case study academy

Corporate Experience

Bain & Company

Schlumberger

Teach for India

FOR AGES 8-18

Global Classrooms for ages 8-18 to master Thinking, Communication & Modern Subjects

World's best live classes for children using the case study method, by alumni of  Harvard

Why should your child join?

Critical Thinking

Impactful communication, modern subjects, better grades higher confidence secure future.

help achieve

7-Level Course

Here’s how your child’s journey with early steps academy will look like.

World's first and only

Your child will learn at the  world's best case study classes for children  designed through deep research on learning outcomes for children as young as 8-18

Live online global classes are taught through an Early Steps Academy proprietary

algorithmic classroom learning framework  

Make your child part of a global community of learners

Advisors & Mentors from all over the world

Brian L. Trelstad

Senior lecturer of business administration, hbs, harvard business school.

Digital Health (Neurology)

Harvard business school stanford university.

Consulting, Case Interviews

Harvard business school mckinsey & company.

The 4C Skills

C ritical and Structured  Thinking

C ommunication in English

C ollaborative Attitude

C reativity

Knowledge and skills that build long-term confidence

Don't believe it, here's what parents have to say, excellent program.

My daughter loves Early Steps Academy. I see her confidence grow, not only in speaking and thinking, but also in everyday activities. An excellent program! Highly recommend to all parents.  

Kerly Mom, USA

Unique amazing, first my elder daughter (15-yr old) joined. we loved it so much that we enrolled our 9-yr old too.  the case study classes are unique and amazing 7 months in, my daughters continue to enjoy learning at early steps..

Pradeep Dad, India

Highly recommend, the knowledge and skills that the case study classes teach are not available anywhere else. it is a compulsory program for every child. highly recommend this to all parents.

Bushra Mom, Malaysia

Early Steps p arents say their child is more confident

Early steps p arents say their child's grades have improved, children say that early steps is the most fun place to learn, still not convinced, hear it from the students directly, "i have become smarter", i eagerly wait for every week's case study.   the challenges are new to me, they are fun to work on through the preparation and during the classes. i my friends tell me that i have become smarter"  .

Ivanna Age 9, USA

"i mastered how to think fast.", shiv dev age 16, india, early steps is much more fun than school. it helped me master how to think fast. i started feeling more confident in just 4 weeks. i am in my 24th week right now and i am amazed how the program is just getting better with time. "  .

Instant insights, infinite possibilities

What is case study research?

Last updated

8 February 2023

Reviewed by

Cathy Heath

Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

Suppose a company receives a spike in the number of customer complaints, or medical experts discover an outbreak of illness affecting children but are not quite sure of the reason. In both cases, carrying out a case study could be the best way to get answers.

Organization

Case studies can be carried out across different disciplines, including education, medicine, sociology, and business.

Most case studies employ qualitative methods, but quantitative methods can also be used. Researchers can then describe, compare, evaluate, and identify patterns or cause-and-effect relationships between the various variables under study. They can then use this knowledge to decide what action to take. 

Another thing to note is that case studies are generally singular in their focus. This means they narrow focus to a particular area, making them highly subjective. You cannot always generalize the results of a case study and apply them to a larger population. However, they are valuable tools to illustrate a principle or develop a thesis.

Analyze case study research

Dovetail streamlines case study research to help you uncover and share actionable insights

• What are the different types of case study designs?

Researchers can choose from a variety of case study designs. The design they choose is dependent on what questions they need to answer, the context of the research environment, how much data they already have, and what resources are available.

Here are the common types of case study design:

Explanatory

An explanatory case study is an initial explanation of the how or why that is behind something. This design is commonly used when studying a real-life phenomenon or event. Once the organization understands the reasons behind a phenomenon, it can then make changes to enhance or eliminate the variables causing it. 

Here is an example: How is co-teaching implemented in elementary schools? The title for a case study of this subject could be “Case Study of the Implementation of Co-Teaching in Elementary Schools.”

Descriptive

An illustrative or descriptive case study helps researchers shed light on an unfamiliar object or subject after a period of time. The case study provides an in-depth review of the issue at hand and adds real-world examples in the area the researcher wants the audience to understand. 

The researcher makes no inferences or causal statements about the object or subject under review. This type of design is often used to understand cultural shifts.

Here is an example: How did people cope with the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami? This case study could be titled "A Case Study of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and its Effect on the Indonesian Population."

Exploratory

Exploratory research is also called a pilot case study. It is usually the first step within a larger research project, often relying on questionnaires and surveys . Researchers use exploratory research to help narrow down their focus, define parameters, draft a specific research question , and/or identify variables in a larger study. This research design usually covers a wider area than others, and focuses on the ‘what’ and ‘who’ of a topic.

Here is an example: How do nutrition and socialization in early childhood affect learning in children? The title of the exploratory study may be “Case Study of the Effects of Nutrition and Socialization on Learning in Early Childhood.”

An intrinsic case study is specifically designed to look at a unique and special phenomenon. At the start of the study, the researcher defines the phenomenon and the uniqueness that differentiates it from others. 

In this case, researchers do not attempt to generalize, compare, or challenge the existing assumptions. Instead, they explore the unique variables to enhance understanding. Here is an example: “Case Study of Volcanic Lightning.”

This design can also be identified as a cumulative case study. It uses information from past studies or observations of groups of people in certain settings as the foundation of the new study. Given that it takes multiple areas into account, it allows for greater generalization than a single case study. 

The researchers also get an in-depth look at a particular subject from different viewpoints.  Here is an example: “Case Study of how PTSD affected Vietnam and Gulf War Veterans Differently Due to Advances in Military Technology.”

Critical instance

A critical case study incorporates both explanatory and intrinsic study designs. It does not have predetermined purposes beyond an investigation of the said subject. It can be used for a deeper explanation of the cause-and-effect relationship. It can also be used to question a common assumption or myth. 

The findings can then be used further to generalize whether they would also apply in a different environment.  Here is an example: “What Effect Does Prolonged Use of Social Media Have on the Mind of American Youth?”

Instrumental

Instrumental research attempts to achieve goals beyond understanding the object at hand. Researchers explore a larger subject through different, separate studies and use the findings to understand its relationship to another subject. This type of design also provides insight into an issue or helps refine a theory. 

For example, you may want to determine if violent behavior in children predisposes them to crime later in life. The focus is on the relationship between children and violent behavior, and why certain children do become violent. Here is an example: “Violence Breeds Violence: Childhood Exposure and Participation in Adult Crime.”

Evaluation case study design is employed to research the effects of a program, policy, or intervention, and assess its effectiveness and impact on future decision-making. 

For example, you might want to see whether children learn times tables quicker through an educational game on their iPad versus a more teacher-led intervention. Here is an example: “An Investigation of the Impact of an iPad Multiplication Game for Primary School Children.” 

• When do you use case studies?

Case studies are ideal when you want to gain a contextual, concrete, or in-depth understanding of a particular subject. It helps you understand the characteristics, implications, and meanings of the subject.

They are also an excellent choice for those writing a thesis or dissertation, as they help keep the project focused on a particular area when resources or time may be too limited to cover a wider one. You may have to conduct several case studies to explore different aspects of the subject in question and understand the problem.

• What are the steps to follow when conducting a case study?

1. Select a case

Once you identify the problem at hand and come up with questions, identify the case you will focus on. The study can provide insights into the subject at hand, challenge existing assumptions, propose a course of action, and/or open up new areas for further research.

2. Create a theoretical framework

While you will be focusing on a specific detail, the case study design you choose should be linked to existing knowledge on the topic. This prevents it from becoming an isolated description and allows for enhancing the existing information. 

It may expand the current theory by bringing up new ideas or concepts, challenge established assumptions, or exemplify a theory by exploring how it answers the problem at hand. A theoretical framework starts with a literature review of the sources relevant to the topic in focus. This helps in identifying key concepts to guide analysis and interpretation.

3. Collect the data

Case studies are frequently supplemented with qualitative data such as observations, interviews, and a review of both primary and secondary sources such as official records, news articles, and photographs. There may also be quantitative data —this data assists in understanding the case thoroughly.

4. Analyze your case

The results of the research depend on the research design. Most case studies are structured with chapters or topic headings for easy explanation and presentation. Others may be written as narratives to allow researchers to explore various angles of the topic and analyze its meanings and implications.

In all areas, always give a detailed contextual understanding of the case and connect it to the existing theory and literature before discussing how it fits into your problem area.

• What are some case study examples?

What are the best approaches for introducing our product into the Kenyan market?

How does the change in marketing strategy aid in increasing the sales volumes of product Y?

How can teachers enhance student participation in classrooms?

How does poverty affect literacy levels in children?

Case study topics

Case study of product marketing strategies in the Kenyan market

Case study of the effects of a marketing strategy change on product Y sales volumes

Case study of X school teachers that encourage active student participation in the classroom

Case study of the effects of poverty on literacy levels in children

Should you be using a customer insights hub?

Do you want to discover previous research faster?

Do you share your research findings with others?

Do you analyze research data?

Start for free today, add your research, and get to key insights faster

Editor’s picks

Last updated: 18 April 2023

Last updated: 27 February 2023

Last updated: 22 August 2024

Last updated: 5 February 2023

Last updated: 16 August 2024

Last updated: 9 March 2023

Last updated: 30 April 2024

Last updated: 12 December 2023

Last updated: 11 March 2024

Last updated: 4 July 2024

Last updated: 6 March 2024

Last updated: 5 March 2024

Last updated: 13 May 2024

Latest articles

Related topics, .css-je19u9{-webkit-align-items:flex-end;-webkit-box-align:flex-end;-ms-flex-align:flex-end;align-items:flex-end;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-flex-direction:row;-ms-flex-direction:row;flex-direction:row;-webkit-box-flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-flex-wrap:wrap;-ms-flex-wrap:wrap;flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-box-pack:center;-ms-flex-pack:center;-webkit-justify-content:center;justify-content:center;row-gap:0;text-align:center;max-width:671px;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}}@media (max-width: 799px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}} decide what to .css-1kiodld{max-height:56px;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-1kiodld{display:none;}} build next, decide what to build next, log in or sign up.

Get started for free

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

Whatever field you're in, ATLAS.ti puts your data to work for you

Download a free trial of ATLAS.ti to turn your data into insights.

Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

Ready to jumpstart your research with ATLAS.ti?

Conceptualize your research project with our intuitive data analysis interface. Download a free trial today.

Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

Ready to analyze your data with ATLAS.ti?

See how our intuitive software can draw key insights from your data with a free trial today.

Case study research: opening up research opportunities

RAUSP Management Journal

ISSN : 2531-0488

Article publication date: 30 December 2019

Issue publication date: 3 March 2020

The case study approach has been widely used in management studies and the social sciences more generally. However, there are still doubts about when and how case studies should be used. This paper aims to discuss this approach, its various uses and applications, in light of epistemological principles, as well as the criteria for rigor and validity.

Design/methodology/approach

This paper discusses the various concepts of case and case studies in the methods literature and addresses the different uses of cases in relation to epistemological principles and criteria for rigor and validity.

The use of this research approach can be based on several epistemologies, provided the researcher attends to the internal coherence between method and epistemology, or what the authors call “alignment.”

Originality/value

This study offers a number of implications for the practice of management research, as it shows how the case study approach does not commit the researcher to particular data collection or interpretation methods. Furthermore, the use of cases can be justified according to multiple epistemological orientations.

• Epistemology

Takahashi, A.R.W. and Araujo, L. (2020), "Case study research: opening up research opportunities", RAUSP Management Journal , Vol. 55 No. 1, pp. 100-111. https://doi.org/10.1108/RAUSP-05-2019-0109

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2019, Adriana Roseli Wünsch Takahashi and Luis Araujo.

Published in RAUSP Management Journal . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

1. Introduction

The case study as a research method or strategy brings us to question the very term “case”: after all, what is a case? A case-based approach places accords the case a central role in the research process ( Ragin, 1992 ). However, doubts still remain about the status of cases according to different epistemologies and types of research designs.

Despite these doubts, the case study is ever present in the management literature and represents the main method of management research in Brazil ( Coraiola, Sander, Maccali, & Bulgacov, 2013 ). Between 2001 and 2010, 2,407 articles (83.14 per cent of qualitative research) were published in conferences and management journals as case studies (Takahashi & Semprebom, 2013 ). A search on Spell.org.br for the term “case study” under title, abstract or keywords, for the period ranging from January 2010 to July 2019, yielded 3,040 articles published in the management field. Doing research using case studies, allows the researcher to immerse him/herself in the context and gain intensive knowledge of a phenomenon, which in turn demands suitable methodological principles ( Freitas et al. , 2017 ).

Our objective in this paper is to discuss notions of what constitutes a case and its various applications, considering epistemological positions as well as criteria for rigor and validity. The alignment between these dimensions is put forward as a principle advocating coherence among all phases of the research process.

This article makes two contributions. First, we suggest that there are several epistemological justifications for using case studies. Second, we show that the quality and rigor of academic research with case studies are directly related to the alignment between epistemology and research design rather than to choices of specific forms of data collection or analysis. The article is structured as follows: the following four sections discuss concepts of what is a case, its uses, epistemological grounding as well as rigor and quality criteria. The brief conclusions summarize the debate and invite the reader to delve into the literature on the case study method as a way of furthering our understanding of contemporary management phenomena.

2. What is a case study?

The debate over what constitutes a case in social science is a long-standing one. In 1988, Howard Becker and Charles Ragin organized a workshop to discuss the status of the case as a social science method. As the discussion was inconclusive, they posed the question “What is a case?” to a select group of eight social scientists in 1989, and later to participants in a symposium on the subject. Participants were unable to come up with a consensual answer. Since then, we have witnessed that further debates and different answers have emerged. The original question led to an even broader issue: “How do we, as social scientists, produce results and seem to know what we know?” ( Ragin, 1992 , p. 16).

An important step that may help us start a reflection on what is a case is to consider the phenomena we are looking at. To do that, we must know something about what we want to understand and how we might study it. The answer may be a causal explanation, a description of what was observed or a narrative of what has been experienced. In any case, there will always be a story to be told, as the choice of the case study method demands an answer to what the case is about.

A case may be defined ex ante , prior to the start of the research process, as in Yin’s (2015) classical definition. But, there is no compelling reason as to why cases must be defined ex ante . Ragin (1992 , p. 217) proposed the notion of “casing,” to indicate that what the case is emerges from the research process:

Rather than attempt to delineate the many different meanings of the term “case” in a formal taxonomy, in this essay I offer instead a view of cases that follows from the idea implicit in many of the contributions – that concocting cases is a varied but routine social scientific activity. […] The approach of this essay is that this activity, which I call “casing”, should be viewed in practical terms as a research tactic. It is selectively invoked at many different junctures in the research process, usually to resolve difficult issues in linking ideas and evidence.

In other words, “casing” is tied to the researcher’s practice, to the way he/she delimits or declares a case as a significant outcome of a process. In 2013, Ragin revisited the 1992 concept of “casing” and explored its multiple possibilities of use, paying particular attention to “negative cases.”

According to Ragin (1992) , a case can be centered on a phenomenon or a population. In the first scenario, cases are representative of a phenomenon, and are selected based on what can be empirically observed. The process highlights different aspects of cases and obscures others according to the research design, and allows for the complexity, specificity and context of the phenomenon to be explored. In the alternative, population-focused scenario, the selection of cases precedes the research. Both positive and negative cases are considered in exploring a phenomenon, with the definition of the set of cases dependent on theory and the central objective to build generalizations. As a passing note, it is worth mentioning here that a study of multiple cases requires a definition of the unit of analysis a priori . Otherwise, it will not be possible to make cross-case comparisons.

These two approaches entail differences that go beyond the mere opposition of quantitative and qualitative data, as a case often includes both types of data. Thus, the confusion about how to conceive cases is associated with Ragin’s (1992) notion of “small vs large N,” or McKeown’s (1999) “statistical worldview” – the notion that relevant findings are only those that can be made about a population based on the analysis of representative samples. In the same vein, Byrne (2013) argues that we cannot generate nomothetic laws that apply in all circumstances, periods and locations, and that no social science method can claim to generate invariant laws. According to the same author, case studies can help us understand that there is more than one ideographic variety and help make social science useful. Generalizations still matter, but they should be understood as part of defining the research scope, and that scope points to the limitations of knowledge produced and consumed in concrete time and space.

Thus, what defines the orientation and the use of cases is not the mere choice of type of data, whether quantitative or qualitative, but the orientation of the study. A statistical worldview sees cases as data units ( Byrne, 2013 ). Put differently, there is a clear distinction between statistical and qualitative worldviews; the use of quantitative data does not by itself means that the research is (quasi) statistical, or uses a deductive logic:

Case-based methods are useful, and represent, among other things, a way of moving beyond a useless and destructive tradition in the social sciences that have set quantitative and qualitative modes of exploration, interpretation, and explanation against each other ( Byrne, 2013 , p. 9).

Other authors advocate different understandings of what a case study is. To some, it is a research method, to others it is a research strategy ( Creswell, 1998 ). Sharan Merrian and Robert Yin, among others, began to write about case study research as a methodology in the 1980s (Merrian, 2009), while authors such as Eisenhardt (1989) called it a research strategy. Stake (2003) sees the case study not as a method, but as a choice of what to be studied, the unit of study. Regardless of their differences, these authors agree that case studies should be restricted to a particular context as they aim to provide an in-depth knowledge of a given phenomenon: “A case study is an in-depth description and analysis of a bounded system” (Merrian, 2009, p. 40). According to Merrian, a qualitative case study can be defined by the process through which the research is carried out, by the unit of analysis or the final product, as the choice ultimately depends on what the researcher wants to know. As a product of research, it involves the analysis of a given entity, phenomenon or social unit.

Thus, whether it is an organization, an individual, a context or a phenomenon, single or multiple, one must delimit it, and also choose between possible types and configurations (Merrian, 2009; Yin, 2015 ). A case study may be descriptive, exploratory, explanatory, single or multiple ( Yin, 2015 ); intrinsic, instrumental or collective ( Stake, 2003 ); and confirm or build theory ( Eisenhardt, 1989 ).

both went through the same process of implementing computer labs intended for the use of information and communication technologies in 2007;

both took part in the same regional program (Paraná Digital); and

they shared similar characteristics regarding location (operation in the same neighborhood of a city), number of students, number of teachers and technicians and laboratory sizes.

However, the two institutions differed in the number of hours of program use, with one of them displaying a significant number of hours/use while the other showed a modest number, according to secondary data for the period 2007-2013. Despite the context being similar and the procedures for implementing the technology being the same, the mechanisms of social integration – an idiosyncratic factor of each institution – were different in each case. This explained differences in their use of resource, processes of organizational learning and capacity to absorb new knowledge.

On the other hand, multiple case studies seek evidence in different contexts and do not necessarily require direct comparisons ( Stake, 2003 ). Rather, there is a search for patterns of convergence and divergence that permeate all the cases, as the same issues are explored in every case. Cases can be added progressively until theoretical saturation is achieved. An example is of a study that investigated how entrepreneurial opportunity and management skills were developed through entrepreneurial learning ( Zampier & Takahashi, 2014 ). The authors conducted nine case studies, based on primary and secondary data, with each one analyzed separately, so a search for patterns could be undertaken. The convergence aspects found were: the predominant way of transforming experience into knowledge was exploitation; managerial skills were developed through by taking advantages of opportunities; and career orientation encompassed more than one style. As for divergence patterns: the experience of success and failure influenced entrepreneurs differently; the prevailing rationality logic of influence was different; and the combination of styles in career orientation was diverse.

A full discussion of choice of case study design is outside the scope of this article. For the sake of illustration, we make a brief mention to other selection criteria such as the purpose of the research, the state of the art of the research theme, the time and resources involved and the preferred epistemological position of the researcher. In the next section, we look at the possibilities of carrying out case studies in line with various epistemological traditions, as the answers to the “what is a case?” question reveal varied methodological commitments as well as diverse epistemological and ontological positions ( Ragin, 2013 ).

3. Epistemological positioning of case study research

Ontology and epistemology are like skin, not a garment to be occasionally worn ( Marsh & Furlong, 2002 ). According to these authors, ontology and epistemology guide the choice of theory and method because they cannot or should not be worn as a garment. Hence, one must practice philosophical “self-knowledge” to recognize one’s vision of what the world is and of how knowledge of that world is accessed and validated. Ontological and epistemological positions are relevant in that they involve the positioning of the researcher in social science and the phenomena he or she chooses to study. These positions do not tend to vary from one project to another although they can certainly change over time for a single researcher.

Ontology is the starting point from which the epistemological and methodological positions of the research arise ( Grix, 2002 ). Ontology expresses a view of the world, what constitutes reality, nature and the image one has of social reality; it is a theory of being ( Marsh & Furlong, 2002 ). The central question is the nature of the world out there regardless of our ability to access it. An essentialist or foundationalist ontology acknowledges that there are differences that persist over time and these differences are what underpin the construction of social life. An opposing, anti-foundationalist position presumes that the differences found are socially constructed and may vary – i.e. they are not essential but specific to a given culture at a given time ( Marsh & Furlong, 2002 ).

Epistemology is centered around a theory of knowledge, focusing on the process of acquiring and validating knowledge ( Grix, 2002 ). Positivists look at social phenomena as a world of causal relations where there is a single truth to be accessed and confirmed. In this tradition, case studies test hypotheses and rely on deductive approaches and quantitative data collection and analysis techniques. Scholars in the field of anthropology and observation-based qualitative studies proposed alternative epistemologies based on notions of the social world as a set of manifold and ever-changing processes. In management studies since the 1970s, the gradual acceptance of qualitative research has generated a diverse range of research methods and conceptions of the individual and society ( Godoy, 1995 ).

The interpretative tradition, in direct opposition to positivism, argues that there is no single objective truth to be discovered about the social world. The social world and our knowledge of it are the product of social constructions. Thus, the social world is constituted by interactions, and our knowledge is hermeneutic as the world does not exist independent of our knowledge ( Marsh & Furlong, 2002 ). The implication is that it is not possible to access social phenomena through objective, detached methods. Instead, the interaction mechanisms and relationships that make up social constructions have to be studied. Deductive approaches, hypothesis testing and quantitative methods are not relevant here. Hermeneutics, on the other hand, is highly relevant as it allows the analysis of the individual’s interpretation, of sayings, texts and actions, even though interpretation is always the “truth” of a subject. Methods such as ethnographic case studies, interviews and observations as data collection techniques should feed research designs according to interpretivism. It is worth pointing out that we are to a large extent, caricaturing polar opposites rather characterizing a range of epistemological alternatives, such as realism, conventionalism and symbolic interactionism.

If diverse ontologies and epistemologies serve as a guide to research approaches, including data collection and analysis methods, and if they should be regarded as skin rather than clothing, how does one make choices regarding case studies? What are case studies, what type of knowledge they provide and so on? The views of case study authors are not always explicit on this point, so we must delve into their texts to glean what their positions might be.

Two of the cited authors in case study research are Robert Yin and Kathleen Eisenhardt. Eisenhardt (1989) argues that a case study can serve to provide a description, test or generate a theory, the latter being the most relevant in contributing to the advancement of knowledge in a given area. She uses terms such as populations and samples, control variables, hypotheses and generalization of findings and even suggests an ideal number of case studies to allow for theory construction through replication. Although Eisenhardt includes observation and interview among her recommended data collection techniques, the approach is firmly anchored in a positivist epistemology:

Third, particularly in comparison with Strauss (1987) and Van Maanen (1988), the process described here adopts a positivist view of research. That is, the process is directed toward the development of testable hypotheses and theory which are generalizable across settings. In contrast, authors like Strauss and Van Maanen are more concerned that a rich, complex description of the specific cases under study evolve and they appear less concerned with development of generalizable theory ( Eisenhardt, 1989 , p. 546).

This position attracted a fair amount of criticism. Dyer & Wilkins (1991) in a critique of Eisenhardt’s (1989) article focused on the following aspects: there is no relevant justification for the number of cases recommended; it is the depth and not the number of cases that provides an actual contribution to theory; and the researcher’s purpose should be to get closer to the setting and interpret it. According to the same authors, discrepancies from prior expectations are also important as they lead researchers to reflect on existing theories. Eisenhardt & Graebner (2007 , p. 25) revisit the argument for the construction of a theory from multiple cases:

A major reason for the popularity and relevance of theory building from case studies is that it is one of the best (if not the best) of the bridges from rich qualitative evidence to mainstream deductive research.

Although they recognize the importance of single-case research to explore phenomena under unique or rare circumstances, they reaffirm the strength of multiple case designs as it is through them that better accuracy and generalization can be reached.

Likewise, Robert Yin emphasizes the importance of variables, triangulation in the search for “truth” and generalizable theoretical propositions. Yin (2015 , p. 18) suggests that the case study method may be appropriate for different epistemological orientations, although much of his work seems to invoke a realist epistemology. Authors such as Merrian (2009) and Stake (2003) suggest an interpretative version of case studies. Stake (2003) looks at cases as a qualitative option, where the most relevant criterion of case selection should be the opportunity to learn and understand a phenomenon. A case is not just a research method or strategy; it is a researcher’s choice about what will be studied:

Even if my definition of case study was agreed upon, and it is not, the term case and study defy full specification (Kemmis, 1980). A case study is both a process of inquiry about the case and the product of that inquiry ( Stake, 2003 , p. 136).

Later, Stake (2003 , p. 156) argues that:

[…] the purpose of a case report is not to represent the world, but to represent the case. […] The utility of case research to practitioners and policy makers is in its extension of experience.

Still according to Stake (2003 , pp. 140-141), to do justice to complex views of social phenomena, it is necessary to analyze the context and relate it to the case, to look for what is peculiar rather than common in cases to delimit their boundaries, to plan the data collection looking for what is common and unusual about facts, what could be valuable whether it is unique or common:

Reflecting upon the pertinent literature, I find case study methodology written largely by people who presume that the research should contribute to scientific generalization. The bulk of case study work, however, is done by individuals who have intrinsic interest in the case and little interest in the advance of science. Their designs aim the inquiry toward understanding of what is important about that case within its own world, which is seldom the same as the worlds of researchers and theorists. Those designs develop what is perceived to be the case’s own issues, contexts, and interpretations, its thick descriptions . In contrast, the methods of instrumental case study draw the researcher toward illustrating how the concerns of researchers and theorists are manifest in the case. Because the critical issues are more likely to be know in advance and following disciplinary expectations, such a design can take greater advantage of already developed instruments and preconceived coding schemes.

The aforementioned authors were listed to illustrate differences and sometimes opposing positions on case research. These differences are not restricted to a choice between positivism and interpretivism. It is worth noting that Ragin’s (2013 , p. 523) approach to “casing” is compatible with the realistic research perspective:

In essence, to posit cases is to engage in ontological speculation regarding what is obdurately real but only partially and indirectly accessible through social science. Bringing a realist perspective to the case question deepens and enriches the dialogue, clarifying some key issues while sweeping others aside.

cases are actual entities, reflecting their operations of real causal mechanism and process patterns;

case studies are interactive processes and are open to revisions and refinements; and

social phenomena are complex, contingent and context-specific.

Ragin (2013 , p. 532) concludes:

Lurking behind my discussion of negative case, populations, and possibility analysis is the implication that treating cases as members of given (and fixed) populations and seeking to infer the properties of populations may be a largely illusory exercise. While demographers have made good use of the concept of population, and continue to do so, it is not clear how much the utility of the concept extends beyond their domain. In case-oriented work, the notion of fixed populations of cases (observations) has much less analytic utility than simply “the set of relevant cases,” a grouping that must be specified or constructed by the researcher. The demarcation of this set, as the work of case-oriented researchers illustrates, is always tentative, fluid, and open to debate. It is only by casing social phenomena that social scientists perceive the homogeneity that allows analysis to proceed.

In summary, case studies are relevant and potentially compatible with a range of different epistemologies. Researchers’ ontological and epistemological positions will guide their choice of theory, methodologies and research techniques, as well as their research practices. The same applies to the choice of authors describing the research method and this choice should be coherent. We call this research alignment , an attribute that must be judged on the internal coherence of the author of a study, and not necessarily its evaluator. The following figure illustrates the interrelationship between the elements of a study necessary for an alignment ( Figure 1 ).

In addition to this broader aspect of the research as a whole, other factors should be part of the researcher’s concern, such as the rigor and quality of case studies. We will look into these in the next section taking into account their relevance to the different epistemologies.

4. Rigor and quality in case studies

Traditionally, at least in positivist studies, validity and reliability are the relevant quality criteria to judge research. Validity can be understood as external, internal and construct. External validity means identifying whether the findings of a study are generalizable to other studies using the logic of replication in multiple case studies. Internal validity may be established through the theoretical underpinning of existing relationships and it involves the use of protocols for the development and execution of case studies. Construct validity implies defining the operational measurement criteria to establish a chain of evidence, such as the use of multiple sources of evidence ( Eisenhardt, 1989 ; Yin, 2015 ). Reliability implies conducting other case studies, instead of just replicating results, to minimize the errors and bias of a study through case study protocols and the development of a case database ( Yin, 2015 ).

Several criticisms have been directed toward case studies, such as lack of rigor, lack of generalization potential, external validity and researcher bias. Case studies are often deemed to be unreliable because of a lack of rigor ( Seuring, 2008 ). Flyvbjerg (2006 , p. 219) addresses five misunderstandings about case-study research, and concludes that:

[…] a scientific discipline without a large number of thoroughly executed case studies is a discipline without systematic production of exemplars, and a discipline without exemplars is an ineffective one.

theoretical knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical knowledge;

the case study cannot contribute to scientific development because it is not possible to generalize on the basis of an individual case;

the case study is more useful for generating rather than testing hypotheses;

the case study contains a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions; and

it is difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories based on case studies.

These criticisms question the validity of the case study as a scientific method and should be corrected.

The critique of case studies is often framed from the standpoint of what Ragin (2000) labeled large-N research. The logic of small-N research, to which case studies belong, is different. Cases benefit from depth rather than breadth as they: provide theoretical and empirical knowledge; contribute to theory through propositions; serve not only to confirm knowledge, but also to challenge and overturn preconceived notions; and the difficulty in summarizing their conclusions is because of the complexity of the phenomena studies and not an intrinsic limitation of the method.

Thus, case studies do not seek large-scale generalizations as that is not their purpose. And yet, this is a limitation from a positivist perspective as there is an external reality to be “apprehended” and valid conclusions to be extracted for an entire population. If positivism is the epistemology of choice, the rigor of a case study can be demonstrated by detailing the criteria used for internal and external validity, construct validity and reliability ( Gibbert & Ruigrok, 2010 ; Gibbert, Ruigrok, & Wicki, 2008 ). An example can be seen in case studies in the area of information systems, where there is a predominant orientation of positivist approaches to this method ( Pozzebon & Freitas, 1998 ). In this area, rigor also involves the definition of a unit of analysis, type of research, number of cases, selection of sites, definition of data collection and analysis procedures, definition of the research protocol and writing a final report. Creswell (1998) presents a checklist for researchers to assess whether the study was well written, if it has reliability and validity and if it followed methodological protocols.

In case studies with a non-positivist orientation, rigor can be achieved through careful alignment (coherence among ontology, epistemology, theory and method). Moreover, the concepts of validity can be understood as concern and care in formulating research, research development and research results ( Ollaik & Ziller, 2012 ), and to achieve internal coherence ( Gibbert et al. , 2008 ). The consistency between data collection and interpretation, and the observed reality also help these studies meet coherence and rigor criteria. Siggelkow (2007) argues that a case study should be persuasive and that even a single case study may be a powerful example to contest a widely held view. To him, the value of a single case study or studies with few cases can be attained by their potential to provide conceptual insights and coherence to the internal logic of conceptual arguments: “[…] a paper should allow a reader to see the world, and not just the literature, in a new way” ( Siggelkow, 2007 , p. 23).

Interpretative studies should not be justified by criteria derived from positivism as they are based on a different ontology and epistemology ( Sandberg, 2005 ). The rejection of an interpretive epistemology leads to the rejection of an objective reality: “As Bengtsson points out, the life-world is the subjects’ experience of reality, at the same time as it is objective in the sense that it is an intersubjective world” ( Sandberg, 2005 , p. 47). In this event, how can one demonstrate what positivists call validity and reliability? What would be the criteria to justify knowledge as truth, produced by research in this epistemology? Sandberg (2005 , p. 62) suggests an answer based on phenomenology:

This was demonstrated first by explicating life-world and intentionality as the basic assumptions underlying the interpretative research tradition. Second, based on those assumptions, truth as intentional fulfillment, consisting of perceived fulfillment, fulfillment in practice, and indeterminate fulfillment, was proposed. Third, based on the proposed truth constellation, communicative, pragmatic, and transgressive validity and reliability as interpretative awareness were presented as the most appropriate criteria for justifying knowledge produced within interpretative approach. Finally, the phenomenological epoché was suggested as a strategy for achieving these criteria.

From this standpoint, the research site must be chosen according to its uniqueness so that one can obtain relevant insights that no other site could provide ( Siggelkow, 2007 ). Furthermore, the view of what is being studied is at the center of the researcher’s attention to understand its “truth,” inserted in a given context.

The case researcher is someone who can reduce the probability of misinterpretations by analyzing multiple perceptions, searches for data triangulation to check for the reliability of interpretations ( Stake, 2003 ). It is worth pointing out that this is not an option for studies that specifically seek the individual’s experience in relation to organizational phenomena.

In short, there are different ways of seeking rigor and quality in case studies, depending on the researcher’s worldview. These different forms pervade everything from the research design, the choice of research questions, the theory or theories to look at a phenomenon, research methods, the data collection and analysis techniques, to the type and style of research report produced. Validity can also take on different forms. While positivism is concerned with validity of the research question and results, interpretivism emphasizes research processes without neglecting the importance of the articulation of pertinent research questions and the sound interpretation of results ( Ollaik & Ziller, 2012 ). The means to achieve this can be diverse, such as triangulation (of multiple theories, multiple methods, multiple data sources or multiple investigators), pre-tests of data collection instrument, pilot case, study protocol, detailed description of procedures such as field diary in observations, researcher positioning (reflexivity), theoretical-empirical consistency, thick description and transferability.

5. Conclusions

The central objective of this article was to discuss concepts of case study research, their potential and various uses, taking into account different epistemologies as well as criteria of rigor and validity. Although the literature on methodology in general and on case studies in particular, is voluminous, it is not easy to relate this approach to epistemology. In addition, method manuals often focus on the details of various case study approaches which confuse things further.

Faced with this scenario, we have tried to address some central points in this debate and present various ways of using case studies according to the preferred epistemology of the researcher. We emphasize that this understanding depends on how a case is defined and the particular epistemological orientation that underpins that conceptualization. We have argued that whatever the epistemological orientation is, it is possible to meet appropriate criteria of research rigor and quality provided there is an alignment among the different elements of the research process. Furthermore, multiple data collection techniques can be used in in single or multiple case study designs. Data collection techniques or the type of data collected do not define the method or whether cases should be used for theory-building or theory-testing.

Finally, we encourage researchers to consider case study research as one way to foster immersion in phenomena and their contexts, stressing that the approach does not imply a commitment to a particular epistemology or type of research, such as qualitative or quantitative. Case study research allows for numerous possibilities, and should be celebrated for that diversity rather than pigeon-holed as a monolithic research method.

The interrelationship between the building blocks of research

Byrne , D. ( 2013 ). Case-based methods: Why We need them; what they are; how to do them . Byrne D. In D Byrne. and C.C Ragin (Eds.), The SAGE handbooks of Case-Based methods , pp. 1 – 10 . London : SAGE Publications Inc .

Creswell , J. W. ( 1998 ). Qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five traditions , London : Sage Publications .

Coraiola , D. M. , Sander , J. A. , Maccali , N. & Bulgacov , S. ( 2013 ). Estudo de caso . In A. R. W. Takahashi , (Ed.), Pesquisa qualitativa em administração: Fundamentos, métodos e usos no Brasil , pp. 307 – 341 . São Paulo : Atlas .

Dyer , W. G. , & Wilkins , A. L. ( 1991 ). Better stories, not better constructs, to generate better theory: a rejoinder to Eisenhardt . The Academy of Management Review , 16 , 613 – 627 .

Eisenhardt , K. ( 1989 ). Building theory from case study research . Academy of Management Review , 14 , 532 – 550 .

Eisenhardt , K. M. , & Graebner , M. E. ( 2007 ). Theory building from cases: Opportunities and challenges . Academy of Management Journal , 50 , 25 – 32 .

Flyvbjerg , B. ( 2006 ). Five misunderstandings about case-study research . Qualitative Inquiry , 12 , 219 – 245 .

Freitas , J. S. , Ferreira , J. C. A. , Campos , A. A. R. , Melo , J. C. F. , Cheng , L. C. , & Gonçalves , C. A. ( 2017 ). Methodological roadmapping: a study of centering resonance analysis . RAUSP Management Journal , 53 , 459 – 475 .

Gibbert , M. , Ruigrok , W. , & Wicki , B. ( 2008 ). What passes as a rigorous case study? . Strategic Management Journal , 29 , 1465 – 1474 .

Gibbert , M. , & Ruigrok , W. ( 2010 ). The “what” and “how” of case study rigor: Three strategies based on published work . Organizational Research Methods , 13 , 710 – 737 .

Godoy , A. S. ( 1995 ). Introdução à pesquisa qualitativa e suas possibilidades . Revista de Administração de Empresas , 35 , 57 – 63 .

Grix , J. ( 2002 ). Introducing students to the generic terminology of social research . Politics , 22 , 175 – 186 .

Marsh , D. , & Furlong , P. ( 2002 ). A skin, not a sweater: ontology and epistemology in political science . In D Marsh. , & G Stoker , (Eds.), Theory and Methods in Political Science , New York, NY : Palgrave McMillan , pp. 17 – 41 .

McKeown , T. J. ( 1999 ). Case studies and the statistical worldview: Review of King, Keohane, and Verba’s designing social inquiry: Scientific inference in qualitative research . International Organization , 53 , 161 – 190 .

Merriam , S. B. ( 2009 ). Qualitative research: a guide to design and implementation .

Ollaik , L. G. , & Ziller , H. ( 2012 ). Distintas concepções de validade em pesquisas qualitativas . Educação e Pesquisa , 38 , 229 – 241 .

Picoli , F. R. , & Takahashi , A. R. W. ( 2016 ). Capacidade de absorção, aprendizagem organizacional e mecanismos de integração social . Revista de Administração Contemporânea , 20 , 1 – 20 .

Pozzebon , M. , & Freitas , H. M. R. ( 1998 ). Pela aplicabilidade: com um maior rigor científico – dos estudos de caso em sistemas de informação . Revista de Administração Contemporânea , 2 , 143 – 170 .

Sandberg , J. ( 2005 ). How do we justify knowledge produced within interpretive approaches? . Organizational Research Methods , 8 , 41 – 68 .

Seuring , S. A. ( 2008 ). Assessing the rigor of case study research in supply chain management. Supply chain management . Supply Chain Management: An International Journal , 13 , 128 – 137 .

Siggelkow , N. ( 2007 ). Persuasion with case studies . Academy of Management Journal , 50 , 20 – 24 .

Stake , R. E. ( 2003 ). Case studies . In N. K. , Denzin , & Y. S. , Lincoln (Eds.). Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry , London : Sage Publications . pp. 134 – 164 .

Takahashi , A. R. W. , & Semprebom , E. ( 2013 ). Resultados gerais e desafios . In A. R. W. , Takahashi (Ed.), Pesquisa qualitativa em administração: Fundamentos, métodos e usos no brasil , pp. 343 – 354 . São Paulo : Atlas .

Ragin , C. C. ( 1992 ). Introduction: Cases of “what is a case? . In H. S. , Becker , & C. C. Ragin and (Eds). What is a case? Exploring the foundations of social inquiry , pp. 1 – 18 .

Ragin , C. C. ( 2013 ). Reflections on casing and Case-Oriented research . In D , Byrne. , & C. C. Ragin (Eds.), The SAGE handbooks of Case-Based methods , London : SAGE Publications , pp. 522 – 534 .

Yin , R. K. ( 2015 ). Estudo de caso: planejamento e métodos , Porto Alegre : Bookman .

Zampier , M. A. , & Takahashi , A. R. W. ( 2014 ). Aprendizagem e competências empreendedoras: Estudo de casos de micro e pequenas empresas do setor educacional . RGO Revista Gestão Organizacional , 6 , 1 – 18 .

Acknowledgements

Author contributions: Both authors contributed equally.

Corresponding author

Related articles, all feedback is valuable.

Please share your general feedback

Report an issue or find answers to frequently asked questions

Contact Customer Support

• Español – América Latina
• Português – Brasil

Khan Academy: Scaling and simplifying

About Khan Academy

Khan Academy is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization with the mission of providing a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere. Its free resources include practice questions, quizzes, videos, and articles. Offering preschool through early college learning on a range of academic subjects, Khan Academy has been translated into 36 languages, and 18 million people learn on Khan Academy monthly.

Tell us your challenge. We're here to help.

Google cloud platform results.

• Supports 3.8 million unique visits each month, along with 1.5 million practice questions served and answered every school day
• Gains functionality that lets students chart their progress through profiles built via App Engine
• Focuses resources on improving the user experience
• Easily handles usage surges
• Deploys App Engine to host and maintain KhanAcademy.org

Based in Mountain View, California, Khan Academy is a not-for-profit that produces and posts a vast collection of free educational online videos about math and science topics ranging from algebra and trigonometry to biology and economics. Millions of students, educators, and self-learners around the world watch the videos, both on the Khan Academy’s YouTube channel and on its hugely popular website (www.khanacademy.org), where students answer some 1.5 million practice questions per school day. The Khan Academy development team continually tweaks the site based on how visitors choose to learn.

Khan Academy’s beginnings date back to 2004, when Sal Khan’s cousin asked him to remotely tutor her daughter in math. Khan was happy to help and more than qualified, given his three MIT degrees and his Harvard MBA. As more relatives and friends asked Khan for tutoring assistance, he began videotaping short lessons and posting them to YouTube. His knack for distilling complex concepts into easy-to-follow tutorials helped the videos go viral.

Khan maintained a website for his growing video library for several years, but the platform experienced limitations as traffic increased. At the same time, media attention was growing, and technology industry leaders, including Microsoft founder Bill Gates and Silicon Valley venture capitalist John Doerr, began lending their support and evangelizing Khan’s mission and work. It was at this point that Khan quit his job as a hedge fund analyst to devote his full-time attention to the site’s growing potential.

“With Google App Engine, we don’t need a system administrator or anyone dedicated to deploying our app, so 99 percent of our time is spent working on our application," says Ben Kamens, lead developer, Khan Academy.

“Sal knew he needed to offload the technical and maintenance concerns so he could work on what was important, which was to make more videos for the Khan Academy library,” explains Ben Kamens, lead developer for Khan Academy. “To grow, it was important for him to be able to stop worrying about things like deployment issues and running his own server.”

Khan Academy chose App Engine as its hosting and application development platform because App Engine could easily house its growing collection of 2,000-plus videos, resolving the organization’s overall server and maintenance issues with a single solution.

Using App Engine freed the team to focus on the user experience and the array of content that makes the academy such a powerhouse.

“A lot of what the Khan Academy is about is collecting data on student behavior so we can teach them better,” Kamens says. “Did they use a hint? Have they watched the video before? That data is being stored on Google App Engine so we can figure out what the most effective videos are, or where students struggle the most.”

Khan Academy provides individual profiles to students so they can analyze their learning progress, which means the organization needs systems running in the background to collect and track of all this data. Because App Engine takes care of server support, Khan Academy’s five developers can spend almost all of their time improving site functionality.

“If we didn’t have Google App Engine, we’d be spending a lot more time figuring out server setup and working on routers,” Kamens says. “Our ability to focus on the actual product is the benefit of Google App Engine.”

With the App Engine dashboard, which provides information like response time, uptime, and error rates, the development team also has an easy way to watch over site performance. “It lets us see what the average response time is, so we can keep it really low,” Kamens explains.

During the US school year, Khan Academy receives more than 3.8 million unique visits a month — all served through App Engine. To support this much traffic, a typical company would need an internal system administration staff.

“With Google App Engine, we don’t need a system administrator or anyone dedicated to deploying our app, so 99 percent of our time is spent working on our application,” explains Kamens. “Our application lives on Google App Engine, and we bank all of our scalability and traffic concerns on Google App Engine. Even huge traffic spikes from Sal’s media appearances don’t worry us since we know that Google App Engine will handle the spike.”

Kamens also likes the fact that he and his team can turn to the Google App Engine support team for assistance when they need it. He also finds helpful tips on the Google App Engine blog.

The Khan Academy staff has come to completely rely on App Engine. “We are constantly using more of Google App Engine’s capabilities and have been happy with the performance,” Kamens says. “It’s nice to have an easy deployment process since we deploy the site on average at least once a day, [and] sometimes up to nine or 10 times [a day].”

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, November 20). What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved September 16, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-study/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, primary vs. secondary sources | difference & examples, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is action research | definition & examples, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

Hello there! Log into the academy:

In order to log into your academy profile, please provide your email and password

Did you previously use

Don’t have an account yet?

Video Online Course

Learn with Michal Malewicz

How to create a case study

Learn how to create a case study for your UI project!

Course outline

Introduction

This will help you create more case studies for your portfolio faster.

How to start + Market Research

Let's start the case study with the most important information, following a simple framework.

Competitive analysis + User Survey

This will show you what recruiters need to know.

Here's how you can create personas quickly and in style!

Low fidelity wireframes + Flows

How to show flow diagrams, low-fidelity wireframes and initial sketches and write an engaging story around them.

High Fidelity UI

A good case study starts with a high-fidelity key visual on the top, and ends with one at the bottom.

Prototype + Mini Usability Study

This will take a lot of work and effort comparing to other items in the course.

Accessibility checkup and wrap up

Create an accessibility breakdown to adhere to the WCAG contrast rules, and how the design came to be.

Portfolio best practices

Where to host your portfolio, should you send it in a PDF, tips, tricks and mistakes to avoid.

Hierarchy Strips

Learn the hierarchy strips method to annotate your designs like a pro

Contrast and fidelity boost

See your case study in a new light with more modern contrasts, fidelity boosts and ways to modify the existing elements.

UI Case study tips and annotations

Learn how to properly annotate your case studies with elements like color definitions, typography scales, and component definitions. Then explore how you can use hierarchy strips and a multi-step process to outline specific UI components in a design driven fashion that will surely turn some heads!

The most important case study tip

The most important part of any case study is about making it into a story that is engaging enough for people to follow. In this chapter I will show you how you can do it easily.

What will you learn after the course?

The course will provide you with helpful & practical information on building case studies

Starting with UI

If you already have some UI designs, you can use them to create a full UX case study. This is like putting the process on its head a little, but it allows you to have a better port

Easy to do research

Learn to do simple market research to show your grasp of the environment your product is on. Then survey your users and plan a basic usability study.

Flows and wireframes

Show how you planned the flows between the wireframes and how the product comes together as a prototype.

Competitive analysis

Look at other products in your category. Evaluate their strengths and weaknesses to show that you’re designing with a broad understanding of the market.

Creating a full, UX Case study

Combine everything together into a detailed, comprehensive, full case study with a purpose of showing clients and recruiters you understand how design works.

What is SquarePlanet?

It`s an educational platform with both paid and free content for designers and developers. We will be adding new featured, articles and materials in the coming weeks.

Want to stay informed about new courses & books?

We curate useful tools, interesting news stories from the week, special discounts and more!

You can also follow us on:

What to expect : If you wish to withdraw your consent and stop hearing from us, simply click the unsubscribe link at the bottom of every email we send or contact us at [email protected]. We value and respect your personal data and privacy. To view our privacy policy, please visit our website. By submitting this form, you agree that we may process your information in accordance with these terms.

I want to receive great stuff!

Psst. We post very cool content on our Instagram: @malewiczhype

News from the designer world packed in quick and helpful tutorials, that you won’t find anywhere else. Follow us to grow as a designer!

100% positive reviews: ⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️  (4.98)

“This book is the best. 👏❤️ Still reading and I love it.”

@uiraygan on Instagram

Our newest book! 🎉

Learn how to become a successful developer and earn more money!

Kala Academy, Goa by Charles Correa: A Prominent Cultural Centre

What is a “Heritage Building”? Where does the heritage , attached to it, come from? Is it necessary for a building tagged as heritage, to have persevered a few hundred years? Charles Correa ’s Kala Academy in Goa has been a building of historic architectural, cultural, and social importance in the entire country, being the only diverse cultural academy to offer western, classical, and mixed arts courses. The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA), GOI, says,

“heritage building includes any building which requires preservation for historical, architectural, artisanry, aesthetic, cultural, environmental, and/or ecological purposes.”

The building itself embodies the ideologies of ‘India’s greatest architect’- Charles Correa. The ‘un-building’, a term used many times by Correa himself, became a people’s favourite instantly when it was completed in 1983. The building is a unique example of giving back to society. Even in its expansive built-form, it draws the pedestrian streets into the internal open-to-sky courtyards and through the internal streets onto the Mandovi river edge; not before a pit-stop at the cafe for some chai-samosas. Charles designs the building for a wanderer, he directs you in his subtleties to explore the space on your way to the riverfront.

The first Chief Minister of Goa, Dayanand Bandodkar or Bhausaheb Bandodkar- as he was more popularly known, had a dream to have a definitive and inclusive arts society in the free state of Goa. They formed the Kala Academy Society as a not-for-profit society of the arts to promote the local and international art forms without prejudice. One of the founding members was Mr. Pratapsingh Rane, an MLA from Bandodkar’s party who later became the chief minister of Goa 5 times in his career (and is an MLA in the Goa Legislature). From the very beginning, the society had a providence for a built entity that would be unique and general at the same time; a center at the confluence of Eastern and Western culture. Rane, who was familiar with a few of Correa’s built works, sought a meeting between the society and Correa. Correa, having Goan Ancestry, though born in Hyderabad and brought up mostly in Bombay, gave Goa something so wonderful, that it transcended the built fabric of the continent.

The site where Kala Academy Goa sits was beachfront for old Goan houses where the locals caught fish and watched the time pass along with the barges and the ships. While planning this building, Charles Correa ever so excitedly seemed to have involved himself to make sure that this way of life of the people stays unaffected by the built form but only intensifies it. The view of the Reis Magos fort across the river and the river walk with its lighthouse and the now-demolished jetty was synonymous with Goa, and the Kala Academy itself, an iconic building for architecture students, is always at the tip of their tongues.

Spending my crucial years in Campal, I have wandered many times through the streets created by Correa. I have walked through the courtyards observing a mix of people from all over, either stretched out alone with a book, humming along to a guy with a guitar, talking intensely with a cup of tea, waiting for the Tiatr (a musical theatre) to begin, or some amusingly walking back and forth fascinated by the trompe l’œil in the open street . Do you know the feeling of being in a building and yet not feeling the architecture overpower you? That’s the feeling that Kala Academy evokes.

Almeida, Sarto, and Jaimini Mehta, in their article, say,

“The relatively low rise mass is spread horizontally and organized around an innovative ground plan with an open ‘street’ going through the entire building. This allows one to enter the building without being self-conscious about entering; it makes an otherwise serious public institution seem less ‘institutional’ and more relaxed and appropriate.”

Reinforcing the ‘un-building’ that is a facilitator to the everyday life of the locals and the visitors alike. Kala Academy is programmed with spaces such as Exhibition halls, open-air theatres, auditoriums , meeting rooms, teaching rooms, lounges, cafeteria, the black box, rehearsal rooms, teaching rooms, and admin block. The ground floor is dedicated to the public and the first floor to the academic and administration, thus creating a building that gives back to the city in ways that can only be elaborated with a finger on its pulse. The Kala Academy building is one of the most inclusive buildings in Goa, or even maybe the entire country, as nothing signals exclusivity, including the gate that is wide and low to allow a generous view inside and beyond. The building has two gates, one towards the parking and one leading to the symbolic pergola, referencing the trees over Campal’s road under which all activity happens. I remember the gates being open at all hours as we would sit at the jetty even at midnight and enjoy the warm breeze of the Mandovi after a meal. Public space matters in today’s times and this building, though being nearly 40 years old, was definitely ahead of its times. Nondita Correa Mehrotra, Charles’ daughter, recalls in a conversation with Vivek Menezes,

“He just loved the site—he loved the way the building could connect to (the old Goan neighbourhood of) Campal and the Mandovi river. Many important components came together for him, seemingly effortlessly. Yet he spent a lot of energy in getting it all right.”

The Biennial Z-Axis event, organized by CCF is held in Kala Academy every two years, attracting thousands of attendees.

A simple orthogonal grid makes up the plan, within which there is an interplay in the volume of spaces. With nothing to suggest monumentality, the entire building is low with just three floors and furthers the horizontality of the structure. Most of the spaces inside the Kala Academy are heterogeneous, and the transition between the spaces is through corridors that resemble the streets of old Goa. Correa sketched the murals on the walls that create the illusion of the Goan streets and Bhiwandker, a signboard painter, blew it up and brought it to life. Knowing Correa and his many buildings scattered around the world, buildings such as the McGovern Institute for Brain Research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (the architect’s alma mater), the Champalimaud Centre for The Unknown in Lisbon, and the Ismaili Centre (attached to the Aga Khan Museum ) in Toronto, I don’t know if there would be a better example in the world of architecture for the currently-trending hollow call of ‘Vocal for Local’. Not only was he vocal, but his buildings also show us the necessity to react to a region’s cultural influence rather than follow the strict principles of modernism that he grew up in.

Experiencing the spaces in Kala Academy, I could see how diligently balanced the indoors and outdoors were. The indoor spaces connected to the outdoors in such a way that even when I was inside I could feel the breeze from the riverside. Poet and critic Ranjit Hoskote recognizes the classic features of Correa’s architecture present in Kala Academy and adds, “And let us not forget the laterite that forms its key medium—it articulates the flesh and blood of Goa’s architecture, it comes from the soil of Goa, from the soul of Goa.” There is no doubt that the regional essence was important to Correa, whose buildings all over the world always reference the elements of the region.

The Dinanath Mangeshkar auditorium—named after the Goa-born musician father of Lata Mangeshkar and Asha Bhosle—has seen many maestros perform from all over the world and has been a launch-pad for many local artists to start their career. Not to mention the tightly contested state Tiatr and Mando competitions, all running to house-full capacities in the 954-seat auditorium. Correa commissioned Mario Miranda—who needs no introduction—to draw virtual balconies with his signature cartoons inside the auditorium where acoustic extrusions were required on the walls to accommodate Indian Classical and Western music, both needing different reverberation times in the space.

The International Film Festival of India (IFFI) held every year in Goa, saw a jetty made in 2004 at the riverside, to receive celebrities and dignitaries housed in Sinquerim through the waterway. In 2010, I worked on this jetty as part of the ‘Lights in Goa’ event, conceptualizing and creating lighting installations for the jetty to draw attention to the ageing structure and to highlight its importance. With a heavy heart, we lost the jetty to corrosion in the foundation recently. An element that had become the culmination of the journey from the pedestrian path, through Correa’s internal streets, to the riverside.

Ever since the academy was built, it has truly given back to the people the piece of land it sits on and has generated curiosity in the arts and culture of the region through Correa’s ingenious design. It has played a significant role in strengthening the Goan culture and integrating world culture into it. It has become a go-to name for any local for an event, a stroll, an exhibition , or referring to Goa while in a foreign place. For many people, it is not just a building; it is a place to which they attach a lot of memories and emotions.

The heritage of this building comes from its cultural importance as an Arts Academy unlike any other in the country, and its architectural importance of inclusivity and focusing on the people rather than the monumentality of the building itself. It submits to the public in a way few other edifices do in modern times. It presents itself as a transition space, a place to wander, explore, introspect, rest, be pensive, be active, and reach somewhere that you wouldn’t expect to reach. In our times, when the architectural signature is characterized by august structures such as the Statue of Unity or the Antilla, a building of utmost inclusivity and submissiveness of the human scale is rare and inconceivable.

When the Goa Government made an announcement recently about breaking down part of the structure, the open-air auditorium—owing to leakages and the structure has become fragile and unyielding, my heart sank; first the jetty, then this? Is this just another building that you can break and remake? Even breaking down a part of it is as good as breaking down the whole thing. Any building needs maintenance and care, but a building of such significance in modern Goa needs preservation, not just ad hoc waterproofing and mindless cosmetics. The Charles Correa Foundation (CCF), based in Fontainhas, headed by Nondita Correa Mehrotra started communications with the government and an online petition to save the building from demolition and got through the courts to have experts do a thorough examination of how to preserve it. When I contacted the Foundation to find out the status of the progress, Tahir Noronha, a convener at CCF generously informed me the following—

Here is the update on the Kala Academy today (as on 2nd July 2020)

In January 2020, Professor RG Pillai, IIT Madras, was flown in by CCF to inspect the Kala Academy building, post his study of the 2 structural audit reports prepared by the Government of Goa, he submitted a report in February stating the following points,

• That the structure does not require demolition and can be repaired;
• Repetitive layers of non-performing waterproofing have led to an undesirable dead load burdening the structure with unnecessary weight;
• There is severe corrosion to the steel and concrete in some areas; which needs to be addressed.
• That the quality of work should not be compromised by rushed time-schedule and that it is advisable to ensure long-term preventive measures to preserve the building;
• That there are technologies that can stop corrosion even if it has already set in, for example, Cathodic Protection which can arrest the further spread of corrosion and protect the steel reinforcement for the foreseeable future;
• As an emergency step, it is recommended to remove the extra concrete overlays without causing further damage to the structure and then provide a waterproofing system to protect the structure from moisture attack until the major repair is completed (i.e., for about two years).
• This waterproofing system must be in place before the forthcoming monsoon.
• Two years of temporary protection is suggested considering the possible delays in procuring technical and financial sanctions/approvals from the Government of Goa.

Representatives from CCF met the Minister of Art and Culture and implored him to take necessary steps to protect the structure before the monsoons, around the same time, the COVID-19 pandemic began to pick up and we were informed that the state is facing a dearth of funds and that only existing works will be continued.

The court proceedings have also been adjourned indefinitely.

The monsoon hit Goa on 8th June and we have no idea what the state of the structure will be by August.

Kala Academy is a historic building, maybe not by age, but by the special place it holds in the hearts of the Ponjekars and the thousands who have performed and exhibited there, says Alexandre Moniz Barbosa in an editorial in Herald Newspaper. A building of such cultural importance warrants conservation and transcendence into the future to demonstrate how it was the first building in Goa to interpret Goan architecture and a true building of the people. Every citizen’s voice is alive in its streets today and many people walk through this wonderful un-building every day, not privy to its monumental importance. That is Charles Correa’s magic trick.

Sahil Tanveer is an architect and thinker, who runs a cosmopolitan Architecture studio with work across the country. He believes architecture is all-inclusive and personal. He is continually in search of the unknown, while observing psychology, philosophy, and the influence of culture and society on architecture and design.

T.S. Adams Studio Architects, Inc.- 11 Iconic Projects

The Rise of the Reichstag

Related posts.

Jorasanko Thakur Bari, Kolkata

Project in-septh: Madrid-Barajas Airport Terminal 4 by Estudio Lamela & Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners

Berlin Haputbahnhof, Berlin

The Cellular Jail, Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Shiva Mandir Deobaloda, Chhattisgarh

Patio House, Karpathos

• Architectural Community
• Architectural Facts
• RTF Architectural Reviews
• Architectural styles
• City and Architecture
• Fun & Architecture
• History of Architecture
• Design Studio Portfolios
• Designing for typologies
• RTF Design Inspiration
• Architecture News
• Career Advice
• Case Studies
• Construction & Materials
• Covid and Architecture
• Interior Design
• Know Your Architects
• Landscape Architecture
• Materials & Construction
• Product Design
• RTF Fresh Perspectives
• Sustainable Architecture
• Top Architects
• Travel and Architecture
• Rethinking The Future Awards 2022
• RTF Awards 2021 | Results
• GADA 2021 | Results
• RTF Awards 2020 | Results
• ACD Awards 2020 | Results
• GADA 2019 | Results
• ACD Awards 2018 | Results
• GADA 2018 | Results
• RTF Awards 2017 | Results
• RTF Sustainability Awards 2017 | Results
• RTF Sustainability Awards 2016 | Results
• RTF Sustainability Awards 2015 | Results
• RTF Awards 2014 | Results
• RTF Architectural Visualization Competition 2020 – Results
• Architectural Photography Competition 2020 – Results
• Designer’s Days of Quarantine Contest – Results
• Urban Sketching Competition May 2020 – Results
• RTF Essay Writing Competition April 2020 – Results
• Architectural Photography Competition 2019 – Finalists
• The Ultimate Thesis Guide
• Introduction to Landscape Architecture
• Perfect Guide to Architecting Your Career
• How to Design Architecture Portfolio
• How to Design Streets
• Introduction to Urban Design
• Introduction to Product Design
• Complete Guide to Dissertation Writing
• Introduction to Skyscraper Design
• Educational
• Hospitality
• Institutional
• Office Buildings
• Public Building
• Residential
• Sports & Recreation
• Temporary Structure
• Commercial Interior Design
• Corporate Interior Design
• Healthcare Interior Design
• Hospitality Interior Design
• Residential Interior Design
• Sustainability
• Transportation
• Urban Design
• Host your Course with RTF
• Architectural Writing Training Programme | WFH
• Editorial Internship | In-office
• Graphic Design Internship
• Research Internship | WFH
• Research Internship | New Delhi
• RTF | About RTF
• Submit Your Story

• Hispanoamérica
• Work at ArchDaily
• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• Cookie Policy

Avasara Academy / Case Design

• Curated by María Francisca González
• Architects: Case Design
• Area Area of this architecture project Area:  14200 m²
• Year Completion year of this architecture project Year:  2019
• Photographs Photographs: Ariel Huber
• Furniture : Vishvakarma Furniture
• Project Management : AMs Project Consultants
• Structural Engineering : Strudcom , Nikhil Inamdar
• Climate Engineering : Transsolar | KlimaEngineering , Pratik Raval
• Interior Work and Finishes : Mortar Construction , Rameshwar Bhadhwa
• Civil Construction : Vaichal Construction
• Partner And Principal Designer:  Samuel R. Barclay
• Project Architects:  Ami Matthan, Dhwani Mehta, Shoeb Khan, Simone Picano, Ji Min An, Tofan Rafati, Anne Geenen, Aamod Narkar, Farhaan Bengali
• Landscape Implementation:  Farhaan Bengali
• Furniture Design:  Paul Michelon
• Intern:  Chirag Bhagat
• Colour:  Malene Bach
• Landscape Architect:  Hemali Samant
• Founder Of School:  Roopa Purushothaman
• Head Of School:  Joseph Cubas
• City:  Maharashtra
• Country:  India

Text description provided by the architects. Settled into the valley slope above the small village of Lavale, Avasara Academy is a residential school for economically disadvantaged young women in western India.

Located just outside the urban periphery of Pune, the school lies at the edge of a rural landscape and a rapidly developing township known as Knowledge City.

Uniquely positioned to take advantage of locally shared education resources and incredible social, religious, and economic diversity, Avasara is rapidly establishing itself as a leader in the education and development of young women in India. 

Comprised of a collection of simple concrete structures shrouded in bamboo and arranged around an informal series of walkways, courtyards, gardens and terraces, the built environment of the campus was designed for economic efficiency as well as flexibility and readiness to adapt both during and after the design process.

The rudimentary framework of each building enabled a process of dialogue and collaboration amongst a diverse group of builders, designers, farmers, artists, craftsmen, and engineers who share the belief that collaboration and empathy lie at the core of all good work.

Together with these contributors we have created moments of hospitality, social interaction, B6 reflection, play, ritual, seclusion, performance, and comfort. Intended for a variety of uses, these public and private spaces aspire to give a sense of familiarity and intimacy to the young women living and studying on campus.

Culled from local and universal examples of academic, domestic, public and sacred spaces and evolving through a process of inclusion and thoughtful attention to both physical and social environments, the project developed in response to what was already there; climate, landscape, materials, routines, traditions and memory, to create a sanctuary for learning.

Project gallery

Project location

Address: maharashtra, india.

Materials and Tags

• Sustainability

想阅读文章的中文版本吗?

Avasara 学院 / Case Design Studio

You've started following your first account, did you know.

You'll now receive updates based on what you follow! Personalize your stream and start following your favorite authors, offices and users.

Check the latest Desk Accessories

Check the latest Desks Privacy Furniture

• Onsite training

3,000,000+ delegates

15,000+ clients

1,000+ locations

• KnowledgePass
• Log a ticket

+1 7204454674 Available 24/7

The Knowledge Academy - Case Studies and Reviews

Discover our clients' success stories and outspoken feedback in our compelling case studies and reviews. The Knowledge Academy provides significant insights into the practical implementation of our training approaches through Case Studies.

Case Study 1: Women’s Empowerment

Case study 2: leaders and their leadership style, case study 3: manufacturing, case study 4: travel agent masterclass, case study 5: new online banking application’s testing.

The case study is of Ms Lena, a mother of two daughters and a victim of gender discrimination. She has been an active volunteer since the early years of her life. She was unable to complete her education but was eager to teach and assist others. She had her first daughter as an adult after her marriage, and then her second daughter a few years later. She experienced discrimination and loneliness, yet her deep desire to serve others never stopped. She had strong support from her spouse, so she decided to take a risk and work for the community. She became a member of the community, but she still felt powerless because she had no voice among the other members. She left and became a community health worker, but after a few years, she realised that her ability to help others was restricted and became the leader of a women's group. As the group's leader, she went out to many potential women to work for the community, and she quickly formed an action group to combat various societal problems and detrimental gender-based practices. She led an anti-arrack rally and successfully removed the shop from the country and its surrounding area. She also provided a safe and secure environment for the girls to move freely throughout the country.

• Women's economic empowerment has emerged as an important development priority.
• Providing women with more opportunities to earn an income has been proven to contribute significantly to the attainment of development results.
• Yet, in the rush to attract more women to work and increase women's earning capacities, less attention has been paid to what would make working more empowering for women.
• Women's empowerment through economic self-sufficiency and increased awareness of social, political, and legal issues through mobilisation is important.
• Women's multiple functions, such as reproductive, productive, and community management, must also be recognised and emphasised.
• Women must be organised and reinforced from the ground up in order to end their subordination.
• ABC Technologies Ltd is attempting to make women self-sufficient through different skill training programmes.
• The company believes that if residents are appropriately empowered with knowledge and skill sets, communities can thrive and sustain themselves.
• ABC has been involved in numerous women empowerment initiatives, one of which was vocational training that generates sustainable livelihoods.

ABC concentrated its initiatives on the welfare and well-being of women from underprivileged social groups with the progress of communities being dependent on the working generation. The overarching goal was to provide them with the opportunity to improve their level of living for themselves and their families. ABC considers that empowering a woman means empowering the entire family. ABC has offered to tailor vocational training courses to foster self-sufficiency among poor women, particularly girl student dropouts, widows, divorcees, and BPL women.

The primary goal of this programme was to improve women's quality of life through increased knowledge and skills. The Foundation also recognised that simply imparting literacy would not be adequate. Women require vocational training or skills to improve their economic status. They must be able to support their families and stand on their own. Discussions with women revealed that they, too, want to learn new talents to support their household income. They expressed an interest in studying fundamental stitching techniques as well as advanced tailoring, fashion design, and other topics. Through different informal educational programmes, the trust primarily served children and women from economically/socially disadvantaged backgrounds. ABC reached out to the most vulnerable members of society through a variety of programmes. ABC began initiatives for students as well as low-income women who have stated their goals. Women in such communities typically prefer to be self-sufficient for the following reasons:

• The family's income is insufficient.
• Family requires additional income. The family's educational history is discouraging.
• The family head is a bad habit. Due to a lack of knowledge, women are unable to operate their families on their own.
• Widows and divorcees want additional income to get back on their feet. May use leisure time to learn new talents that will aid them in life.
• To foster familial respect. To become a small entrepreneur. Peer-to-peer service in the community.

The following case is a complete comparison of ABC and XYZ, where the leadership styles and behaviours of both companies' CEOs, Lucas and Noah, vary. To begin, the case talks about the features of the leadership styles displayed by both CEOs. Following that, a brief explanation of path-goal leadership theory is given, as well as the style of leadership behaviour exhibited by Lucas and Noah. A brief argument is then offered to demonstrate how Lucas' and Noah's leadership styles can influence workers' motivation, either positively or negatively. Also, several suggestions are provided for Lucas to create a more harmonious workplace that is less stressful and toxic for XYZ employees.

Because of his democratic leadership style, Noah is one of the most respected businessmen. This style led to his considerable success. According to Mathias and Jonas, democratic leadership is defined as decentralised decision-making shared by subordinates. Similarly, Noah actively includes his employees in all company decisions and enables them to participate in decision-making. Employees at ABC are given the opportunity to develop their own ideas and apply them in their areas of expertise. He believes that every employee at ABC is an entrepreneur in their own right. He encourages his employees to express their knowledge and ideas rather than simply obeying orders from superiors. This is known as laissez-faire leadership, in which leaders provide little or no direction and employees work and solve problems individually, giving employees more confidence and motivation at work. Furthermore, the organisation has not established any form of a specific process for specific activities because Noah feels that a person's effectiveness cannot be measured when working according to a specific approach. According to Juan's research, a culture with little power distance allows employees to suggest their understanding of how they wish to execute the task.

The best and biggest electronic manufacturing company in the world, XYZ, is owned by Lucas. His autocratic leadership style assists in continual error-free manufacturing and meeting deadlines on time. This style of leadership incorporates the use of punishment and a task-oriented approach. This shows that autocratic leaders concentrate on task management and completion. Leaders that take this approach do not enable their employees the freedom to work freely. This style of leader is also referred to as a directive leader by the path-goal leadership theory. They guide their subordinates by explicitly setting out the requirements and expectations of the task and keeping specific performance standards. Workers are constantly pushed to work harder in order to achieve ever-increasing efficiency and production under this leadership style. He does not want to compromise on quality, thus he is willing to go to greater extents to attain it. Decisions are made by the leader without consulting the employee in this type of leadership strategy. There is a significant power distance at XYZ. "Integration and Moral Discipline, both adversely linked with Juan's Power Distance and Individualism," according to Jose. Only leaders have the authority to make decisions, and employees must follow orders and perform what is requested of them. This is extremely similar to a dictatorship in which the leader's orders must be followed under any circumstances.

According to the Path-goal leadership theory, a good leader is one who specifies the way through which followers can attain both task-related and personal objectives. It also illustrates how the motivation, performance, and pleasure of the leader influence the organisation. According to the theory, there are four kinds of leadership styles, each depending on the situation. These are the leadership approaches:

• Directive Leadership
• Supportive Leadership
• Participative Leadership
• Achievement-oriented Leadership

Noah displays multiple leadership behaviours, according to the Path-Goal theory. To begin, he shows a participative leadership style. Investigating the relationship between participatory leadership and work performance revealed that there is a favourable relationship. The example demonstrated that there are no fixed protocols at ABC, and every employee is allowed the ability to participate in the company's decision-making process. Noah is frequently actively involved in encouraging his employees to explore their ideas and inventions. He also exhibits a helpful leadership approach. He encourages and trusts his employees to complete a challenging task without the assistance of leaders. He also believes in rewarding his employees for their outstanding achievements, demonstrating his transactional leadership qualities. Leaders that take this strategy propel their organisations to new heights. Locus' leadership style, on the other hand, is opposed to Noah’s. His leadership style is best recognised as directive leadership, in which the boss takes complete control of all decisions and does not listen to employee advice. As stated in the lawsuit, the employees of XYZ operate in a military-style environment that is strictly enforced. Any inaccuracy is not permitted. Locus has even implemented measures, such as a letter declaring that his organisation is not liable for any suicide attempts by his employees, which is unethical for the employees. But, his leadership style necessitates certain qualities in the employee. Despite these circumstances, he can complete his assignment precisely and on schedule. Nonetheless, there is a dearth of a more in-depth understanding of human interaction in the workplace.

ABC Manufacturing does not just operate, they also source and manufacture fine parts locally. Despite their links to the community and superior technology to their competitors, they struggled to recruit staff and customers. When Impact audited ABC's marketing, they discovered two fundamental impacts in their strategy:

• Inadequate online presence.
• Branding that did not stand out in their industry.

ABC would require to overhaul its communications to be more broad, memorable, and effective in order to develop its business and expand its workforce.

A brand of the business encompasses all a customer might anticipate while thinking about that company on the surface level. It can contain their logo, common language, standard colour palette and tone, and other elements. The scope of work involved in renewing a business's brand might vary. Sometimes it is as simple as upgrading existing materials; other times, the impact must build an entirely new logo, tagline, and more. Regardless of the extent, the result of a brand refresh is a unified and versatile set of assets and standards that will assist consumers in remembering you more effortlessly.

Social media is still a newer mode of communication. Organisations are still struggling to develop an efficient and complete social media strategy due to its being young and the fact that most users are on it for fun instead of work. The effect creates a long-term plan by combining best practices in social media marketing with a client's brand guidelines and goals. It will feature postings aimed at increasing interaction and awareness, which will result in more customers and simpler recruitment.

Professional photos are required for professional images. Blurry or low-quality images and videos make products or services appear undesirable, while stock images and videos are so generic that they are quickly forgotten. Photography and videography services can help with this. Impact's creatives will photograph your products, places, and staff in their best light. A person may even ensure that the completed items blend in seamlessly with the rest of your branding, making it simple to stick them into your marketing materials wherever you want them to go.

Impact continued with our photographic and videography work, presenting ABC's personnel and using brilliant colours to accentuate the human connection, with this new brand character and positioning in mind. Furthermore, Impact redesigned ABC's website and social channels to communicate the tale of their smart integration and how both the machinery and their personnel play an important role in their process.

A large-scale expansion was underway at an automotive manufacturing company. Owing to space limitations, the Machine Shop, CNC machines, and Gear Box Assembly Line were moved to a hired place away from the main plant. Workers for this manufacturing activity, as well as managerial staff, were transferred.

The company was looking for financial services assistance; they required a firm to manage the material accounting independently so that they could concentrate on their primary manufacturing activity.

The company briefed the team's trained and experienced accounting professionals on the situation. The Team was also given a tour to ensure that they understood the full process. All areas that could be outsourced were identified by the Team.

The new site's complete material accounting activities. Castings and components required for machining and assembly of Gear Boxes are received. Physical material verification and reporting of any discrepancies to the main plant. Material is issued to production based on the daily production plan. Gearboxes built at Unit Point 2 are dispatched to the main facility according to daily timetables. Maintaining data for Excise authorities, including the filing of monthly returns. Constantly updating management on all transactions at Unit point 2.

Manufacturing was a primary activity for the company, so it could focus on it. At Unit 2, the company was able to eradicate its separate store and excise department. The company was constantly updated on material use, including production waste at Unit Point 2. Any material differences were recognised, communicated, and examined as soon as possible. The company attained important savings in Unit Point 2 staff costs, which were greater than professional fees.

In the travel industry, providing exceptional customer service and expertise is crucial for travel agents to thrive in a competitive market. This case study examines the implementation of a Travel Agent Masterclass by a leading travel agency, TravelWorld.

TravelWorld is a renowned travel agency that offers a wide range of travel services, including flight bookings, hotel accommodations, vacation packages, and destination recommendations. Recognising the importance of continuous professional development for its travel agents, TravelWorld designed a comprehensive Travel Agent Masterclass to enhance their knowledge, skills, and customer service capabilities.

• Training Needs Assessment: TravelWorld conducted a thorough needs assessment to identify the specific training requirements of its travel agents. This involved analysing customer feedback, reviewing industry trends, and consulting with travel agents themselves to identify knowledge gaps and areas for improvement.
• Training Design: Based on the needs assessment, TravelWorld designed a comprehensive Travel Agent Masterclass curriculum that covered various aspects of the travel industry. The curriculum included destination knowledge, product training, customer service skills, sales techniques, and emerging industry trends.
• Expert Trainers and Resource Materials: TravelWorld engaged industry experts and experienced travel professionals as trainers for the masterclass. Trainers shared their insights, real-life experiences, and expertise with the travel agents. Additionally, TravelWorld provided resource materials, including training manuals, online resources, and access to industry publications.
• Hands-on Training: To provide practical exposure and improve customer service skills, TravelWorld organised hands-on training sessions. These sessions simulated customer interactions, allowing travel agents to practice effective communication, problem-solving, and conflict resolution techniques.
• Familiarisation Trips: TravelWorld organised familiarisation trips for its travel agents to popular destinations. These trips allowed travel agents to experience firsthand the destinations they would be promoting to customers. They gained practical knowledge about local attractions, accommodation options, and unique selling points of various destinations.
• Ongoing Learning and Support: TravelWorld emphasised the importance of continuous learning and support. The company provided regular updates on industry trends, organised webinars and workshops on emerging destinations and travel technologies, and encouraged travel agents to participate in industry conferences and trade shows.
• Enhanced Product Knowledge: The Travel Agent Masterclass significantly enhanced the product knowledge of TravelWorld's travel agents. They gained in-depth knowledge about destinations, airlines, hotels, and travel products, enabling them to provide accurate and comprehensive information to customers.
• Improved Customer Service: The masterclass equipped travel agents with customer service skills to deliver exceptional service to clients. They became adept at active listening, understanding customer needs, and offering personalised recommendations, resulting in higher customer satisfaction and loyalty.
• Stay Updated with Industry Trends: By regularly updating travel agents on industry trends, TravelWorld ensured that its agents stayed ahead of the curve. This allowed them to provide customers with the latest travel information, recommend emerging destinations, and adapt to changing customer preferences.
• Customer-Centric Culture: The Travel Agent Masterclass fostered a customer-centric culture within TravelWorld. Travel agents became more attuned to customer needs, preferences, and feedback, resulting in tailored travel recommendations and personalised service.
• Competitive Advantage: The enhanced product knowledge and customer service skills provided TravelWorld with a competitive advantage in the travel industry. The company's travel agents were able to offer a superior level of expertise and service compared to competitors, attracting and retaining customers who valued the high- quality assistance provided by knowledgeable professionals.
• Increased Sales and Revenue: The Travel Agent Masterclass directly contributed to increased sales and revenue for TravelWorld. With enhanced product knowledge, improved customer service skills, and the ability to offer personalised recommendations, travel agents were able to upsell and cross-sell travel products and services, resulting in higher sales volumes and revenue generation.
• Professional Development and Retention: The masterclass program demonstrated TravelWorld's commitment to the professional development and growth of its travel agents. By investing in their skills and knowledge, TravelWorld fostered a sense of loyalty and engagement among its agents, leading to higher retention rates and a more motivated workforce.

The Travel Agent Masterclass implemented by TravelWorld successfully enhanced the knowledge, skills, and customer service capabilities of its travel agents. By providing comprehensive training, ongoing support, and exposure to industry trends and destinations, TravelWorld created a customer-centric culture that set it apart in the travel industry.

The masterclass program resulted in tangible benefits for TravelWorld, including increased customer satisfaction, higher sales volumes, and a competitive advantage in the market. By equipping travel agents with the necessary expertise and customer service skills, TravelWorld positioned itself as a trusted and reliable travel agency, attracting and retaining customers who valued personalised assistance and a high level of industry knowledge.

The commitment to continuous learning and professional development demonstrated TravelWorld's dedication to staying at the forefront of the travel industry. By nurturing the skills and expertise of its travel agents, TravelWorld ensured its ability to adapt to evolving customer needs, industry trends, and technological advancements, thereby securing its position as a leading travel agency.

A financial institution has developed a new online banking application to improve customer experience and attract new customers. The application allows customers to perform various transactions, such as checking their balance, transferring funds, and paying bills. The application has gone through a rigorous testing phase, but there are concerns about the decision-making logic used in the application.

The challenge faced by the test team is to ensure that the decision-making logic used in the application is correct and that the application behaves as expected under various scenarios. Some of the scenarios include handling invalid inputs, dealing with edge cases, and ensuring that the application meets the functional and non-functional requirements.

• The solution to this challenge involves using a combination of techniques, such as boundary value analysis, equivalence partitioning, and decision table testing.
• The test team will first identify the decision points in the application and create a decision table to represent the decision-making logic.
• The decision table will include all possible inputs and outputs, and the conditions that determine the output.
• The team will then use boundary value analysis and equivalence partitioning to identify the values that are most likely to cause errors and test them thoroughly.
• The team will also test the application with edge cases and ensure that it meets all functional and non-functional requirements.
• In conclusion, decision testing is a critical aspect of software testing, and it is essential to ensure that the decision-making logic used in the application is correct.
• By using a combination of techniques, such as boundary value analysis, equivalence partitioning, and decision table testing, the test team can identify the values that are most likely to cause errors and test them thoroughly.
• With a thorough testing approach, the financial institution can be confident that the online banking application will provide a reliable and error-free experience to its customers.

Showcasing Our Influential Collaborations and Clients We've Served Successfully

The Knowledge Academy Case Studies

The Knowledge Academy offers a wide range of case studies as part of our training courses.

Our industry experts have curated these case studies to provide learners with real-world scenarios and issues that they can face in their respective industries.

The Knowledge Academy Reviews

Take a glimpse of a drop from the ocean of our clients’ satisfactory reviews that might be helpful to you.

Benefits of Case Studies for Organisations

Real-world application.

Case studies demonstrate the practical application of ideas and theories.

Detailed Analysis

Case studies are a full examination of the circumstances, enabling a complete comprehension of the phenomenon.

Problem-Solving Skills

Case studies frequently provide issues that need to be resolved, which aids in the growth and improvement of problem-solving abilities.

Enhanced Learning

Case studies frequently have higher levels of interest and engagement than lectures or generalised descriptions.

Benchmarking

Case studies give businesses the chance to contrast their own circumstances, potentially offering suggestions for improvement or serving as cautionary tales.

Building Empathy

Case studies, especially those that incorporate personal anecdotes, can promote empathy and comprehension.

Why Do Clients' Reviews Matter to Us?

We use client reviews to better understand their needs, identify areas for improvement, and continuously improve our services in order to create trust and credibility.

The Knowledge Academy FAQs

Case studies are useful because they provide precise information on how a product or service handled specific difficulties or met specific demands. They serve as proof of success and assist prospective consumers in understanding the value and benefits of a solution.

Case studies are beneficial because they provide detailed information on how a product or service dealt with specific challenges or satisfied specific objectives. They serve as evidence of success and help prospective customers comprehend the value and benefits of a solution.

Customer reviews are valuable because they act as testimonies from actual customers. They provide information about the quality, performance, and customer satisfaction of a product or service. Positive feedback can increase trust and influence purchasing decisions.

By providing real-world circumstances and highlighting the techniques, approaches, and lessons learned from those experiences, case studies provide significant learning opportunities. They offer insights into issue-solving, decision-making, and effective practices in a variety of businesses and areas.

Yes, because they are trustworthy sources of information, but it is critical to consider several reviews and evaluate their trustworthiness. Individual experiences and perspectives may differ, so it's best to seek out patterns or similar themes throughout a variety of evaluations to gain comprehensive insight.

Yes, case studies are intended to be applicable to real-world professional circumstances. You will learn practical insights, best practices, and techniques to enhance performance and make informed decisions in your employment.

Yes, The Knowledge Academy provides case studies for a variety of companies and sectors. Our trainers ensure that the case studies chosen correspond with the training objectives, giving learners relevant and industry-specific insights.

OUR BIGGEST SUMMER SALE!

My employer

We cannot process your enquiry without contacting you, please tick to confirm your consent to us for contacting you about your enquiry.

By submitting your details you agree to be contacted in order to respond to your enquiry.

We may not have the course you’re looking for. If you enquire or give us a call on +1 7204454674 and speak to our training experts, we may still be able to help with your training requirements.

Or select from our popular topics

• ITIL® Certification
• Scrum Certification
• Lean Six Sigma Certification
• IIBA® Business Analysis
• Microsoft Azure Certification
• Microsoft Excel Courses
• Business Analysis Courses
• Microsoft Project
• Software Testing Courses
• Explore more courses

Press esc to close

Fill out your  contact details  below and our training experts will be in touch.

Fill out your   contact details   below

WHO WILL BE FUNDING THE COURSE?

By submitting your details you agree to be contacted in order to respond to your enquiry

Thank you for your enquiry!

One of our training experts will be in touch shortly to go over your training requirements.

Back to Course Information

Fill out your contact details below so we can get in touch with you regarding your training requirements.

* WHO WILL BE FUNDING THE COURSE?

Preferred Contact Method

No preference

Back to course information

Fill out your  training details  below

Fill out your training details below so we have a better idea of what your training requirements are.

HOW MANY DELEGATES NEED TRAINING?

HOW DO YOU WANT THE COURSE DELIVERED?

Online Instructor-led

Online Self-paced

WHEN WOULD YOU LIKE TO TAKE THIS COURSE?

Next 2 - 4 months

WHAT IS YOUR REASON FOR ENQUIRING?

Looking for some information

Looking for a discount

I want to book but have questions

One of our training experts will be in touch shortly to go overy your training requirements.

Your privacy & cookies!

Like many websites we use cookies. We care about your data and experience, so to give you the best possible experience using our site, we store a very limited amount of your data. Continuing to use this site or clicking “Accept & close” means that you agree to our use of cookies. Learn more about our privacy policy and cookie policy cookie policy .

We use cookies that are essential for our site to work. Please visit our cookie policy for more information. To accept all cookies click 'Accept & close'.

Pardon Our Interruption

As you were browsing something about your browser made us think you were a bot. There are a few reasons this might happen:

• You've disabled JavaScript in your web browser.
• You're a power user moving through this website with super-human speed.
• You've disabled cookies in your web browser.
• A third-party browser plugin, such as Ghostery or NoScript, is preventing JavaScript from running. Additional information is available in this support article .

To regain access, please make sure that cookies and JavaScript are enabled before reloading the page.

• Login / Register
• You are here: School

The theory of evolution: Avasara Academy, Pune, India, by Case Design

11 February 2019 By Smita Dalvi School

1/11 Construction of the school remains under way, with design and building processes perpetually adapted

Credit: Ariel Huber

3/11 Development is an ongoing process, with the bamboo screens modified for later buildings to ensure they can withstand the power of the Pune monsoons

5/11 Natural pigments are used to colour the ceilings

6/11 Communal spaces in the atria provide stunning views of the surrounding hills

9/11 Dormitories offer students a minimalist but restful space to sleep

10/11 Electrical conduits are deliberately left exposed throughout

11/11 open areas allow for individual study

For Case Design it was imperative that Avasara Academy be a product of collaboration and iteration, constantly evolving through a process of trial and error

On the valley slopes on the outskirts of the city of Pune in western India, it is the rejection of completeness and permanence, notions of accommodating imprecision, rejection, even trial and error, that have shaped Case Design’s Avasara Academy. Based in Mumbai, architects Samuel Barclay and Anne Geenen ‘explored the design process through the act of making’, relying on ‘small samples rather than intensive drawings’ and creating a number of mock-ups ‘in a dialogue with civil contractors, allowing the details to emerge’ through a process of iteration.

Avasara (meaning ‘opportunity’) Academy is a ‘home-grown exemplar’, in the words of its founders Roopa Purushothaman and Joseph Cubas, of how to address the disparity between women and men in the Indian workforce – a school, whose pedagogy is customised to offer high-end education to girls. Their aim was to provide a ‘sanctuary for learning, a home away from home’ for girls from underprivileged households, which could enable them to become leaders and entrepreneurs with a ‘solid working knowledge of India, its people and history’. It is a school that teaches through experimentation– it is fitting, then, that the building process also centred on learning through experimentation.

floor plan Avasara Academy, Pune, India by Case Design

Click to download

The newly formed firm hit the ground running with this, its first major architectural commission, using an approach that was both collaborative and iterative, seeking expertise in a non-hierarchical manner by ‘breaking barriers through trust’. Barclay acknowledges that ‘the role of the architect here is unconventional, but creating the team framework allowed for the collaborators to have their own space and make decisions and interventions within the context and limitations of the project’.

The architects and their collaborators formed a collegium, putting together collective expertise rather than dictating what should be done. Hemali Sawant, a landscape designer from Mumbai, shared experiences with neighbourhood farmers, leading to an understanding of site water management that resulted in the use of gravity-based irrigation systems. Transsolar’s Pratik Raval, a climate engineer from New York, ascertained the most favourable orientation and insulation options, providing data that highlighted issues that could be addressed with customised bamboo facades. Coolth tubes, structurally integrated vertical cavities and solar chimneys were designed as induced ventilation systems in each building, lowering interior temperatures by 5-10°C during uncomfortably hot summer months.

‘Generous semi-outdoor spaces prevent the building from feeling shut in, while framing excellent views of the surrounding hills’

Working with Malene Bach, an artist from Copenhagen, natural pigments were chosen over industrial paints and coloured the ceilings, leaving all other surfaces au naturel , bringing surprise and delight. An aesthetic quality is achieved by retaining the natural colour and textures of the remaining concrete, cement wash, stone, wood and bamboo, all of which harmonise with the surrounding beige-brown hills.

section Avasara Academy, Pune, India by Case Design

The six four-storeyed rectangular blocks follow the lie of the undulating hillside, acknowledging contours and seeking the best vistas. Despite being a girls’ school, there is no sense of cloistering; quite the reverse, the generous semi-outdoor spaces and verandas prevent the building from feeling shut in, while framing excellent views of the surrounding hills. Walking through spaces between the buildings, there is an informality that is inescapable.

Each block is built with the endowment of one donor and, as such, is being built in phases. At the time of my visit, three of the blocks were built and functioning, with the remainder in various stages of completion. The school began its academic functions even as building activity continued.

Marble and door mock up

Source: Case Design

Mock-ups are constructed to trial doorways of marble and timber

Students and classes are everywhere; learning seems to happen even in the atria and on the verandas. Girls of all ages read, talk, work on laptops, sit on stairways and mosaic floors or lounge on the many , work on laptops, sit on stairways and mosaic floors or lounge on the many scattered charpoys – lightweight four-legged Indian bedsteads, woven with colourful chords of recycled cotton sarees wound expertly by traditional craftsmen. In each block, the lower storeys house classrooms, laboratories, a library, administration areas, staff offices and lounges, and kitchen and dining areas; the upper two storeys are reserved for the girls’ dormitories. All the buildings are inhabited and lively on the lower two floors during school hours and the upper two afterwards. Occasional flurries of movement indicate breaks for recess, when everyone seeks out the warmth of the winter sun to eat tiffin before moving on to their next class in subject-dedicated rooms. The students clearly enjoy exploring, and even appropriating, spaces, moving with a sense of freedom and intimacy with the architecture.

‘The simple frames allow for both infill and enclosure to emerge as a series of hands-on engagements with the collaborators’

Each block has a simple concrete armature with generous overhangs and a dog-legged staircase that recalls the Domino frame (this is increasingly becoming the de facto vernacular in most parts of developing India). This frame provided malleability and accommodated revisions as the buildings progressed, developing the design as a ‘slow process’. There is a refreshing lack of desire to hide electrical or plumbing conduits, or tiny imperfections in the cast concrete, while the simple frames allow for both infill and enclosure to emerge as a series of hands-on engagements with the collaborators, developing architectural elements as prototypes for the school.

Design of an open well, on a human palm

These prototypes include variations on bamboo screens for the facade, as well as masonry walls, furniture and light fixtures that evolved in the studio workshop and on site. With a tip of the hat to George Nakashima – whose furniture with signature butterfly joints and unfinished edges adorns the school’s communal spaces – the lightly woven screens are placed on the building’s overhangs to provide privacy, reduce glare and give a textural quality to the interior and exterior through a delightful play of shadows, while unifying the architectural scheme. Mock-ups became a means of holding conversations with the contractors and artisans who played a role in evolving the design decisions.

‘If a project is constantly in progress, at what point is it useful to stop and assess it?’

Recycling and reuse also formed a central theme in the design: the majority of the timber fenestration was recycled from demolished structures that not only reduced costs and extended the life of these elements, but also lent a lived-in feel to a newly constructed building. Each of the differently dimensioned doors and windows were built into the walls individually, requiring a degree of on-site flexibility. The distinctive crazy mosaic paving that appears all over the campus was made with stone pieces sourced from quarry waste from Rajasthan and Gujarat, and inlaid with coloured cement. The laying of the floors is a fast-vanishing technique – not only slow, it is also intuitive and requires a particularly site-sensitive paver.

site plan Avasara Academy, Pune, India by Case Design

Barclay acknowledges that lessons learned from the earlier blocks have informed changes to those to come, with the bamboo screens being a case in point. Under the whiplash of the Pune monsoon, dampness occasionally leads to fungal attacks, so the screens have been modified to withstand this. In future, bamboo may also be cultivated on the grounds itself, providing a ready resource for necessary replacements.

Broken mosaic floor

Mosaic paving is formed from waste stone pieces from quarries in Rajasthan and Gujarat

At Avasara, the architect becomes the orchestrator rather than the sole author, the first among equals in an assemblage of collaborators. As such, this project complicates the assessment of architect as well as architecture: if a project is constantly in progress, at what point is it useful to stop and assess it? This much is certain – while construction is incremental, architects, collaborators, students and faculty are all invested in this transience. As a constant work in progress, the activities of building and landscaping provide invaluable exposure for the students, not only to concepts of sustainability but also to those of acceptance, accomodation and an appreciation of the lived experience.

Paving plan

Paving is planned out across the site

Architect: Case Design

Project Team: Samuel Barclay, Anne Geenen, Dhwani Mehta, Shoeb Khan, Ami Mattan, Paul Michelon, Farhaan Bengali, Simone Picano, Chirag Bhagat, Ketaki Raut, Ji Min An, Tofan Rafati

Photographs: Ariel Huber unless otherwise stated

This piece is featured in the AR February 2019 Failure issue – click  here  to purchase your copy today

February 2019

Since 1896, The Architectural Review has scoured the globe for architecture that challenges and inspires. Buildings old and new are chosen as prisms through which arguments and broader narratives are constructed. In their fearless storytelling, independent critical voices explore the forces that shape the homes, cities and places we inhabit.

Join the conversation online

Emerging Topics

Economic scenario generators, part iii: in-depth esg case study—academy interest rate generator.

This article is the final installment of our three-part series on economic scenario generators (ESGs). Part I and II were published in the November 2019 [Economic Scenario Generators, Part I: Motivation For Stochastic Modeling (soa.org)] and August 2020 [Economic Scenario Generators, Part II: Understanding Economic Scenario Generators (soa.org)] issues of The Modeling Platform . Part III contextualizes the framework for selecting, building, and validating ESGs and focuses on the Academy Interest Rate Generator (AIRG), the most commonly used real-world ESG for US actuaries.

Figure 1 ESG Three-part Series Structure

Jointly produced by the American Academy of Actuaries (the Academy) and Society of Actuaries (SOA), the AIRG applies to modern US regulatory reserving and capital regimes, such as VM-20 and VM-21, but has seen use since C3P2 and AG43. The ESG comes in a freely available and user-friendly Excel format, which requires minimal user input; i.e., the details lie “behind the scenes.” This article will cover the seven-step process described in Part II and shown in Figure 2 below, to elaborate on the specifics of the AIRG.

Figure 2 Key Factors When Making Decisions With ESGs

Risk Factors

The AIRG models two risk factors: US Treasury rates and series of bond and equity fund returns, as described in Figure 3.

Figure 3 AIRG Modeled Risk-factors

While a two-risk factor ERG supports out-of-the-box modeling for commonly available investment options, the AIRG is considered a simple ESG, and has some notable limitations:

• Non-US economies are not directly modeled.
• Factors such as defaults, credit spreads, inflation, dividends, and foreign exchange volatility are buried within parameters and not explicitly modeled.
• Only aggregate fund indices are available.
• Mappings must be applied from actual investment options to the funds provided by the AIRG.

While the simplicity of the AIRG may be suitable for its valuation-focused use cases, its capabilities may be limiting for certain use cases and there is little room to customize or re-parameterize the model.

Scenario Type

The AIRG produces real-world scenarios intended to simulate the future in a “realistic” way by generating plausible outcomes aligned to past observed experience. This currently includes exhibiting characteristics such as a higher expected risk-adjusted return on riskier assets, volatility clustering, and a rising yield curve. The primary use case is to support US capital and reserve standards, where tail risk across real-world outcomes is the key focus.

The AIRG does not have risk-neutral capabilities or apply any form of market calibration, and therefore is not appropriate for use in market-consistent valuation.

Process and Parameterization

The AIRG models its two risk factors through fairly unique approaches, which will be discussed separately.

Interest Rates

Constant parameter models were determined as inadequate in simulating history, in particular because they tend to inadequately demonstrate a fat tail and extreme peaks, which are both key considerations for scenarios supporting reserving and capital calculations.

Figure 4 Stochastic Log Volatility Interest Rate Model

The model used by the AIRG, called the Stochastic Log Volatility (SLV) process, uses three related stochastic processes modeling the 20-year “long” Treasury rate, 1-year “short” Treasury rate, and a stochastic spread between the two. All three rates are derived under a similar mean-reverting process that pulls the rate toward a steady long-term average. The steady state average for the 20-year rate, called the mean reversion parameter (MRP), is a particularly important assumption and is the only parameter in the SLV process that is not set by the ESG.

A few notable features of the SLV interest rate model include:

• Steepness (ψ) and spread tilting parameters (𝜙) are applied to the long rate and spread processes, respectively, to reduce the likelihood of unrealistic inversion events compared to historical data.
• A fourth stochastic process was considered to model the stochastic log volatility of the spread process, but was deemed unnecessary.
• Short rates are floored at 0.4 percent and are set to be 25 percent of the long rate if the threshold is breached.

Bond and Equity Fund Returns

The bond and equity funds modeled by the AIRG are generated by separate processes. The bond process is straightforward, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Bond Fund Process

For each of the three bond funds, the mechanics (1) tie the fund return to the Treasury rate generated through the interest rate model at specific reference maturities, such as 10-years for the long duration corporate fund and (2) apply a spread adjustment appropriate for the riskiness of the underlying bonds. This enforces an internally consistent worldview between the interest rate process and the bond funds.

Figure 6 Equity Fund Process

For equity funds, an alternative SLV process is used, similar to, but distinct from, the interest rate model. This model is one among numerous suitable options for equity fund projections and was found to sufficiently capture certain desirable equity return dynamics such as volatility clustering, negative skewness, and positive kurtosis.

A fairly straightforward mean-reverting process drives the log volatility, which serves as the volatility for the mean drift component. These components are then combined to produce the monthly log return.

Calibration

Having outlined processes and parameters, we will now cover calibration.

The interest rate model is pre-parameterized and neither requires nor permits user intervention. The parameters are calibrated using maximum likelihood estimation over decades of collected history starting from the 1950s, with specific considerations including, but not limited to:

• The fit of long and short rates against historical averages.
• Reasonability of rates against historical extremes.
• Distribution of spreads against historical norms and inversion frequency.

As noted previously, there is one particularly important parameter, the 20-year MRP, that is set by the ESG user using a prescribed blend (i.e., ratios and interpretation are prescribed and enforced by the ESG) of three-, 10-, and 50-year benchmark rates at the time of valuation; this allows the AIRG to be dynamic to evolving rate conditions without the need for constant rebalancing by the Academy.

Figure 7 Contribution of Historical Rates to the MRP

The fund return model is pre-parameterized and neither requires nor permits user intervention. According to the Academy, starting from 1950s monthly S&P data:

• Return percentiles fit history tightly.
• Show volatility clustering characteristics consistent with historical data.
• Large year-to-year drops appear with a consistent historical frequency.
• Kurtosis and skew characteristics align with historical norms, as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8 Monthly S&P Returns

When comparing AIRG S&P 500 projections against a lognormal model parameterized to the same mean and volatility, the SLV has a tighter fit to the distribution of historic data. The AIRG exhibits some attractive qualities such as fatter tails and a skewed long left tail. Ultimately, the chosen parameters do rely on subjective judgement, such as evaluating historical interest rate patterns and defining a “reasonable” expectation of equity risk premium to set long-term return averages. The Academy periodically reviews the validity of underlying parameters.

The number of scenarios within a scenario set is an important assumption as each scenario has a unique potential to expose different outcomes and risks. The AIRG can generate from 50 to 10,000 scenarios, but the user must decide on the appropriate number for the given use case. Using too few scenarios (e.g., 50) may not produce sufficient convergence. However, more scenarios (e.g., 10,000) may result in infeasible actuarial model runtimes.

Figure 9 CTE 98 for Sample GMAB Valuation

Consider the CTE figures for a sample GMAB valuation in Figure 9. When comparing against a 10,000-scenario benchmark, we see that the fewer scenarios we use, the less reliable our valuation, especially given the focus on extreme tail scenarios. Said differently, a 100-scenario result will only use two scenarios to inform CTE 98 valuation.

For US capital and reserving, using less than 10,000 scenarios requires the actuary to demonstrate that the subset will still pass prescribed calibration requirements, which are set using the full 10,000 scenarios. The percentiles of the best and worst 2.5 percent, 5 percent, and 10 percent of scenarios have to be “at least as extreme” as the calibration set.

Considerations around time, from the time horizon of scenarios to the frequency of generated scenarios is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10 AIRG Time Considerations

The final and most important question is whether the outputs from the AIRG are appropriate for a given use case.

Given that the AIRG is prescribed for use in many reserving and capital contexts, it is by default the “correct choice” in those situations. More broadly, the ease of deployment and integration with many actuarial software platforms allows the AIRG to serve as a convenient “default option”; however, given certain limitations, biases, and inflexibility inherent in the AIRG, it is not necessarily an appropriate ESG for general-purpose real-world scenario generation.

The seven-step ESG decision-making process applied to the AIRG in this article provides a good case study on how actuaries can analyze a given ESG to understand and challenge the scenario sets upon which they so often rely.

The views or opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of Oliver Wyman, the Society of Actuaries, or the newsletter editors .

Rahat Jain, FSA, CERA, MAAA, is a consultant at the actuarial practice of Oliver Wyman. He can be reached at  [email protected] .

Dean Kerr, FSA, MAAA, ACIA, is a partner at the actuarial practice of Oliver Wyman. He can be reached at  [email protected] .

Matthew Zhang, FSA, CERA, MAAA, is a senior consultant at the actuarial practice of Oliver Wyman. He can be reached at  [email protected] .

The full article is available below.

You will also receive a follow-up email containing a link so you can come back to it later.

Law School Case Briefs: Your Ultimate Guide

Last Updated: Aug 28, 2024

In U.S. law school, you’ll learn primarily by reviewing and discussing legal cases and opinions

Reviewing and analyzing a compilation of actual past legal cases and judicial opinions, or case law, is the primary manner of studying and learning law in U.S. law schools. This method of studying actual judicial opinions to learn legal rules and develop the ability to think like a lawyer is called the Case Method.

The actual compilation of past legal cases and opinions that you will use for a law school class is called a casebook. For many courses in law school, your casebook will be your only textbook. Case Briefs are simply a set of notes comprised of important points on each assigned case that you’ll use for class discussions.

The case brief is the end result of reading a case, re-reading it, taking it apart, and putting it back together again. In addition to being a useful tool for self-instruction and referencing, the case brief also provides a valuable “cheat sheet” for class participation. With a few techniques in hand, you will be able to master the art of briefing cases to be well on your way to owning class discussions.

You’ll also pull some information from your case briefs into outlines you’ll use to ultimately prepare for mid-terms and finals.

Useful beyond law school class prep

Learning to create a good case brief is extremely helpful well beyond participating in class. When you begin outlining and prepping for finals, you’ll find it easier and faster to reference your more concise case briefs vs. re-reading cases for a refresher.

In the future, when a client’s case requires legal research, you’ll be able to quickly examine dozens of cases to locate and document what you need in an organized and efficient manner. Case briefing is a skill worth honing.

Techniques for briefing a case

There are many ways to brief a case. You should find the format that is most useful for your class and exam preparation. Often, a case is misread because the student fails to break it down into its essential elements. Here are the main elements that are helpful to include:

Briefly state the name of the case and its parties, what happened factually and procedurally leading to the controversy, and the judgment. This information is necessary because legal principles are defined by the situations in which they arise, and a fact is legally relevant if it had an impact on the case’s outcome.

For example, in a personal injury action arising from a car accident, the color of the parties’ cars seldom would be relevant to the case’s outcome. Similarly, if the plaintiff and defendant presented different versions of the facts, you should describe those differences that are relevant to the court’s consideration of the case.

Trial court

State the trial court’s judgment or decision in the case. Did the court decide in favor of the plaintiff or the defendant? What remedy, if any, did the court grant?

State the issue or issues raised on appeal. This is where you will describe the opinion you are briefing. In this section of the brief, state the factual and legal questions that the court had to decide. To analyze a case properly, you want to break it down to its component parts. Be sure to stick to the relevant issue or issues, because these are the ones for which the court made a final decision and which are binding.

In a sentence or two, state the legal principle or the applied rule of law on which the court relied to reach its answer (the holding).

Describe why the court arrived at its holding. This section of the case brief may be the most important, because you must understand the court’s reasoning to be able to analyze it and apply it to other situations — such as those you will see on the bar exam and in real life scenarios when you are a practicing attorney.

Objective theory

Concurring and dissenting opinions can present an interesting alternative analysis or theory of the case. Therefore, you should describe the analysis in your case briefs. It will help you see the case in a different light.

The do's of case briefing

Use a roadmap for reading assignments

Before you start reading assigned cases, look at the chapter headings and the table of contents in the casebook. These will tell you the topic to which the assigned cases relate, and where this topic fits in the overall course.

Keep a good law dictionary close

Legal terminology is a technical language with technical meanings. When a word is used that you don’t understand, or when a word is used in some unusual sense, stop and look it up. Try to use that word in your case briefs so you’ll better recall the context and its meaning later.

Create your own briefing system

Briefing cases is core to learning to “think like a lawyer”. Once mastered, you’ll be able to efficiently distill facts and reasoning of a case. Try a format of breaking down the essential elements: Facts, Trial Court, Issue, Rule, Rationale and Objective Theory.

Keep your briefs brief

Your case briefs are there to help you quickly recall the case in sufficient detail during class discussion and to integrate into your class notes and outlines later. Regurgitating the entire case is not helpful. Avoid copying citations. Simply try to capture the gist of the facts and the court’s reasoning in just a few words.

Come to class prepared

You will be expected to come to class prepared to discuss assigned cases. That means learning how to read and brief those cases as efficiently as possible. You may not brief every case in every class throughout law school. Definitely brief cases until you’re good at it, which for most students means throughout 1L year.

Build case briefing time into your study routine

Time is a hot commodity in law school, and efficiency is key. Establishing a study routine that incorporates time to write case briefs will ensure that you prepare well for class and exams, from the very beginning. Briefing your cases throughout the year will ensure you are not only working hard but also smarter.

The don'ts of case briefing

Skip out on reading the actual case

Some law students attempt to save time by reading only a third-party case brief or another student’s hand-me-down outlines. While these can be helpful supplements, reading and analyzing the case is key to truly understanding and applying the information you are learning to other situations. This is what it means to think like a lawyer. Your professor also knows this is occurring and will change the question to things he or she knows are not in the case briefs.

Rely solely on book briefing

Book briefing, or simply highlighting information in different colors in your casebook, will not hardwire the material into your mind. Case briefs will. When you are just starting out, it will be difficult to understand and remember what you previously read without taking notes in some organized fashion — the final step of writing out a brief.

Copy holdings verbatim from the case

It’s important to state the holding (judgement in a case) in your own words as you brief. By doing so, you are more apt to fully understand the legal principles better and memorize them more easily.

Worry if your case briefs aren’t perfect

Most professors will promote the value of briefing but will never actually ask to see that you have, in fact, briefed. Remember, you are the person that the brief will serve, and briefing is a skill you will develop as you become more comfortable reading cases.

Unlock the Full Article

Tell us a little about yourself and your goals to display the full article and gain access to more resources relevant to your needs.

Interesting in reading more? Fill out the form to read the full article.

• Skip to main content
• Skip to search
• Skip to footer

Products and Services

Cisco Catalyst 8000 Edge Platforms Family

Enhance multicloud experiences.

Combine SD-WAN technology, application visibility, and cloud security. Gain scalable, flexible, software-defined routing, and secure cloud connectivity beyond traditional network boundaries.

Get secure connectivity with an exceptional user experience

Enable secure connectivity to hybrid and multicloud applications across your cloud, data center, and edge locations.

Gain more application visibility

Enhance internet and cloud intelligence with built-in native integration of the Cisco ThousandEyes solutions.

Get the security you need

Gain peace of mind with SD-WAN and industry-leading security.

Increase cloud-scale agility

Platforms are open and fully programmable for automation and diverse microservices support.

Strengthen business resilience

Flexible services support and end-to-end analytics allow for easy adoption of evolving technology, such as 5G.

Find the Catalyst 8000 products you need

Cisco Catalyst 8000V Edge Software

Enjoy secure, multicloud connectivity optimized with automation, visibility, and control.

Cisco Catalyst 8200 Series

Gain peace of mind with SD-WAN and optimized routing with industry-leading security at the WAN edge.

Cisco Catalyst 8200 Series Edge uCPE

Leverage network functions virtualization (NFV) and cloud-managed security for a secure software-defined branch.

Cisco Catalyst 8300 Series

Transform your branch with high-speed multicloud connectivity, wireless WAN features, and more.

Cisco Catalyst 8300 Series Edge uCPE

Simplify your IT Operations with an agile and scalable software-defined branch solution

Cisco Catalyst 8500 Series

Enjoy industry-leading routing and SD-WAN performance at the cloud aggregation edge.

SD-WAN and SASE: The New Landscape of Networking

The move to a cloud-first strategy creates new challenges. Learn how Cisco Catalyst SD-WAN can help your organization.

Get to know your next edge platform

Learn how the Catalyst 8000 Edge Platforms Family can speed your business's transformation.

Save when you upgrade your branch routers

Upgrade your branch routers to Catalyst 8000 Edge Platforms and get up to 28% off the purchase.

Get the guidance that you need

Cisco Lifecycle Services

Move your business forward

Accelerate the value of your technology investment with impactful business outcomes enabled by trusted expertise and digital insights.

Cisco Capital

Flexible payment options

Make the most of your budget. Get your Cisco solutions with no upfront costs, and spread payments over time.

Explore customer stories

Supercharging a supermarket experience.

Tamimi Markets' network was slow and poorly secured. The organization's growth and brand suffered as customers became frustrated with long checkout lines caused by network delays. Tamimi needed to upgrade its IT infrastructure. One solution stood out: Cisco SASE including Cisco Catalyst SD-WAN and the Cisco Umbrella solution.

Upgrade your infrastructure

Build a complete WAN edge with optimized 5G, SD-WAN, cloud security, and multicloud access.