(symptoms)
Analysis indicated that these mechanisms related to the child “being”, and how children perceived and made sense of their participation within school. Firstly, the information extracted from studies overwhelmingly and specifically demonstrated the relevance of mechanisms related to motivations, preferences, and interests. The key mechanisms were children’s own interests and preferences including selection of certain activities based on interests/preferences and perceptions around potential enjoyment (or not) of activities which motivated choices [ 14 , 24 , 42 – 46 , 46 – 52 ]. Participation was also strongly influenced by children’s self-perceptions, including self-esteem, self-efficacy, confidence, and perceived competence—all of which influenced children’s activity in-the-moment and over time, influencing current and future participation[ 24 , 46 , 48 – 58 ]. Perceptions around meaningfulness were also identified as an influencer of participation, including perceptions around activities that were valued or especially significant to children, as well as perceptions of personal satisfaction and pleasure associated with activities[ 14 , 21 , 24 , 45 , 50 , 51 , 59 , 60 ].
Children’s internalization and understanding of routines and habits emerged as conditions influencing participation in school. Studies highlighted children’s internalization of habit/routine, familiarity with habit/routine and automaticity of habit/routine were mechanisms for participation [ 44 , 53 , 62 – 64 ]. Knowing the steps involved in activities or routines led to reduced demands on the child to understand, process, or plan, and when internalized as patterns of actions, facilitated participation by providing a set of rules to navigate the school context. Routines of the school day were noted to shape children’s daily participation, with references to the fact that children’s participation in school was supported by structured activities and programs [ 44 , 64 ], and that regularized activities in the classroom supported participation for children with disabilities [ 44 ]. Children themselves perceived that rules, norms and routines are important in structuring their participation [ 62 ]. Parents also indicated that routines influence participation [ 44 , 53 ].
Children’s knowledge, understanding and subjective experience of roles influenced their participation. In the school, possible roles included being a pupil, friend or member of a club. Disabled children tended to occupy less “desirable” roles within the school. Roles considered desirable by children, especially those including being good at something (e.g. best in class) or “best friend” roles were seldom held by children with disabilities [ 61 ]. Children with disabilities also engaged in less “doing roles” (such as athlete, leader, helper and tutor) and more were likely to be classified into negative roles including “challenged learner”, victim or bully [ 61 ]. Mechanisms influencing participation were internalization of roles (either positive or negative roles), leading to positive or negative self-perceptions, and understanding/knowledge of role requirements [ 56 , 61 ]. Related mechanisms included self-perceptions relating to inclusion, focusing on children’s subjective experiences of social inclusion, sense of membership and sense “school” identity [ 57 ].
Competence mechanisms reflected “doing” or behavioral aspects and how children engaged in participation. Well-supported mechanisms enabling participation were children taking initiative, being proactive and acting on interests [ 14 , 24 , 44 , 52 , 53 , 65 – 68 ] Research also demonstrated that seeking independence and autonomy, showing responsibility and commitment, displaying persistence and perseverance were drivers of participation [ 45 , 47 , 51 – 53 , 57 , 68 – 72 ].
Other competence mechanisms related to following routines and having daily habits [ 55 , 62 ] as well as consistency of behavior, including being predictable, being systematic and preparedness for routines [ 55 , 62 ]. Also identified as important conditions for participation were children meeting teachers’ expectations and following the school’s rules [ 61 ]. Finally, patterns of behaviors that followed from particular roles were identified as shaping quality and quantity of participation, including patterns of behaviors associated with friendship roles and patterns of behaviors associated with school-based roles (for example sports team member) [ 57 , 61 , 70 , 71 , 73 ].
Studies exploring relationships between skills and participation were common. In total, 27 papers provided data. However, researchers are now concluding that deficits or improvements in skills, although related to participation, are not related in a direct or linear fashion. The evidence challenges the idea that an increase in skill equates to an increase in participation. Psychological characteristics, personality and preferences are also important [ 14 ]. The evidence did indicate, however, that skills were important for the completion of certain types of activities in certain situations. For example, social skills are often required to access play situations [ 57 ]. The mechanisms related to skills identified as important for participation were organisation and planning (e.g. sequencing, concentration and memory) [ 35 , 46 , 49 , 51 , 52 , 55 , 56 , 63 , 70 , 72 , 74 ]; communication/social skills [ 14 , 15 , 42 , 49 , 51 – 53 , 67 , 72 , 74 ] and motor skills [ 8 , 14 , 49 , 51 , 52 , 55 , 58 , 70 – 72 , 74 – 80 ].
The literature provided good support for the influence of symptoms associated with disability on participation. These were pain, fatigue, anxiety and mood. Twenty-two papers provided data. Identified mechanisms were concerned with experiences related to symptoms. These were: pain (especially cognitions and catastrophizing) [ 8 , 14 , 52 , 71 , 75 , 79 , 81 – 83 ]; fatigue, including lowered energy, tiredness, and sleep disturbance[ 14 , 46 , 58 , 71 , 80 , 84 – 86 ]; anxiety and its consequences including fear, frustration, and anger [ 46 , 51 , 53 , 58 , 60 , 71 , 80 , 87 – 89 ], and low mood, sadness or depression [ 13 , 52 , 71 , 80 , 81 , 84 , 89 ].
Fundamental underpinnings were closely related across the different symptoms, drawing on social learning and cognitive-behavioural theory, suggesting that illness behaviours or responses generate negative behavioural patterns which may be maintained and strengthened over time [ 8 , 13 , 71 , 75 , 81 , 83 ]. These mechanisms lead to reduced participation through disengagement from activity and a cyclical pattern of attempts to control symptoms through increasing withdrawal from activities.
The next step was to explore how and which contexts facilitated or provided opportunities for participation versus contexts which restricted/constrained participation. This twofold role of context was evident throughout. Context comprised five interrelated areas: (1) structures and organization of the school, (2) peers, (3) adults, (4) physical spaces and (5) objects. Sub-components of each area were identified by the reviewers, focusing on opportunities (supports) or constraints (barriers) to school participation (supporting studies are presented in Table 5 and Appendix F in S1 File ).
Context | Sub-component | Opportunities & Constraints | Supporting evidence |
---|---|---|---|
Opportunity: Equal opportunities; responsive to needs; individualized; child mediated Constraint: Not individualized | [ , , , , , , – , , , , , , – , – , , , – ] | ||
Opportunity: Adaptable; flexible Constraint: Rigid | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , – , , , , , , – ] | ||
Opportunity: Consistent; predictable; planned; collaborative Constraint: Unpredictable; unstructured and/or lacking of rules or regulations | [ , , , – , , , , , – ] | ||
Opportunity: Provide opportunities for participation; shape positive roles Constraint: Shape negative roles | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , ] | ||
Opportunity: Positive attitudes Constraint: Unsympathetic attitudes | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] | ||
Opportunity: Competent; knowledgeable Constraint: Lacking in knowledge | [ , , , , , , ] | ||
Opportunity: Collaboration between staff Constraint: Poor communication between staff | [ , , , , , , ] | ||
Opportunity: Encouraging; practical and emotional support Constraint: Discouraging; bullying; discrimination | [ , , , , , – , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] | ||
Opportunity: Nurturing relationships; opportunities for friendship Constraint: Friendship avoidance | [ , , , , , , , , ] | ||
Opportunity: Positive attitudes Constraint: Negative attitudes; stigma | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , ] | ||
Opportunity: Spaces exist; spaces usable as required Constraint: Spaces inaccessible | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , – , , , ] | ||
Opportunity: Design “just right”‘; layout “just right”; sensory qualities attended and modifiable Constraint: Crowded; unfamiliar; sensory qualities unmodified/unsuitable | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] | ||
Opportunity: Objects exist; objects are usable and acceptable Constraint: Objects are unavailable | [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ] | ||
Opportunity: Objects address needs Constraint: Objects are complicated; usability issues; cumbersome; unsuitable; isolating | [ , , , , , , , , ] |
Structure and organization was a well-supported aspect focusing on the ways things were done in the school. Facilitative aspects were described as being tailored to the child, responsive to needs, individualized, and child led [ 10 , 15 , 17 , 21 , 24 , 42 – 44 , 49 , 52 , 54 , 57 , 58 , 62 – 65 , 67 – 70 , 80 , 90 – 94 , 96 ]. Facilitative structures/organization were also described as adaptable and flexible [ 10 , 14 , 36 , 44 , 52 , 64 , 65 , 68 , 69 , 80 , 96 , 97 , 98 ], predictable [ 44 ] and well-planned [ 10 , 68 , 69 , 93 , 96 , 98 ]. The most common constraint to participation identified was lack of individualization [ 15 , 20 , 42 , 44 , 49 , 53 , 57 , 58 , 65 , 66 , 69 , 71 , 72 , 80 , 91 , 97 , 98 ]. Other identified constraints included rigid routines [ 10 , 14 , 67 , 80 , 84 , 92 , 93 , 97 , 98 ] or routines which were unpredictable or disordered [ 70 , 72 ].
There was abundant evidence that adults (referring to teachers and other staff within school) were key in creating opportunities for participation and were also influential in shaping the quality, frequency and range of children’s roles [ 16 , 21 , 42 , 43 , 52 , 57 , 61 , 64 , 66 , 96 , 97 , 99 ]. Adult’s positive and sympathetic attitudes were facilitative of participation [ 14 , 93 , 96 , 99 , 100 ] as were individuals who were competent and knowledgeable [ 44 , 62 , 49 , 68 , 96 , 99 ]. Good collaboration between adults was also facilitative [ 14 , 68 , 93 , 96 , 99 ]. Attitudes were identified as restrictive, as well as adults who were unsympathetic [ 10 , 44 , 47 , 53 , 58 , 71 , 72 , 80 , 93 , 99 , 100 ] or lacking in knowledge [ 14 , 35 , 49 , 101 ]and institutional collaboration [ 35 , 69 , 99 ]. Adults were also noted to play a part in shaping negative roles (e.g. by ‘pigeonholing’ children with disabilities as less able and therefore offering them fewer participation opportunities, or by being reluctant to allow students to learn or play independently) [ 61 ].
The evidence indicated that facilitative peers (referring to other children within the school) provided practical and emotional support enabling participation [ 10 , 15 , 16 , 21 , 43 , 44 , 46 , 49 , 57 , 58 , 60 , 64 , 68 ]. Facilitative peers also provided opportunities for friendship [ 43 , 49 , 61 , 71 , 73 ]. Positive attitudes were also identified as important in creating opportunities for participation [ 24 , 36 , 46 , 69 , 93 , 100 ]. Studies also identified non-supportive actions and behaviours, including bullying [ 15 , 43 – 45 , 57 , 61 , 71 , 73 , 80 , 92 , 99 ], negative attitudes [ 10 , 46 , 53 , 58 , 78 , 80 , 92 , 93 , 100 ], and friendship avoidance [ 15 , 49 , 60 , 66 , 71 , 87 ].
Supportive spaces were described as being accessible and usable [ 10 , 14 , 21 , 24 , 36 , 44 , 45 , 59 , 60 , 65 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 71 , 78 , 97 , 99 ] with suitable design/layout and suitable sensory qualities [ 53 , 60 , 62 , 68 , 86 , 96 , 99 ]. Constraints to participation focused on restricted access to areas where activities happen [ 10 , 14 , 35 , 47 , 49 , 52 , 53 , 60 , 65 , 71 , 78 , 92 , 97 , 99 , 103 ]. Other issues included unsuitable sensory qualities, spaces which were unfamiliar, and spaces which were crowded or difficult to navigate [ 35 , 52 , 53 , 60 , 65 , 97 , 99 ].
Research on objects focused on the availability of objects needed to participate in specific activities, for example, wheelchairs and assistive devices [ 10 , 14 , 21 , 24 , 35 , 36 , 52 , 59 , 60 , 62 , 63 , 65 , 91 , 99 ]. Usability and acceptability to the child were noted as important [ 14 , 44 , 50 , 52 , 53 , 60 , 71 , 72 , 99 ]. Research on constraints associated with objects was fairly limited. Objects being unavailable [ 10 , 60 , 65 , 72 , 99 ], difficult to use [ 35 , 53 , 50 , 99 ] or isolating/stigmatizing [ 45 , 50 ] were identified as constraints to participation.
This realist review has developed a conceptual framework for children’s school participation, and identified the processes (mechanisms) and contexts influencing participation outcomes. The synthesis is of key issues that decision-makers and interventionists may consider to help children to participate in school.
The findings support the hypothesis that identified mechanisms and contexts are important factors associated with participation outcomes. Specifically, the findings show mechanisms in three clusters focusing on identity, competence and the child’s experience of mind and body. The context (environment) is conceptualized in terms of adults, peers, the schools’ structures and routines and spaces/objects. Unlike most models designed for dealing with specific impairments or diagnoses, this model is useful with any child with any health related need or disability experiencing problems with their participation. This is a middle range theory. The term ‘middle range’ theory refers to the level of abstraction at which useful theory for realist work is written: detailed enough and ‘close enough to the data’ that testable hypotheses can be derived from it, but abstracted enough to apply to other situations as well [ 26 ]. Middle range is useful because it offers an analytical approach to linking findings from different situations [ 26 ]. The outcomes of a realist review are ideally framed as middle range theory—that is, theory that can usefully be applied across a range of situations, or in a number of domains [ 26 ]. Findings are (by design) age limited (4–12 years old), but are independent of gender, disability category or ethnicity, supporting application across a range of clinical and educational settings. Ideas reflect a contemporary conceptualization of participation drawn from 72 research papers. The model imagines mechanisms and contexts in dynamic and transactional relationships. This is a “generative causality” model. Explanation is not a matter of a singular mechanism or a combination of mechanisms asserting influence on an outcome. School participation emerges out of a cooperation of factors.
No single factor fully explains variance in participation [ 56 ]. Previous research provides indications of which features of the child significantly affect the participation of students with disabilities, including focus on psychosocial factors for participation, such as preferences [ 102 ]. Our findings support the significant importance of children’s preferences, interests and motivations for participation. Our review also adds to the literature by providing detail on habits and routines which are novel elements not commonly considered. Based on our findings, we recommend that issues associated with habits and routines are closely considered in future. We have found that deficits in routine and habits are important contributors. Habit and routines are performed repeatedly and are relatively automatic. They specify what the child will do and in what order, and, thus, constitute key mechanisms for participation. Habits and routines must be understood and internalized and there are additionally ties to environment. As noted by Engman and Cranford (2016), the quality of habitual action is not equally easy for all—in some environments “non-normative embodiment” (i.e. disability) is less likely to make habitual behaviour achievable than in others [ 104 ]. The structure of the environment enables or restricts consistent, structured and planned schedules and routines. Adults facilitate breaks, social routines, setting of rules and expectations, while objects (timetables and other prompts) provide specific routines (e.g. for gathering information, or which classes to go to).
Our model focusses on participation as a key outcome which is influenced by environmental factors. In line with the ICF [ 1 ], and in the wider literature, the environment is noted to have a significant influence on participation [ 8 , 75 , 78 , 92 , 100 ]. We advance thinking by identifying specific environment factors and offering potential for comprehensive assessment and intervention. This is important, as the potential selection of environmental factors is vast. The issue is to identify specific matters facilitating or obstructing participation in school. The identification of issues must be completed in tandem with a contemporary model of participation itself. Small aspects of the school microsystem can go unnoticed if attention is not drawn to them. A focus on the school environment explicitly defined will support guidelines for working to support participation. The current study findings indicate contextual influence of the school is not just a sum of the people, objects and spaces, but also “how” things are done, or expected to be done within the school (the structures and organization of the school) and the important part adults play in providing opportunities for participation and social roles. Our findings highlight the importance of a nuanced understanding of the environment and not just consideration of physical aspects. Identification of physical aspects of the school, whist important, should always be considered alongside the social environment.
International practice is moving towards the adoption of system/ecological views, but the field still operates predominantly from a unidirectional perspective where “something” is provided to “fix” the person with a disability [ 18 ], rather than operating from more contemporary view of participation as a phenomenon that can be mobilized at different levels. The findings of this review show that individual and environmental interventions should be developed promote participation outcomes in schools. Identified mechanisms offer a potential basis for developing psychosocial child-focused interventions. Mechanisms (e.g. preferences, perceptions of self, perceptions of roles, internalization of routines) are appropriate targets for intervention. These ideas are congruent with recent studies emphasizing that individually tailored coaching and mentoring may help to improve children’s participation [ 17 ]. As noted, however, change will not be effective if it is only targeted at the child. Contextual elements interact with mechanisms to make participation more or less likely and must also be a focus for intervention.
With a focus on school, teachers’ knowledge is of key importance [ 105 ]. Efforts are required to assist teachers’ regarding knowledge and confidence in enhancing participation. Teachers work with increasingly diverse groups of learners and are responsible for attempting to achieve positive outcomes [ 106 ]. Concerns have been expressed that education remains less effective for learners with disabilities [ 2 ]. Concerns are understandable particularly when schools and teachers tend to be rated on achievement, rather than participation [ 107 ]. Existing supports, strategies and approaches for children with disabilities, along with theoretical underpinnings, are frequently superficial and lacking in detail [ 108 ]. Practical aspects of how to “do” inclusion or participation are therefore difficult to see and implement. Previously developed supports and interventional resources have also tended to focus on specific issues or diagnoses (e.g. Autism, Dyslexia, Learning Disability)–leading to “a programme for every problem” [ 109 ]. This has two consequences. Firstly, educationalists follow a medical or disease orientated model, with the consequential issues around disempowerment and depersonalization of people with disabilities [ 18 ]. Secondly, those with responsibility for supporting children with disabilities may feel overwhelmed by the range of options [ 105 ]. The complexity and number of programs makes selecting the right option for the right child at the right time difficult.
Future research could explicitly link intervention components to mechanisms as described in this review. Following methods which use formal means for developing theoretically determined interventions [ 110 ], ‘theory-based’ rather than ‘theory-inspired’ interventions, may be developed. Such research is closely aligned to the UK MRC framework for development of complex interventions [ 27 ]. Identified mechanisms offer a basis for understanding how and why therapeutic or educational interventions for children may or may not be effective at improving school participation. Identification of strategies for the detection and cultivation of facilitative contextual elements would also follow from the above methods.
Further research activities include selection of appropriate items for school participation measurement. Parent-report methods have been commonly used in medical and psychological research to collect participation information [ 86 ]. However, researchers should also consider other data collection methodologies, particularly report by teachers [ 19 ].
While we have attempted to make our search as sensitive as possible (and erred on the side of sensitivity as opposed to specificity), participation continues to be a diverse area spanning several disciplines with limited consensus on terminology. It is difficult to design a perfect strategy. Given the methodological assumptions of realism, other reviewers could come to different conclusions. However, themes and concepts driving the model were apparent across different types of difficulties/disabilities, across studies that used different research methods, and across a range of international contexts. Consistency in identified features provides evidence to support conclusions.
This was the first realist review to explore mechanisms and contexts for school participation of children with disabilities. This paper presents a conceptual framework including child psychosocial factors, such as understanding of routines, sense of self, and perceptions of role, and as well as characteristics of the school environment. We encourage researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to consider these contexts and mechanisms when addressing school participation among children with disabilities. Consideration of interventions, designed specifically to enhance participation by targeting mechanisms, contexts and the processes identified in this review, is now key.
Acknowledgments.
The study was initiated by a partnership between the Salvesen Mindroom Centre in the University of Edinburgh and the CIRCLE Collaboration (Child Inclusion: Research into Curriculum, Learning and Education) research team at Queen Margaret University, Edinburgh. We would like to acknowledge Miriam Crowe, Deborah McCartney and Cathleen Hunter for support and critical comment on the manuscript. Funding for this work was received from the Salvesen Mindroom Centre for Learning Difficulties.
Funding for this work was received from the Salvesen Mindroom Centre for Learning Difficulties.
Inset: Beatriz Rapisarda (Brevard County Sheriff). Background: Sunrise Elementary School (WFTV).
An elementary school teacher in Florida faces child abuse and false imprisonment charges after she was accused of dragging and straddling a student with disabilities and locking her in a bathroom.
Beatriz Rapisarda, 41, was arrested in connection with incidents that happened this week at Sunrise Elementary School in Palm Bay, officials said. Palm Bay is more than 70 miles southeast of Orlando.
Police responded to the school on Thursday on a call of allegations of physical abuse between a teacher and student, according to a probable cause affidavit .
Once there, witnesses told law enforcement that there was an incident in a classroom for the intellectually disabled between the teacher and a student, who was described as low-functioning and only slightly verbal, the document said.
The alleged abuse started after the teacher wanted the student to go from one area to another, but the student said no, the affidavit said.
The teacher then pushed the student “at least twice,” using two open palms to the student’s chest area, the document said.
When the student protested by throwing herself to the ground, the teacher allegedly grabbed the student by her wrist and “pulled her straight up” before the student threw herself to the ground again, the document said.
The teacher then got on top of the student and “straddled” her as the student lay on her back and pinned the student’s arms to the ground, the affidavit said witnesses told the officer.
When the student got up, the teacher stepped in front of the student, grabbed her under the arms, and dragged her toward the bathroom, the document said.
The witnesses told the officer Rapisarda uses the bathroom as a “form of punishment,” where she often puts the student and closes the door with only her foot lodged in it, so it’s not completely shut, the affidavit said.
In the alleged incident, as the teacher pulled the student across the classroom about 30 feet and as the student kicked and screamed, the student’s foot became stuck on a shelf. The teacher grabbed the student’s ankle and wrist and pulled her away from the shelf with her knee in the student’s back while pinning the student’s right arm down, the document said.
The teacher had “all her weight” on the student, one witness told the police, according to the affidavit.
When the student tried to crawl away, the teacher then dragged the student to the bathroom on her back by both wrists and held the bathroom door nearly completely shut as the student banged on the door for up to 10 minutes, the document said.
“The witnesses stated that this action was so shocking that one left the classroom and notified their supervisor,” the affidavit said.
The document noted a witness telling police about a previous incident with the teacher on Tuesday, in which she “wrapped” the student in a foam mat in a “swaddle” or “burrito style” and had the student stand in place while the teacher wrapped her arms around the mat enfolding the student for between five and seven minutes. The witnesses also said the teacher has a bathroom schedule for the special-needs kids and has denied them the use of the bathroom if they didn’t use it at their allotted time, the document said.
The four witnesses told the officer the teacher’s behavior was “unacceptable” and “aggressive” and called her “very controlling,” the document said. The parents told the officer they wanted to pursue the matter criminally, the affidavit said.
Brevard Public Schools released a statement , saying it was cooperating with the investigation and has placed Rapisarda on administrative leave.
Rapisarda is being held at the Brevard County Jail on $10,000 bond. She’s scheduled to be arraigned on Sept. 19, online court records show.
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