary leadership and management skills on-the-job through trial-and-error. Notably, the traditional means employed to impart scientists with requisite knowledge and skills—namely mentoring and graduate training—did not appear to be significant sources for learning to perform leadership and management activities central to research. Certainly, scientific training affords trainees with problem-solving skills that may facilitate acquiring such expertise through experience ( K. Barker, 2010 ), but this study reinforces the proposal that the scientific community must better prepare scientists to navigate these aspects of their careers ( Evans, 2012 ; Hede, 2007 ; Kvaskoff & McKay, 2014 ; Laursen, 2014 ; Leiserson & McVinney, 2015 ; Seeliger, 2012 ). The present effort provides some recommendations for how to approach such an effort. However, we need additional research on approaches for developing scientists’ leadership and management skills and basic research on leadership and management in research.

Best Practices

Our findings suggest several best practices for researchers. Overall, it is important to be intentional about leadership and management practices that one employs and to refine these practices continually across one’s career. Elemental to this effort is openness to feedback from lab members and advice from peers and colleagues. Additionally, one must be mindful of the outcomes of different approaches to coordinating and monitoring the work of research team members. Important practices include fostering open communication and meeting regularly, particularly to serve the interest of troubleshooting problems. It is also important to be attentive to the individual needs of those whom one manages or mentors, and to balance providing appropriate guidance while also allowing independence. Finally, it is prudent to gauge and monitor the workgroup climate or culture within a lab, working towards fostering one conducive to creativity, integrity, and productivity. Our findings also suggest that scientists, particularly those early in their careers, should seek out available resources and training opportunities. Finally, it is important for researchers to be mindful that their behaviors and practices as lab directors and research mentors have a lasting impact on those within their labs.

These points imply broader practical recommendations for leaders of research institutions. In the academic setting studied in the present effort, investigators desired access to leadership and management resources and training opportunities tailored to scientists. Institutional leaders should assess whether such a need exists in their organizations. Additionally, if extant resources and programs are available, leaders should ensure that they are sufficiently advertised, particularly when onboarding new investigators. Not only could such efforts improve practices in performing scientific work and enhance the quality of training and mentoring of junior scientists, but support from administrative officials may also influence the broader institutional culture. Finally, institutions should assess the outcomes of such programs and share their findings with others in the scientific community.

Educational Implications

Of course, a major issue moving forward is what should be the nature of training and development efforts for scientists. A set of established approaches for leadership and management development and education exist in the organizational psychology and business disciplines ( Day, Fleenor, Atwater, Sturm, & McKee, 2014 ; DeRue & Myers, 2014 ; Doh, 2003 ; Snook, Nohria, & Khurana, 2011 ), which may provide best practices to guide future work. However, it is unclear which techniques and topics translate to the scientific context, reinforcing the importance of defining learning objectives and assessing the outcomes of training and developmental interventions ( Antes & Schuelke, 2011 ; Arthur, Bennett, Edens, & Bell, 2003 ; Riggio, 2008 ).

In addition to traditional training models, we should also explore other potentially viable developmental techniques, such as providing investigators feedback from lab climate surveys and coaching ( Ely et al., 2010 ; Feldman & Lankau, 2005 ; M. Mumford, Peterson, & Robledo, 2013 ). Notably, new measures of leader effectiveness tailored to the scientific enterprise may be necessary to assess training and developmental interventions (and such measures would facilitate research efforts as well). Furthermore, future discussion about leadership and management training and development for investigators should also consider educational practices in undergraduate and graduate education in the sciences ( National Research Council, 2015a ).

Although more basic research on scientific leadership and management must guide appropriate content, existing evidence suggests that social judgment and interpersonal skills, in addition to problem-solving skills and technical expertise, underlie leadership in professional settings. Such competencies include the ability to build and maintain relationships, present oneself well, communicate effectively, build teams, and support others ( R. A. Barker, 1997 ; Hogan & Kaiser, 2005 ; M. Mumford et al., 2003 ; M. Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, & Jacobs, 2000 ). Indeed, the PIs in our interviews emphasized the importance of these skills, and they appear to be emphasized in existing, albeit limited, leadership training programs offered for scientists ( Laursen, 2014 ). Coupled with scientists’ existing problem-solving skills and technical expertise, enhanced social and interpersonal skills would likely better equip investigators for responsibilities such as fostering an open, innovative, high-integrity work environment, engaging others in participatory decision-making, and effectively distributing leadership among lab members or research team members ( Salazar, Lant, Fiore, & Salas, 2012 ). However, to be effective and credible, leadership development programs, particularly those focusing on emotional and interpersonal competencies, must be grounded in research ( Riggio & Lee, 2007 ).

Additionally, business skills, such as planning, budgeting, staffing, monitoring progress, and setting priorities, are imperative ( Hogan & Kaiser, 2005 ; T. Mumford, Campion, & Morgeson, 2007 ). Indeed, the investigators we interviewed raised this point. Such skills assist researchers with tasks such as hiring and training staff, planning project timelines and milestones, and overseeing work. In designing training and development interventions, it may also be necessary to consider the relative priority of different competencies at different stages in a scientist’s career ( M. Mumford, Marks, Connelly, Zaccaro, & Reiter-Palmon, 2000 ). Additionally, developmental efforts should consider the dynamic needs of investigators across the stages of scientific projects ( Antes & Schuelke, 2011 ; National Research Council, 2015b ), including how investigators simultaneously manage multiple projects in multiple stages. Moreover, the skills investigators need may also vary depending on the level of support provided by institutions such as support in budget development and management.

Another model for training and development efforts would prepare researchers to be reflective and adaptive in their approach to leading and managing in their labs and across their careers ( Ashford & DeRue, 2012 ; Nesbit, 2012 ). Such an approach would encourage investigators to recognize leadership and management responsibilities and roles in scientific work and foster a leader self-identity ( Day & Harrison, 2007 ; Pearce, 2007 ). A reflective, adaptive approach allows individuals to change and tailor their leadership style and practices appropriately for a given context, project, or career stage, and it facilitates self-directed learning and growth by encouraging individuals to extract lessons from their experience ( Ashford & DeRue, 2012 ; Cohen, 2012 ; Puccio, Mance, & Zacko-Smith, 2013 ). The comments of the participants in our study suggest that they engage in this reflective approach to some extent intuitively, and formal training could provide support and knowledge to accelerate this natural approach to developing leadership skills.

Several practical considerations emerge from these points. First, investigators already juggle many duties and responsibilities ( James, 2011 ; National Science Board, 2014 ). Thus, it may seem unreasonable to suggest that they participate in leadership training. Theoretically, well-executed training would save investigators time by helping them to address issues before they emerge and being more mindful about practices that foster successful research. Indeed, some of the PIs in this study reported learning things the “hard way” and speculated that this had slowed them down; others have reinforced the hazards of learning to lead “on-the-fly” ( Kreeger, 1997 ). Overall, this potential critique reinforces the need to utilize best practices and assess leadership development and training efforts to demonstrate their value. Additionally, offering support and services on-demand, for instance through consultation services or access to online resources, might allow investigators to obtain the right kind of information and assistance at the right times.

Second, engaging issues related to “soft skills” and asking for assistance to improve one’s practices may be unfamiliar to researchers who tend to be analytic, self-reliant, and self-confident ( Feist, 1998 ). Moreover, those trained in the life and physical sciences may be skeptical of the insights about leadership and management practices offered by the social sciences ( Sapienza, 2004 ). However, researchers are naturally open-minded, which many mitigate these concerns ( Robledo et al., 2012 ). It is important, however, to consider how to best frame such efforts. It is unclear to what extent investigators find different terminology appealing—for example, career development, professional development, leadership development, or management training.

Finally, although leadership training and development are certainly not a panacea, future work might consider whether a leadership and management framework provides an umbrella for integrating the currently disparate conversations about topics such as mentoring, responsible conduct in research, professionalism, mentoring, research rigor and transparency, and team science. These topics all highlight social and organizational dimensions in designing, performing, and communicating scientific work. Such an approach might answer calls to make responsible conduct of research training more relevant to the daily work of scientists and to explore ways to foster engagement of ethical issues in research through connecting them directly to the practice of science ( Devereaux, 2014 ; Kalichman, 2014a ; Smith, 2001 ).

Research Agenda

Notably, the basis for effective leadership development interventions is an understanding of the practice of leadership and management in science. Thus, there is an urgent need for empirical research examining the social and organizational elements of scientific research. This research should examine the mechanisms and processes proposed in the existing, although scarce, literature on scientific leadership ( Hemlin et al., 2013 ; M. Mumford et al., 2003 ; National Research Council, 2015b ; Robledo et al., 2012 ). For instance, this work might examine processes in team alignment and knowledge integration ( Drath et al., 2008 ; Salazar et al., 2012 ). Other issues such as conflict resolution, project management, building a lab culture, cross-cultural communication, and interacting with difficult colleagues may also be fruitful directions ( K. Barker, 2010 ; Cohen, 2012 ). There is an existing, expansive base of related research in the workplace psychology and organizational behavior disciplines, but future research must take into account the unique qualities of scientific work and the distinct qualities of staff and collaborators engaged in it.

Future work must also examine explicit connections between leadership and management practices and the ethics, integrity, and transparency of research. With a few notable exceptions—for instance, an investigator recounted realizing that inadequate oversight of a graduate student had comprised the integrity of data generated during the student’s tenure in the lab—investigators in our study generally did not raise such connections. Two opposing explanations may account for this. Investigators may implicitly acknowledge the connection between practices they employ to manage their research and the effectiveness and integrity of the research. Alternatively, PIs may lack awareness of the significance of ethical issues in their work ( McCormick et al., 2012 ). It is also important to understand connections between management practices and the productivity of scientific labs and teams—what practices yield scientific productivity while also supporting the quality and integrity of the work?

The present study focused primarily on management issues in the lab setting, but future work should also consider the multiple levels at which investigators may lead in their careers and the multiple types of scientific organizations ( M. Mumford et al., 2003 ). For example, leadership takes place in collaborative, even multi-site and international, teams, in scientific disciplines (e.g., leadership roles in a professional society), in communities and among the public, and in administrative roles (e.g., a division chief or department chair). Additionally, leadership across multiple levels must be considered; for instance, how administrative leadership at the organizational or departmental level influences leadership within labs ( Bland & Ruffin, 1992 ; Robledo et al., 2012 ). Future research on leadership and management in science will also need to consider differences and commonalities across academic, industry, and entrepreneurial organizational contexts ( M. Mumford et al., 2003 ).

To address these research questions about scientific leadership, we must consider several significant practical issues that emerge. Notably, who should study, fund, and publish “metascience” ( Hu, 2016 ) on leadership and management in research? Interdisciplinary teams comprised of social scientists and those from specific social, life, or physical science disciplines may be best equipped to employ social science methods to test research questions while also appreciating unique features of specific scientific disciplines. But, funding agencies and journals typically focus on specific diseases or disciplines. Research issues that span all scientific research do not have clear funding or publication outlets ( Ioannidis, Fanelli, Dunne, & Goodman, 2015 ). Often this work is published in a wide range of disciplines, making it difficult for scholars studying similar issues to locate each other’s work ( Ioannidis et al., 2015 ). Additionally, these efforts are likely to be unfunded secondary projects of interest to individual researchers, and as such, potentially funded inadequately to address the necessary large and complex questions.

Limitations

These findings provide some useful future directions for research, training, and development regarding leadership and management in science, but they are not without limitations. The first limitation relates to the generalizability of the findings because the PIs were at one academic institution. However, this allowed us to hold constant the potential influence of institutional culture, which was not of interest in this particular study. Additionally, we ensured that our sample was diverse and representative of biomedical researchers conducting NIH-funded genetic research. They were diverse in terms of nation of origin (i.e., international or U.S.), and they conducted varied types of research (e.g., human, animal, computational) funded by a variety of NIH institutes. They were also diverse in career stage, and our sample was representative of the NIH-funded population in terms of gender.

Another potential limitation includes that the investigators self-selected as volunteers for the interview study. Therefore, they may be those most interested in issues related to operating a lab or leading a research team. Indeed, their responses suggested that they were reflective about their lab management practices. Overall, it is unclear whether our findings would generalize to other groups of scientists in other settings.

Finally, all of our participants could be considered highly successful: they are PIs at a leading medical research center with NIH funding. While this is a limitation in terms of the generalizability of findings, it is also a strength in terms of learning about the management practices of successful researchers.

In conclusion, the NIH-funded principal investigators that we interviewed at a top-tier US academic medical center decidedly indicated that leadership and management are essential to performing effective research. Moreover, they observed that scientific training does not prepare researchers for these activities, and they encouraged the development of programs to better train investigators. Ultimately, equipping investigators to navigate the social and organizational dimensions of scientific work serves to foster the quality, integrity, and societal impact of scientific research. But, efforts must follow best practices in leadership development and assessment, and empirical research on leadership and management in science should serve as their basis. Several practical concerns emerge in light of the foregoing observations, such as who should study, fund, and publish such work. We hope that the present study inspires the scientific community to take on this challenge.

Acknowledgments

Source of Support

This study was supported in part by a National Center for Advancing Clinical and Translational Science Award, 2UL1 TR000448-06, and by the National Human Genome Research Institute, K01HG008990. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent official views of the National Institutes of Health.

Disclaimers

The authors have no conflicts of interests or disclaimers to report.

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Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Published on October 26, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 21, 2023.

A research question pinpoints exactly what you want to find out in your work. A good research question is essential to guide your research paper , dissertation , or thesis .

All research questions should be:

Focused on a single problem or issue
Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
Specific enough to answer thoroughly
Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

How to write a research question, what makes a strong research question, using sub-questions to strengthen your main research question, research questions quiz, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research questions.

You can follow these steps to develop a strong research question:

Choose your topic
Do some preliminary reading about the current state of the field
Narrow your focus to a specific niche
Identify the research problem that you will address

The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve. The table below shows some examples of how you might formulate questions for different purposes.

	Research question formulations
Describing and exploring
Explaining and testing
Evaluating and acting	is X

Using your research problem to develop your research question

Example research problem	Example research question(s)
Teachers at the school do not have the skills to recognize or properly guide gifted children in the classroom.	What practical techniques can teachers use to better identify and guide gifted children?
Young people increasingly engage in the “gig economy,” rather than traditional full-time employment. However, it is unclear why they choose to do so.	What are the main factors influencing young people’s decisions to engage in the gig economy?

Note that while most research questions can be answered with various types of research , the way you frame your question should help determine your choices.

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Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them. The criteria below can help you evaluate the strength of your research question.

Focused and researchable

Criteria	Explanation
Focused on a single topic	Your central research question should work together with your research problem to keep your work focused. If you have multiple questions, they should all clearly tie back to your central aim.
Answerable using	Your question must be answerable using and/or , or by reading scholarly sources on the to develop your argument. If such data is impossible to access, you likely need to rethink your question.
Not based on value judgements	Avoid subjective words like , , and . These do not give clear criteria for answering the question.

Feasible and specific

Criteria	Explanation
Answerable within practical constraints	Make sure you have enough time and resources to do all research required to answer your question. If it seems you will not be able to gain access to the data you need, consider narrowing down your question to be more specific.
Uses specific, well-defined concepts	All the terms you use in the research question should have clear meanings. Avoid vague language, jargon, and too-broad ideas.
Does not demand a conclusive solution, policy, or course of action	Research is about informing, not instructing. Even if your project is focused on a practical problem, it should aim to improve understanding rather than demand a ready-made solution. If ready-made solutions are necessary, consider conducting instead. Action research is a research method that aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as it is solved. In other words, as its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time.

Criteria

Explanation

Answerable within practical constraints

Make sure you have enough time and resources to do all research required to answer your question. If it seems you will not be able to gain access to the data you need, consider narrowing down your question to be more specific.

Uses specific, well-defined concepts

All the terms you use in the research question should have clear meanings. Avoid vague language, jargon, and too-broad ideas.

Does not demand a conclusive solution, policy, or course of action

Research is about informing, not instructing. Even if your project is focused on a practical problem, it should aim to improve understanding rather than demand a ready-made solution.

If ready-made solutions are necessary, consider conducting instead. Action research is a research method that aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as it is solved. In other words, as its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time.

Complex and arguable

Criteria	Explanation
Cannot be answered with or	Closed-ended, / questions are too simple to work as good research questions—they don’t provide enough for robust investigation and discussion.
Cannot be answered with easily-found facts	If you can answer the question through a single Google search, book, or article, it is probably not complex enough. A good research question requires original data, synthesis of multiple sources, and original interpretation and argumentation prior to providing an answer.

Relevant and original

Criteria	Explanation
Addresses a relevant problem	Your research question should be developed based on initial reading around your . It should focus on addressing a problem or gap in the existing knowledge in your field or discipline.
Contributes to a timely social or academic debate	The question should aim to contribute to an existing and current debate in your field or in society at large. It should produce knowledge that future researchers or practitioners can later build on.
Has not already been answered	You don’t have to ask something that nobody has ever thought of before, but your question should have some aspect of originality. For example, you can focus on a specific location, or explore a new angle.

Chances are that your main research question likely can’t be answered all at once. That’s why sub-questions are important: they allow you to answer your main question in a step-by-step manner.

Good sub-questions should be:

Less complex than the main question
Focused only on 1 type of research
Presented in a logical order

Here are a few examples of descriptive and framing questions:

Descriptive: According to current government arguments, how should a European bank tax be implemented?
Descriptive: Which countries have a bank tax/levy on financial transactions?
Framing: How should a bank tax/levy on financial transactions look at a European level?

Keep in mind that sub-questions are by no means mandatory. They should only be asked if you need the findings to answer your main question. If your main question is simple enough to stand on its own, it’s okay to skip the sub-question part. As a rule of thumb, the more complex your subject, the more sub-questions you’ll need.

Try to limit yourself to 4 or 5 sub-questions, maximum. If you feel you need more than this, it may be indication that your main research question is not sufficiently specific. In this case, it’s is better to revisit your problem statement and try to tighten your main question up.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

Sampling methods
Simple random sampling
Stratified sampling
Cluster sampling
Likert scales
Reproducibility

Statistics

Null hypothesis
Statistical power
Probability distribution
Effect size
Poisson distribution

Research bias

Optimism bias
Cognitive bias
Implicit bias
Hawthorne effect
Anchoring bias
Explicit bias

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

As you cannot possibly read every source related to your topic, it’s important to evaluate sources to assess their relevance. Use preliminary evaluation to determine whether a source is worth examining in more depth.

This involves:

Reading abstracts , prefaces, introductions , and conclusions
Looking at the table of contents to determine the scope of the work
Consulting the index for key terms or the names of important scholars

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (“ x affects y because …”).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses . In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

Researchability
Feasibility and specificity
Relevance and originality

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Example research questions.

Example Research Questions
Topic	Subtopic	Issue or Problem	Research Question
High School Education	Drop-outs	Socio-cultural impacts on high school completion	What are the socio-cultural influences on high school completion and how might these be addressed?
Higher Education	Access	Barriers to college entry	How well are college access interventions working in North Carolina?
K-12	Special Education	School administrators views of the disabled	How do K-12 principals' beliefs about disabilities affect their leadership of students with disabilities?
Middle School	Mathematics	Serving the learning needs of gifted and challenged middle school students in mathematics	What impact would a tiered system in middle school mathematics have on learning by students with varying aptitudes for mathematics?

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Leadership questions | study reveals the key questions successful leaders ask employees.

The key to encouraging meaningful feedback from employees lies in the type of questions leaders ask © iStock / fizkes

Driving a positive work culture means making space for challenge—here are the questions business leaders should be asking their teams

Fri Aug 23 2024

The study from Imperial’s Center for Responsible Leadership analyzed over 30 hours of recorded meetings, focusing on real-time interactions between leaders and their teams.

Based on this research, the report outlined key strategies and question styles that leaders can use to draw out diverse perspectives and open up the decision-making process.

What are the key questions successful leaders should ask their employees?

According to the report, the key to encouraging meaningful feedback from employees lies in the type of questions leaders ask and their precise wording.

Broad or open-ended questions—such as “You wanted to say something?”—are likely to result in superficial agreement rather than constructive challenge. Instead, leaders should ask questions that directly invite alternative viewpoints and make team members accountable for their input.

Examples of questions that build challenge into the discussion:

Does anyone disagree or think there is a better idea?
What do you want to propose as an alternative?
What would stop you from taking this option?
What do you think would be difficult in terms of implementation?

These questions signal that alternative viewpoints are welcome, actively encouraging team members to critically engage with the issues at hand and share their honest opinions.

Why is it important to create a culture of constructive challenge?

When employees feel unable to voice concerns or challenge decisions, this can result in a culture of fear or silence and can even threaten an organization’s growth and future.

“The consequences of a corporate culture where teams are hesitant to challenge leaders can be dire. This can include financial damage and service failure,” wrote Celia Moore, professor and academic director of the Center for Responsible Leadership and lead author of the report.

A well-known example is the 2021 collapse of asset manager Archegos Capital, which led to a $5.5 billion loss for global investment bank Credit Suisse. The bank largely attributed this failure to a ‘cultural unwillingness to engage in challenging discussions,’ according to a report published in July of that year.

But targeted questions are just one part of a broader strategy to foster a positive, open, and constructive work environment. Leaders must take deliberate steps to create an atmosphere where challenge is valued as an integral part of the decision-making process.

The way leaders respond to challenges is crucial. Merely expressing gratitude towards a team member without specifically addressing the challenge raised can stifle further input.

Instead, challenge should be legitimized and directly addressed. For instance, the response “That’s a fair challenge, we could definitely go with that option,” goes beyond superficial acknowledgement and demonstrates genuine engagement with the issue.

What strategies should business leaders implement to create a culture of challenge?

The report outlines several practical strategies that leaders can implement to cultivate an environment where constructive challenge is prioritized.

Solicit and specify: Leaders should ask precise questions that clearly invite diverse viewpoints
Acknowledge challenges: Challenges should be acknowledged as legitimate to convey that input is valued
Encourage interaction and use humor: Humor and casual interaction can help create a more relaxed environment where employees feel comfortable speaking up
Manage time effectively: Meetings should be long enough to allow for thorough discussion and challenging
Emphasize accountability: Holding team members accountable for their contributions encourages them to voice their opinions more confidently

In light of these findings, the Center for Responsible Leadership is offering masterclasses for leadership teams on how to bring about constructive challenge within their organizations.

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How to Ask Truly Powerful Questions as a Leader (and Why It’s Important)

Guest Post by Jason R. Waller

Orginally posted @ Entrepenuer.com

The prominent psychiatrist Carl Jung once stated, “To ask the right question is already half the solution of a problem.” As a CEO coach, I see that as leaders ascend the ranks of an organization, their questions become much more important than their answers .

As an individual contributor or junior manager, there’s a lot of stock put into solutions and trying to figure out that answer. Success is equivalent to how much you do and how efficiently you do it. The leverage here is in your tools, your systems and processes. For more senior managers or executives, though, the dynamic starts to shift. They’re less focused on their own output and start to define success as the output of their teams. The leverage here comes from the people who lead and deliver the outcomes.

As the definition of “success” changes, so too must the approach. How to get the most leverage out of people, people who are often leading others themselves? How to get the most relevant information in a noise of complexity? How to focus, motivate and empower others ? A lot of this comes down to developing the skill of asking really powerful questions .

Powerful questions are the cornerstone of effectiveness in my profession of coaching. They’re the currency that my clients and I trade in to develop deeper awareness and forward-meaning action. I know something about what makes good questions good and bad questions bad. And, although I do this full-time as my career, coaching is a core part of any effective leadership at scale. So, what’s the recipe to make a question truly powerful ? For that, I believe you need five key ingredients.

Powerful questions come from a genuine place

Often, I catch myself and others using questions as an argumentative tool to make a point. I call this weaponizing ; they are statements masquerading as questions. Imagine asking questions like, “This isn’t at all the right approach, what were you thinking?” or “Why in the world would you choose that option?” Even without the context or tone, you can imagine that these questions are intended to make a point , to convey an opinion. Powerful questions, on the other hand, come from a place of genuine curiosity and openness. There are no hidden statements behind them other than “I want to learn from you.”

Powerful questions are open , not closed

A closed question is something that restricts the answers, usually a yes or no or a small subset of choices. “Are you making progress?” is a closed question. “Do you think we should go left or right?” is a closed question. This isn’t to imply that closed questions are bad ; in fact, they can be quite helpful to get clarity or encourage action. But really powerful questions are open, not closed. They begin with question words, especially the words “ what ,” “ why” and “ how .” These words invite a broader discussion, not a choice from a narrow set of possibilities.

Powerful questions are framed in a way that’s encouraging

As a shortcut, I find that oftentimes the best word to start a powerful question off with is “ what” instead of “why” or “how.” Asking, “Why did you do this?” can prompt someone to be defensive and try to answer in a way that justifies their choice. Asking, “How did you do this?” can have a similar effect or result in a more analytical or superficial answer. In contrast, try reframing the question in a less confrontational way, such as, “What was important to you about doing this?” or “What were the steps you took?” Regardless, another way to frame a question in a more encouraging way is to simply share the context for the question.

Powerful questions focus on going deep instead of broad

As leaders, we must continue to develop a sense of priority and focus on what truly matters , reflecting that in our questions. Instead of asking questions to collect answers on a dozen different topics, ask questions that get you a dozen perspectives on the one most important topic. Try to reflect on what the most important thing is and then zoom in, not out. Focus on what more instead of what else .

Powerful questions are concise

Finally, powerful questions are concise ; brief but potent. A short, sweet question is easier to understand, reflect on and respond to. There are two things to watch out for here: long questions and stacked questions. A powerful question should be short and fit comfortably into a simple sentence. If this isn’t easy, pause to reflect on how to make your question shorter. But avoid trying to restate the question after the fact, which can just create confusion. Stacking questions one after the other makes it difficult to understand what the true question is. It’s often better to ask a good question and stop short of adding the perfect question on top of it. Try to remember: Ask your question, then pause at the question mark.

Asking powerful questions is a skill — one that can be practiced and developed over time. Try noticing these five components of powerful questions as a structure for that practice. And, although this isn’t part of building powerful questions, don’t forget to truly listen to the reply. Think less of which question to ask next or what response to give, and try to stay present. Focus on understanding the answer. That is, after all, why we ask really powerful questions in the first place.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Jason R. Waller is a partner at Evolution and a lifelong student of leadership and personal growth; he believes that good leaders can change the world. After his own career in the military and consulting, he discovered his calling as a coach and set out to find and serve these leaders full-time.

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