, whether through a direct quote, paraphrase, or summary, you must include a corresponding footnote that provides bibliographic information about the original source.
Whenever you refer to material from a source, you must insert a "footnote number" at the end of the paraphrased section or direct quotation. This directs readers to a corresponding footnote (with the same footnote number) at the bottom of the page on which the reference to the source is made. The first footnote number will be 1, the second will be 2, and so on. In the body of your text you use superscript (like this1) for the footnote number, while in the footnote you use a regular number followed by a period.
In Chicago style, the first time you cite a particular source you must provide a full footnote citation. If you refer to the same source again in your paper, you do not need to repeat the same full citation. Instead, you provide a shortened version of the footnote, which includes enough information for the reader to find the full citation in your bibliography or in an earlier footnote. Shortened footnotes should include the author’s last name, a shortened version of the title (if longer than four words), and any other directing information, such as page numbers (when available). |
1. Steven J. Kirsh, Children, Adolescents, and Media Violence: A Critical Look at the Research, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2006), 22. 2. Elizabeth Blodgett Salafia and Jessica Lemer, "Associations Between Multiple Types of Stress and Disordered Eating Among Girls and Boys in Middle School," Journal of Child and Family Studies 21, no. 1 (January 2012): 149, Academic Search Complete. 3. Amy Morin, "Mom Am I Fat?: Helping Your Teen Have a Positive Body Image," Verywell Family, About Inc., January 18, 2019, www.verywellfamily.com/media-and-teens-body-image-2611245. 4. Kirsh, Children, Adolescents, and Media, 30. 5. Salafia and Lemer, "Stress and Disordered Eating," 151. 6. Morin, "Mom Am I Fat?” |
When you quote directly from a source, enclose the quoted section in quotation marks. Add a footnote number at the end of the quote. The footnote number should be in superscript, and be placed after any punctuation, like this: "Here's a direct quote."¹ Example: One possible explanation is that "the humanities are viewed by many critics as outdated fields."¹ |
When you write information or ideas from a source in your own words, cite the source by adding a footnote number at the end of the paraphrased portion. The footnote number should be in superscript, and be placed after any punctuation, like this: This is a paraphrase.¹ Example: Improving access to credit is one way to reduce income inequality,¹ which can help break the cycle of poverty. |
If your quotation is longer than five lines, or more than 100 words, it is a considered a long quotation. This can also be referred to as a block quotation. Long quotations should be single-spaced, with a blank line inserted before and after the quotation to separate it from the rest of your text. There are 3 rules that apply to long quotations that are different from regular quotations: At the end of Lord of the Flies the boys are struck with the realization of their behavior: The tears began to flow and sobs shook him. He gave himself up to them now for the first time on the island; great, shuddering spasms of grief that seemed to wrench his whole body. His voice rose under the black smoke before the burning wreckage of the island; and infected by that emotion, the other little boys began to shake and sob too.¹ |
There are two ways to integrate others' research into your assignment: you can paraphrase or you can quote. Quoting is when you copy a selection from someone else's work, phrasing it exactly it was originally written. When quoting, you place quotation marks (" ") around the selected passage to show where the quote begins and where it ends. You must include a footnote number at end of the quotation and a footnote at the bottom of the page. |
A. If you just put one in-text citation at the end of the paragraph, it might not be clear where the ideas at the beginning of the paragraph came from. Therefore, you should include credit to the authors whenever you are quoting, summarizing, or paraphrasing facts and ideas from their work. This also helps differentiate your own ideas from those in your references. The best way to solve this problem and still make your paper easy to read is to use a lead-in referring to your source at the beginning of a sentence or at the start of the paragraph (signal phrase). You can alternate this with putting the in-text cite in parentheses at the end of other sentences or the paragraph. Try to make it clear in each following sentence if it is still coming from the same source, using phrases like "According to", "They also state...", "That article concludes...". If it is clear, you don't need to repeat the in-text citation for those sentences.
A. Footnotes should be placed where you need them, not according to a rule. Whenever you can imagine the reader asking “Says who?” you should add a note. It’s not true that the reader can assume that everything between one footnote and the next is attributable to the first source, since most writers interject their own arguments or conclusions between the borrowed materials. |
Chicago general format (purdue owl) web sources in chicago (purdue owl) , chicago notes and bibliography guidelines, chicago notes and bibliography sample paper, research organization and citation.
Research organization with bibliographies and notecards. google sso: login with your fwcd gmail account., • noodletools quick guide for students, • tutorials on using noodletools (scroll down on the page).
Discover the best way to use footnotes in a paper. Get expert tips on how to efficiently and effectively use footnotes in academic papers.
Footnotes in a paper can be a valuable tool in providing a way to supplement our writing with additional information, citations, and explanations without disrupting the flow of the main text. However, many writers may be unsure of when and how to use footnotes effectively. In this article, we will explore the importance and usage of footnotes in academic writing, and provide practical tips for incorporating footnotes into your own writing. Whether you are a seasoned academic writer or just starting out, understanding how to use footnotes can help you increase the clarity and credibility of your writing.
Footnotes are a useful tool in academic writing that allows for the inclusion of additional information or comments in a document or text. Typically denoted by a small number or symbol in the main text, footnotes in a paper appear at the bottom of the page and can serve a variety of purposes. For example, footnotes can be used to clarify a point, provide background information, or give credit to a source that is not directly quoted or referenced in the main text. They are also helpful in avoiding disruptions to the flow of the main text, particularly when lengthy citations or explanations are required. In short, footnotes provide readers with additional information or references related to specific sections of the text, making them a valuable tool for researchers.
To write a footnote for a paper, follow these general steps:
The main difference between footnotes and endnotes is their placement within a document. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page on which they are referenced, while endnotes appear at the end of a document, chapter, or section.
Here are some other differences between footnotes and endnotes:
Definition | Notes placed at the bottom of the same page as the reference. | Notes placed at the end of the document. |
Placement | Below the text they reference, usually in smaller font sizes. | At the end of the document, usually in the same font size as the main text. |
Usage | Used to provide additional information or explanation of a point in the text. | Used to provide additional information, explanation, or citation of a source. |
Advantages | Easy to locate and read in the of the text. | Keep the text clean and uncluttered. |
Disadvantages | May clutter the page and distract the reader. | May require the reader to flip back and forth between the text and the endnotes. |
Chicago-style footnotes are a common citation style used in research papers. In this format, footnotes are used to provide information about a source within the text. There are two types of Chicago-style footnotes: short form and long form. Short form citations include only the basic details of a source if a full bibliography is provided, while long form citations include a full citation the first time a source is cited, with subsequent citations using the short form.
Here is an example of a Chicago-style footnote using the short form:
“The concept of social capital has been widely discussed in recent years, with Putnam’s Bowling Alone¹ being one of the most influential works in the field.” At the bottom of the page, the corresponding footnote would appear as: ¹ Putnam, Bowling Alone, 26.
Note that the author’s last name is listed first, followed by the abbreviated title of the work (in this case, “Bowling Alone”), and the page number where the information was found.
Here is a Chicago-style footnote using the short form example:
First reference: John Smith, The History of Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 25. Subsequent reference: Smith, The History of Chicago, 30.
Here is an example of a Chicago footnote in text:
“According to Smith, the notion of human rights can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophy.¹”² Bottom of page: ¹John Smith, The Origins of Human Rights (New York: Oxford University Press, 2021), 15. ²Smith, Origins of Human Rights, 22.
Learn how to make citations in Chicago style in our blog “ Chicago Style Citation Made Easy: Formatting and Examples “.
APA format generally uses parenthetical in-text citations instead of footnotes. However, there are two exceptions to this rule: content footnotes and copyright attribution. Content footnotes provide additional information on a single topic that does not fit coherently in the text, while copyright attribution footnotes are used when a writer uses a lengthy quotation or other copyrighted material, such as a stock photograph. Footnotes are formatted similarly to Chicago style, with sequential superscript numbers coming after the passage and the corresponding footnote at the bottom of the page.
Here’s an example of an APA-style footnote for supplementary information:
In-text: According to recent studies, the COVID-19 vaccine is highly effective in preventing infection and transmission of the virus.¹ Footnote: ¹For more information on the studies cited, see Smith et al. (2021) and Jones et al. (2022).
Learn how to make citations in APA style in our blog “ How to Make Citations using APA Formatting: A Guide “.
MLA (Modern Language Association) style does not typically use footnotes. Instead, in-text citations are used to indicate the source of information or quotations. However, if footnotes are required for a specific publication or assignment, the following guidelines can be followed:
Placement: Footnotes should be placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference appears.
Numbering: Footnotes should be numbered consecutively throughout the paper using Arabic numerals. The number should be placed after any punctuation marks, such as periods or commas.
Formatting: Footnotes should be single-spaced and in a smaller font size than the main text.
Content: Footnotes should include bibliographic information for the source being cited, as well as any additional information necessary to clarify the reference. For example, a footnote for a book might include the author, title, publisher, and year of publication, while a footnote for a website might include the URL and date of access.
Example of MLA Style Footnote for a book:
John Doe, The History of Art (New York: Penguin Books, 2000), 24. Example of MLA Style Footnote for a website: “The Benefits of Exercise,” National Institutes of Health, accessed May 15, 2023, https://www.nih.gov/health-information/benefits-exercise .
A MLA Style footnote text example:
Text: According to a recent study, the use of social media can have negative effects on mental health (Johnson 36).² Footnote citation: ² Johnson, Sarah. “The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health.” Journal of Health Psychology, vol. 22, no. 1, 2018, pp. 35-44.
Learn how to make citations in MLA style in our blog “ A Writer’s Guide to MLA Format: How to Get It Right “.
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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / APA Format / How to do APA footnotes
Footnotes are a way for the author to provide additional content to their papers without distracting the reader from the text. The information in footnotes is different from the information provided in APA annotated bibliographies . Footnotes can be content based, providing a little more insight on an idea you raise in the text, or they can be used to provide copyright attribution for long quotes and passages.
Properly formatted APA footnotes can be placed at the bottom of the page. Alternatively, you can put them on their own page after the references. This guide on footnotes, end notes, and parentheticals provides information about the differences between these different types of notes. Either way, it’s important to know how to use footnotes properly.
In this guide, students can learn about the different uses for footnotes as well as how to format footnotes according to APA Style. All of the information here comes straight from the 7th edition of the Publication Manual .
There are two primary reasons why an author would use footnotes:
As mentioned above, there are a few different ways to use footnotes. The more common way is when an author wants to provide extra insight on an idea without disrupting the flow of the text. This is called a content footnote.
In this case, you would write a a couple sentences about the extra insight. For example:
______________________
1 This data refers to the situation in 2010, and it includes emissions from industrial processes. Emissions from the latter are released during the physical and chemical transformation of materials like clinker production. Since these industrial production processes are also consumers of energy, here we made the choice to combine them with CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion.
When you are reproducing a portion of a copyrighted work, like an extended passage from a book or journal, it is necessary to provide copyright attribution. This can be done inside a footnote. The footnote is used instead of a parenthetical in-text citation, and you will still need to add the source as an entry in the reference list.
If it is an image or graph you are reproducing, copyright attribution can go in the figure note or table note.
A copyright footnote should start with “ From ” or “ Adapted from ” and the format will change slightly depending on the source.
Here is a template for copyright attribution for a website followed by two examples:
1 From Webpage title , by Group Author OR Author FirstMiddleName Initials. Author Surname. Year Published, Website Name (URL).
*Note: If the Group Author and Website Name are the same, omit the Website Name slot.
2 From First images from the James Webb Space Telescope , by National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2022 (https://www.nasa.gov/webbfirstimages).
3 From Question of what now for Syria remains as vexed as ever , by M. Chulov. 2022, The Guardian (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jul/19/question-of-what-now-for-syria-remains-as-vexed-as-ever).
According to APA Style, the author may choose to place the footnotes on the bottom of the page on which the callout appears or at the end of the paper on their own page(s).
“Endnotes” is a function on many word processors that inserts callouts and place the notes at the end of the document. While this is the same idea as footnotes, APA calls for a specially-formatted footnotes page.
To place the footnotes at the end of your document, check the preferences of the footnote function. You should be able to select “End of Document” instead of “End of Page.”
Always use the footnotes function of your word processor to insert footnotes. This will make it much easier to keep track of everything even as page content changes.
Now let’s have a look at what properly formatted APA footnotes look like in action.
Here is an example of a concise, relevant, and properly formatted footnote from “The role of renewable energy in the global economy transformation,” published in Energy Strategy Reviews.
. . . A transition away from fossil fuels to low-carbon solutions will play an essential role, as energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions represent two-thirds of all greenhouse gases (GHG). 1
In this example, the footnotes function automatically created a dividing line at the bottom of the document. It has also reduced the font size by 1pt, which is neither required nor discouraged by APA.
The reason this is a good example, however, is because the footnote provides supplemental information that is both relevant and substantive. The information would have been too distracting to appear in the main text, but it provides helpful insight on the author’s research method.
Published October 28, 2020.
APA Formatting
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You can include more than one footnote on the same page in APA style. There is no restriction on the number of footnotes to be included on a page. Depending upon the number of footnotes on the page, the text area of the page will be automatically adjusted to fit the footnotes.
Footnotes in APA are used to provide the reader some additional information about the idea or the element being discussed. Footnotes are used in all types of publications such as journal articles, book chapters, and conference papers.
Two types of footnotes are used in APA style: content footnotes and copyright attribution footnotes. A content footnote provides additional explanation or information about something mentioned in the text, while a copyright attribution footnote provides copyright information for lengthy content that has been reprinted in the text. For both types, the in-text citation remains the same. Remember the following guidelines when you want to cite a footnote:
Note that a footnote should have only one idea. If you want to add more information, it is advisable to add the content in the text or create an appendix.
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Published on March 28, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on June 7, 2022.
Footnotes are notes placed at the bottom of the page in a piece of academic writing and indicated in the text with superscript numbers (or sometimes letters or other symbols). You can insert footnotes automatically in Word or Google Docs . They’re used to provide:
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How to insert footnotes in word and google docs, numbering and placement of footnotes, footnotes in chicago style, footnotes in apa style, footnotes in mla style, frequently asked questions about footnotes and endnotes.
If you’re writing in Microsoft Word or in Google Docs, it’s easy to insert footnotes automatically using the built-in functionality of the software.
Most style guidelines are flexible enough that these automatically inserted footnotes meet their requirements, so that you don’t have to worry about the specifics of formatting.
It’s straightforward to insert footnotes in Word. Just follow these steps:
You can also easily add footnotes in Google Docs. Follow the steps below:
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Footnotes should be numbered consecutively in the order they appear throughout your paper. Each note should have a unique number; don’t use the same number again even if you cite the same source repeatedly.
Footnote numbers are usually placed at the end of the relevant clause or sentence. The number appears after any punctuation, except when the clause ends with an em dash , in which case the number appears before it. Don’t add a space before the number.
Chicago style uses footnotes for citations (unless you’re following Chicago author-date ). Footnotes can also be used to add extra information such as commentary on the source cited, or elaborations on a point you touched on in the main text.
In Chicago footnotes , you place a footnote at the end of the clause or sentence that needs a citation. The footnote contains full information about each source the first time you cite it, and shortened information for subsequent citations of the same source.
1. Tegan George and Jack Caulfield, “Academic Integrity vs. Academic Dishonesty,” March 10, 2022, https://www.scribbr.com/plagiarism/academic-dishonesty/.
2. George and Caulfield, “Academic Integrity.”
Full information about all your sources is usually included in a bibliography at the end, except in very short papers, where footnote citations may be used alone if your institution allows it.
Chicago recommends using your word processor’s built-in footnote function to add footnotes, but a couple of formatting details may need to be changed manually:
APA footnotes are used only for providing extra information, since APA in-text citations appear in parentheses instead.
You can use them to provide supplemental information such as additional examples or clarifications; do this sparingly, as APA warns against including nonessential information. Footnotes are also used to provide copyright attribution when it’s needed.
1 From What Parents Can Expect in Behavior Therapy , by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017 (https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/infographics/what-parents-expect.html). In the public domain.
2 A second round of testing was initially planned, but this idea was abandoned due to …
APA recommends using your word processing software to automatically insert footnotes, but add an indent at the start of each footnote if this isn’t done automatically. The footnote begins with the superscript footnote number followed by a space.
MLA footnotes are used to provide supplemental information such as extra examples, clarifications of citation practice, or elaborations on ideas.
MLA in-text citations appear in parentheses, not in notes, but where a lot of citations are needed at once, they can be placed in a footnote to avoid cluttering the text.
1 Citations of marginalia refer to George’s edition and include page numbers. Citations of the poem refer to Davis’s edition and include line numbers.
2 This remains a controversial point. Researchers in the field have debated this issue since …
3 See Crittenden 5–11; Kent 17–34; Smith 44–50; and Jones 36.
MLA recommends using your word processor to automatically insert footnotes, styling the number at the start of the citation in superscript, followed by a space. An indent should also be added at the start of the footnote (before the number).
Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page they refer to. This is convenient for the reader but may cause your text to look cluttered if there are a lot of footnotes.
Endnotes appear all together at the end of the whole text. This may be less convenient for the reader but reduces clutter.
Both footnotes and endnotes are used in the same way: to cite sources or add extra information. You should usually choose one or the other to use in your text, not both.
Footnotes are notes indicated in your text with numbers and placed at the bottom of the page. They’re used to provide:
Be sparing in your use of footnotes (other than citation footnotes), and consider whether the information you’re adding is relevant for the reader.
To insert a footnote automatically in a Word document:
If you need to change the type of notes used in a Word document from footnotes to endnotes , or the other way around, follow these steps:
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.
Caulfield, J. (2022, June 07). What Are Footnotes? | Guide with Word Instructions. Scribbr. Retrieved August 29, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/what-are-footnotes/
Other students also liked, citation styles guide | examples for all major styles, how to avoid plagiarism | tips on citing sources, the basics of in-text citation | apa & mla examples, what is your plagiarism score.
Endnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the end of a research paper and arranged sequentially in relation to where the reference appears in the paper.
Footnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the bottom of a page corresponding to the item cited in the corresponding text above.
Fiske, Robert Hartwell. To the Point: A Dictionary of Concise Writing . New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2014.
Advantages of Using Endnotes
Disadvantages of Using Endnotes
Advantages of Using Footnotes
Disadvantages of Using Footnotes
Things to keep in mind when considering using either endnotes or footnotes in your research paper :
1. Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper, except for those notes accompanying special material (e.g., figures, tables, charts, etc.). Numbering of footnotes are "superscript"--Arabic numbers typed slightly above the line of text. Do not include periods, parentheses, or slashes. They can follow all punctuation marks except dashes. In general, to avoid interrupting the continuity of the text, footnote numbers are placed at the end of the sentence, clause, or phrase containing the quoted or paraphrased material. 2. Depending on the writing style used in your class, endnotes may take the place of a list of resources cited in your paper or they may represent non-bibliographic items, such as comments or observations, followed by a separate list of references to the sources you cited and arranged alphabetically by the author's last name. If you are unsure about how to use endnotes, consult with your professor. 3. In general, the use of footnotes in most academic writing is now considered a bit outdated and has been replaced by endnotes, which are much easier to place in your paper, even with the advent of word processing programs. However, some disciplines, such as law and history, still predominantly utilize footnotes. Consult with your professor about which form to use and always remember that, whichever style of citation you choose, apply it consistently throughout your paper.
NOTE: Always think critically about the information you place in a footnote or endnote. Ask yourself, is this supplementary or tangential information that would otherwise disrupt the narrative flow of the text or is this essential information that I should integrate into the main text? If you are not sure, it's better to work it into the text. Too many notes implies a disorganized paper.
Cermak, Bonni and Jennifer Troxell. A Guide to Footnotes and Endnotes for NASA History Authors . NASA History Program. History Division; Hale, Ali. Should You Use Footnotes or Endnotes? DailyWritingTips.com; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989; Saller, Carol. “Endnotes or Footnotes? Some Considerations.” The Chronicle of Higher Education 58 (January 6, 2012): http://chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/2012/01/06/endnotes-or-footnotes-some-considerations/.
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One of the most common citation style guide manual for research papers or academic papers is the APA style . A significant part of this citation style guide are in-text citations and references in author-date style. However, sources can also be formatted as footnotes based on APA 7th edition. APA footnotes allow researchers to add supplementary information to their work without interrupting the flow of the text. This article delves into the format and proper use of APA footnotes.
Inhaltsverzeichnis
APA Footnotes are notes placed at the bottom of a page in a research paper that includes sources that have to be referenced properly. They also serve as comments on a designated part or section of the text on the page. Typically, the APA style is a citation formatting style in research that mostly demands in-text citations in author-date style. APA footnotes use superscript numbers that typically appear in consecutive order and should follow any punctuation except a dash.
You can format footnotes in APA style by using superscript numbers and placing them in consecutive order. Also, the footnote numbers should appear at the end of the sentences or clauses on which they are intended to provide more content. They come after the period or other punctuation (except the dashes ). If the text ends with a dash , the footnote should come before the dash .
Note: if the footnote relates to the content in the parentheses , the footnote must be placed enclosed by the parentheses.
APA footnotes should not be repeated . Therefore, if you need to refer to a source that is already cited as a footnote, you should write “see footnote 10” or something similar in the text or parentheses.
Footnotes can appear at the bottom of the relevant page or at the end of the paper on a separate page designated for footnotes:
This is where you place the footnotes on a designated page at the end of your paper. When doing so, the APA footnotes page should appear after the reference page. Other mandatory formatting requirements are:
Your word processor can help you automatically insert footnotes at the page’s bottom. This technique helps you ensure that all the superscript numbers correspond to the right footnote. Additionally, it helps you separate the footnotes from the primary text.
Footnotes at the end of essays should ALWAYS be single-spaced. Also, there should be a single space between the superscript number of the APA footnote.
If you use copyright resources that go beyond the fair use guidelines in your project, you may require copyright footnotes. The role of copyright footnotes is to acknowledge that you have permission to include the copyrighted material in your research.
For instance, you can reproduce an image or infographic with the received permission and include the copyright note in the relevant caption instead of the footnote.
9 From Man and his Vision: A Comprehensive Analysis (p.62), by Jamal H. Anu and John K. Manuel, 2005, Routledge. Copyright 2005 by Marc & Joburg. Reprinted with permission.
Content footnotes in APA help you provide additional data about your content to readers.
For instance, you can use them to clarify a point or direct readers to the sources containing more information on a specific topic or detail in your text.
2 See Miranda (2015), Chapter 16, for a detailed report on this study.
APA footnotes are not mandatory for certain papers in APA. However, adding them to your paper would not hurt.
You can use footnotes in APA to provide additional information or copyright attribution .
You can write APA footnotes at the bottom of relevant pages in your paper. However, you can also group them and place them on a separate page at the end of your research paper .
Footnotes are a way for authors to provide additional content to their papers without diverting readers from the text.
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Because long explanatory notes can be distracting to readers, most academic style guidelines (including MLA and APA, the American Psychological Association) recommend limited use of endnotes/footnotes. However, certain publishers encourage or require note references in lieu of parenthetical references.
MLA discourages extensive use of explanatory or digressive notes. MLA style does, however, allow you to use endnotes or footnotes for bibliographic notes , which refer to other publications your readers may consult. The following are some examples:
To cite a lengthy string of sources.
¹See Said, Culture and Imperialism and Orientalism ; Serres, The Natural Contract ; Foucault, The Foucault Reader , esp. Part II.
²For more material related to Postcolonial Studies and Technology, see McClintock, Imperial Leather ; De Landa, War in the Age of Intelligent Machines.
To explain an unusual documentation practice.
³Italicised words denote translations for which there are no clear equivalents in the original Chinese.
To flag editions and translations used. Editions and translations usually require a note only when more than one edition or translation is cited. This can be done by placing a note in the text where the work is first referenced. Alternatively, an initial and unnumbered note may be created.
⁴Citations of The Odyssey refer to Emily Wilson’s translated version unless otherwise noted.
⁵Translations are provided by Emily Wilson unless otherwise noted.
You can also use endnotes/footnotes for occasional explanatory notes (also known as content notes), which refer to brief additional information that might be too digressive for the main text:
To amplify. Writers may feel that amplifying certain sections of their content will allow readers to better understand the context which affected/affects the following circumstances.
¹Kujou and Yanagi are often confused by their misinterpretation of each other’s words, actions, and interactions with others.
²Beach considers Readicide to be a necessary read for all incoming Student Teachers, including it in recommended words for all his students.
³Culler makes it clear that “Literature” is “an institutional label that gives us reason to expect that the results of our reading efforts will be ‘worth it’” (28).
To explain word choice.
⁴She refers here to a branch of physiological research.
⁵He chose to translate the verb (first translated by Yang as “to feel”) as “to understand” to point to the character development.
To justify the scope of your study. Justifying the scope of your study can help readers better understand what to expect from reading your work by specifically pointing to what will or will not be explored, and why.
⁶Whether or not Beowulf as a character is justified in his actions is not relevant to my point.
⁷The efforts of decolonization are beyond the extent of my essay, but I point readers to Garvey’s work.
To provide more examples.
⁸Readers can think about Atwood’s inclusion of insects in her literary work
⁹This same idea applies to queer youth, as Chelsea Monheim’s “Percieved social norms and acceptance of transgender students in gendered restrooms” addresses.
To provide counterexamples.
¹⁰Bankfeld (99-102) calls for an alternative call to action.
To identity of comment on allusions.
¹¹The reference to ‘Westword’ in Iron Man 3 recalls the 1973 movie Westworld, starring Yul Brynner as a killing cyborg.
To point to an area of future research.
¹²More extensive research remains to be done on this subject.
To identify authors whose names appear as et al. in documentation.
¹³The contributing authors of Teaching Literature to Adolescents are Deborah Appleman, Bob Fecho, and Rob Simon.
To acknowledge.
¹⁴Anna Turner, from a local veterinary clinic, brought distinctions between small and large animal care to my attention.
MLA notes may be styled either as footnotes or endnotes. Endnotes and footnotes in MLA format are indicated in-text by superscript Arabic numbers after the punctuation of the phrase or clause to which the note refers:
Note that when a long dash appears in the text, the footnote/endnote number appears before the dash:
Do not use asterisks (*), angle brackets (>), or other symbols for note references. The list of endnotes and footnotes (either of which, for papers submitted for publication, should be listed on a separate page, as indicated below) should correspond to the note references in the text. Do not use the abbreviation ibid. in a note to refer readers to the information provided in the note right above it.
Use parentheses around page numbers when page numbers interrupt a sentence or are given at the end of a sentence. Similar to parenthetical citations within text, citations in notes are usually placed at the end of a sentence. Alternatively, parenthetical citations may be placed mid-sentence.
¹As Danes (45) and Gilmore (151) argue, caffeinated beverages play a vital role in American business environments.
²Gilmore considers the relationship between caffeine, productivity, and success (151).
Do not place parentheses around page numbers if the note is utilized to direct readers to the location of information. For example:
³See Gilmore 151.
Notes in MLA format are typically indicated in-text by superscript Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3, …) after the punctuation mark of the phrase or clause to which the note refers. Whenever possible, place the superscript numbers at the end of sentences. Keep in mind that word processing programs will likely style note numbers in the text and notes section as superscript by default .
Audience members generally responded positively to the racial representation in the musical.¹
Marquis de Lafayette uses a stereotypical White American accent to say the word “anarchy.”²
Aaron Burr advises a young Alexander Hamilton to “talk less, smile more” (16).³
Note that when a dash appears in the text, the note number appears before the dash.
After finding out about her daughter’s passion for music, Cho⁴—surprised, impressed, and a little confused—purchased a piano and allowed her daughter to take lessons.
If a note number must be placed somewhere other than at the end of a sentence or a sentence requires more than one note, the note number should be placed in the least distracting unambiguous spot. For instance:
Placement of a note mid-sentence, for clarity of citations.
Despite the awareness from her past mistakes,⁵ Britney “did it again” and thus continued to face the consequences of her actions (203).
Placement of more than one note in a sentence.
Crystal’s love of farmers markets—especially those located in their hometown (which they support by “getting up at 7am every Saturday to go to” [Webb 21]⁶)—has become apparent even on social media platforms.⁷
Endnotes Page
MLA recommends that all notes be listed on a separate page entitled Notes (centered). Title the page Note if there is only one note. The Notes page should appear before the Works Cited page. This is especially important for papers being submitted for publication.
The notes themselves should be double-spaced and listed by consecutive Arabic numbers that correspond to the notation in the text. The first line of each endnote is indented five spaces, and subsequent lines are flush with the left margin. Place a period and a space after each endnote number, and then provide the appropriate note after the space.
Footnotes (below the text body)
The ninth edition of the MLA Handbook states that notes may be styled either as footnotes or endnotes. See the MLA Style Center for additional guidance on this topic and follow your instructor's or editor's preferences.
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A footnote is a reference, explanation, or comment 1 placed below the main text on a printed page. Footnotes are identified in the text by a numeral or a symbol .
In research papers and reports , footnotes commonly acknowledge the sources of facts and quotations that appear in the text.
" Footnotes are the mark of a scholar," says Bryan A. Garner. "Overabundant, overflowing footnotes are the mark of an insecure scholar — often one who gets lost in the byways of analysis and who wants to show off" ( Garner's Modern American Usage , 2009).
1 "The footnote has figured prominently in the fictions of such leading contemporary novelists as Nicholson Baker 2 , David Foster Wallace 3 , and Dave Eggers. These writers have largely revived the digressive function of the footnote." (L. Douglas and A. George, Sense and Nonsensibility: Lampoons of Learning and Literature . Simon and Schuster, 2004)
2 "[T]he great scholarly or anecdotal footnotes of Lecky, Gibbon, or Boswell, written by the author of the book himself to supplement, or even correct over several later editions, what he says in the primary text, are reassurances that the pursuit of truth doesn't have clear outer boundaries: it doesn't end with the book; restatement and self-disagreement and the enveloping sea of referenced authorities all continue. Footnotes are the finer-suckered surfaces that allow tentacular paragraphs to hold fast to the wider reality of the library." (Nicholson Baker, The Mezzanine . Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1988)
3 "One of the odd pleasures in reading the work of the late David Foster Wallace is the opportunity to escape from the main text to explore epic footnotes , always rendered at the bottoms of pages in thickets of tiny type." (Roy Peter Clark, The Glamour of Grammar . Little, Brown, 2010)
In academic writing, footnotes, endnotes, and headnotes provide additional information on a particular topic. They are placed in the document as a supplement to the main text. These notes can be inserted into the document as a footer or at the end of a chapter.
The notes should be kept as brief as possible. The objective is to provide more information without distracting the reader. We discuss the different types of notes, how to use them, and their pros and cons.
A footnote is a reference placed at the bottom of a page or footer. They are referenced in the text in the same way as a citation i.e. the referenced text is followed by a superscript numeral ( 1 ), which corresponds to the numbered footnote at the bottom of the page. When writing your research paper , you would use a footnote for two major reasons:
The two types of footnotes are:
The format of footnotes is fairly standard (see below for specific rules) and is the same as that for references as follows:
Adrian Johns. The Nature of the Book: Print and Knowledge in the Making (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 623.
When citing the same reference again, the footnote can be shortened as follows:
Johns. Nature of the Book , 384–85.
Some older journals use “ ibid ” instead of a shortened version of the reference. Ibid is short for the Latin “ ibidem” , which means “in the same place.” This format was previously used in most printed text but rarely used now.
Endnotes are much the same as footnotes except that they are placed at the end your research paper instead of at the bottom of a page. In books, they can be placed after each chapter or at the end of the book.
In many cases, the book publisher decides the best placement. Endnotes, as footnotes, are numerically noted in superscript. The format is the same as that for footnotes.
Headnotes are used as introductions in legal documents or as summaries of the text that follows them. In academic writing, headnotes are explanatory notes included with tables and figures. They are placed below the table itself or just below the figure title and typed in a font size that is smaller than the main text (e.g., 8- or 10-point font). Headnotes are used to define acronyms used, units of measure, significance, etc. Because tables and figures should be able to “stand alone” without the main text, headnotes should always be used.
Although the format for footnotes and endnotes is almost similar, there are specific rules depending on the journal where the paper is submitted. Most scientific journals use specific reference formats; however, some style guides do not allow footnotes and endnotes.
For example, the Modern Language Association (MLA), which deals specifically with disciplines in the humanities allows limited use of footnotes. These are to provide the reader with other sources for more information on the subject covered. The MLA style for these notes is shown in the example below and the number corresponds to the superscript number noted in the referenced text:
See [name of author], especially chapters 3 and 4, for an insightful analysis of this trend.
MLA suggests using “content” footnotes when necessary to avoid interrupting the text with an explanation or other details.
In contrast, the American Psychological Association (APA), the style for the behavioral and social sciences, does not usually allow footnotes. Your particular journal guidelines will provide that information.
A third style guide, the American Medical Association (AMA) , is used mostly with papers in the biological and medical sciences. AMA also discourages the use of footnotes but allows them on the title page. The information on the title page would include the authors’ names and affiliations, corresponding author, members of affiliated groups, etc.
Scientific papers do not usually include footnotes. Endnotes may be used sometimes, but sparingly. Other disciplines, such as law and history, still use them regularly . There are pros and cons to each.
The advantages of using footnotes are that they provide the reader with a fast reference and link to additional information. They are easy to insert and will automatically print. The advantage of using endnotes instead of footnotes is that their placement is less distracting. They also provide the reader with an easy reference list in one place.
According to the Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS), endnotes are preferred to footnotes simply because they don’t clutter up a page. CMOS does caution that it can seem disconcerting to a reader to see pages of notes at the end of a chapter or book, so use them sparingly.
Again, another disadvantage to footnotes is that they tend to interrupt the flow of the text. The reader might feel that he must stop and look at the note before moving on, which can be very distracting. Some disadvantages to endnotes are that the reader must turn to the end of the text or chapter to find the additional information. In books with several chapters, this can be tedious, especially if the endnotes are renumbered in each chapter.
As for headnotes, there are really no drawbacks to using them in tables and figures. They offer the reader helpful information that is readily available as they read the data or interpret a figure.
The style to which you conform when writing your paper will ultimately depend on the journal’s guidelines. Pay careful attention to its protocols for citations and references and whether it will allow footnotes and endnotes. If allowed, be mindful of the disadvantages of both and consider either greatly limiting them or eliminating them altogether.
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Note-- This paper is written using the footnote/endnote style. The same general formatting rules apply to the author/date format.
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Bibliography
Title/Cover Page
Names and Numbers
Footnotes/Endnotes
Judt, Tony. A Grand Illusion ? An Essay on Europe. New York: Hill and Wang, 1996.
—. Reappraisals: Reflections on the Forgotten Twentieth Century. New York: Penguin Press, 2008.
—, ed. Resistance and Revolution in Mediterranean Europe, 1939-1948. New York: Routledge, 1989.
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Research papers and reports often include adjuncts such as charts and graphs, tables , diagrams, a hierarchy of headings, citations and references etc. Notes – whether footnotes or endnotes – are an important adjunct. They primarily serve the role of supplying additional information , which, if weaved into the main text, may reduce its ease of readability .
As discussed, footnotes comprise small bits of information short enough to take in at a glance. Here are a couple of examples to illustrate the function of footnotes.
As discussed too, endnotes can comprise much longer parcels of information. Here too are a couple of examples to illustrate the use of endnotes.
As an author of an academic paper, you can choose between footnotes and endnotes depending on how much additional information you want to give. Be aware, however, that footnotes and endnotes, especially endnotes, are virtually never used in research papers in the physical and biological sciences . They may sometimes be used in the social sciences and are more commonly seen in the humanities .
In digital documents, the distinction between footnotes and endnotes and their placement is less important, because the additional information can be connected to the main text with hyperlinks .
As a scholar, try to familiarise yourself with the idea of notes and their related mechanics as early on in your writing process as possible. These details can seem numerous at first, but once you master them, you will be able to spontaneously incorporate them into your writing.
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Formatting footnotes in APA. Footnotes use superscript numbers and should appear in consecutive order. Footnote numbers typically appear at the end of a sentence or clause, after the period or other punctuation. Example: Footnote in APA. The findings of the study are consistent with other research. 1.
Short note example. 2. Woolf, "Modern Fiction," 11. The guidelines for use of short and full notes can vary across different fields and institutions. Sometimes you might be required to use a full note for every citation, or to use a short note every time as long as all sources appear in the Chicago style bibliography.
The footnotes are formatted like APA format, where the number in the footnote is superscript and without a period. If the note is written in a complete sentence, place the page numbers in parentheses. If it simply references the source, parentheses aren't necessary. MLA footnote examples. In text: "Free from desire, you realize the mystery ...
Providing additional examples that don't fit into the main text. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the relevant page, while endnotes appear at the end of the paper, just before the Works Cited list. MLA allows the use of either type, but stick to one or the other. Any sources you cite in your footnotes or endnotes must also be included in ...
Footnote examples can be invaluable in creating these important components in your research paper. See samples and format tips for footnotes in this guide.
Place the footnote number (if it applies only to material within the parentheses 3) like this. Example. Sociologists examined—over eighteen months 1 —the effects of cultural diversity. 2 (But only on elementary students. 3) For any subsequent references to the same footnote, include a parenthetical note.
Incorporating footnotes into your research paper is crucial, but it's equally important to grasp the specific footnote citation style required by your target journal or publication. The format and style of footnote citations can differ significantly based on the citation style guide in use. Below, you'll find illustrative examples of how to ...
Turabian Footnote/Endnote Style. The examples in this guide are meant to introduce you to the basics of citing sources using Kate Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (seventh edition) . Kate Turabian created her first "manual" in 1937 as a means of simplifying for students The Chicago Manual of Style; the ...
For information on footnotes in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association see section 2.13 "Footnotes.". For information on using footnotes with MLA see the "Using Notes in MLA Style" article from the MLA Style Center. For information on footnotes in The Chicago Manual of Style see Chapter 14 "Notes and Bibliography."
Automatically Inserting Footnotes. The reason that footnotes are still popular in some fields is that most word processing programs now include a function that makes it very easy to include footnotes in any paper. In Microsoft Word, clicking Insert > Reference > Footnote allows you to insert footnotes automatically, and automatically numbers them.
A Pocket Guide to Writing in History by Mary Lynn Rampolla. Call Number: D13 .R295 2015. ISBN: 1457690888. Publication Date: 2015-01-16. A Pocket Guide to Writing in History is the concise, trusted, and easy-to-use guide for the writing and research skills needed in undergraduate history courses.
About Footnotes. Each time you refer to a source in your writing, whether through a direct quote, paraphrase, or summary, you must include a corresponding footnote that provides bibliographic information about the original source.. Whenever you refer to material from a source, you must insert a "footnote number" at the end of the paraphrased section or direct quotation.
Footnotes are a useful tool in academic writing that allows for the inclusion of additional information or comments in a document or text. Typically denoted by a small number or symbol in the main text, footnotes in a paper appear at the bottom of the page and can serve a variety of purposes. For example, footnotes can be used to clarify a ...
How to format footnotes correctly: Always use the footnotes function. The callout should be in superscript, like this. 1. The callout should come after the punctuation, like this. 2. If there's a dash 3 —the callout comes before the punctuation, not after. All callouts should appear in numerical order, like this. 4.
Published on March 28, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on June 7, 2022. Footnotes are notes placed at the bottom of the page in a piece of academic writing and indicated in the text with superscript numbers (or sometimes letters or other symbols). You can insert footnotes automatically in Word or Google Docs.
Things to keep in mind when considering using either endnotes or footnotes in your research paper:. 1. Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper, except for those notes accompanying special material (e.g., figures, tables, charts, etc.). Numbering of footnotes are "superscript"--Arabic numbers typed slightly above the line of text.
APA Footnotes are notes placed at the bottom of a page in a research paper that includes sources that have to be referenced properly. They also serve as comments on a designated part or section of the text on the page. Typically, the APA style is a citation formatting style in research that mostly demands in-text citations in author-date style.
APA (American Psychological Association) style is most commonly used to cite sources within the social sciences. This resource, revised according to the 6th edition, second printing of the APA manual, offers examples for the general format of APA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the reference page. For more information, please consult the Publication Manual of the ...
MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used to write papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities. This resource, updated to reflect the MLA Handbook (9th ed.), offers examples for the general format of MLA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the Works Cited page.
A footnote is a reference, explanation, or comment 1 placed below the main text on a printed page. Footnotes are identified in the text by a numeral or a symbol . In research papers and reports, footnotes commonly acknowledge the sources of facts and quotations that appear in the text. " Footnotes are the mark of a scholar," says Bryan A. Garner.
In academic writing, footnotes, endnotes, and headnotes provide additional information on a particular topic. They are placed in the document as a supplement to the main text. These notes can be inserted into the document as a footer or at the end of a chapter. The notes should be kept as brief as possible.
Note-- This paper is written using the footnote/endnote style. The same general formatting rules apply to the author/date format. General Formatting. 1" margins on all four sides. Times New Roman; 12 pt. font. Text should be double-spaced, with the exception of: Block quotes. Table Titles. Figure Captions.
Footnotes vs. endnotes. Location: By definition, footnotes appear at the foot of a page on which appears the text they support. Endnotes are placed at the end of a paper, a chapter or a book. Space: Footnotes, being located at the bottom of each individual page, are constrained by the amount of space available, whereas endnotes, located right ...
The IMRAD format has been adopted by a steadily increasing number of academic journals since the first half of the 20th century. The IMRAD structure has come to dominate academic writing in the sciences, most notably in empirical biomedicine. [2] [6] [7] The structure of most public health journal articles reflects this trend.Although the IMRAD structure originates in the empirical sciences ...