impact of mobile on college students essay

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Smartphone use and psychological well-being among college students in china: a qualitative assessment.

• 1 School of Journalism and Communication, Minjiang University, Fuzhou, China
• 2 School of Journalism and Media, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
• 3 School of Economics and Management, Minjiang University, Fuzhou, China

Background: Problematic smartphone use is widespread, and college-age youth faces an especially high risk of its associated consequences. While a promising body of research has emerged in recent years in this area, the domination of quantitative inquiries can be fruitfully and conceptually complemented by perspectives informed through qualitative research. Toward that end, this study aimed to interrogate the myriad behavioral, attitudinal, and psychological tendencies as a side effect of college students’ engagement with the smartphone in their everyday lived experience through in-depth interviews.

Methods: We recruited 70 participants from seven college campuses hailing from different geographic regions in China, and conducted semi-structured in-depth virtual interviews via WeChat in November and December 2020. Subjective experiences, personal narratives and individual perceptions in the context of routine interaction with the smartphone were thematically analyzed through a reiterative process in an effort to detect prevailing threads and recurring subthemes.

Results: The smartphone has established a pervasive presence in college students’ everyday life. Time-based use characteristics generated a typology of four distinct user groups: hypo-connected antagonists, balanced majority, hyper-connected enthusiasts, and indulgent zealots. Habitual usage falls on predictable patterns matched onto temporal, locale-based and contextual cues and triggers. Students’ dependency relationships with the smartphone have both functional and emotional dimensions, as prominently manifested in occasions of detachment from the device. Self-regulatory effort in monitoring and limiting use is significantly impacted by mental focus and personal goal setting. Perspectives from our qualitative data suggest the need for taking into account a variety of contextual cues and situational factors in dissecting psychological and emotional outcomes of smartphone use and abuse.

Introduction

The rapid and widespread penetration of mobile technologies into the fabric of everyday life has fundamentally changed the landscape of human communication. This mobile revolution has been amplified by two landmark developments in the 21st century: mobile phone subscription surpassed fixed-line use in 2002 ( Srivastava, 2005 ), and Apple launched its first iPhone in 2007 (followed by Google’s Android devices in 2008). By incorporating multifunctional applications and multifaceted traits into an all-in-one device, smartphones have nourished “an [sic] historical movement toward a personal communication society” ( Campbell and Park, 2008 , p. 381). Thanks to their boundary-spanning nature, portable convenience and all-encompassing affordances, smartphones function as integrated environments of polymedia ( Madianou, 2014 ), and have turned into the “fourth screen” (coming after but emulating the historical role of the cinema, television, and computers) ( Miller, 2014 ).

The pervasiveness of mobile media in general and smartphones in particular with the adolescent population is a hallmark of contemporary youth culture. As “mobile natives,” Vanden Abeele (2016) argues that immersive engagement with the smartphone has engendered heterogeneous “mobile lifestyles” among the current youth generation. Smartphone technology conforms to the Apparatgeist of “perpetual contact” – “the spirit of the machine that influences both the design of the technology as well as the initial and subsequent significance accorded them” ( Katz and Aakhus, 2002 , p. 305). The always-on mode of the smartphone, coupled by its portability and multilayered functionality, has triggered concerns about its addictive potential, especially among the adolescent and youth population. Against this backdrop, an expanding body of academic inquiries in recent years has linked excessive smartphone use to a variety of addiction-like behavioral and psychometric symptoms such as decrease in productivity and daily interruptions ( Duke and Montag, 2017 ), stress, social anxiety and loneliness ( Vahedi and Saiphoo, 2018 ), neuroticism and impulsivity ( Carvalho et al., 2018 ).

The term “smartphone addiction” has been prevalently used and frequently studied in conceptual frameworks commonly adopted for substance abuse and pathological gambling in contextualizing its antecedents as well as myriad negative physical and physiological outcomes and consequences ( Mahapatra, 2019 ; Sahu et al., 2019 ; Yu and Sussman, 2020 ). However, we concur with Panova and Carbonell (2018) that, even though there is mounting evidence to associate smartphone use with various problems and negative outcomes, “addiction” is not an accurate or correct term to diagnose a set of psychological or physical consequences that are not comparable to the severity and/or associated health problems caused by substance addiction. In a similar vein, as De-Sola Gutiérrez et al. (2016) point out, the diversity of perspectives encapsulated in the umbrella term and the failure to differentiate between addiction, problematic use and abuse has caused confusion and muddied comparability of findings.

It is worth noting that different terms – among them smartphone addiction, smartphone use disorder, pathological smartphone use, excessive smartphone use, maladaptive smartphone use, smartphone dependence, and problematic smartphone use – have been used interchangeably or synonymously in most academic literature. We support the call ( De-Sola Gutiérrez et al., 2016 ; Panova and Carbonell, 2018 ) for a more precise conceptualization of terms, which is more constructive in promoting academic deliberations in investigating symptoms and pondering corresponding corrective actions. We therefore adopt the term problematic smartphone use (PSU) in our research, which aims to examine the myriad behavioral, attitudinal, and psychological tendencies as a side effect of college students’ engagement with the smartphone in their lived experience. We resorted to semi-structured in-depth interviews with 70 college students in disentangling the variety of nuanced pathological habitual patterns and psychological predispositions in the context of students’ daily interaction with the smartphone.

Problematic Use of the Smartphone: Psychological and Behavioral Dimensions

By consolidating computing, portability, and mobility into one interface, the smartphone has the potential to fulfill a variety of communication needs from information to entertainment and interaction. The all-in-one nature of smartphone technologies has drastically enhanced the ever-expanding repertoire of available functionalities and applications. However, availability of services is not tantamount to adoption by the end users. As is the case with most other media technologies, usage and adoption of mobile applications and services has been a well-trodden area of academic research in the new millennium (e.g., Park and Chen, 2007 ; Verkasalo et al., 2010 ; Kang and Jung, 2014 ). The continuous advancement of smartphone technologies calls for constant update of this line of research in various national contexts.

Research Question 1: What are the most frequently used smartphone-based apps in college students’ daily routine engagement?

Design of the smartphone succeeds on a variety of habit-forming technologies and compulsive human tendencies ( Eyal, 2014 ). As a result, habitual use of the smartphone has the potential to develop into certain patterns of compulsive behaviors, including repetitive checking (brief sessions of touching), context-dependent triggered acts, and quick access of dynamic content, all of which may induce habit formation on users ( Oulasvirta et al., 2012 ). Psychology of habit theory posits that a variety of cues, exposure to which may be intentional or inadvertent, can trigger habit performance; in the case of substance use, addiction results when motivation shifts from goal-directed (voluntary) to habitual drug use ( Wood and Rünger, 2016 ). It stands to reason that the same process applies to pathological smartphone use, although more research is needed in support of this mechanism. We therefore pose the following research question:

Research Question 2: What are the temporal and venue-based cues and triggers driving patterns of habitual use of the smartphone?

In terms of psychological consequences, a meta-analysis of 30 independent samples by Vahedi and Saiphoo (2018) confirms a positive association between PSU and stress and anxiety. A survey of college students in Turkey by Enez Darcin et al. (2016) found that social anxiety and feeling of loneliness are associated with vulnerability to smartphone addiction. In a similar vein, Yang et al.’s (2020) meta-analytic review of 14 studies points to a significant correlation of PSU with poor sleep quality, depression, and anxiety. Recent research has started to pay attention to NOMOPHOBIA or NO MObile phone PHOBIA, which is a psychological condition caused by the mental disorder over fear of being disconnected from the smartphone ( Yildirim and Correia, 2015 ; Bhattacharya et al., 2019 ). Another behavioral tendency, especially among adolescent and young users, is called “phubbing,” defined as the practice of “an individual halting face-to-face communication with another person to interact with their telephone” ( Erzen et al., 2021 , p. 57). Moreover, problematic smartphone behavior can be exacerbated by FOMO, or Fear of Missing Out – the perceived need to be constantly connected over the apprehension of missing important information, especially that over social networking sites ( Wolniewicz et al., 2018 ; Elhai et al., 2020 ). We are thus interested in finding out:

Research Question 3: What are the college students’ self-reported symptoms and motivating factors with regard to NOMOPHOBIA, Phubbing and FOMO?

There is a growing awareness among the general public about the excessive amount of time the smartphone consumes and its possible negative consequences on personal health and well-being. In response to the concerns of deepening dependency on the smartphones, digital detox has been proposed as one viable solution to promote planned abstinence from electronic devices such as the smartphone. A synthesis of existing evidence from the body of detox scholarship published between 2008 and 2020 as it relates to smartphone use shows mixed results, with no consistent findings between detox interventions and subsequent cognitive and physical performance measures ( Radtke et al., 2021 ). We would like to contribute to this emerging line of research by asking:

Research Question 4a: What detox measures, if any, do students undertake to mitigate smartphone (over)use?

Research Question 4b: What is the efficacy of these detox interventions?

It is worthy to highlight that the majority of the research on smartphone use and addiction has been inspired by quantitative studies. For instance, an extensive review of current research on phubbing by Al-Saggaf and O’Donnell (2019) led them to bemoan the paucity of qualitative studies and prompted them to call for more qualitative interviews in offering rich descriptions on why people phub. What we aim to contribute to the expanding body of literature through our qualitative semi-structured interviews is to supplement and complement the sizable body of quantitative findings with in-depth, personal and situated perspectives to the diverse dimensions of PSU.

Materials and Methods

We recruited university students from seven college campuses in China, hailing from different geographic locations and representing diverse academic disciplines. Interviewees were briefed on the overall purpose of the study as well as the voluntary nature of participation, and these who agreed to proceed were asked to sign an informed consent to take part in the study. Participants were assured of the anonymity of the interview data. We resorted to a semi-structured interview design in an effort to “understand themes of the lived daily world from the subjects’ own perspectives” ( Brinkmann and Kvale, 2018 , p. 14) with regard to their daily encounters with the smartphone. Because the interviews were conducted in November and December 2020 when the Covid-19 pandemic was still a threat, we adapted to a virtual interview modality conforming to the overall strategies and suggestions in Gray et al. (2020) and Khalil and Cowie (2020) from subject recruitment to rapport building to question handling and use of verbal/non-verbal cues, the main rationale of which was driven by concern for the participants’ health and well-being. However, one major difference is that, instead of using Zoom or Skye, we adopted WeChat, the most popular real-time chat app in China, to conduct the interviews. The reason is that all students have a high level of familiarity and comfort with video-chatting on WeChat, a routine engagement in their daily communication. Our overall WeChat interview experience corroborates the observation by Jenner and Myers (2019) , who conclude after comparing Skye and in-person interviews that virtual interviews are conducive to more sharing of personal information, and does not compromise rapport or reduce the efficacy of the interview methods. As a result, we did not sense any loss or inferiority of the data thus obtained.

The questions cover a range of activities and user characteristics, with most of them open-ended in nature so as to capture the nuanced variations and diverse meanings each interviewee might assign while describing their everyday engagement, but all questions maintained a focus on themes pertaining to the various aspects of PSU mentioned in the above literature review. Specifically, we developed a few clusters of questions focusing on topics framed in our research questions, such as most-often used apps (RQ1), patterns of habitual use and responses to situated cues (RQ2), symptoms of NOMOPHOBIA, phubbing behavioral tendencies, how they would respond to leaving their smartphones behind, and FOMO (RQ3), and whether they had taken detox measures (RQ4a), and (if yes) to what effect (RQ4b). Each interview typically took 30 to 40 min to complete, with a few having gone more than 1 h. Follow-up questions were asked whenever necessary for the sake of clarification or data enhancement.

Data were analyzed by following the well-established qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis approaches in dissecting manifest content into categories and latent content into thematic threads ( Guest et al., 2011 ; Vaismoradi et al., 2016 ). Our analysis is also inspired by the grounded theory method through immersing ourselves in the data corpus in pinpointing key concepts via microanalysis of specific topical areas as well as identifying salient patterns and thematic threads at the level of general analysis ( Brinkmann and Kvale, 2018 ). Conforming to the often-adopted practice of processing the data through a reiterative process in analyzing qualitative interview data, we went through multiple rounds of analysis in first detecting core discrete concepts at the local/individual level and then deciphering dominant, tacit thematic alignments regarding broad perspectives from integrating the totality of the data.

Interviewee Demographics and User Typology

The interviewees comprised 52 female and 18 male students. The disproportionate male/female makeup largely reflects the distribution of the gender differences in the disciplines in the host universities, which are dominated by humanities, social and management sciences, although the number is slightly skewed to the female line.

Of necessity, smartphone dependency first manifests itself in the amount of time one engages with the device on a daily basis. We asked each interviewee to offer an estimate on how much time the smartphone consumes them every day by turning on the Screen Time feature on their smartphone. The majority of the students were able to offer pretty precise answers, typically to the hour with some indicating a clear range (e.g., 6–7 h); moreover, about a quarter of the students reported the exact time as revealed on the Screen Time, such as 5 h 36 min on weekdays by one student. Based on their estimations, the average number of hours on the smartphone approximates to about 6 h (5.7 vs. 5.9 along male/female line) per day on weekdays. There is a sizable increase to the weekend hours (7.7 for male and 7.9 for female). There is, however, significant variation among the individuals, as the reported daily smartphone hours ranged from just 50 min to 10 h on an average weekday, and from 20 min to 12 h on weekend days. For the vast majority of students, there is a consistent pattern in the weekday-weekend variation; we therefore arrived at the daily average use amount in terms of hours by adopting the respective mean of weekday and weekend hours for each interviewee. Our tabulation of users in conformity to the daily amount of smartphone engagement yields four types of users, as reported in Table 1 : below average (disciplined) users (less than 4 h on the phone per day); average (balanced) users (spending 4–7 h on the phone per day); above average (heavy) users (being on the phone for 8–9 h every day); and excessive (problematic) users (using 10 h or more for smartphone-related activities).

Table 1. Typology of users.

Among the four individuals (three in the female group and one from the male group) who said they spent less than 4 h on an average day, all indicated the exercise of self-imposed control as an intentional effort to reduce the amount of time on the phone. On the opposing end, the nine students (making up about 12.9% of the total) who reported excessive smartphone use consented to symptoms of problematic or pathological dependency by explicitly admitting an urge to get onto the smartphone whenever possible. The following quote illustrates the all-consuming nature well by one interviewee: “I get onto my phone whenever I am free. Especially when it comes to the weekend, I stay on my phone all the time except for eating meals or taking the bath.”

For ease of cross-type comparison, we summarized time-based pattern of smartphone use in association with psycho-attitudinal responses to the interview questions into four distinct groups, as presented in Table 2 . First, the hypo-connected antagonists (5.7% of the total) recognize the utilitarian aspects of the smartphone, and their engagement is driven by a highly goal-oriented approach in that they mostly know what they are looking for and go directly to the respective app, dominated by informational and social networking needs, accomplished in short sessions. They are also quite cautious about the negative potentials of the smartphone and exercise appropriate self-control. Second, the balanced majority (51.4%) maintain a conspicuous presence on the smartphone by spending 4–7 h on it. Their use is more expansive, as a significant amount of time is consumed in activities such as listening to music, video-sharing, and mobile shopping beyond information-seeking and social networking. They typically spend half to 1 h browsing the phone before bed and display more noticeable tendencies than hypo-connected antagonists symptomatic of NOMOPHOBIA, phubbing, and FOMO.

Table 2. Psycho-attitudinal traits of different user types.

The third user type, which we name hyper-connected enthusiasts , comprises 30% (22.2% male vs. 32.7% female) of the participants. Hyper is indicated by the level of smartphone engagement as measured in the amount of smartphone time (averaging 8–9 h per day), and enthusiasm is embodied in the palpable craving we detected in their interview conversations while discussing smartphone activities as well as their related emotional dispositions therein. Compared with the two previous groups, entertainment use (e.g., watching teledramas, reading online fiction, viewing movies and using TikTok) is an important part of their regular engagement with the smartphone.

The fourth cohort – who we call indulgent zealots – spend almost all their time outside of class and free from other required duties on the smartphone (averaging about 10 h per day). Although amount of time alone should not be the sole criterion, it is one of the most dependable benchmarks in diagnosing PSU in extant research ( Duke and Montag, 2017 ; Vahedi and Saiphoo, 2018 ; Sahu et al., 2019 ). The statistical distribution of this group (12.9%) fits well-nigh the overall estimate by Eichenberg et al. (2021) in evaluating the prevalence rate of PSU at 15.1% in their study of college students in Vienna. Besides the prevailing tendency to stay longer on a variety of activities that the previous groups also engage in, close to one-half of them specifically mention mobile gaming as one of the most frequently accessed apps on their smartphone. Of particular note is that these students consistently display a set of psych-behavioral traits commonly associated with PSU, such as NOMOPHOBIA, FOMO, and worrying about the amount of time consumed by the smartphone.

The fact that gaming has been mentioned the most prominently among the indulgent zealots is noteworthy, as gaming has been consistently pinpointed as a primary addictive tendency associated with compulsive smartphone use ( Liu et al., 2016 ; Derevensky et al., 2019 ). However, PSU symptoms are not just limited to indulgent zealots only, as similar patterns (albeit to a slightly lesser extent) can be observed with hyper-connected enthusiasts. With regard to content type, the reported use pattern among our cohorts is highly congruent with research findings linking entertainment use and gaming to problematic smartphone dependency ( Jeong et al., 2016 ; Bae, 2017 ; Park et al., 2021 ).

The overall patterns of differences across the four user categories can be found in Table 2 . Detailed symptomatic manifestations among the interviewees are discussed in the sections that follow along the topical lines of the research questions.

Smartphone Utilities (RQ1)

We asked each participant to name five to six apps that they used the most frequently. Among the most mentioned are a total of about 20 apps encompassing four broad areas of functions and affordances. Ranked in the degree of their popularity, the first category serves to carry out variegated tasks of socializing functions via instant video and text messaging, as seen in WeChat, QQ, and Sina Weibo. The second type of apps pertains to multiple ways of news sharing and information seeking (e.g., WeChat, QQ, Toutiao, Zhihu). Closely aligned with the second type is an assortment of apps – for example, Xiaohongshu, Taobao, Alipay, Elema – that facilitate the delivery of utilitarian transactions and tasks ranging from online shopping, mobile payment, photo-taking, and time-keeping to navigational services. Trailing not far behind, the fourth category of apps cater to students’ entertainment needs, as exemplified by NetEase Cloud Music, QQ Music, blibli, Youku, and mobile games led by King of Glory (also known as Wangzhe Rongyao in Chinese) and Counter-Strike .

Table 3 lists the top 10 apps students reported using the most. Of particular note is the role of WeChat in the routines of everyday communications among the participants. WeChat offers multifunctionalities that crosscut boundaries typically found in the first and second types of apps as mentioned above – its text messaging, audio and video chat features are widely used for one-on-one interpersonal communications, while the group chat and one-to-many broadcast capabilities make it the platform of choice for getting messages out to groups of varying sizes. The latter affordances make WeChat a hugely popular venue for information sharing, as evidenced in the avowed use of WeChat by the students as a major channel of information seeking.

Table 3. Top 10 most often-used smartphone apps.

Along gender lines, we noted a striking difference: male students express an unmistakable appetite for games, whereas female students are much more inclined to use the built-in camera. King of Glory dominates mobile gameplay. Conversely, almost all female students admitted to using the built-in camera as one of their favorite habitual undertakings while only about half male students acknowledged doing this. The most common cited motive for photo-taking is to chronicle daily life, as revealed in this quote: “Shooting pictures is my favorite pastime. I send photos of my every meal to my parents. I will take photos of the scenery or objects I like whenever I take a stroll.”

One notable development in China during the past years has been its quick transformation into a cashless environment enabled by the widespread adoption of mobile payment technology. This is resonated soundly in the interviews, and it comes as no surprise that e-payment via the smartphone is one of the most sought-after features among the students. This is well illustrated by the following statement:

“One cannot be separated from the smartphone nowadays, mainly because it fulfills the daily need of paying bills. Like most everyone else, I used to pocket cash a few years ago. Now that’s no longer necessary thanks to the smartphone. I can almost do any transaction with the phone, such as buying stuff, paying fees and purchasing tickets. So the smartphone is indeed all-capable!”

Indeed, many students specifically mention e-wallet as one of the major causes of their anxiety when asked about how they feel when they don’t have their smartphone with them. This is elaborated in the ensuing discussion on NOMOPHOBIA.

Habituation (RQ2)

As mentioned in the previous literature review, checking behaviors comprise a large part of repetitive habitual use of the smartphone ( Oulasvirta et al., 2012 ), and smartphone-related habits are closely associated with external situations or internal states ( Wood and Rünger, 2016 ; Park et al., 2021 ). Research also indicates that process-oriented smartphone use may develop into habits, which may in turn automatically trigger problem behaviors activated by internal or external cues ( Van Deursen et al., 2015 ). We asked the students about their habitual routines, rituals, and general tendencies in using their smartphones. The following thematic lines stand out across the interviewees.

A clear pattern emerges characterizing students’ interaction with the smartphone: almost all indicated that the time they spent on the phone surges during weekend or holidays; and smartphone is the primary medium of choice when fragments of time are available, such as during intervals between routine tasks, and moments of non-essential or leisure activities. Smartphones are the unrivaled choice for casual browsing, as students typically opt for “swiping” at most chunks of time available. As far as gender is concerned, female students display no significant deviation percentagewise in these behavioral patterns.

The venue that smartphone consumes the most uninterrupted chunk of time is the dorm for most students. The most extensive block of concentrated smartphone time on each day for virtually everyone is the pre-bedtime hours, although the specific amount of time varies from about half an hour to more than 2 h. The next routinized allocation of smartphone time prevalent among the students is the early morning hour, when the students typically idle on bed from 15 min to close to 1 h browsing the smartphone. Besides the difference in length of time, the late-evening and early-morning rituals tend to focus on different tasks and accomplish different purposes. Late-evening smartphone use is primarily entertainment-oriented (e.g., video, online teledramas, music, gossipy tabloid hearsays, gaming), although socializing (e.g., personal communication) maintains a noticeable presence. Early-morning smartphone checking uniformly centers on updating news of the day and attending to personal messages. As result, students mentioned gravitation toward different apps during these two daily periods. It is also worthy of note that the pre-bed period shows a distinct pattern of variation among the different types of users (from below average to excessive users) in the amount of time they expense. Especially among heavy and excessive users, many confess that this has become a basic routine as a necessary precursor to sleep every night. In contrast, the early-morning time immediately after wake-up, which is typically followed with some smartphone browsing, does not vary much with user types, with each student spending anywhere between 10 and 20 min doing this. This is understandable in that morning is not the time for most students to loaf around in bed, as they are rushed to get ready to embark on the errands of the day.

Besides the pre-bed hour, the next block of time of concentrated smartphone use for the students is during meal (i.e., lunch and dinner) time, when casual, entertainment use dominates. This is confirmed both from self-revealed narratives and alleged observations of habitual behaviors by others. This behavior is aided by the design of the smartphone for one-handed holding and swiping, as some students acknowledged. Another favorite way for the students to engage is to place the smartphone on the table and browse content on the smartphone while dining. Ease of single-handed actions such as flicking, tapping and dragging is something that many students fondly describe and have become very adept in doing.

Regarding the question whether they turn their smartphones off while going to sleep at night, only two out of the 70 informants answered positively, while the rest confirmed that they always keep their phone on at night. Of the two who turned their smartphones off, one student indicated doing this as a habit formed years ago, and the other student who turns off the phone at night said she does this due to health concerns:

“I used to turn the phone to airplane mode, but I was told that would not totally eliminate radiation [from the phone]. In order to avoid radiation, I now completely switch the phone off.”

As to why they keep their smartphones on at night, the most-cited reason (by 83% of the students) is to use its alarm and time-keeping function. Ninety percent of the interviewees said they placed the phone within grab distance, while about a quarter of the students mentioned checking the time on the smartphone at night. Psychologically, about a quarter made a point that opening eyes to see the smartphone makes them feel safe.

In response to the question whether they would check on the phone while waking up in the middle of the night, 32 (constituting 45.7% of the total) students admitted doing this. The type of content consumed late into the night varies quite a bit from looking at the current time, checking on friends’ WeChat “Moments” posts and Weibo updates to viewing short videos. When asked whether the late-night smartphone feeds had any negative impact on their sleep quality, 44% said no but 56% answered in affirmation. Similarly, the aftereffect of this midnight smartphone perusing is diametrically perceived by the two groups: the former group claimed that doing this helps sooth them back to sleep whereas the latter group alleged smartphone checking during bed hours often produces some type of arousal effect on them, thus prolonging the time they need to go back to sleep. Some students in the latter group, albeit not specifically acceding to being addicted to the smartphone, alluded to the potential nature as shown in these quotes:

“Checking my smartphone at night affects my sleep. Oftentimes, once flipping the screen on, it keeps me in a state of arousal, and delays my time to go back to sleep.”

“If I get onto sites such as Zhihu [a popular question-and-answer site like Quora] and Weibo, my sleep will suffer, because these sites are highly addictive. Related content through links on these pages is very seductive to thoughtless, mechanical strolling.”

College students’ social life mainly consists of moments such as hanging up with peers during class breaks, meal times, or weekend hours. Smartphone has been invariably cited as the most-sought-for companion for various purposes – kill time, fool around, idle away, or finish fragments of academic assignments. The campus lifestyle dictates a lot of in-transit moments when students move around between the dorm, classroom, cafeteria, and other places in attending to daily tasks and events. Listening to music is a popular activity for these students, as well as some occasional “virtual strolling” into quick informational checking via various apps of personal preferences. Fifty-six percent of the students acknowledged that they are in the habit of checking their smartphones on a regular basis while walking. As corroborating evidence for its popularity, in response to our interview question on what the students saw as the most common behavioral habits among their peers, topping the list was smartphone checking while walking, followed by looking at the smartphone during meal time and holding the smartphone in the hands at all times.

The habit-inducing nature of the variety of features in the design of the smartphone and its apps is duly noted by the students. Many students explicitly pointed out that they are sensitive to all sorts of prompts and hints (e.g., tones, vibrations, flashing signals) from the phone, and have developed a compulsion to check it out, even if this is during class or late at night. Some students conceded to the irresistibility to upgrade at seeing the little red dot reminder that all brands of smartphone products have adopted indicating availability of newer versions of apps or latest system upgrades. Moreover, AI-operated apps to customize content to individual users are particularly powerful in getting users “hooked.” One student expressed both her fascination and trepidation about Zhihu, a Quora type of peer-to-peer Question-and-Answer app this way:

“At the start, I feel at total control. But the more I click on the app, the more I am trapped into it. In the blink of an eye, 20 min or more has flown by without me knowing it. I may feel it is a total waste of my time doing this. But next time I repeat doing the same thing [on the app].”

NOMOPHOBIA, FOMO, and Phubbing (RQ3)

An emerging line of research in recent years has ascertained the association of nomophobia with a number of negative outcomes pertinent to fear, stress, panic, and anxiety due to inability to access the smartphone (aka nomophobia) ( Nie et al., 2020 ; Rodríguez-García et al., 2020 ). College students suffering from symptoms of nomophobia tend to struggle with concentrating in class ( Lee et al., 2017 ) and perform poorly in academic achievement ( Gutiérrez-Puertas et al., 2019 ). In order to contribute to this body of research, we asked questions of interviewees as regards the degree of pervasiveness of nomophobia and its varied symptomatic manifestations through a set of questions about their attitudes and personal experiences of dealing with situations absent of the smartphone. One question pertains to whether they think of their smartphones during class hours. Forty-three (or 61.4%) of the 70 students interviewed said they often or occasionally get distracted by thinking of their phones, with about 43% acknowledging occasionally engaging in quick phone checking during class. The reasons mentioned for the distraction are mostly one of the three (ranked in this order): the class gets uninspiring; there is an anticipation of time-sensitive information; and there is no specific reason other than the phone just pops up in the mind. Another question asked them if it is their habit to regularly check their smartphones while engaging in tasks such as academic homework, reading and exercising. While about half of the students said they can stay focused on these activities, 37.1% admitted to frequent phone checking while doing these things. It should be noted that the lattermost category involves not merely a quick thumbing through or transitory swipe of the smartphone; this rather entails extensive, concomitant use in parallel with other activities.

In response to the question how they feel when the phone is out of sight, approximately 18.6% ( n = 13) said they would stay calm and cool-headed, vis-à-vis the rest of the 81.4% expressing varying levels of anxiety ranging from feeling insecure to panicking and agitation. As summarized in Table 2 , the most common answers are feeling unsafe, disconnected, uneasy, anxious, a sense of loss, and agitated, whose level of severity steadily increases in accordance with the scale of smartphone dependency in the four user groups. Reversely, the percentage of calm-minded students while the phone is out of sight shows a counter trend – 50% for the below-average group, 22.2% for the average-use group, 14.3% for the heavy-use group, and 0% for the excessive-use group. The pattern along level of smartphone use versus frequency of phubbing and phone checking in the middle of the night (see Table 2 for details).

Relatedly, we asked the students whether they had left their smartphones behind when going out for the day in the recent past, and if yes, what they had done. Twenty-seven students answered firmly that they had not left their phone back, and what is striking are the reasons they cited for why this had not happened – the consistent line therein is that the smartphone constitutes such an all-pervasive aspect of their everyday life that it is virtually impossible to go out without the phone. This sentiment is typified in these two remarks:

“I won’t forget my smartphone any day, because whenever I walk out of my dorm, the first thing I look at is my phone. I wouldn’t walk further beyond a few steps on the stairs before I found out that the phone was not with me.”

“The smartphone is more than just a device of communication; it is a part of my body organs. The moment it’s not with me, I will immediately notice. So I won’t go out without my smartphone.”

Of the 43 students who had experience of leaving their smartphones behind, the words that the students used to describe their feelings at that moment are (ranked in frequency): panicking, uneasy, distressful, restless, unsafe, scared, at a loss, detached from the world, bored, strange, and in despair. Interestingly, the key words mentioned by our interviewees bear substantial semblance to those used by undergraduate students in Furst and Evans’s (2021) campus intercept interviews on students’ reactions to temporary loss of possession of the smartphone. On the other end, only two students said they were “feelingless” (emotionless or unmoved). This response is quite typical:

“I remember one time I did not have my smartphone with me. Without it, I didn’t have any sense of safety, and felt very isolated, to the point of despair. The whole world felt strange to me, and I didn’t know what to do.”

As to what they would do next, 26 (60.5%) said adamantly that they must find a way to immediately go back and retrieve the phone, because otherwise they would not know how to make it through the day. Eleven said that they would wait a bit until they finished what was at hand and then find an opportune time to go back and fetch the phone. A common sentiment among these students during the time without the smartphone was that the time passed by unbearably slow, and they felt “strange” and “out of place” while seeing others were on their smartphones. Only six indicated that they could sustain the day without the smartphone, albeit not without any difficulty for everyone. Being away from the smartphone brought about some unanticipated jubilation for a few:

“I initially panicked a bit [being away from the phone]. But after a while, I actually started to feel relieved at the thought of spending the way without the smartphone. It gave me a sense of comfort that this would be a day without the [virtual] crowd, free from messages and updates, a day when I could relax.”

“It felt weird at the beginning. But I got over that quickly, and gained a sense of elation [at not using the smartphone for the day]. I was able to focus my attention on other things and made a good day of it.”

The haptic benefits, portability and personal nature of the smartphone may cultivate relationships beyond its practical and functional use, as users may “experience enhanced psychological comfort from engaging with their device, which allows it to serve as a palliative aid for owners during moments of stress” ( Melumad and Pham, 2020 , p. 251). Over 60% of the interviewees expressed a psychological sentiment of comfort and reassurance while physically holding the smartphone in their hands. The absence of the smartphone from their sight, or an extended period of time (which typically lasts a few minutes for most students) of not checking the phone creates a particular type of anxiety or distress triggered by FOMO among 68.6% of the students. Specific behavioral responses to mitigate FOMO cited by the students vary from constantly keeping an eye on the phone for cues (e.g., audio alert, vibrating notifications, customized prompts) to frequent phone checking to getting up at night hours for an quick updated skimming.

When asked if they would check the smartphone instead of paying attention to their companions during social conversations (phubbing), forty (constituting about 57%) out of the 70 students admitted doing this often or sometimes. The most-cited reasons for opting to do this are (ranked from high to low): to bypass boring conversations; to evade awkward moments with people they do not know well; not to miss important smartphone messages from friends; and others are looking at the smartphone. Close to 30% of the students mentioned phubbing as a social strategy during moments when they do not have anything to say or when they want to avoid speaking, especially in the company of others they do not perceive as intimate friends. Ten percent of the students alleged that they can manage to multitask between conversing with friends and checking the smartphone without affecting either in any negative manner. As a matter of fact, the prevalence of phubbing-related behavior in China in recent years has even led to the coinage of a new word in the Chinese language – ditouzu , or the “Heads-down Generation,” to (derisively) refer to the tendency of people in late teens and early 20s to lower their heads in fixedly staring at the smartphone in social situations or while walking in public spaces.

Phubbing points to the increasing susceptibility of individuals to spend more and more time with their smartphones while less and less time engaging with each other, and may cause feelings of social exclusion, degrade interpersonal relationships, and impair personal well-being ( David and Roberts, 2017 ). Responses to our question about the impact of the smartphone on interpersonal relationships are varied and can be thematically classified into four categories. About 45.7% ( n = 32) of the informants answered in the affirmative (i.e., strengthening), because the smartphone has increased both the level of contact and the amount of content they exchange with their loved ones and friends. Many students stressed the affordance of the smartphone to enable constant engagement with their family even though they are separated from one another (living away from their families). On the opposing end, 30% of the interviewees felt that smartphone use has distanced them from their intimate circles, largely thanks to the reduction of face-to-face communications. An often-mentioned scenario is the decrease of conversations among family members while being together, and a few students admitted that the overreliance on the smartphone has impaired their competence to relate to their loved ones. About 12.9% ( n = 9) of them said the smartphone has had no impact on their relationships with family and friends, while 11.4% reported mixed reactions (i.e., weaking some relationships but strengthening others).

Detox and Self-Regulation (RQ4)

With regard to our inquiries on whether the students made any efforts in cutting or controlling the amount of time they spend on the smartphone, thirty-six indicated they were not concerned about their smartphone time, nor had they tried to curtail its use. Eight said they made sporadic attempts to reduce smartphone use, although they were not concerned about the amount of time they spend on the smartphone. Twenty-six (37.1% of the total) students expressed concerns over the amount of time they spend on the smartphone, and adopted measures in monitoring and reducing their screen time.

Among the 34 students who took effort to monitor and limit smartphone use, the most common way of doing this, as reported by 30 students, is to resort to popular apps such as FocusToDo, Plantie, Screen Time, Tomato Timer, Forest, TODO for managing time and forcing users out after extended use. Rate of digital detox app adoption varies substantially across the four groups of users we identified in Table 2 : excessive and below-average users are diametrically disposed to adopt detox apps (66.7% vs. 25%), with average and above-average users in between (50% vs. 42.9%). Excessive users, who face the highest risk of problematic use, have the highest rate of adoption, which reflect the perceived need of this group in resorting to detox app in cutting down use. Additionally, we were interested in the effect of such apps on those who were intent on curtailing smartphone use, and therefore only asked follow-up questions of the 26 interviewees who explicitly professed such goals. Nineteen of the 26 agreed that their measures were effective while seven answered otherwise.

Using app is not the only means to exert self-regulation over smartphone use. What seems at play in the process is individual goal setting and mental focus, a repeated theme we observed across the interviewees. Many students pointed out that the smartphone only becomes the centerpiece of free play and the locus to idle away time when they are unoccupied or unengaged with anything else, or at moments they feel bored. They have therefore devised various strategies to steer themselves away from the smartphone by engaging in these activities as mentioned in the interviews: doing physical exercises, going on outdoor excursions, reading, chatting in person with friends, turning off the phone, or placing the phone away for the time being. In the case that non-smartphone activities are not an option, five students indicated that sleeping it out works to keep them unhooked from the phone.

Finally, although not a specific focus of our research, the role of the smartphone in the college learning environment has come up repeatedly in our interview conversations with the students. In China, like most elsewhere, more and more college campuses embrace the flipped classroom pedagogical approach, which is a learning model that subverts the traditional teacher-centered class instruction into student-focused pre-class knowledge transfer via technology-mediated platforms including smartphone capabilities ( Wei et al., 2020 ). As a result, the smartphone has become an important and pivotal tool in fostering learning through entertaining, mobile gaming, and other creative modalities ( Krouska et al., 2020 ; Troussas et al., 2020 ). More than one-third of the students mentioned the various role of the smartphone in accomplishing academic and course-related tasks such as researching information, communicating about curricular activities, and reading class notes and course materials. To some extent, the smartphone has assumed some functions that used to be fulfilled by personal computers in the college learning environment, as acknowledged in our interviews. In this regard, the amount of smartphone time will be skewed significantly for those who are more dependent on the smartphone for learning purposes, and type of activities, rather than smartphone time, should be a more reliable indicator of problematic use.

Our research set out to interrogate the multifaceted dimensions of PSU among college students in China. Informed by extensive data we gathered from semi-structured in-depth interviews of 70 undergraduate students from seven college campuses, our findings contribute to the expanding body of academic literature related to this area of research in several ways. First of all, the smartphone has established a pervasive presence and has become a defining feature of the everyday lifestyle among college students. The amount of time the smartphone consumes the students is staggering, averaging close to 6 h during weekdays and nearly 8 h during weekend days. Our typology of time-based smartphone use yields four distinct types of users: hypo-connected antagonists, balanced majority, hyper-connected enthusiasts, and indulgent zealots.

In studying employees’ experience with converged multi-functional mobile devices, Matusik and Mickel (2011) identified three types of users based on how they interpret and practice technology use: enthusiastic reaction puts a totally positive spin on the professional experience and perceives no cost; balanced reaction appreciates the benefits but also sees its downsides; and trade-offs reaction recognizes professional benefits but acknowledges significant personal costs with a common feeling of personal conflict and struggle in maintaining control. The smartphone use in our study differs from the previous context in that ours involves student users in a non-employment environment but the previous research includes mobile devices beyond the phone. Nonetheless, we found parallel as well as distinction between our groups and those by Matusik and Mickel. Our hyper-connected enthusiasts bear semblance to the technological enthusiasts as identified by Matusik and Mickel in that there is a noticeable craving for the smartphone among most of these students while discussing their smartphone use. The balanced majority revealed in our study share quite a bit with Matusik and Mickel’s balanced reaction group. Their trade-offs group is divided into two groups on the opposite end in our research, with the hypo-connected antagonists casting a cautious eye on the downside of the smartphone while the indulgent zealots totally embracing the technology in the other direction.

With respect to the utility aspects of the smartphones, it is easy to note that WeChat has taken supremacy as the all-in-one platform for social networking among Chinese users. Since the advent of short message services (SMS), text messaging and voice call have been two of the most prodigiously used features in mobile services ( Ling, 2004 ; Karnowski and Jandura, 2014 ). Our research findings, however, suggest signs of seismic transformations in the smartphone era. Conventional voice calls, albeit still used on a regular basis by all the students, have become secondary in terms of the amount of time expended by most of them in comparison with other affordances available on the smartphones – so much so that voice calling does not even make it to the top ten of the features in consuming everyday time of the students. Text messaging has been sidelined even further, with just a few interviewees mentioning engaging in that occasionally. This is not to suggest, nonetheless, that these students have stayed away from voice communications or text messaging. Rather, the indications are that students have uniformly expressed preferences in embracing the built-in text, voice and video chat features with WeChat. There is a clear displacement effect in which conventional text messaging and voice call functions are migrating to alternative smartphone-enabled venues.

In its over 100 years of research, habitual use of technology has been consistently found to be moderated by mechanisms that automatically trigger repetitive behaviors in response to recurring context cues with varying (intermittent) rewarding outcomes ( Bayer and Larose, 2018 ). It is important to note that habit automaticity is a necessary but not determining condition causing compulsive or addictive behaviors, as many other factors play an essential role in shaping the path to pathology ( Wood and Rünger, 2016 ). Smartphone technologies give primacy to haptics (i.e., making touch an analog of seeing and hearing) ( Parisi and Archer, 2017 ), a feature that is particularly malleable to the design and implantation of habit-forming interfaces and apps ( Stawarz et al., 2015 ). Our research findings have imparted numerous temporal, locale-based and context-derived behavioral tendencies of smartphone use among the students.

Contextual cues and situational factors play a pivotal role in the formation of behavioral habits. Through an online survey, Karnowski and Jandura (2014) deduced three main mobile usage patterns – “Mobile@home” (among known peers in familiar locations); “En route” (on the way among unknown people in unfamiliar surroundings); and “Hanging out with peers” (with peers in unknown locations. Habitual practices are associated the most frequently with the residence (the equivalent of their “home”) by the informants in their interviews. Since all the students we interviewed are on-campus residents, the dorm is tantamount to the home of the employees investigated by Karnowski and Jandura, and their smartphone engagement bears some resemblance in that usage situations are the most dominant across interviewees. The “En route” moments for the students mostly comprise their in-transit time walking between the dorm, the cafeteria, classrooms and other venues on campus, while their “Hanging with peers” hours manifest profusely in the “empty” chunks of varying lengths such as intervals between classes and/or other obligated school activities, meal breaks and off-class hours. Our findings show that students’ smartphone usage has displayed predictable patterns in connection to these various occasions in terms of both app checking and content browsing. One word of caution, however, we should highlight is that same habitual predisposition should not be construed as unidirectional in its consequence. A case in point is smartphone checking during late night hours, which may work toward pacifying some students but arousing others, thus producing very different impact on their sleep quality. While a common finding in quantitative research suggests an association between PSU and poor sleep quality among adolescent and youth populations ( Hale et al., 2019 ; Mac Cárthaigh et al., 2020 ; Yang et al., 2020 ), results in our interview suggest the need for taking into consideration contextual clues and situational factors in order to develop a more nuanced understanding in disentangling causational attributions.

It is probably no surprise that our research has lent evidence to the undisputable presence of widespread nomophobia and FOMO among college youth. This finds testimonial in various manifestations, from thinking about the phone during class, to keeping the phone in sight and within reach, to holding in hand and never having left it behind in the memorable past, the smartphone has assumed a role beyond that of a technical gadget in sustaining students’ emotional and functional stability. Results in our interviews indicate the level of smartphone dependency is positively related to the severity of disturbance while adversely related to the degree of self-imposture in a number of symptomatic manifestations under investigation.

Problematic smartphone use has emerged as an important public health issue in recent years, and both technical and non-technical interventions have been proposed as possible solutions to limit and control smartphone use ( van Velthoven et al., 2018 ). The percentage of screen-time controlling app use in our cohort (42.9%) aligns up very nicely with Schmuck’s (2020) study, which found that 41.7% of the surveyed 500 Australian adults adopted detox apps to limit and control smartphone time. In addition, Schmuck alleges her research evidence shows “for the first time that self-monitoring behavior using digital detox apps may prevent young adults to develop problematic or compulsive smartphone usage patterns due to using SNSs” based on multigroup analysis that “those young adults who used digital detox apps indicated lower levels of perceived PSU and higher levels of well-being in response to the use of SNSs” ( Schmuck, 2020 , p. 26). Findings in our study, however, paint a different and more nuanced picture. That excessive or problematic smartphone users are the most likely to resort to detox apps in exerting self-control cannot be construed as evidence to either refute or confirm the efficacy of these apps or such a mechanism; it is plausible that excessive smartphone dependency tends to lead to self-monitoring through detox apps. Whether it is accomplished through technology-based detox apps or through non-technological approaches, we found strong evidence that mental focus and individual goal setting play a central role in the success or the lack thereof in outcomes of moderating smartphone use. This accords cogently with the core premise that the exercise of free will is “a causal primary ” to effect self-regulation ( Binswanger, 1991 ), and it highlights the critical role of self-monitoring and self-reaction as conceived in the theory of self-control ( Bandura, 1991 ).

Lastly, the results of our research are best understood in the context of its limitations. Due to the qualitative nature of our research design, the number of students we studied, although more than sufficient for in-depth interviews, is a small sample size compared with large-scale quantitative studies. Correspondingly, the perspectives and insight we generated from the data may not be generalizable to the large population of college students in China. The findings we presented in the paper call for corroboration and triangulation from large-scale datasets derived from cross-sectional or even longitudinal surveys. Moreover, differences in national settings are likely contributors to variations in usage patterns; it is therefore useful to make cross-national comparisons in deepening our understanding of PSU among global youth.

Problematic smartphone use is a pervasive phenomenon, and calls for attention from scholars with diverse backgrounds and contribution from multidisciplinary perspectives. Prevalence rate is particularly prominent among college-age population, as the smartphone has established itself as a hallmark of youth lifestyle. From its built-in technical features to the assortment of apps and the rich set of available content, the smartphone is conducive to repetitive, habit-forming patterns of usage. Students’ engagement with the smartphone often displays predictable behavioral proclivities in response to specific temporal, locale-based and contextually driven cues and triggers. While informational use is universally found among all users, problematic use is typically associated with gaming, streaming, entertainment, and social networking gratifications. As smartphone further establishes itself as a viable tool in mediating college learning, time alone should not be used as a sole predictor of problematic use. Both activity type and level of engagement warrant consideration in evaluating PSU. Extensive interaction with the smartphone has led to a special type of attachment to the device that pertains to not just its utilitarian functionalities but also its affective bond, manifested in various symptoms of uneasiness, discomfort and anguish at moments of not being with or seeing the smartphone. While we found evidence of the efficacy of detox apps in curtailing use, mental focus and proactive goal setting seem to be the most productive in attaining self-regulatory goals. Perspectives from our qualitative data suggest the need for a more nuanced approach in taking into consideration contextual cues and situational factors in dissecting psychological and emotional outcomes of smartphone use and abuse.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Institute of Scientific Research at Minjiang University. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

CD, ZT, and SN were involved in the conception and design of the study, coordinated work to transcribe, and analyzed the data. ZT wrote the draft of the manuscript. CD and SN arranged and conducted the online interviews. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords : smartphone use disorder, smartphone dependency, mobile lifestyle, problem smartphone use, digital wellbeing

Citation: Dai C, Tai Z and Ni S (2021) Smartphone Use and Psychological Well-Being Among College Students in China: A Qualitative Assessment. Front. Psychol. 12:708970. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.708970

Received: 17 May 2021; Accepted: 12 August 2021; Published: 09 September 2021.

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Copyright © 2021 Dai, Tai and Ni. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Zixue Tai, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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What Students Are Saying About How Much They Use Their Phones, and Whether We Should Be Worried

New research challenges assumptions about the negative effects of social media and smartphones on children. We asked teenagers whether their parents should worry about how much time they spend on their devices.

By The Learning Network

Please note: This post is part of The Learning Network’s ongoing Current Events Conversation feature. We invite students to react to the news via our daily writing prompts and, each week, we publish a selection of their comments.

We frequently ask students about their relationship with screens, but a question we posed this week seems to have struck a chord with the teenagers who comment on our writing prompts.

Inspired by the article “ Panicking About Your Kids’ Phones? New Research Says Don’t ,” we asked students: Should the adults in your life be worried by how much you use your phone?

We heard from over 300 teenagers who gave a flurry of nuanced, thoughtful and enlightening responses. In fact, their comments were so good that we decided to feature only this prompt in this week’s Current Events Conversation, instead of the usual three , so we can highlight as many responses as possible.

Some students admitted to spending upward of eight hours a day online, with the majority averaging around two to four hours. Some said their devices were a reasonable escape from the pressures of teenage life, while others explained they were essential for school. And still others raised an insightful question: Why is their “phone addiction” perceived as more harmful than that of the adults in their lives?

As you’ll see below, one thing was crystal clear in their reflections: These teenagers spend a lot of time thinking about their phone usage. And they have a critical lens not only on how much they use their phones, but also on how it affects their education, emotional life and relationships.

Read on for a fuller scope of the comments, but before you do, we want to offer a warm welcome to new classes from Ames High School, Iowa ; Carney ; Florida ; Fort Mill High School ; Georgia ; Hightstown High School, N.J. ; Nelson County High School ; New Berlin, Wis. ; New York ; and Pennsylvania .

Please note: Student comments have been lightly edited for length, but otherwise appear exactly as they were originally submitted.

I know I’m on my phone too much.

I think that I spend a little too much time on my phone per day. And by a little, I mean a lot. I’m not sure my average but I know I could be going to bed a lot earlier and get my work done quicker if I just put it down. I do many things on my phone like text people, snapchat, play games, and so on.

I think it does have a positive benefit on my well being because without it, I would not have friendships and relationships I have today. The negative effects it has on me is time usage and keeping me from doing work and going to bed on time. I am worried about being on my phone too much but I don’t think it interferes with me being social, especially in this day and age.

My average screen time is probably about 12 hours a day. I worry a lot about how much time I spend on my phone. But the way I socialize is through my phone. I use social media to communicate, and I have to use my phone to make calls and text. But whenever I have to study, I pull out my phone and go on it for about an hour …

When it is time to go to sleep, I go on my phone in the dark with dark mode on. My bed has my charger connected to it so I can easily stay up all night. I want to remove it but because I am so addicted to my phone, I do not. One time I fell asleep at 2 am because I was on my phone, and it made me extremely tired (this was on a school night).

— Jessica Chen, J.R. Masterman, Philadelphia, PA

Since I got an iPhone, I have spent more time on my phone because of social media apps. I caught myself on multiple occasions telling myself “only 15 more minutes and then I’ll start my homework,” but then I end up spending 30 minutes on my phone. When I have tried to use my phone less I end up watching tv, so I just go from one type of a screen to the next.

— Allison Ciero, Glenbard West HS Glen Ellyn, IL

I spend too much time on my phone. I sometimes think about how much I am on my phone and I’m disgusted with how much time I feel like I’m wasting. But the truth is, I do a lot more than scroll through social media or watch stupid videos on my phone. My phone is a portable library that carries all of my favorite books on it. And those stupid videos and posts sometimes completely change my day for the better.

— Mason Evans, Hoggard High School Wilmington, NC

On average, I spend about 6 hours a day on my phone. It is spent with me going on social media, playing games, or watching Netflix. Every weekend, a notification pops up showing me how much time I have spent and each week it has gone up. I am starting to become a lot more cautious about how much time I spend on my phone because it is starting to worry me. My phone has become something that I always have to have and it never leaves my side. It has gotten in the way of me studying and spending time with my family which has started to worry me. I believe that parents should know how much time their kid is using their phone but I don’t think that they should act upon it.

— Mark, Hightstown

Teenagers should monitor their own phone use.

I understand a little micromanaging when it comes to technology time. However, by the time we reach high school, we should all be responsible for ourselves in that realm, to turn in homework, to know our time limits. It is time for the parents to release their grasp unless it is absolutely necessary.

It is our job as teenagers to learn what happens when we stay on our phones too long and we don’t get enough sleep or don’t finish a homework assignment, we won’t understand the consequences if we don’t learn for ourselves.

— Josh Reifel, Glenbard West, Glen Ellyn, IL

While I stand by this statement, I would also like to point out that our parents didn’t grow up with this stuff, and they may not know how to handle our usage in the best way. Often times I find my parents using the phone — that they bought for us — as punishment. They threaten to take it away or to throw it out, this only makes out subconscious want it more. Moreover, they make us feel guilty for being born in a world where we do have access to these devices — as if we could help it. They say “when I was a kid we didn’t have to talk to our friends all the time, we would wait to see them the next day at school.” They try us guilt you into not using which once again, will only make us want it more to spite them.

— kenna royce, Glenbard West HS Glen Ellyn, Il

While some parents see it beneficial to limit teens usage on phones, others don’t take any action. For example, my parents have always trusted me to be responsible in my time management, and balancing school, Church, and friends. However, I do understand that my parents pay for my phone, and data usage, and I would willingly comply if they had any restrictions or rules. Phones, however, often rely as a crutch for parents, meaning they often incorrectly blame their child’s issue, or challenges for how much time they spend on their phone.

— Anna Atwood, Bryant High School Arkansas

In observing my friends and classmates, I think that most of us have a handle on what an appropriate amount of screen time is. Social media can be a breeding ground for bullying, which can then lead to depression and anxiety, but I’m not entirely sure that would correlate with simply spending more time on devices. Hopefully, if parents instill the value of limitations while kids are young, they will be able to control themselves appropriately in the future.

— Sarah Song, Ames High School

I feel like I’m extremely in touch with my personal media usage, but it isn’t easy. Apps are designed to keep you on them as long as possible, and sometimes it’s horribly hard to put down a phone after seeing a Snapchat from your friend pop up. After checking just now, I spent an average of 1 hour 58 minutes on my phone last month. Just shy of 2 hours, which is the recommendation maximum time adolescents should spend on non-education related screens. Many of my peers use them 6+ hours daily.

I notice an exact correlation between the amount of time I’m on my phone and how productive I am that given day. If I get out of bed and don’t immediately pick up my phone, I feel like I can get ready faster, and feel more energized and motivated.

Sometimes, if I have a lot of homework one night, I plug my phone in in a separate room, so I won’t think about it. It’s just so easy to forget about the essay you need to write if you unlock your phone and start messing around. They’re excellent distractions.

I couldn’t agree more with the statement that “phones increase anxiety, depression and sleep deprivation among teenagers.” I’ve seen it happen in myself and my peers. In the 3 years I’ve had a phone, there have been too many nights I regret sacrificing sleep for texting to a friend online or getting lost on YouTube. It’s becoming more important to be aware of how our phones affect our lives as they take over more and more aspects of our days.

— Mollie Brinker, Hoggard High School in Wilmington, NC

Who is supervising how much adults use their phones?

I think that in some ways it could be good for adults to monitor how much children are on their phones today. However, who is going to monitor the adults? What I have noticed while growing up in this world of technology, is that so many adults around me are on their phone just as often as the children. I think it can be difficult to stay away from our phones when everyone around you is on their phones. I think we have to accept technology’s role and try to be as responsible with it as we can.

— Kaylee Phillips, Glenbard West HS, Glen Ellyn, IL

Some evenings at my house consists of our family in the same room, each of us on our same devices. Adults should worry about cell phone usage, in both their life and their children’s lives.

A part of the issue is that parents can use their devices just as much as the kids. Adults must realize that they too must change. If they take their kid’s phone away, they should put theirs away too. They should push their child to have real-life experiences, where words can’t be misinterpreted.

— Evan Lippolis, Ames High School

Screens are affecting our mental and physical health.

I feel like phones have a negative effect on the mental stability of most teenagers today. There are so many things we worry about now … “How many snaps have I got this hour?”, “Has he seen my story yet?”, “I wonder if he’s just ignoring me?”

Our phones present us with an ultimatum, Go out and be social, or stay in and get on facetime. It’s not the same, there are certain endorphins your mind releases when you are physically in contact with another person. Human interaction is healthy.

My phone brings me mixed emotions, and I kind of rely on my phone for almost everything. Before I had a phone my life was so easy and I was a social butterfly, now I’m a 17 year old girl who comes home from work and watches a movie on my phone until my eyes physically will not open.

— Brooklyn Harcrow, Lubbock, TX

I usually spend about 3 hours a week on my phone. I grew up in Haiti, so most of the time I am in contact with my friends back home. When we lived in Haiti, FaceTime was a way that I could not only talk to my sister, who was at Iowa State, but we could also see her.

My phone has had negative impacts on my health. I have had chronic migraines that have been affected by my posture, which is aggravated by being hunched over my phone all day. I also find myself in more pain after even a short time on my phone. Social media has also left me feeling left out and more discouraged about my own life. As someone who is in a new atmosphere and environment, when I see on social media my friends’ activities I feel more isolated and alone.

— Kerlande Mompremier, Ames High School

I most definitely see the connection between higher levels of stress and being on your phone for a more than needed amount of time. Scrolling through social media and looking at small square sized snapshots of a person’s “picture perfect life” can really have an effect on both self-esteem and mental health. The world and especially the younger generations must learn to spark creativity and imagination. Those things can only be formed through one’s mind, experiences, and thoughts, not any phone or device on the planet can provide them.

— Sadie Dunne, Hoggard High school in Wilmington, NC

For me personally, I tend to find myself veering away from my phone during stressful times because I feel like all it does is add to it. I have anxiety and have seen that the negative effects from social media only add to that anxiousness. I agree that phone usage and constant usage of social media can definitely increase anxiety and depression, if you allow yourself to get involved so much you can’t return to a normal lifestyle without it. I think that as I feel like I’m starting to feel more anxious and stressed, my phone does not help the situation but makes it worse, so I try to stay away from it during these times.

— Taylor Tomlinson, Lubbock, TX

Social media has made me feel more connected to others, not less.

Speaking personally, I can recall many times in which social media has helped me feel less lonely than I otherwise would have been. I have severe anxiety, so the idea of socializing with people in a less formal setting, such as in a lunchroom, or outside of class is terrifying to me. So, as a result, I am often alone during these periods. I’ll go off and find my own corner, and I sit and have to watch as those around me have fun with their friends and socialize.

I have gone through this process near-daily for ten years, and I am confident that without social media to fall back on, I would have been driven mad. Social media makes me feel as though there are people out there I can talk to, and that I can control the conversation however I like. I can have friends that I respond to at my own pace, leaving me room to better formulate my responses.

— Jackson Bumgarner, Bryant High School, AR

My mom is a really busy woman and she’s not always there for me and my phone has been my shelter since 5th grade. When I came home feeling sad in school, a couple of youtube videos can cheer me up. Smartphones also make contacting friends and families easier making me less lonely during my sad times. The use of phone also opens a new window of opportunities, I learnt how to edit and shoot videos from youtube. There was a time when my mental health was just not great and the internet saved me.

— shirley, fhs

My first friend was an online friend. I was in fifth grade and I was obsessed with Hamilton, and would spend hours reading about and listening to the songs. My family was on vacation in WildWood, and we were living in a small hotel. I was swimming in the pool and a kid came up to me, and I found out we both liked Hamilton a lot, so we started talking. At the end of the vacation the kid told me her email and we started texting on hangouts. We still text to this day. My phone played a big part in letting me stay in touch, and it built my relationship with her.

— Arianna Andriyevsky, Julia R. Masterman

More screen time can be beneficial.

As the life of a teenager continues to increase in its complexity and demands, the resources and tools a smartphone can provide help keep teenagers grounded. So, before adults chastise us for our use of phones (while they’re leveling up in Candy Crush) it’s important to show that phones are very powerful tools, sometimes too powerful.

With how many activities a teenager can be involved in these days, smartphones help make more productive use of their time, keeping up with meetings, get-togethers, and updates. Whether it be communicating with other club members, or simply catching up with friends, these communication tools help bring people closer without necessitating time-consuming travel.

— Sayre S., Ames High School

I am on my phone about three hours a day. The majority of this is spent on social media apps like snapchat or twitter and listening to music. My phone has a positive influence on me. I feel more connected to the world and what is going on and while that is not always a good thing it is nice to be informed and updated on events within seconds.

— Mehdi Sebghati, Ames High School

My average screen time is about 40 minutes per week. I typically look at news, talk with my relatives in China through WeChat, or go on Youtube to watch cooking videos … My phone does help me build my Chinese skills when texting in WeChat. On WeChat, I can also build relationships with my relatives and friends that I cannot meet face-to-face.

However, my parents are still very worried about my time on my phone. That’s because I have glasses, and my eyesight has been worsening every year. They express their concern by speaking my name in a warning tone when they think I’ve been on my phone long enough. I listen to them, because I know that they are trying to do the best for them.

— Daniella Liang, J.R. Masterman

Teenagers shouldn’t be on their phones as much.

I think adults should be worried about how much their child is on their phone. If my child was constantly on their phone I would be mad because it is disrespectful when you are with someone and they won’t get off their phone. I get offended and annoyed when my friends are on their phones instead of talking to me and I wouldn’t want to be that rude to someone so if my parents told me I shouldn’t be on my phone I think that’s a good thing. Parents are supposed to teach their children how to talk, walk, and ride a bike, they should teach them proper manners and to not go be on your phone for too long.

— Anna Diab, Glenbard West HS, Glen Ellyn, IL

The answer to this question is different for me than many of my peers because unlike many “savvy” teens I have a flip phone. When I was fifteen I decided to stick with a flip phone, it solved my basic needs. I’m currently seventeen and have friends. It came down to me seeing kids and people on their phones at dangerous and inappropriate times. They were on their while driving, in school, and at the supper table. When I see somebody on their phone it reminds me that there is more to life. I am on my phone for less than ten minutes a day, still, I have survived. I can call and text people without the hassle of getting social media notifications. I’m not saying smartphones are bad they can be very useful. I just prefer reality.

— Ethan Morton, Ames, Iowa

I hate that I’m one of those teenagers who have a mini heart attack when they don’t feel their phone in their pocket. I know I’m not on my phone nearly as much as some of my peers, but even the time I do spend there I resent. Despite what the article says about technology not having any real negative influence on mental health, I can’t help but feel like it causes other problems.

We text and DM people when we have something to say, leaving behind outdated voice-calling and — gasp — that archaic practice of talking in person. So much of communication is nonverbal. Many today struggle to maintain eye contact, pay full undivided attention to others, and meaningfully interact in person. Screens are our modern-day masks and boy, do we love hiding behind them. While maybe it is true that technology doesn’t directly connect to the rise in mental disease and anxiety, it leads to a host of other problems, most prominent among these being social decay.

— Grace Robertson, Hoggard High School Wilmington, NC

Phones are not the problem.

Basically I have always had really bad anxiety way before I got a phone. Once I got to middle school and I started to mature it got worse because I was finally able to see all the bad in the world that my parents had protected me from. Which I believe is one of the leading factors of my depression. But once I got a phone I was so happy because I was always able to communicate with my friends no matter where I was. Then when I was given social media I really felt connected because I was able to get updates on what everyone was doing and what was going on in the world, but then when my parents found out about my depression they complete ignored the fact that they had sheltered me my entire life and blamed it all on my phone so now I do not have social media and I still feel the same way but I feel less connected and more isolated.

I guess what I’m trying to say is that I don’t think that phones have ruined a generation I think it’s the parents, they don’t realize that sheltering us is hurting us …

— Caleb, America

I feel like the anxiety, stress, and depression are not the result of my phone but from the expectations from parents and teachers, how unsafe I feel in my school, from the medication making me “normal and calm,” and from the news where nothing good is heard. I don’t think my phone stops me from socializing or from sleeping, and I am constantly trying to put down my phone. My parents will warn me once or twice but they are on it as much as me.

But I believe that adults try to use phones as a scapegoat instead of admitting that there are bigger issues, such as global warming, political divisions etc. that teens face or the problems that they themselves cause with high expectations.

— Lilian, Hoggard High School in Wilmington, NC

The effect of mobile phone usage policy on college students’ learning

• Published: 06 February 2021
• Volume 33 , pages 281–295, ( 2021 )

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• Evren Sumuer   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5345-8555 1  

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The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of mobile phone usage policies on college students’ learning. Based on quasi-experimental research, with pretest–posttest nonequivalent group design, two pre-existing groups were randomly assigned treatment conditions, namely the removal of students’ mobile phones (Restricted Phone Access), and the allowance for students’ mobile phone usage (Unrestricted Phone Access) during class lectures. Data were collected from 63 college students, of which 25 were in the Restricted Phone Access group and 38 in the Unrestricted Phone Access group, using pretest and posttest. The results of a mixed analysis of variance test showed that the change in students’ scores from pretest to posttest was significantly greater for the Restricted Phone Access group than the Unrestricted Phone Access group, although there was a statistically significant increase seen in the students’ test scores from pretest to posttest regardless of any policy on mobile phone usage. This study discusses the theoretical and practical implications, and then recommendations were put forward with regards to future studies in this area.

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Sumuer, E. The effect of mobile phone usage policy on college students’ learning. J Comput High Educ 33 , 281–295 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-020-09265-9

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Accepted : 20 October 2020

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-020-09265-9

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Essay on Impact Of Mobile Phones On Society

Students are often asked to write an essay on Impact Of Mobile Phones On Society in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Impact Of Mobile Phones On Society

Communication changes.

Mobile phones have changed the way we talk to each other. Before, we had to use landlines or write letters that took days to reach. Now, we can call or send a message to someone far away and they will know it in seconds. This makes keeping in touch with family and friends easier.

Information at Our Fingertips

With mobile phones, we can look up anything we want to know in an instant. They are like small computers that fit in our pockets. This means we can learn new things and find answers quickly, which is very helpful for school work and general knowledge.

Entertainment Everywhere

Phones are not just for calls; they are also for fun. We can play games, watch videos, and listen to music whenever we want. This is great for passing time, but it can also make us spend too much time on our phones instead of playing outside or reading books.

Safety and Help

Mobile phones can help us feel safer. If we are in trouble or get lost, we can call for help. Parents can also check where their children are, which helps them worry less. But, it is important to remember that we should not share our location with strangers.

Changes in Manners

Mobile phones have also changed how we act in public. Sometimes people focus on their phones instead of talking to the people they are with. This can be rude and make others feel unimportant. It’s good to remember to put our phones away during meals and conversations.

250 Words Essay on Impact Of Mobile Phones On Society

Changes in communication.

Mobile phones have changed the way we talk to each other. Before, people would write letters or use landlines to chat. Now, with mobiles, we can send messages, make calls, and even see each other on video anytime and anywhere. This makes staying in touch with friends and family much easier.

Information at Your Fingertips

With mobile phones, we can look up facts, news, and other information quickly. They are like small computers in our pockets. We can learn new things, do schoolwork, and satisfy our curiosity just by tapping on the screen.

Mobile phones are not just for talking; they are also for fun. We can play games, listen to music, and watch videos. This means we can enjoy ourselves while waiting for a bus or during a break at school.

Mobile phones can make us feel safer. If we get lost or need help, we can call our family or the police. Parents also feel better knowing they can reach their children anytime.

Not Always Good

Even though mobile phones have many good points, they can also cause problems. People sometimes pay more attention to their phones than the world around them. This can make them less aware and even cause accidents.

In conclusion, mobile phones have a big effect on our lives. They help us communicate, learn, have fun, and stay safe. But it’s important to use them carefully and not let them distract us too much from real life.

500 Words Essay on Impact Of Mobile Phones On Society

Introduction to mobile phones.

Mobile phones have changed the world. These small devices that we carry in our pockets allow us to talk to anyone, anywhere, at any time. They have become a part of our daily lives. Many people cannot imagine a day without their phone. This essay talks about how mobile phones affect society.

Communication Made Easy

The first big change that mobile phones brought is in the way we talk to each other. Before mobile phones, we had to use landline phones that were stuck in one place. Now, we can call or send a message to our friends and family no matter where we are. This has made staying in touch with loved ones much easier.

Mobile phones give us access to a lot of information. With the internet on our phones, we can look up anything we want to know. This is very helpful for students who can now find facts for their homework easily. It’s also good for anyone who needs to find out something quickly.

Entertainment in Our Hands

Our phones are not just for talking or getting information. They are also for fun. We can play games, listen to music, or watch videos on our phones. This means we can have entertainment with us all the time. This is nice when we are waiting for something or when we want to relax.

Work Goes Mobile

Phones have also changed the way we work. Many jobs now allow people to use their phones to do their work. This means that some people can work from anywhere. They do not have to be in an office. This can make work more flexible, but it can also mean that people are working more since they can always be reached.

Mobile phones can keep us safe. If we are in trouble or get lost, we can call for help. Parents often feel better knowing their children have a phone with them. This way, they can call if there is a problem.

Problems Caused by Mobile Phones

Even though mobile phones have many good points, they can also cause problems. For example, people can spend too much time on their phones and not enough time talking to people face to face. This can hurt relationships. Also, using phones too much can be bad for our health, like causing eye strain or bad posture.

In conclusion, mobile phones have a big impact on society. They make communication, getting information, working, and entertainment easier and better. They can also help keep us safe. But we must be careful not to let our phones take over our lives. We should remember to spend time with people in real life and not just on our phones. It is important to find a good balance.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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Essay on Mobile Phone for Students and Children

500+ words essay on mobile phone.

Essay on Mobile Phone: Mobile Phone is often also called “cellular phone”. It is a device mainly used for a voice call. Presently technological advancements have made our life easy. Today, with the help of a mobile phone we can easily talk or video chat with anyone across the globe by just moving our fingers. Today mobile phones are available in various shapes and sizes, having different technical specifications and are used for a number of purposes like – voice calling, video chatting, text messaging or SMS, multimedia messaging, internet browsing, email, video games, and photography. Hence it is called a ‘Smart Phone’. Like every device, the mobile phone also has its pros and cons which we shall discuss now.

Advantages of Mobile Phone

1) Keeps us connected

Now we can be connected to our friends, relatives at any time we want through many apps. Now we can talk video chat with whoever we want, by just operating your mobile phone or smartphone. Apart from this mobile also keeps us updated about the whole world.

2) Day to Day Communicating

Today mobiles phone has made our life so easy for daily life activities. Today, one can assess the live traffic situation on mobile phone and take appropriate decisions to reach on time. Along with it the weather updates, booking a cab and many more.

3) Entertainment for All

With the improvement of mobile technology, the whole entertainment world is now under one roof. Whenever we get bored with routine work or during the breaks, we can listen to music, watch movies, our favorite shows or just watch the video of one’s favorite song.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

4) Managing Office Work

These days mobiles are used for many types of official work From meeting schedules, sending and receiving documents, giving presentations, alarms, job applications, etc. Mobile phones have become an essential device for every working people

5) Mobile Banking

Nowadays mobiles are even used as a wallet for making payments. Money could be transferred almost instantly to friends, relatives or others by using mobile baking in the smartphone. Also, one can easily access his/her account details and know past transactions. So it saves a lot of time and also hassle-free.

Disadvantages of Mobile Phones

1)  Wasting Time

Now day’s people have become addicted to mobiles. Even when we don’t need to mobile we surf the net, play games making a real addict. As mobile phones became smarter, people became dumber.

2) Making Us Non- communicable

Wide usage of mobiles has resulted in less meet and talk more. Now people don’t meet physically rather chat or comment on social media.

3) Loss of Privacy

It is a major concern now of losing one’s privacy because of much mobile usage. Today anyone could easily access the information like where you live, your friends and family, what is your occupation, where is your house, etc; by just easily browsing through your social media account.

4) Money Wastage

As the usefulness of mobiles has increased so their costing. Today people are spending a lot amount of money on buying smartphones, which could rather be spent on more useful things like education, or other useful things in our life.

A mobile phone could both be positive and negative; depending on how a user uses it. As mobiles have become a part of our life so we should use it in a proper way, carefully for our better hassle-free life rather using it improperly and making it a virus in life.

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Positive effects of online games on the growth of college students: A qualitative study from China

1 School of Nursing, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China

2 School of Mental Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China

Chaoqun Dong

Jingjing zhang, associated data.

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

This study aimed to explore the positive effects of online games on college students’ psychological demands and individual growth.

A qualitative study design was carried out in September 2021. Semi-structured, in-depth, and individual interviews were conducted with a purposive sample of 20 undergraduates who played the online game “Glory of Kings” from six universities. Thematic analysis was employed to explore the positive features caused by “Glory of Kings”.

College students reported three positive effects of online games, namely, satisfying the need for personal growth, meeting the requirement of social life and promoting academic performance.

College educators and families should take advantage of the positive effect of online games to guide college students to use online games reasonably.

1. Introduction

According to the survey data of the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC), by the end of December 2021, the number of netizens in China reached 1.032 billion, of which the number of online game users reached 554 million ( CNNIC, 2022 ). The number of game apps reached 709,000, accounting for 28.2% of all apps ( CNNIC, 2022 ). Online games include massive, multiplayer, online role-playing games (MMORPGs), first-person shooter (FPS), real-time strategy (RTS) games, and other games ( Park et al., 2016 ). MOBA (Multiplayer Online Battle Arena) game, a subgenre of RTS games where two teams of five players usually play against each other ( Mora-Cantallops and Sicilia, 2018b ), is one of the most popular online games in China because of its competitive, interactive, and simple operating characteristics. Specifically, “Glory of Kings,” as a MOBA game, is listed at the top of the Chinese mobile game charts for contemporary college students ( Huang, 2021 ).

Online games are criticized by educators because many students invest a lot of time, money, and energy into games, which seriously affects their academic studies, social interaction, and physical and mental health, and ultimately leads to the tragedy of online game addiction ( Freeman, 2008 ; Kuss and Griffiths, 2012 ; Blinka and Mikuška, 2014 ; Xu et al., 2017 ). Online game addiction, as one of the most serious behavioral addictions ( Lopez-Fernandez, 2018 ), could cause a series of physical and mental problems, such as poor sleep, depression, anxiety, or even death ( Ferguson et al., 2011 ; Kuss and Griffiths, 2012 ; Wei et al., 2012 ). Meanwhile, parents’ opposition to online games can also be observed in family education. Studies have shown that the more addicted adolescents are to online games, the worse their parents’ attitude toward online games ( Jeong and Kim, 2011 ). Many adolescents who love playing online games face restrictions or prohibitions from their parents over the time spent on the Internet or other ways. For example, in a study of 2,021 adolescents, parental restrictions were 1.9 times higher among adolescents who were overly addicted to online games than among other adolescents ( Wu et al., 2016 ). Parents who do not show enough attention to their children promptly can lead to children using online games to divert negative family-related emotions ( Xu et al., 2021 ).

However, it is worth noting that the majority of studies focus on the negative effects of online games ( Lo et al., 2005 ; Ng and Wiemer-Hastings, 2005 ; Yc, 2006 ; Smyth, 2007 ; Li and Wang, 2013 ), while positive effects are neglected. In fact, playing online games at a moderate level could be beneficial to players’ personal psychological growth and interpersonal relationships ( Ko et al., 2005 ; Yee, 2006b ; Granic et al., 2014 ). In terms of emotional experience, existing research on the emotional impact of online games suggests that they have the potential to reduce depression, stress and obtain happiness ( Wu and Liu, 2007 ; Ari et al., 2020 ; Pine et al., 2020 ). In the process of psychological development, college students’ cognitive, memory, and other mental skills are proved to be enhanced by online games ( Boot et al., 2008 ; Glass et al., 2013 ; Oei and Patterson, 2013 ). There is evidence that games have the potential to provoke thought about the player’s personal development and ideals and increase the sense of self-realization if the players have strong ability in online games ( Nuangjumnong, 2014 ; Bopp et al., 2016 ; Mora-Cantallops and Sicilia, 2018a ). In social life, online games also establish the value of social connectedness and enhance the sense of interaction ( McClelland et al., 2011 ; Snodgrass et al., 2011 ; Oliver et al., 2016 ). Sublette and Mullan (2010 , p. 20) argue that through online games “socialization may just shift in focus: while real-world relationships eroded for some players.” It is further proposed that intimacy in games will also extend to offline real life, and shared game experience will reinforce offline communication ( Kim and Kim, 2017 ; Lai and Fung, 2019 ). MOBA games focus on personality development and teamwork in battle ( Yang et al., 2014 ; Mora-Cantallops and Sicilia, 2018b ). In other words, electronic space expands social communication to the virtual field ( Yee, 2006a ) and increases the team cooperation consciousness, leading to diverse communication ways. Besides, in terms of learning, online games are proven to help students engage in learning activities ( Iaremenko, 2017 ; Schenk et al., 2017 ; Calvo-Ferrer and Belda-Medina, 2021 ).

Existing research confirms that the academic performance and satisfaction of Chinese college students positively impact on the continued use of the “Glory of Kings” and promote the reconstruction of the player’s social image ( Chen and Chang, 2020 ). As mentioned above, previous studies have examined various positive aspects of online games, but the studies are based on foreign cultural contexts. Research subjects from different cultural backgrounds may have different perceptions and influences on online games, so it is culturally significant to study the positive influence of online games on Chinese college students. In other words, whether they can apply to the Chinese culture and environment or whether similar conclusions can be drawn among the Chinese college gamer population, has not been verified. Moreover, although “Glory of Kings” is widely concerned and popular among college students, few scholars in China try to evaluate the positive impact of “Glory of Kings” on college students. The design and development of “Glory of Kings” have distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, therefore, the choice of “Glory of Kings” as a carrier for the study has cultural significance. Secondly, the widespread usage of “Glory of Kings” among college students provides universality for the study. Third, since most of the existing studies are quantitative, qualitative research can enrich the existing research results, explore new experiences, and make relevant suggestions for higher education and family education. In conclusion, given the current popularity and influence of “Glory of Kings” in China, an in-depth study of Chinese college student players was conducted using it as a medium for qualitative research.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. participants.

A purposive sampling method was adopted to select college students who were “Glory of Kings” players from six universities or colleges in Zhejiang Province. Inclusion criteria: (1) college students; (2) playing the “Glory of Kings” game for more than 1 year; (3) have participated in the “Glory of Kings” game in the ranking tournament; and (4) informed consent and voluntary participation. Exclusion criteria: (1) college students suspended from school due to physical problems; (2) students who have a medical history of mental illness or psychiatric disorders and who were screened as having mental problems in the students’ general psychological test. The sample size was determined based on the principle of theoretical saturation. Interviews were conducted until reached theoretical saturation—that is, when the 18th participants did not provide new insights, and two more interviews were conducted to verify if new information would emerge. In the end, no new ideas were found to emerge making the sample size appropriate for this study. Among 23 students who were invited to participate, one student refused to participate due to lack of interest, and two persons were unable to participate due to time conflicts. Eventually, 20 college students (13 males and 7 females) were interviewed. Their ages ranged from 18 to 21 years, and their experience in playing the “Glory of Kings” game ranged from 2 to 6 years. The detailed information of participants is shown in Table 1 .

The basic information of the “Glory of Kings” player interviewees.

M, male; F, female. Years of playing “Glory of Kings” is calculated from the first time start playing the game.

2.2. Data collection

Participants were recruited in September 2021 with the assistance of the university’s gaming societies. The gaming societies presented the study recruitment information to members via social media. Participation was voluntary, and no incentive was offered for participation. The demographic information was collected before the interview, and the GPA information was collected at the beginning and end of the semester. The pilot-tested, semi-structured interviews were conducted using pre-determined, open-ended questions. The interviewers were conducted by two senior undergraduate students who had acquired knowledge of psychology, interpersonal communication, and qualitative research through relevant training prior to conducting this study. When conducting the interviews, they would follow a unified syllabus and agree on the follow-up questions. The interviews were conducted in a combination of online and offline formats. For participants located in Wenzhou City, interviews were conducted face-to-face in a meeting room at Wenzhou Medical University, where the environment was quiet and undisturbed. For participants located outside of Wenzhou City, online video interviews were conducted using social media. In addition to questions on demographic information, the interview syllabus was as follows:

• 1. Why do you play games?
• 2. How do you feel about being a player in the game of “Glory of Kings?”
• 3. What do you expect to gain from playing the game of “Glory of Kings?” And what do you actually gain from the game?
• 4. What is your experience with playing the game? And what experiences do you find enjoyable?
• 5. What are the best and worst things you think happen in the game?
• 6. What personal changes do you think have occurred after playing the game?
• 7. Is there anything else you would like to talk about on this topic?

All interviews were conducted at the time most convenient to the participants, and the interview schedule was determined 1 day in advance. Before the interview, participants were told about the procedures, such as how long the interview would last, the topics to be discussed, and permission to record the interview. Each interviewee lasted for approximately 30–40 min. All interviews were audiotaped and transcribed within 24 h after the interview. Two researchers independently completed and checked transcription to reduce personal biases.

2.3. Data analysis

Inductive thematic analysis was used to analyze the data ( Braun and Clarke, 2006 ) and data were analyzed using qualitative analysis software NVivo 10. The steps were as follows: (1) transcript reading, preliminary coding, and note-taking; (2) developing final codes by reading and rereading the transcripts to identify patterns and themes; (3) developing a thematic mind map; (4) defining and naming themes and sub-themes, and (5) preparing the final report with an analysis of the selected fragments. Data were analyzed by two researchers to ensure reliability, when other researchers examined and validated the data, codes, and analyses by holding regular research team meetings. Textual information was discussed by the researchers several times until a consensus was reached. In addition, the results of the preliminary analysis were shared with the participants for their reviews and comments. The analysis was done in Chinese and the quotes were then translated into English and checked by a native translator who was not involved with the data collection (see Table 2 for an example of the process).

Thematic analysis of transcribed data from interviews with 20 people with the online game “Glory of Kings”.

Examples of meaning units, condensed meaning units, and subthemes and theme.

2.4. Ethical considerations

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Wenzhou Medical University (2022-028). This study complies with the Helsinki Declaration’s guidelines. After obtaining both verbal and written information about the study, the participants signed informed consent. Written informed consent was obtained from the individuals for the participation in this study and the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article, and the data was password-protected and encrypted. Each participant was assigned a coding reference, which referred to the participant’s number and gender (i.e., M3 refers to respondent 3, Male gender). During the interviews, the researchers treated the participants with respect, listened intently, and responded to their questions.

Three themes were identified from the data material, namely, meeting the college student’s personal growth, satisfying the social needs of college students, and promoting academic performance.

3.1. Meeting the need for personal growth

3.1.1. relieve stress and achieve happiness.

Online games, because of the characteristics of confrontation, entertainment and challenge, make it a way for college students to vent their emotions. Most interviewees believe that the fast pace of university brings them great study pressure. Also, college students of different grades report different sources of stress, such as pressure from parents, peers, academics, etc. However, no matter what kind of stress leads to negative emotions, they can be relieved through entertainment games. Following are typical quotes from gamers who said that the game can relieve negative emotions and bring positive feelings.

Game is not a necessity, but I would occasionally indulge in it. I like to live happily in virtual games (M5, 20-year-old).

When encounter troubles, I choose to play a few rounds of games. Although the pleasure brought by the game is temporary, it could fade away the troubles (M1, 20-year-old).

I went through a particularly bad period last semester… Later, I fell in love with “Glory of Kings,” and sometimes I even stayed up late to play games… However, when I was addicted to games temporarily, my pressure was released, which provides enough energy and enthusiasm to face difficulties (F7, 19-year-old).

3.1.2. Overcome the shortcomings and gain self-awareness

Due to the nature of “Glory of Kings,” it provides a platform for college students to fully enhance their consciousness. The characteristics of the five different roles in this game can also further prompt players to recognize their shortcomings and provide a reference for players to understand themselves. Players whose self-awareness is not clear enough get a clearer understanding through the game, and players whose self-perception is vague or even sometimes wrong get a chance to correct it. Following are typical quotes from gamers who have better self-awareness.

Gradually, I started to think about the reason, until I realized that I lacked a sense of the big picture and cooperation. Since then, I’ve made a conscious effort to work with my team on offense, which provides me with a better chance of victory. In life, I also recognized similar shortcomings and corrected them (F1, 19-year-old).

I prefer to play the role as an assassin, but I’m always not good at it. Later, my teammates suggested that I should be bolder and more adventurous. Under the guidance and practice, I gradually became proficient (M12, 18-year-old).

I am an untalkative person in life, but through playing games, I try to actively communicate with my teammates and gradually become more cheerful and good at communication (F4, 19-year-old).

3.1.3. Gain achievement and self-realization

Contrary to the harsh real society, the virtual game world demonstrates a new relatively equal social environment in its unique way and rich content. College students can explore multiple identities by experiencing multiple avatars or changing the appearance of avatars, thereby creating a virtual self-image that is sometimes compensatory and even restorative. Following are typical quotes from gamers who said that the game can bring them positive feelings.

I may be an ordinary person in life, but being a core character in games brings confidence (M1, 20-year-old).

In the virtual world of online games, college students can present themselves without the constraints of the single evaluation system of academic performance in real life. It provides the best arena for college students to gain achievement and fulfill their needs.

Sometimes I feel inferior because of my poor academic performance, and my classmates often treat me with colored glasses… Ranking as a king in the game, many players are willing to team up with me, which gives me a sense of accomplishment and brings back the confidence I lost in real life.

3.2. Satisfying the need for social life

3.2.1. broaden the social network.

College students can make friends around the world with common interests in the virtual world. The game’s forum provides the means to initiate a chat or team invitations to skilled players, as well as the option to team up with players in the same city. Through this avenue, strangers can converse with each other across geographical distances and blur cultural boundaries. Following are typical quotes from gamers who widened the breadth of interpersonal communication.

I spend most of my time playing games with my real friends, sometimes accepting game invitations from strangers and meeting skilled friends (F4, 19-year-old).

Because of the game, I met people of different ages and professions who taught me about game operations (M6, 19-year-old).

3.2.2. Increase social interaction

Online games offer everyone a convenient way to socialize and reduce social costs. The majority of participants reported that they would choose “Glory of Kings” as a common hobby to better integrate into the surrounding circle of friends. And some students will consciously take some compensatory actions against their friends who do not play games to maintain their friendship. Following are typical quotes from gamers who widened the breadth of interpersonal communication.

Playing games with unfamiliar individuals could quickly promote mutual understanding (F7, 19-year-old; M4, 21-year-old).

Playing games together can promote communication between roommates and increase common language (F2, 19-year-old).

I have a friend who does not play games and I tried to teach her to play but she refused. So I would study or eat with her after finishing the game time, and our relationship has always been tight (F5, 19-year-old).

3.2.3. Value teamwork

In the game “Glory of Kings,” college students work as a team to promote friendship and learn from each other’s strengths. Cooperation is necessary for the progress of this game, and there is also a respondent who says he has transformed from a solitary player to a competent collaborator. Every interviewee agreed that they preferred to work with the team and were willing to do their best to cooperate with their teammates when playing the game and even sacrifice for teammates when necessary. Following are typical quotes from gamers who enjoyed teamwork.

Sometimes I could not figure it out on my own, but a team could succeed (M1, 20-year-old).

I used to fight alone when I think that just be happy with myself. But gradually I fell in love with playing in team battles and was happy to cooperate with the team. Meanwhile, if I do not focus on team cooperation, there will be no communication in the game, and the road to promotion will be bumpy (M3, 19-year-old).

3.3. Promoting academic performance

3.3.1. improve learning ability.

The topic of academics was constantly mentioned and excavated in the interviews. The interviewees mentioned that online games helped them to master some transferable skills, such as problem-solving ability, quick thinking ability, etc. These abilities are usually trained unconsciously in games, and the player is able to experience the corresponding ability improvements in the real world when the match is over. Following are typical quotes from gamers who improved their ability to learn.

By studying the characters’ skill matching and line-ups in the game, my mind seemed to be more flexible and my problem-solving efficiency improved (M8, 18-year-old).

In order to improve my game skills, I watched the live video of the game host and learned their skills. As time passed, I found it easier to follow the teacher’s explanation in class while I could not keep up with the teacher’s quick thinking before (F2, 19-year-old).

3.3.2. Increase interest in learning

The combination of abstract and complex knowledge with online games can change the current passive input education model and make students more interested and effective in learning. Following are typical quotes from gamers who said that they could accept the teaching content more effectively in the process of playing games.

The teacher introduced the historical relationships between different characters using the heroic characters from “Glory of Kings,” which suddenly made a sleepy history lesson come to life (F2, 19-year-old).

Some interviewees also proposed that combining the virtual currency obtained in the game with the correct rate of answering questions in the virtual classroom of college students can improve students’ classroom performance. Following are typical quotes from gamers who proposed that the mechanics of the game can be realized in the real world.

Using this way of learning can motivate me to arrange my online game time rationally, reduce my dependence on online games and enjoy studying more (F6, 20-year-old).

4. Discussion

This study examines whether “Glory of Kings” has a positive impact on college students. The qualitative nature of this study allows players to fully articulate specific aspects of their perspectives and allows researchers to analyze their views and attitudes in depth.

4.1. The impact on personal growth

Most participants in our study believe that the pressure in their university life can be relieved through online games which are consistent with the findings of Ari et al. (2020) . The pressure from various aspects, such as academics, family, and social lives, as well as the confusion about the future, bring contemporary college students under more psychological pressure. Online games make it a way for college students to escape from reality and vent their suppressed emotions, and some students also accompany the relief method of verbal catharsis in the process. These findings are similar to those of Pine et al. (2020) that college students enjoy the happiness that accompanies the release of stress when gaming.

College students are in an important period of strengthening their self-consciousness system. As a medium, “Glory of Kings” provides players with a competitive platform whose ultimate goal is victory. In order to continue to win, players need to constantly reflect and summarize ( Kow, 2017 ). Larsen (2020) proposed seven aspects of the skill theory framework to guide players to improve their skill level in the game. Therefore, players can correspond to the theoretical framework and reflect on their shortcomings and deficiencies. By having the opportunity to overcome shortcomings and reflect on themselves in the game world, ultimately a clearer self-awareness can be projected and benefit the player in the real world.

According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, the ultimate human need is self-actualization. Likewise, college students need to be respected and expect to gain achievement ( Zhong and Yao, 2013 ). Liao et al. (2017) proposed that people will form virtual personalities on the Internet through self-remodeling, while virtual personalities are often different from the real world. In real life, the differences in economic conditions, living areas, material conditions, status, and the increasingly fierce competition environment often limit college students’ achievement experience. In online games, the boundary between physical reality and virtual reality will be blurred by more personalized and immersive environments ( Young, 2009 ; Soutter and Hitchens, 2016 ; Kuo et al., 2017 ), resulting in a convenient way for college students to get achievements. Like the ordinary student M8, he was appreciated by others for his superb gaming skills. In conclusion, achieving self-worth and reaching potential are the goals to meet the need for self-actualization ( Liao et al., 2017 ).

4.2. The impact on interpersonal communication

In the case of “Glory of Kings,” which is a confrontation that unfolds by grouping, the system offers both the opportunity to form teams on one’s own and the option of random matching. Online games try to expand player interactivity and social friendships in the setting of game rules to attract more players, which coincides with the needs of college students to interact with people ( Ducheneaut and Moore, 2004 ). Linked to the trait of awakened autonomy among college students, they will establish emotional communication with like-minded friends they meet in “Glory of Kings,” and will also subjectively choose whom to team up with, which may be teammates they meet through the game or friends in the real world. The game provides a more comfortable communication platform for strangers in real life, thus widening the breadth of interpersonal communication.

Most of the participants in this research also tend to play “Glory of Kings” with their friends. According to the study by Croes and Antheunis (2021) , people’s intimacy is directly proportional to the frequency of interaction. Consistent with the conclusion of Lai and Fung (2019) , college students will not alienate their friends and feel lonely because of excessive investment in playing games. On the contrary, the emotions and experiences shared in the virtual game world can strengthen the bond between them ( Granic et al., 2014 ). College students can fight side by side with their friends in the gaming world, and discuss gaming skills together offline. The game does not destroy or isolate their relationships. On the contrary, the tacit cooperation and communication between players in the game make the relationship closer.

Most of our participants recognize that they liked the teamwork model of “Glory of Kings.” Consist to the study by Chen and Chang (2020) , a MOBA mobile game, it simulates a real-world situation in which temporary teams of strangers complete complex tasks in a short period. It can provide players with a unique platform for teamwork in such scenarios where social relationships need to be established quickly. It is further suggested in the study of Ewoldsen et al. (2012) that this can increase pro-social behaviors outside of the game environment, such as social and civic activities. It follows that teams derive satisfaction from existence, which is part of the meaning of collective effort. Choosing the group and cooperating to reach the same goals is precisely what is essential in real life as well.

4.3. The impact on academic performance

Contrary to conventional beliefs that playing games is intellectually lazy and sedating, playing games is shown to promote a wide range of cognitive skills ( Granic et al., 2014 ). Compared with non-gamers, gamers show faster and more accurate attention allocation, and higher spatial resolution enhanced mental rotation in visual processing, these skills are transferred to other spatial tasks outside the game context ( Green and Bavelier, 2012 ). In addition, scholars speculate that problem-solving skills can also be developed. On the whole, there are many good principles of learning built into good online games ( Adachi and Willoughby, 2013 ), which could be applied to school learning tomorrow.

For this generation that grows up with the Internet, online games are an integral medium of communication and learning and have great potential for schools and workplaces to increase engagement, creativity and lifelong learning skills ( Gee, 2003 ; Turkay and Adinolf, 2012 ; Granic et al., 2014 ). From the existing overall analysis results, the condition of the online games has more positive learning effect than traditional teaching condition. In addition to improving learning and memory ( Sitzmann, 2011 ; Wouters et al., 2013 ), online gameplay has the potential to motivate individuals to participate in educational settings to improve students’ interest in learning ( Clark et al., 2016 ).

4.4. Suggestions for parents and college management

By considering both the negative effects and potential benefits of the existence of games, many scholars proposed some balanced perspectives on the use of games for real-world personal growth with the intervention and supervision of a third party. The influence of the family is a pivotal factor, as it contributes significantly to the socialization of adolescents ( Liu et al., 2015 ). Parental regulation through restrictive mediation or conversational mediation in adolescents’ gaming is one important factor that may limit adolescents’ gaming behavior ( Colasante et al., 2022 ).

On the other hand, it is unscientific for parents to blindly prohibit their children from online games ( Chen et al., 2020 ). More and more parents accept the Internet and games as valuable learning tools ( Willoughby, 2008 ). Those parents help children become consumers to judge the advantages of games, plan a variety of leisure activities, mediate violent temptation games, and help children find the meaning of online games through positive communication ( Chiu et al., 2004 ). Indeed, co-playing games with parents are associated with heightened prosocial behavior for girls ( Coyne et al., 2011 ). In addition, researchers suggest that adolescents who receive the correct family education for the online game may learn ways to meet basic needs and self-control ( Griffiths and Meredith, 2009 ; Liu et al., 2015 ; Chen et al., 2020 ). Parents should create a harmonious family atmosphere by continuously improving their parenting skills and building close relationships with their children, which is in line with the suggestions of Chiu et al. (2004) . Meanwhile, parents should keep in touch with teachers to understand their children’s confusion as well as their use of the Internet at school to actively cooperate with the school’s policies.

Schools are digital education providers and prevention centers. Our results suggested that educators can take advantage of game-based education to facilitate problem-solving ability and to increase the study interests of college students ( Whitton and MacLure, 2017 ). Moreover, universities or colleges can use online games as a potentially useful and beneficial educational tool to promote students’ positive emotions. For example, a school in Seoul, South Korea, set up an online game course that covers the humanities of games, game terminology, game manipulation, Q&A with professional players, and game science to positively impact students at different grades and schools in public education sites ( Choi and Bang, 2021 ).

Many colleges and universities in China nowadays create electronic competitive social organizations and used network games in their daily teaching, not only to enrich students’ extracurricular life, but also to provide a platform for college students to find like-minded friends to play online games reasonably. Furthermore, some universities or colleges combine health education of online games with ideological and political work and try to establish college students’ mental profiles to understand their overall psychological conditions when they are playing online games. More strategies are needed to maximize the positive impact of online games on college students and help them grow healthily.

5. Implication

Despite the negative perception of online games in the Chinese cultural context, our study re-examines the impact of online games from the gamer’s perspective. To a certain extent, online games meet the personalized requirements of college students’ personal growth in Chinese collectivist culture, realize the need for the social interaction satisfaction, and enhance creativity in learning ( Chen and Chang, 2020 ). The higher education nowadays should more scientifically guide teachers and parents to change their attitudes toward online games and recognize the benefits of online games ( Whitton and MacLure, 2017 ). Meanwhile, the advantages of online games can be exploited to benefit more students by promoting their problem-solving ability through game-based education, contributing to more productive physical and mental health and learning ( Granic et al., 2014 ).

6. Limitation

Although this study shows that “Glory of Kings” has a positive impact on contemporary college students, it should be noted that the data are cross-sectional and longitudinal studies are still needed to confirm the long-term impact of “Glory of Kings” on college students. Secondly, the data is only derived from the feedback that respondents actively self-reported, which means that there may be some hidden part of the self-reflection content of respondents. Thirdly, relevant quantitative studies can be carried out to further verify and analyze the results of this study.

7. Conclusion

In this study, it is found that meeting the need for personal growth, satisfying the need for social life and promoting academic performance are the main positive effects of playing online games. Some suggestions that enhance the supportive role of online games are structured for family and college education.

Data availability statement

Ethics statement.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Wenzhou Medical University (2022-028). Written informed consent was obtained from the individual for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

Author contributions

FL and DZ contributed to the conceptualization and writing—original draft. SW was in charge of the data collection and analysis. RZ assisted in data collation and analysis as well as literature search. CD and JZ contributed to the writing, reviewing, and editing. All authors contributed to manuscript revision, read, and approved the submitted version.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express gratitude to the colleagues who offered constructive and illuminating feedback, and to Guohua Zhang and Bingling Xia, who helped shape earlier versions of this article with their comments.

Funding Statement

This research was supported by the Wenzhou Science and Technology Bureau Project (R20220086) and Zhejiang Province Curriculum Ideological and Political Education Research Project.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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