glass recycling research papers

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• 03 November 2021

Glass is the hidden gem in a carbon-neutral future

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Workers sort out glass for recycling following an August 2020 explosion that damaged more than half of Beirut. Credit: Joseph Eid/AFP/Getty

Glass can be recycled infinitely without losing any of its properties. Why, then, are most countries — with the exception of those in Europe — still burying most of their glass as landfill by the tonne? In 2018, the United States alone offloaded almost 7 million tonnes of glass into landfill sites, accounting for 5.2% of all solid municipal waste, according to the US Environ-mental Protection Agency.

The push to cut plastics use is accelerating the search for new materials, especially for containers that can hold liquids. But glass is an existing material that could be the star of a net-zero carbon economy.

Worldwide, glass manufacturing produces at least 86 million tonnes of carbon dioxide every year. But most of this can be eliminated when glass is recycled, and existing technologies could turn glass manufacturing into a mostly carbon-free process. What needs to happen is for countries to stop sending glass to landfill sites, and to make glass recycling mandatory.

Chemistry can make plastics sustainable – but isn’t the whole solution

Glass is made by heating limestone, sand and soda ash to 1,500 °C. This heat comes from natural gas, and it accounts for between 75% and 85% of the carbon emissions from glass manufacturing. The remaining emissions are a by-product of the chemical reactions between the raw materials. But some of these materials can be replaced with crushed recycled glass, known as cullet. When cullet is melted, no CO 2 is released. And furnaces don’t have to burn so fiercely to melt glass as to melt the raw materials, offering further carbon savings. According to the European Container Glass Federation (FEVE), an industry group based in Brussels, 10% more cullet in a furnace lowers CO 2 emissions by 5% compared with making glass entirely from raw materials.

As with most forms of recycling, some caveats apply. The type of glass used to make windows — known as flat glass — cannot contain impurities, unlike glass used in many other applications. So it’s not possible to melt down jam jars to get a window pane. But flat-glass cullet can be used to make more flat glass.

Some questions will need further research. For example, governments will need to know the monetary cost of boosting systems for glass collection and recycling, so that they can allocate appropriate resources. Furthermore, glass is heavier than plastic, so using it as a replacement will probably add to transport costs and emissions, and that, too, needs to be understood.

Concrete needs to lose its colossal carbon footprint

When it comes to glass recycling, Europe is the world’s most advanced region by some margin, and has ambitions to be even better. Researchers could study how Europe’s recycling scheme came about, its strengths and weaknesses and whether there are lessons for other countries. Three-quarters of glass used for containers such as bottles is collected for recycling across all 27 member states and the United Kingdom. As a result, new glass made in the European Union already contains some 52% recycled material. The glass-container industry has set itself a target of collecting 90% of all waste container glass in the EU by 2030.

But other countries are not where they need to be. Moreover, data on glass recycling are difficult to find, partly because most countries are not reporting what they are doing. There seems to be no international body that collects glass-recycling data. That needs to change.

That said, national efforts are under way to improve collection and recycling rates. The United States recycles, on average, just 31% of its glass containers, but the Glass Packaging Institute, a trade association based in Arlington, Virginia, is pushing to increase that to 50% by 2030 (to achieve that, 56% of all waste glass must be collected). Similarly, a project run by the Glass Recycling Company in Johannesburg increased the recycling rate across South Africa from 18% in 2005–06 to 42% in 2018–19, including boosting the use of returnable bottles. But elsewhere — in Brazil, China and India, for example — authorities are silent, or, at the very least, are not reporting their plans and ambitions.

More countries need to pass laws to reduce waste and eventually stop sending glass to landfill. That will automatically create greater incentives for glass to be recycled. Europe already mandates that 70% of waste building and construction materials are recycled. The remainder currently ends up being used as aggregate for road filling or other basic building processes; this is a huge waste of a valuable resource.

Lithium-ion batteries need to be greener and more ethical

Carbon can also be saved by decarbonizing the process of melting the chemical mix during manufacturing. A demonstration project called Furnace for the Future, run by FEVE, makes glass using electricity instead of natural gas to heat recycled glass cullet. If the electricity source were fully decarbonized, it would mean that the entire process of glass-making would effectively be carbon-free.

Glass is an essential material. And it is possible for its manufacture to become almost carbon-free in a relatively short time. But legislation is required to ensure that it is properly collected and recycled, and that it doesn’t end up in landfill. Communities and companies should be helped to create infrastructure to collect glass and recycle it. The answers are there, and they are relatively simple. They need to be put into practice — and we can all raise a glass to that.

Nature 599 , 7-8 (2021)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-021-02992-8

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Effects of an Educational Glass Recycling Program against Environmental Pollution in Spain

Miguel Ángel aguilar-jurado.

1 Faculty of Economic Sciences and Business Studies, University of Castilla-La Mancha, University Campus of Albacete, 02071 Albacete, Spain; moc.liamg@acitsidatseedleugim (M.Á.A.-J.); [email protected] (J.F.O.-D.)

Pedro Gil-Madrona

2 Faculty of Education, University of Castilla-La Mancha, University Campus of Albacete, 02071 Albacete, Spain; [email protected]

Juan Francisco Ortega-Dato

David zamorano-garcía.

In this article, we analyzed the effects of an educational glass recycling program on primary schools and their students in Castilla-La Mancha (Spain). A sample of 89 schools, with 20,710 elementary students, was selected by simple random sampling. For the statistical analysis, descriptive techniques (frequencies and statistics), parametric (One Way ANOVA test), and non-parametric (Chi-Square test) inferential techniques were used, with a 5% significance level ( p < 0.05). The program’s results showed that 153,576.3 kg of glass (with a value of 17,064.03 €) were recycled. Significant determinants of glass recycling were: School category ( p = 0.043), previous environmental/recycling education ( p = 0.046), geographic location of school ( p = 0.030), gender ( p = 0.007), and academic year ( p < 0.05). With the program, students learned the importance of glass recycling, obtained a greater knowledge of and habits related to the same, acquired favorable attitudes towards the environment, and promoted glass recycling in their social circles. We conclude that environmental education about glass recycling has positive effects on glass recycling attitudes and behaviors in elementary school students and may be used as a measure to combat the problem of environmental pollution.

1. Introduction

Environmental pollution is one of the great challenges facing humanity today [ 1 ]. This global problem is defined as the presence of particular types and concentrations of physical, chemical, or biological agents in the environment that are harmful to the health, safety, and well-being of humans, plants, and animals [ 2 ]. The consequences of pollution are very worrying. According to the World Health Organization, 1.3 million people die annually due to high-level exposure to contaminating agents [ 3 ]. In urban areas, populations such as the poor, elderly, and children are especially prone to pollution-related diseases, including respiratory illnesses, heart disease, cancer, etc. [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Pollution generates other serious environmental problems such as climate change or global warming, which also have important health consequences [ 13 , 14 ]. Contamination is not only a threat to the environment and health of all living beings; it also affects global economic development [ 15 ]. In 2017, the estimated cost attributed to environmental pollution was greater than 4.6 billion dollars annually, the equivalent of 6.2% of the planet’s wealth [ 16 ].

In many societies, environmental pollution caused by waste is associated with the consumerism of a throw-away culture [ 17 ]. For example, in Spain, 75% of waste ends up in landfill sites, the equivalent of approximately 25 million tons annually. On average, each Spaniard produces 1.6 kg of waste per day, which represents 600 kg a year [ 18 ]. Of the huge amounts of residue generated at household, commercial, and industrial levels, glass is one of the most abundant disposable products, and its accumulation in the environment is of great concern.

Measures to reduce environmental pollution are multiple, for example: (1) Legal regulations that prohibit and sanction contaminating behaviors/activities, (2) fiscal measures (taxes, fees, etc.), (3) incentives to consume environmentally friendly goods and services (electric cars, public transport, and bicycles), (4) promotion of/subsidies for renewable energy sources, (5) investment in infrastructure and equipment (wastewater treatment plants, recycling, and waste management facilities, sewer systems, etc.), and (6) implementation of the 3 R’s (reduce, reuse, recycle). Recycling, in particular, reduces the accumulation of solid waste pollution by converting it into new products for reuse [ 19 ].

Glass recycling brings environmental, economic, and social benefits. Glass is 100% recoverable and can be endlessly recycled without losing its properties or functionality. With every 3000 standard-sized glass bottles recycled (75 cm [cl]/bottle), we save 1000 kg of waste accumulation [ 20 ]. From a health standpoint, glass recycling reduces air and water pollution, which translates into health benefits and savings in healthcare costs. In Spain, healthcare expenditures associated with pollution stood at 45 billion euros in 2013, 3.5% of the Usual abbreviation of Gross National Product (GNP). At the international level, this cost rises to 225 billion dollars (approximately 191 billion euros) [ 21 ]. Glass recycling reduces the amount of toxic particles and gases released into the air by about 20% [ 20 ] and at the same time, curbs greenhouse gas emissions or global warming. For every ton of recycled glass (cullet), 670 kg of carbon dioxide is saved from entering the atmosphere [ 22 ]. The quality of drinking water is also improved by about 50% due to glass recycling, reducing the risk of infection or chemical intoxication to the consumer [ 5 ]. Recycling glass also reduces land pollution and encourages a circular economy by lowering the consumption of natural resources necessary for glass production: Sand, limestone, sodium carbonate, etc. For example, 1 kg of cullet saves 1.2 kg of these materials from being mined, representing both an economic saving and reduced soil degradation [ 20 , 22 ]. Furthermore, compared to the raw materials necessary for glass manufacturing, cullet has a lower melting point, which results in an energy savings of 26.6% [ 20 , 23 ]. This translates into 136 L of petroleum saved for every ton of glass recycled [ 20 ]. Additionally, from a labor standpoint, recycling stimulates the economy by creating “green jobs” (jobs which reduce the environmental impact of industry and contribute to a sustainable economy). It is estimated that some 8000 jobs in Spain are directly or indirectly associated with glass recycling [ 24 ].

Given the problems that pollution causes and the advantages of recycling, society should adopt this practice as normal behavior. Conscious of this, the European Union has imposed, as part of its environmental strategy, that member states recycle 55% of all waste generated by the year 2025 [ 25 ]. Countries like Spain, with a recycling rate of 29.7%, are still far from achieving this goal and must continue to work towards it [ 26 ].

In order to encourage recycling, we need to understand which factors determine the intention to recycle. These factors can be grouped into: (1) Demographic factors: Age, gender, education level, income level, marital status, ethnic group, geographic location, etc. [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ], (2) psychographic factors: Knowledge, motivation and environmental attitudes and concern, etc. [ 30 , 31 , 33 , 34 , 35 ], and (3) circumstantial factors: Convenience, information, variety of recycling options available, access to recycling opportunities and containers, imitation of other individuals, social norms, economic obligations, etc. [ 31 , 33 , 35 , 36 ]. Regarding glass recycling, the following factors have also been found to influence the intention to recycle: Moral values, ecological consciousness, and past behavior [ 37 ].

Environmental education, which includes recycling programs, plays an important role in fostering and transmitting pro-environmental knowledge, consciousness, attitudes, and behavior [ 38 ]; it should be understood as a lifelong, continuous educational process whose foundations are laid down in childhood. It has been shown that it is more effective to instill environmental consciousness in preadolescent children who have not yet developed well-established environmental habits [ 39 ]. Therefore, environmental education programs that encourage the development of positive environmental attitudes and behaviors should be incorporated into the primary school curriculum [ 40 ].

Currently, there are many environmental education programs with diverse contents. Over the years, many international organizations concerned with protecting the environment have instigated educational programs, such as: GAP -Global Action Plan- [ 41 ], Western Mediterranean Sea Project [ 42 ], Clean Up the World [ 43 ], Eco-School [ 44 ], GLOBE -Global Observations for the Benefit of the Environment- [ 45 ], Ocean Initiatives [ 46 ], Conectando Mundos [ 47 ], etc. In Spain, according to figures from the Ministry for Ecological Transition (MITECO) [ 48 ], there are a total of 132 official environmental education programs, such as: Ecoauditoría , Escuelas amigas de los bosques , Aldea , Actúa con energía , Valles del oso , PINEA , ¡Explora tu río! , Conocer nuestro medio , Aula del fuego , Escoles verdes , Climática , Aulas en las montañas , Agenda 21 Escolar , etc. These programs offer diverse teaching approaches and content matter; some are more general and others more specific (climate change, protection of rivers, mountains, forests, beaches, animal species, etc.). According to scientific evidence, we know that environmental attitudes of a general nature are predictors of specific environmental attitudes amongst students. However, the general environmental outlook does not appear to be significantly correlated to specific environmental behaviors such as recycling [ 36 ]; therefore, specialized programs rather than general environmental education may be required to achieve specific behaviors.

In Spain, recycling education programs are not abundant, much less those dealing exclusively with glass. According to MITECO [ 48 ], the following official recycling programs can be found: (1) Profesor Reciclus , a Gredos San Diego Foundation project aimed at teaching first-grade elementary students the principles of Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, (2) Recapacicla , a Government of Andalusia program about waste and recycling, (3) La Aventura de tu Basura , a motivational program dealing with source separation of household waste and recycling, taught in schools in Córdoba, and (4) Red de Escuelas por el Reciclaje , initiated by the Consortium for Solid Waste Management in Asturias, seeking to foment the 3 Rs (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) in the educational community. In addition to these official programs, there are others designed by private environmental organizations, such as: (1) Educa en Eco , dedicated to recycling paper, cardboard, plastic, cans, and cartons in schools [ 49 ], and (2) La Liga Peque Recicladores , focused on glass recycling in the school environment [ 50 ].

There is little scientific research on the topic of recycling education programs. There are, however, some relevant studies in this area, such as that of Pellegrini and Reyes [ 51 ], analyzing a paper and cardboard recycling program geared toward the student population of the Simón Bolívar University in Venezuela during the 2004–2007 period. Besides raising awareness and fomenting pro-environmental attitudes amongst university students, considerable quantities of material were recycled due to the program: Specifically, 3110 kg of paper and 617 kg of cardboard. We discovered another interesting study by Romero, Salas, and Jiménez [ 52 ], who evaluated the MADI (Management of Institutional Waste) program at the Technological Institute of Costa Rica during the years 2000–2007. The results were satisfactory in terms of the 3 R’s (reduce, reuse, recycle) and responsible disposal of ordinary solid waste (plastic, glass, paper, and aluminum). The program also raised environmental awareness in the institute’s student body, administration, and teaching community. We should also mention the work of Ponte [ 53 ], regarding the paper recycling project at the Pedagogical Institute of Caracas (Venezuela), which resulted in the recovery of 31,181 kg of paper for recycling during the years 2000–2006. This activity allowed the institute to become financially self-sufficient and the model of a sustainable university. In Australia, Armstrong, Sharpley, and Malcolm [ 54 ], Armstrong and Grant [ 55 ], and Cutter-Mackenzie [ 56 ] conducted a scientific review of the program Waste Wise Schools. This is an environmental education program based on the 3 R’s for primary and secondary schools in Western Australia. The main results of this program, since its conception in 1997, have been the reduction of miscellaneous waste (plastic, cardboard, paper, glass, organic waste, etc.) and the development of positive environmental attitudes in students and the school community through practical learning experiences. Finally, Buil, Roger-Loppacher and Prieto-Sandoval [ 57 ] studied the effects of an educational program (theoretical and practical) about aluminum packaging recycling. The program was organized by ARPAL (Association for the Recycling of Aluminum in Spain), in 2015, for students between 8 and 12 years old, from Avila and Cadiz (Spain). The study showed that after participating in the program, students had increased knowledge and awareness of aluminum recycling and greater intention to recycle aluminum.

In summary, given the importance of the topic at hand and the scarcity of glass recycling programs and scientific research pertaining to them, the present work analyzed the glass recycling education program, La Liga Peque Recicladores . We intended to contribute to the scientific literature by investigating the effects of a glass recycling education program and by demonstrating some of the factors determining this type of recycling. The specific objectives of this study were: (1) To quantify the amount of glass collected for recycling and calculate its economic value, (2) to evaluate if the type of school, previous environmental/recycling education, and geographic location were influential factors in glass recycling; (3) to determine, using a psychometric scale, if students improved in terms of importance given to glass recycling, knowledge of the topic, recycling habits, respect for the environment, and promotion of glass recycling in their social circles, and (4) to examine whether there were significant differences according to gender and academic year in the above-mentioned recycling attitudes as measured by the psychometric scale.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. description of the program and procedures.

La Liga Peque Recicladores (The League of Little Recyclers) refers to an environmental education program about recycling, organized by Ecovidrio [ 50 ]. It consisted of a glass collection competition and other complementary activities with the goal of informing and sensitizing primary school children to the importance and benefits of glass recycling. Furthermore, the program’s objective was to foment recycling behaviors in this population, their families, and the educational community.

The program was carried out in public, private, and government-subsidized private schools (semi-private) between November 2017 and January 2018, in the Spanish regions of Castilla-La Mancha, Miranda del Ebro, Ponferrada, and Salamanca. The current study focused its analysis on the Community of Castilla-La Mancha, including the following municipalities: Almansa, Ciudad Real, Cuenca, Guadalajara, Hellín, Puertollano, Talavera de la Reina, and Toledo.

La Liga Peque Recicladores program was divided into 5 phases: (1) Announcement of the program, when elementary schools from the above-mentioned municipalities of Castilla-La Mancha were contacted via e-mail and telephone to inform them of the objectives and characteristics of the program, (2) Incorporation of participating schools through electronic registration on the program’s webpage, (3) Placement of vinyl stickers with the program’s logo on the glass recycling bins closest to participating schools, (4) Advertisement of the program through publicity (posters, flyers, webpage, school events) and educational activities such as theatre and school workshops, (5) Monthly rankings and interim prizes, where each month, the number of kilograms of glass collected per student in the recycling containers was tabulated; the interim prizes (a visit to a children’s play center) were awarded to the school collecting the most glass/student in that particular month, and (6) Determination of final rankings and distribution of prizes (monetary awards for scholastic material, sports equipment or computers) when schools were classified in terms of the accumulated number of kilograms of glass/student collected for recycling throughout the 3 months of the program. Monetary prizes in the amounts of 3000, 2000, or 1000 euros, according to 1 st , 2 nd , or 3 rd placement, were awarded to the 3 winning schools.

After completing the program La Liga Peque Recicladores , students’ educational experience was evaluated by means of a questionnaire distributed amongst the participating schools regarding knowledge, attitudes, the importance of, and habits pertaining to glass recycling.

Finally, once the results of the program were analyzed and considered satisfactory, we agreed to publish the data.

2.2. Study Design

A cross-sectional study design was employed, with both descriptive and inferential statistics.

2.3. Sample

Of the 153 primary education schools in Castilla-La Mancha, a total of 89 were sampled by simple random sampling ( p = q = 50%; margin of error = 6.7%; confidence level = 95%). Table 1 shows the selected sample according to the school category and municipality of Castilla-La Mancha. The sample was comprised of 68.54% public, 30.34% semi-private, and 1.12% private schools, distributed throughout 8 municipalities of Castilla-La Mancha: Almansa (7%), Ciudad Real (15%), Cuenca (17%), Guadalajara (11%), Hellín (9%), Puertollano (10%), Talavera de la Reina (15%) and Toledo (17%). Of these schools, 14.61% had provided previous environmental/recycling education to students, and all of them were concentrated in the municipality of Talavera de la Reina (100%). Table 2 shows the demographic characteristics (surface area, population density, and per capita income) of the municipalities of Castilla-La Mancha sampled for this study [ 58 ].

Participating schools according to category and municipality in Castilla-La Mancha.

Demographic characteristics of municipalities sampled in Castilla-La Mancha.

The sampling unit was defined as the education centers; however, the students at the selected schools were also studied because of their relevance to the current research. The schools in our sample were comprised of a population of 20,710 students, of which 58.17% participated in the program; 48.8% of these students were girls, and 51% were boys. The students we studied were in elementary school, grades 1 to 6 (between the ages of 6 and 12).

2.4. Variables

Table 3 shows the variables defined in the study, grouping them together under the following headings: (1) Physical quantification of the glass collected for recycling (in kilograms [Kg]), (2) economic value of the said glass (in euros [€], according to market price [75 cl glass bottle = 0.05 €/1 Kg glass = 0.11 €]) [ 59 ], (3) psychometrics of glass recycling measured by a Likert scale, (4) classification of schools by category (public, private and semi-private), previous environmental/recycling education (Yes/No), geographic location (municipality), and (5) classification of students by gender (female and male) and academic year (elementary school, grades 1 to 6). The variables of groups 1–3 were the dependent variables in this study, and those of groups 4 and 5, the independent variables.

2.5. Instruments

The psychometric variables were obtained by means of an ad hoc questionnaire, based on the instrument Validity and reliability of the scale of attitudes towards the recycling and responsible use of paper in students of the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos ( UNMSM ) [ 60 ]; terminology and content were adapted to the context of glass recycling and to the comprehension level of elementary school students.

The validity of the scale was satisfactorily demonstrated by the construct method, using internal consistency and total test ( Table 4 ). Reliability was tested by Cronbach’s alpha formula ( Table 5 ).

The validity of the scale demonstrated by internal consistency and total test.

(**) p < 0.01.

Reliability of the scale tested by Cronbach’s alpha.

After completing the La Liga Peque Recicladores program during the 2017–2018 academic year, students were questioned, using the psychometric instrument, about the importance of glass recycling as well as about knowledge, attitudes, and habits pertaining to glass recycling. Results were compared to the 2016–2017 school year, in which the program was not carried out. A 3-point, 20-item Likert scale was employed (1 = more than last school year, 2 = equal to last school year, 3 = less than last school year), which was organized into 5 sub-scales about glass recycling (4 items/sub-scale): (1) Importance, (2) Knowledge, (3) Habits, (4) Respect for the Environment, and (5) Promotion/Interaction. The instrument also contained questions classifying the students by gender and academic year.

2.6. Statistical Analysis

For the statistical analysis of the data, we used descriptive techniques such as frequencies (absolutes and percentages [%]), arithmetic means (M), and standard deviations (SD). Parametric inferential methods such as the one-way ANOVA were also utilized (F-statistic, degrees of freedom [df1, df2] and p -value [ p ]), with effect size measured by Eta-squared ( η 2 ). Additionally, the data analysis included the non-parametric chi-square test (chi-square statistic [ χ 2 ], degrees of freedom [df], and p -value [ p ]), with effect size measured by the contingency coefficient (C). A significance level of 5% was employed in all statistical tests ( p < 0.05).

A global statistical analysis was undertaken for the school sample, with the variables school category, previous environmental/recycling education, and geographic location; likewise, a global analysis was employed for the student sample, with the variables gender and academic year.

The statistical programs SPSS (Statistical Software Package for the Social Sciences) and R were used to process the data.

2.7. Ethics Statement

The present study was developed respecting the requirements of the Ethics Committee of the University of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain).

As a result of La Liga Peque Recicladores, a total of 153,576.3 kg of glass were recycled in the locations studied in Castilla-La Mancha, with an average of 2344.15 kg of glass/school (SD = 3242.4); the glass recycling rate per student was 7.42 kg.

Significant differences (95% confidence level) were observed in terms of rates of glass recycled per student according to school category (F = 3.245; df1 = 2; df2 = 86; p = 0.043; η 2 = 0.191). Figure 1 compares the total quantity and rate per student (in parentheses) of recycled glass according to the school category. Public schools recycled the most, with a total quantity of 113,491.35 kg (74%), an average of 2527.46 kg of glass/school (SD = 3810.45), and a rate of 8.04 kg of glass/student.

Total quantity and rate per student of recycled glass according to the school category.

Significant differences (95% confidence level) in glass recycling rates per student were also detected as a function of previous environmental/recycling education in schools (F = 4.102; df1 = 1; df2 = 87; p = 0.046; η 2 = 0.154). Figure 2 compares the total quantity and rate per student (in parentheses) of recycled glass according to previous environmental/recycling education. Schools with previous training recycled the least in terms of total amount of glass collected, which was 38,468.75 kg (25.05%); however, they obtained a higher average collection per school, with 4019.91 kg of glass (SD = 4960.06) and a higher recycling rate per student (13.45 kg of glass/student).

Total quantity and rate per student of recycled glass according to previous environmental/recycling education.

According to geographic location, there were also significant differences (95% confidence level) in glass recycling rates per student (F = 2.362; df1 = 7; df2 = 81; p = 0.030; η 2 = 0.169). Figure 3 compares the total quantity and rate per student (in parentheses) of recycled glass according to geographic location. Schools from the municipality of Talavera de la Reina recycled the most, with a total quantity of 38,468.75 kg of glass (25.05%), an average of 4019.91 kg of glass/school (SD = 4960.06), and a rate of 13.45 kg of glass/student.

Total quantity and rate per student of recycled glass according to geographic location.

From an economic standpoint, the total quantity of glass recycled was valued at 17,064.03 €, an average of 260.46 € (SD = 360.31) per school, and a contribution of 0.82 € per student. The public schools stood out, with a rate of 0.89 € per student and a total amount of glass worth 12,610.14 €, with an average of 280.83 €/school (SD = 423.38). Schools with previous environmental/recycling education also showed high levels of recycling, with a rate of 1.49 € per student and an average of 446.66 €/school (SD = 551.12). According to geographic location, the schools in Talavera de la Reina recycled the most, with a rate of 1.49 € per student and a total amount of glass collected worth 4274.30 €, with an average of 446.66 €/school (SD = 551.12).

With respect to the psychometrics of glass recycling, overall results ( Table 6 ) showed that 65.2% of participating students gave greater importance to the task of glass recycling after completing the La Liga Peque Recicladores program. Furthermore, 69.3% obtained more knowledge about the topic, 55.3% claimed to have acquired glass recycling habits, 68% professed a more respectful attitude towards the environment, and 64.8% indicated higher levels of promotion and social interaction with respect to glass recycling in their circle of family and friends.

Psychometrics of glass recycling for the total number of participating students (percentages).

With respect to gender and the psychometric scale ( Table 7 ), significant differences were observed (95% confidence level) only for the variable Habits ( χ 2 = 10.058; df = 2; p = 0.007; C = 0.199), where girls obtained better results than boys.

Psychometrics of glass recycling for participating students according to gender (percentages).

According to the academic year ( Table 8 ), there were significant differences (95% confidence level) in the following subscales of the psychometric instrument: (1) Importance ( χ 2 = 22.387; df = 10; p = 0.013; C = 0.290), (2) Knowledge ( χ 2 = 21.616; df = 10; p = 0.017; C = 0.285), (3) Habits ( χ 2 = 38.088; df = 10; p < 0.05; C = 0.367), (4) Respect for the Environment ( χ 2 = 23.358; df = 10; p = 0.010; C = 0.296), and (5) Promotion/Interaction ( χ 2 = 36.492; df = 10; p < 0.05; C = 0.361). Specifically, first graders performed best in terms of Importance , fourth graders in terms of Knowledge and Respect for the Environment , second graders stood out in Habits , and third graders in Promotion/Interaction . The highest scores on our scale were found in the earlier stages of elementary school (grades 1–4), while the worst performance was observed in grades 5 and 6, especially in the last academic year.

Psychometrics of glass recycling for participating students, according to the academic year (percentages).

4. Discussion

The environmental education program, La Liga Peque Recicladores has turned out to be an innovative and unique project of its kind in Spain. This study demonstrates satisfactory results in glass bottle collection for recycling in elementary school students from Castilla-La Mancha, from an educational, environmental, economic, and social perspective.

The glass recycling activities of this program allowed elementary school students to contribute to society by respecting and protecting the environment as we face a global pollution problem. Students learned to appreciate the importance of glass recycling, obtained more knowledge on the topic, and acquired environmentally proactive attitudes and respectful behaviors/habits. These results coincide, to a large extent, with evidence from other recycling education programs that increased recycling behavior amongst students and stimulated positive environmental awareness, knowledge, and attitudes [ 39 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 61 ]. Furthermore, the students in our study promoted glass recycling within their networks of family and friends, which helps to widen the scope of these education programs [ 54 , 62 ].

From an economic point of view, if the glass collected from the La Liga Peque Recicladores program were sold on the market, the income generated could lead to self-financing of this educational activity; similar paper recycling education programs have already adopted this method of self-funding [ 29 ]. Furthermore, this glass recycling program is not only capable of generating income, but it could also lead to economic savings in the high healthcare and environmental costs resulting from pollution [ 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 ]. Therefore, governments should pay attention to the link between health and the environment when formulating public policies; likewise, it is incumbent upon the private industry to develop socially responsible behaviors.

Apart from analyzing the program´s results, another objective of this investigation was to study the determining factors of glass recycling behavior, given the scarcity of scientific evidence about glass recycling. In this regard, our study reveals that the school category, geographic location, previous environmental/recycling education, gender, and academic year influence glass recycling behavior.

In terms of school category, the results of the program show that public school students recycled more than students from private or semi-private schools, reinforcing the theory that the type of school and teaching program influence the recycling of materials such as paper [ 39 ] or, in our case, glass. Possible reasons for this difference in behavior are the priority that private and semi-private centers give to scholastic achievement, which discourages participation in extra-curricular programs, and teachers´ lack of time and commitment [ 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 ]. Therefore, the importance of a broad education needs to be transmitted to these centers, with the incorporation of complementary subjects such as environmental education and recycling.

Geographic location is another factor influencing glass recycling behavior. The program shows that municipalities with a smaller surface area, greater population density, and a lower per capita income, such as Talavera de la Reina, recycled more than other communities analyzed in the region of Castilla-La Mancha. However, upon closer inspection, the municipality with the second-highest level of recycling was Hellín, characterized by a larger surface area and a lower population density, in contrast to Talavera de la Reina. Nonetheless, both municipalities coincide in lower levels of income per capita. Therefore, of the above-mentioned demographic characteristics, the economic factor appears to be the most influential in determining recycling behavior, confirming the results of previous studies [ 29 ].

Furthermore, according to the program, previous environmental/recycling education also influences glass recycling behavior. Schools in municipalities that were hosts to past programs, such as Talavera de la Reina with Conocer nuestro medio [ 48 ], an environmental education program with considerable recycling content, recycled more glass compared to the rest. This supports the theory that prior specialized education is required in order to develop specific behaviors such as recycling habits [ 36 ], and that past conduct is a relevant factor influencing intention to recycle glass [ 37 ]. Talavera de la Reina also has lower levels of income per capita; therefore, it appears that reduced monetary resources in some municipalities lead them to implement lower-cost, but effective, recycling policies that included education programs in schools. The potential long-term repercussions of these programs are important since recycling habits learned in childhood may influence adult recycling behavior.

In terms of gender as a factor related to glass recycling, the study demonstrates that female students acquired better glass recycling habits than males. According to research by the authors Brough et al. [ 78 ], pro-environmental behaviors are more strongly associated with women than with men; in fact, males may even reject these behaviors in order to preserve an image of masculinity. This can be explained by the influence of social norms, which appear to have a greater impact than morals or ethics upon environmental behaviors such as recycling [ 29 ]. We recommend that future programs introduce elements of equality and destigmatization in order to avoid gender-biased behavior.

With respect to the academic year, students in grade 2 (7–8 years old) presented the best glass recycling habits, which diminished with each subsequent stage in primary school education, especially in grades 5 (10–11 years old) and 6 (11–12 years old). This reveals the need to reinforce recycling habits as children grow [ 79 ], and to make environmental education and recycling training a continuous process throughout the years of formal education [ 80 ].

Finally, since our research presents some limitations, the results should be interpreted with caution. Firstly, the study area focuses on a small part of Spain. It would be advisable to develop similar, new studies covering more territory and in other countries, in order to compare results and obtain more significant effects. Another problem area of this study concerns data collection. The glass recycling program only quantifies the amount of glass recycled by the school and geographic area. Demographic variables such as gender and academic year are excluded from these statistics and are only correlated to the psychometrics of the glass recycling questionnaire. Therefore, future studies should take such demographic variables into account when measuring the amount of glass recycled. A further limitation of this study is the length of the program, which is only 3 months. In order to obtain more reliable evidence, recycling education programs should be of longer duration.

5. Conclusions

Environmental education about glass recycling has positive effects on glass recycling attitudes and behaviors in elementary school students and may be used as a long term measure to combat the problem of environmental pollution, especially if its geographical reach is widened. To improve these effects, factors such as school category, previous environmental/recycling education, geographic location, gender, and the academic year must be considered.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the staff at Ecovidrio for their collaboration. We would also like to thank Alexandra L. Salewski, for the English translation and revision of the manuscript.

Author Contributions

Writing—original draft, M.Á.A.-J., P.G.-M., J.F.O.-D. and D.Z.-G.

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Can I reuse eclipse glasses? Do eclipse glasses expire? Here's how to store or donate them

Once the Great American Eclipse is over and we return to our normal lives, what do you do with your eclipse glasses ? Can that little paper and film thing that saved your eyes from severe damage do it again for the next eclipse?

Yes! As long as they are still in good shape, you can reuse eclipse glasses for years . Or you can donate them. But that wasn't always the case.

Can I reuse eclipse glasses? Do eclipse glasses expire?

"In the past 10, 15, 20 years ago, most manufacturers would print on their glasses, 'Discard after three years,'" said Rick Fienberg , project manager of the American Astronomical Society (AAS) solar eclipse task force. "That was because the materials being used in the lenses in those days did degrade over time."

However, since then manufacturers have begun using more durable materials, such as metal-coated black polymer, which does not degrade. One of the largest eclipse glasses companies, American Paper Optics, still prints the warning to be on the safe side , according to Beatrice Shelton of the American Academy of Ophthalmology.

"If your eclipse glasses or viewers are compliant with the transmittance requirements of the ISO 12312-2 safety standard, and if their filters aren't scratched, punctured, torn, coming loose from the frame, or otherwise damaged, you may reuse them indefinitely," says AAS on its website. "Furthermore, you may look at the uneclipsed or partially eclipsed Sun through them for as long as you wish."

How should I store eclipse glasses to keep them safe?

Make sure you keep your eclipse glasses flat and stored where they will not be scratched or damaged. The AAS advises keeping them at room temperature either in the package they came in or "in an envelope or other container that will keep them clean and dry and protect them against scratches and punctures."

"If you open it up five, 10 years later, for another eclipse and you see that there's no pinholes, no scratches, no tears, no rips, no delamination of the lenses or any other obvious damage, they're almost certainly OK," Fienberg said.

Be sure to test eclipse glasses before using them.

How do I clean eclipse glasses?

You can clean the lenses on eclipse glasses with microfiber clothes or any soft, abrasive tissue or cloth, the AAS said,

But don't use any sort of wet wipes, water, cleaner or other liquids because if paper or cardboard gets wet it will swell and probably detach from the lenses, making them dangerous to use.

Can I donate eclipse glasses?

Astronomers Without Borders (AWB) is a non-profit organization dedicated to creating astronomy programs around the world and sharing astronomical resources with people who wouldn't get the chance otherwise. After the last solar eclipse in 2017, about 1,000 volunteer centers across the U.S. at astronomy clubs, museums, schools, city governments, and even dentists' and attorneys' offices worked with AWB to collect millions of "gently-used" glasses.

They were all individually checked for safety and hundreds of thousands were then distributed to places in Africa, Asia, and South America in the paths of eclipses for reuse over the past seven years.

“Living in such uncertain times, we hope that by sharing across space and time the experience of witnessing the natural beauty of a solar eclipse we can help transcend borders, and bring a sense of peace and togetherness, which is so needed these days,” Zoe Chee, then-AWB Interim Executive Director said in a 2020 release . “Thanks to the generosity of so many across the United States, we are excited to be able to offer access to this amazing celestial phenomenon to those who otherwise would have missed out.”

This year, the organization has  put out a call  for new collection centers to box and ship the used glasses after the eclipse. Prescription glasses retailer Warby Parker has already signed up their more than 240 locations across the country as eclipse glasses collection sites, according to AWB spokesperson Andrew Fazekas . There are 20 Warby Parker locations in Florida .

You can sign up to be notified about programs to recycle your eclipse glasses here .

You can also check local libraries and schools in your area to see if they have collection programs for used eclipse glasses.

When is the next solar eclipse in Florida?

At least five solar eclipses will be visible over the U.S. by the year 2100. There are three solar eclipses that will be crossing over Florida in the next 50 years or so, according to Time and Date, a hub for weather and astronomical data:

• Aug. 12, 2045 : Nearly all of Florida from the Panhandle down to Miami will see a total eclipse totality in 2045. Jacksonville and the southern part of the state and southwestern coast will get a partial eclipse.
• March 30, 2052 : The path of totality will go directly over the Florida Panhandle, with Pensacola, Panama City Beach and Tallahassee all scheduled to see the phenomenon.
• May 11, 2078 : Just as with the 2024 eclipse, most of Florida will see only a partial eclipse. But ion this one at least a small area in the northwest section of the Florida Panhandle will be in the path of totality.

Cybele Mayes-Osterman , USA TODAY, contributed to this article.

What should I do with my solar eclipse glasses? What to know about recycling, donating

The 2024 total solar eclipse has come and gone and now millions of Americans are facing the same question: What should I do with my solar eclipse glasses ?

You could save your glasses for the next total solar eclipse, but that won't be viewable in the contiguous United States for another 20 years and, even then, you may not be in its path .

The American Astronomical Society says modern eclipse glasses do not expire. The organization says they will last until 2044 as long as they are compliant with the ISO 12312-2 certification, have no punctures, scratches or tears, and the filters and lenses remain attached to the frames.

"Older eclipse glasses used materials that degraded over time, so they were often printed with a 3-year expiration period. That is no longer true," the AAS says on its website.

Next total solar eclipse: When is the next total solar eclipse in the US after 2024 and what is its path?

You can donate your eclipse glasses too

If you don't wish to hold on to your eclipse glasses for 20 years, you also have the option to donate them.

Astronomers Without Borders is running its second nationwide eclipse glasses recycling drive and already has over 300 businesses, schools, museums, city governments, community organizations and local libraries collecting and shipping millions of glasses to be repurposed for use by underserved communities around the world in future solar eclipses.

AWB launched its first run of the program after the last solar eclipse in 2017, when volunteer centers across the country collected more than  half a million glasses  that were distributed to Africa, Asia, and South America for reuse.

You can also donate to Eclipse Glasses USA , which is an AAS-approved supplier that collects donations of used, undamaged eclipse glasses. These glasses are inspected for safety and shipped to countries with upcoming eclipse events so school-aged children with limited resources can safely experience a solar eclipse, according to the AAO.

If you choose not to donate your eclipse glasses, you can also remove the lenses and recycle the cardboard.

When is the next total solar eclipse visible from the US?

According to NASA, after Monday's total solar  eclipse , the next one viewable from the contiguous U.S. will be on Aug. 23, 2044, though only three states are in the path of totality (Montana, North Dakota and South Dakota).

2044 total solar eclipse path of totality

Unfortunately, the 2044 total  solar eclipse  won't have the broad reach across the U.S. as the 2024 eclipse.

The path of totality during the 2044 eclipse will only touch three states, according to the Planetary Society, a nonprofit involved in research, public outreach, and political space advocacy. The eclipse will begin in Greenland, sweep through Canada and end around sunset in Montana, North Dakota and South Dakota.

2045 solar eclipse

While the 2044 total eclipse will only touch three states, a 2045 eclipse will have a more robust path across the U.S.

Expected to occur on Saturday, Aug. 12, 2045, this solar eclipse will trace a path of totality over California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas, Texas, Arkansas, Missouri, Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama, Florida, and Georgia.

A partial solar eclipse will also be viewable in 35 other states, according to  National Eclipse.com .

Contributing: Mary Walrath-Holdridge & Eric Lagatta, USA TODAY

Gabe Hauari is a national trending news reporter at USA TODAY. You can follow him on X  @GabeHauari  or email him at [email protected].

• Home office

How Do You Get Rid of Shredded Paper? Think Twice Before Recycling.

By Melanie Pinola

Melanie Pinola is a writer focused on home-office gear. To find the best paper shredder, she has shredded enough junk mail to fill several bathtubs.

It turns out, I’ve been recycling all wrong. After the latest round of testing nine paper shredders , I thought I’d put the resulting 65-plus gallons of shredded paper out for recycling. But when I asked my local sanitation department if it would prefer the shreds in clear bags or cardboard boxes, the representatives said neither.

Instead, they instructed me to toss the shredded paper in with the trash.

But wait: Isn’t shredded paper still paper, and thus recyclable? Isn’t throwing away shredded paper wasteful? The answer to both questions is, well, kind of. Here’s what you need to know about the best way to dispose of shredded paper.

Check your local guidelines

The American Forest & Paper Association confirms that shredded paper is indeed recyclable. But whether shredded paper is acceptable for recycling in your town or city is another story.

So it’s best to double-check with your local sanitation or public-works department to see what you’re supposed to do with your shredded paper. Local guidelines vary—and those guidelines may or not be on the publicly accessible website or in published brochures.

For example, San Franciscans are encouraged to either place shredded paper in a stapled brown paper bag labeled “SHREDDED” or compost the shredded paper. But if you live in Rhode Island, shredded paper isn’t accepted for mixed-recycling pickup; residents can compost their shreds, throw them in the trash, or drop off shredded paper at a disposal site in Johnston, Rhode Island.

Why shredded paper isn’t always accepted for recycling

Shredded paper can be a disaster for some recycling facilities. “Shredded bits of paper are too small to be properly sorted by our facility’s machinery,” said Jared Rhodes, director of policy and programs at the Rhode Island Resource Recovery Corporation (RIRRC). They can contaminate other materials and even lead to equipment malfunctions, he added.

An article in The Providence Journal expounds on the problem, noting that when local households sent their shredded paper for recycling in paper bags, the shredding machines ripped the bags, and tiny shreds flew everywhere. When residents tried using plastic bags (or even double-bagging in plastic), the shreds still flew everywhere—and plastic wrapped around the equipment, shutting the facility down for cleaning and repairs.

As a solution, some localities outsource the recycling of shredded paper to dedicated facilities that are equipped for it, but that costs additional time and taxpayer money. You can help reduce the load by composting your shredded paper, taking documents to be shredded to a community’s free shredding event (they’ll know how to dispose of the shreds), and reducing how much you shred in the first place.

Shred only paper containing sensitive information

Paper is most suitable for recycling when it isn’t shredded, because whole pieces are easier for facilities to sort and have longer and stronger fibers ready to be made into new paper. So it’s best to avoid unnecessary shredding.

To protect your privacy, you should still shred anything with sensitive information on it, of course, such as documents with your Social Security number, financial statements, and medical records.

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However, some information on a document may be personal but not necessarily sensitive enough to need shredding, such as your name and address; your contact information may already be available on public records or services such as White Pages.

“Consider how much junk mail and spam calls you receive; that’s how known your address and phone number are,” says Max Eddy, Wirecutter’s senior staff writer covering privacy and security. Instead of shredding documents that have only your name, address, and phone number on them, you can cover that information with permanent black marker and then put the sheets into the recycling bin.

Bonus: In addition to helping the environment, reducing how much you shred can prolong the life of your paper shredder. Everybody wins.

This article was edited by Ben Keough and Erica Ogg.

Meet your guide

Melanie Pinola

Melanie Pinola covers home office, remote work, and productivity as a senior staff writer at Wirecutter. She has contributed to print and online publications such as The New York Times, Consumer Reports, Lifehacker, and PCWorld, specializing in tech, work, and lifestyle/family topics. She’s thrilled when those topics intersect—and when she gets to write about them in her PJs.

Mentioned above

• We tested top shredders for use at home and in small offices and found easy-to-use workhorses that can help protect your identity. The Best Paper Shredders  

Further reading

How to Recycle Your Used Electronics

by Nick Guy

Are old computers, smartphones, or monitors taking over your closet? We’ll tell you how to recycle your tech, with privacy tips so you can do so safely.

How to Get Rid of a Used Car Seat

by Christine Cyr Clisset

We talked to experts about the best ways to dispose of a used car seat, and recommend you bring your unwanted seat to Target before May 5.

Why It’s So Hard to Get Rid of Used Mattresses

by Kevin Purdy

Getting rid of a used mattress responsibly can be a challenge—one that will likely only get worse as all-foam, bed-in-a-box options become more popular.

Yes, You Can (and Should) Recycle Batteries. Here’s How.

by Sarah Witman

If you have a container of spent batteries in your home that you don’t know what to do with, these are the best battery-recycling methods we’ve found.

Technological progress at ceramic plants of Moscow

• Published: August 1969
• Volume 26 , pages 477–479, ( 1969 )

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Administration of the Ceramic and Binding Materials Industry, USSR

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Main Administration of the Building Materials and Structural Parts Industry of the Moscow City Executive Committee, USSR

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Translated from Steklo i Keramika, No. 8, pp. 23–26, August, 1969.

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The solar eclipse is over! Here's what to do with your eclipse glasses

You can donate them to underserved communities, so needy folks can watch future eclipses safely.

Are you wondering what to do with your eclipse glasses now that the April 8 total solar eclipse has come and gone? 

The nonprofit group Astronomers Without Borders (AWB) has partnered with libraries, schools, museums, businesses and other organizations across the U.S. and Canada to collect and recycle gently used eclipse-viewing glasses . The glasses will be sent to underserved communities and schools around the world to use during future solar eclipses, according to a statement from the organization. 

"This one-of-a-kind program helps to bring eclipse glasses to people who may not otherwise have a safe way to view the eclipse directly," AWB officials said in the statement. "AWB is committed to continue sending glasses to those who need them for outreach and educational programs around the world."

Related: Total solar eclipse 2024: Everything you need to know

On Monday (April 8), a total solar eclipse passed over Mexico, 15 U.S. states and Canada. A solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes between Earth and the sun, casting a shadow on our planet's  surface. For those in the path of totality, the moon appears almost exactly the same size as the sun , so it blocks the entire solar disk for a few minutes. However, solar eclipse glasses are needed to safely view the sun during the partial phases of an eclipse.

Millions of solar eclipse glasses were used by viewers across North America, and now AWB wants to prevent them from unnecessarily ending up in landfills. Every pair of glasses donated will be inspected by trained volunteers to make sure they meet safety certifications and are not damaged or counterfeit, according to the statement. 

One of AWB’s donation partners is Warby Parker, a prescription glasses retailer, which will use over 240 retail locations across the U.S. to collect used eclipse glasses through April 30. Other donation locations include Vessel Refillery FW in Indiana, Keep Toledo/Lucas County Beautiful and Twinsburg Public Library in Ohio, and Montshire Museum of Science and Chittenden Solid Waste District in Vermont. The latest list of AWB collection partners can be found online . 

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AWB has also partnered with the Green Bank Observatory in West Virginia to help with processing and storing collected glasses before they are sent to underserved communities around the world, according to the statement.  

— A 'horned' comet may be visible during the 2024 total solar eclipse

— How photos of the April 8 solar eclipse will help us understand of the sun's atmosphere

— How fast will April's total solar eclipse travel?

"This unique resource-sharing project is the second recycling campaign AWB is conducting, having had great success distributing hundreds of thousands of eclipse glasses collected from the 2017 American solar eclipse," AWB officials said in the statement. "Recycled and vetted solar glasses were sent to schools that were in the path of solar eclipses in South America, Africa and Asia over the past seven years." 

AWB also aims to make eclipses more accessible with its "One Eclipse" app. The app features an interactive eclipse map for users to pinpoint the perfect viewing spot, along with a countdown timer for when the moon's shadow will pass overhead. The app also has an eclipse simulator that lets users see what the eclipse will look like from any location on Earth, from start to finish. One Eclipse can be downloaded on both Apple and Android devices. 

Editor's Note: If you snapped an amazing solar eclipse photo and would like to share it with Space.com's readers, send your photo(s), comments, and your name and location to [email protected].

Join our Space Forums to keep talking space on the latest missions, night sky and more! And if you have a news tip, correction or comment, let us know at: [email protected].

Samantha Mathewson joined Space.com as an intern in the summer of 2016. She received a B.A. in Journalism and Environmental Science at the University of New Haven, in Connecticut. Previously, her work has been published in Nature World News. When not writing or reading about science, Samantha enjoys traveling to new places and taking photos! You can follow her on Twitter @Sam_Ashley13. 

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• FireNWater Or. . . you can do what 99.99% of everyone else is going to do. . . .throw them in the trash. Reply
• COLGeek Mine are being kept as a memento of the occasion. Reply
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