social exchange theory case study

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Front Psychol

Social exchange theory: Systematic review and future directions

Rehan ahmad.

1 Imperial College of Business Studies, Lahore, Pakistan

Muhammad Rafay Nawaz

2 Banking and Finance, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan

Muhammad Ishtiaq Ishaq

3 Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan

Mumtaz Muhammad Khan

Hafiz ahmad ashraf.

4 Management Sciences, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan

Associated Data

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Social exchange theory (SET) is one of the most influential theories in social sciences, which has implications across various fields. Despite its usefulness being a typical social transaction, there is a need to look at it from the lens of psychological transactions to further its evolution and to identify future directions. After generally reviewing 3,649 articles from the Social Science Citation Index and Scopus, a total of 46 articles were selected for final review using a comprehensive systematic review approach. We have highlighted the need for further research in psychological transactions, reciprocity principles, exchange relations, and the impact of various factors on the exchange process. Among other exchange rules (social, economic, and psychological) and transactions (social, economic, and psychological), this research provides an elevation platform for the less explored exchange rules in psychological transactions. Among other theories in the social sciences, social exchange theory is a theory that shadows many other theories under its umbrella.

1. Introduction

Social exchange theory (SET) is one of the gold standards to understand workplace behavior ( Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ). It is such a common phenomenon that is deeply inculcated in our daily lives. Exchanges are not limited to the organizations but extended to our family, friends, and relatives, and that too on a subtle basis. Cropanzano et al. (2017) defined the SET as (i) an initiation by an actor toward the target, (ii) an attitudinal or behavioral response from the target in reciprocity, and (iii) the resulting relationship. Relationships in the corporate world today are becoming increasingly complex ( Chernyak-Hai and Rabenu, 2018 ). Hence, there is a need to update SET with the increasing complexity of how organizations operate and how employees behave ( Cooper-Thomas and Morrison, 2019 ).

Rooted back in the 1920s ( Malinowski, 1922 ; Mauss, 1925 ), social exchange theory has implications across various fields like social psychology ( Homans, 1958 ; Thibault and Kelley, 1959 ; Gouldner, 1960 ), sociology ( Blau, 1964 ), and anthropology ( Firth, 1967 ; Sahlins, 1972 ). It was Homans (1958) , who, for the first time, proposed the idea of “Social behavior as exchange” in the literature, and he further evolved this idea into its elementary forms in 1961. Thibault and Kelley (1959) proposed the converging notion of the “social psychology of groups.” Blau (1964) further evolved this idea by presenting the concept of “exchange and power,” which refers to the ability of one party to influence another party to do something. Blau highlighted the economic orientation of the theory, while Homans lodged more upon psychological orientation, that is, instrumental behavior. According to a significant contribution by Blau (1964) in literature, social exchange conceived here is limited to actions that are contingent on rewarding reactions from others, and exchange behavior means voluntary actions of individuals that are motivated by the returns they are expected to bring.

Homans (1969) further evolved his study in SET, incorporated sociology, and behavioral psychology concepts and stressed the need for further research on the subject, while Anderson et al. (1969) reinforced the economic implications of the theory. Goode proposed the idea that the role theory and exchange theory were convergent to one another in 1973. Emerson (1976a) suggested that SET is not a theory but a frame covering many theories under its shadow. Other areas analyzed under the light of SET include commitment ( Bishop et al., 2000 ), organizational citizenship behaviors ( Organ, 1990 ), supervisory and organizational support ( Ladd and Henry, 2000 ), and justice ( Tepper and Taylor, 2003 ). Mitchell et al. (2012) proposed the idea of a social life cycle that refers to events/transactions between parties.

Cropanzano et al. (2017) proposed that the action of the first actor is termed initiating action and is divided into positive and negative ones. Positive initiating actions include justice ( Cropanzano and Rupp, 2008 ) and organizational support ( Riggle et al., 2009 ), and negative actions may consist of incivility ( Andersson and Pearson, 1999 ; Pearson et al., 2005 ), abusive supervision ( Tepper et al., 2009 ), and bullying ( Rayner and Keashly, 2005 ). The resulting response from the target can be classified as behavioral and relational. Subsequently, successful exchanges eventually transform a preliminary economic exchange into a social exchange relationship ( Cropanzano et al., 2017 ). Lyons and Scott (2012) proposed the idea of “homeomorphic reciprocity” which refers to the ability of an employee to receive help or harm shall depend upon the extent to which that employee engages in benefit and harm. Additionally, the behaviors exchanged between an employee and a given coworker should be equivalent, such that engaging in help, but no harm, is associated with receiving support, and engaging in harm, but not help, is associated with receiving harm.

Having such broad applications, according to the study of Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) , the core ideas that comprise SET have yet to be adequately articulated and integrated. Researchers further concluded that SET is a broad framework that can describe almost any finding ( Sharpley, 2014 ; Cropanzano et al., 2017 ). Such broadness shows the presence of flexibility and variety in SET consequently. At the same time, various researchers embark upon social and economic transactions and exchanges in SET. Based on the call of Cropanzano et al. (2017) , this article aims to investigate more upon inactive exchanges, which we termed as psychological exchanges. Active exchanges are visible, while inactive exchanges are less visible and are positive (withholding undesirable behavior) as well as negative (withholding desirable behavior). The shadow nature of the inactive exchanges can turn out to be more damaging for the organization as it is difficult to trace. Moreover, on the basis of the rules of reciprocity, usually more behaviors are inactive and destructive rather than inactive and constructive. Hence, these inactive exchanges are important to explore for a better understanding of SET.

Moreover, building on the definition of SET by Cropanzano et al. (2017) , this article further proposes that initiating action, which is found to be explicit, can be implicit, such as a feeling (positive or negative), and can be an outcome of someone’s achievement (feeling jealousy at the promotion of a coworker, a psychological exchange). This article comprehensively outlines the evolution of SET and introduces a new dimension in social exchange relationships and ultimately provides future direction for further research.

To understand the social exchange theory and its evolution, one should begin by identifying the roots of the concept and elaborate on the differences and commonalities in the work of various authors in academic literature. The literature highlights different definitions, rules, approaches, and dimensions in the evolution of SET. To understand the concept of SET, three different areas are acknowledged using content analysis of 3,221 articles indexed in the ISI Web of Knowledge and Scopus. The areas are (1) basic concepts of SET as they evolved, (2) exchange rules that govern social exchanges, and (3) evolving dimensions of the exchange relationships. The theoretical framework used in this article is in line with the study of Yadav (2014) and MacInnis (2011) , where they propose to differentiate and assimilate particular conceptual goals. We searched the ISI Web of Knowledge and Scopus along with Social Sciences Citation Index from 1920 to 2020 because the concept of SET goes back to 1920.

Search results from the Sciences, Arts, and Humanities Citation Index were eliminated, and the results were filtered for Business and Management, Social Sciences, and Psychology. We used multiple keywords in the ISI search engine in the topic field using a complete list of possibilities including “social exchange theory,” “exchange relationships,” “evolution of social exchange theory,” and “exchange relations.” These searches returned highly significant empirical and conceptual references ( n  = 3,221; Scopus = 1954 and ISI Web of Knowledge = 1,267). After the search, duplicate articles ( n  = 1,526) in both databases were deleted.

In the next step, conceptual and empirical articles on SET were separated and analyzed to identify and track evolution patterns, and empirical articles with no theoretical contribution ( n  = 1,202) were excluded. In the next phase, those articles were eliminated through contextual analysis that had meager theoretical contributions or available models’ allowance ( n  = 446). The purpose of this article was to classify the evolution of SET to propose needed contributions. Hence, after excluding empirical articles and literature reviews with no progression in SET, we ended up with 47 articles ( Table 1 ). Out of the articles that were selected for the final review, two of them were published in the decade between 1920 and 1930, three between 1951 and 1960, five between 1961 and 1970, nine between 1971 and 1980, four between 1981 and 1990, eight between 1991 and 2000, 10 between 2001 and 2010, and nine between 2011 and 2020.

Evolution of social exchange theory.

Source: Authors generated this table from searches on the ISI Web of Knowledge and Scopus. All citations in the table are listed in the reference list.

3. Key ideas of set

We shall begin by curating the underlying ideas which comprise SET which involve rules and norms of exchange, resources exchanged, and resulting relationships ( Methot et al., 2016 ; Cropanzano et al., 2017 ). A comprehensive snapshot of key ideas related to SET across the years is presented in Table 2 .

Key ideas related to SET.

All citations in the table are listed in the reference list.

3.1. Rules and norms of exchange

One of the fundamental pillars of SET is that commitment, loyalty, and trust are upshot of evolving relationships with time ( Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ). This pillar demands that parties must show compliance toward specific rules (i.e., rules of exchange). According to Emerson (1976b) , such rules form a normative definition of the participants in an exchange relation adopted. Hence, such an exchange principle facilitated avenues for researchers in organizational behavior to further their work ( Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ). Most management research is focused on the potential of reciprocity. Ko and Hur (2014) stressed that other rules of exchange exist that the researchers do not sufficiently explore. This article, therefore, analyzes reciprocity and other less-explored exchange rules.

3.1.1. Reciprocity rules

Gouldner (1960) made a significant contribution to the literature by outlining rules of reciprocity as (a) transaction, (b) belief, and (c) moral norm. The transaction, according to Gouldner (1960) , meant interdependent (both dependent on one another) exchanges, and this idea was then reinforced by Molm (1994) . A reciprocal exchange due to interdependence curbs risks and supports cooperation, according to Molm (1994) , and does not include pronounced bargaining ( Molm, 2003 ). As per the idea, the exchange is a continuous cycle where one party makes a move, and the other reciprocates, and it begins a new cycle of exchanges ( Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ). Suffice it to say that there is a vast literature on the interdependence of exchange and transaction, and reviewing that literature would bypass the scope of this article.

The second rule of reciprocity, that is, reciprocity as belief, revolves around cultural orientation ( Gouldner, 1960 ). This orientation is in line with the idea of karma: You get what you deserve. The idea of a “just world” proposed by Lerner (1980) is consistent with this type of reciprocity. Furthermore, it reduces destructive behavior in people ( Bies and Tripp, 1996 ). Gouldner (1960) speculated that reciprocity is a moral norm and is embedded in humans universally ( Tsui and Wang, 2002 ; Wang et al., 2003 ). Nevertheless, it is important to note that humans are different, and the way they reciprocate depends heavily on their cultural and individual differences ( Parker, 1998 ; Coyle-Shapiro and Neuman, 2004 ).

Social psychologists such as Clark and Mills (1979) and Murstein et al. (1977) proposed classifications of individuals based on the degree of reciprocity. They termed the classification “high exchange orientation” (those who readily reciprocate) and “low exchange orientation” (those who do not return or reciprocate less). This unleashed avenues for further research in management as scholars worked on various avenues such as absenteeism ( Eisenberger et al., 1986 ), felt obligation ( Eisenberger et al., 2001 ), citizenship behavior ( Witt, 1991 ), satisfaction and training ( Witt and Broach, 1993 ), performance ( Orpen, 1994 ), union support ( Sinclair and Tetrick, 1995 ), job commitment and satisfaction ( Witt et al., 2001 ), and organizational politics ( Andrews et al., 2003 ).

Many researchers, including Uhl-Bien and Maslyn (2003) and Eisenberger et al. (2004) , further classified reciprocity as positive (reciprocating favorable treatment) and negative (reciprocating unfavorable treatment). Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) called for further investigation into the impact of social exchanges on organizational relationships and also proposed the need for research in unexplored areas such as coworkers, supervisors, and outsiders. Building on previous literature, Cropanzano et al. (2017) proposed that people may not reciprocate the way they wish due to various uncontrollable factors (the presence of inadequate supervision and fewer turnover intentions due to a bad economy). Cropanzano et al. (2017) further added to the literature of SET that reciprocity happens, both explicitly (active exchanges) and implicitly (inactive exchanges). Both forms communicate in exciting ways. For instance, an employee will have high work deviance (implicit) but will not leave the job due to a lousy economy in terms of inactive exchanges (explicit). Moreover, Greco et al. (2019) investigated the reciprocity of negative work behaviors between two parties and reported that negative work behaviors are returned on the similar intensity and capacity between the two parties.

Individual differences in reciprocity are presented in chronological order in Appendix 1 .

3.1.2. Negotiated rules and other exchange rules

Parties in a social exchange may negotiate terms or rules to reach interdependent goals ( Cook et al., 1983 ). There is significant literature on the comparison of reciprocal and negotiated exchanges ( Molm, 2003 ). Key findings suggest that better work relations are the outcome of reciprocity than negotiations. Exchange rules other than reciprocity and negotiation gained more attention in literature from sociology and anthropology researchers than from management researchers ( Fiske, 1991 ). One notable study by Meeker (1971) proposed six exchange rules: competition, group gain, status consistency, altruism, rationality, and reciprocity.

According to Meeker (1971) , rationality is a thought process asking for justification for various actions taken by a person according to his preferences. Altruism is about being compassionate and kind, where the good of others is essential, even at the cost of ourselves. This sounds uncanny, but the literature supports the take of Meeker (1971) on altruism as an exchange rule ( Batson, 1995 ). Group gain refers to contributions, and everybody takes (benefits) according to their desire. Group gain omits the idea of interpersonal exchanges and extends the horizon toward group exchanges. Status consistency is also called rank equilibrium, where the disunion of benefits depends upon one’s standing in a social group. Lind (1995) experimented with and supported this exchange rule.

Competition is directly the opposite of altruism, where altruism is about benevolence, and competition is about self-seeking behavior ( Meeker, 1971 ). This opened doors for research on modern-day variables in organizational behavior such as workplace envy ( Ahmad et al., 2020 ), organizational politics, and political skills. The study of Meeker (1971) also strengthened the idea of seeking revenge in an exchange relationship ( Cropanzano and Baron, 1991 ; Turillo et al., 2002 ). A great deal of literature exists on reciprocity as a rule of exchange. Still, there are other rules, such as group gain, status consistency, competition, altruism, and rationality, which require attention and investigation. Exploring these will open doors to fathom the process of social exchanges, which is still unexplored to a great deal ( Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ). Moreover, there is a possibility that multiple exchange rules are employed at once.

3.2. The resources of exchange

Foa and Foa (1974) proposed classifications of exchange resources as status, information, goods, love, money, and services. These resources can be termed as benefits that a person seeks in social exchange and can be further classified into two dimensions economic (tangible) and socioemotional resources (symbolic) ( Foa and Foa, 1980 ). Both dimensions work on different exchange rules ( Martin and Harder, 1994 ). Resources and their dimensional classification are still not sufficiently explored and are open for further investigation. Furthermore, the relationship between types of resources and the type of relationship is also an open area for research ( Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ).

3.3. Resulting relationships: Social exchange relationships

Workplace relationships are the most explored area in management research ( Coyle-Shapiro and Conway, 2004 ). However, much of the research on exchange relations is done in employer–employee relations ( Blau, 1964 ). His study is based on the premise that much of social relations are based on unspecified obligations. This makes the relations more casual while successful exchanges are based on the commitment between parties. Blau (1964) also considered relations as transactions. Mills and Clark (1982) further contributed to the literature by proposing two types of exchange relationships. One is exchange relations based on competition, and the others are communal relations based on benevolence. Organ (1990) found that SET is beyond the rules of transactions and benefits, and this extended the scope for further research in SET.

Suffice it to note that relations are termed as associations between partners, which can be institutions and individuals ( Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ). Although much of the research is done on exploring the relations between institutions and individuals such as employing organizations ( Moorman et al., 1998 ), customers ( Houston et al., 1992 ), and suppliers ( Perrone et al., 2003 ), the literature is comparatively silent on the area of individual relationships in an organizational setting such as peer relations. Notable work in management is done in terms of exchange relationships which are perceived organizational support (POS), Leader–Member Exchange (LMX; Eisenberger et al., 2004 ), support to commitment ( Eisenberger et al., 1990 ), team support and organizational support ( Bishop et al., 2000 ), supervisor support ( Masterson et al., 2000 ), and trust ( Dirks and Ferrin, 2002 ).

It is also important to state that relationships develop over time ranging from premature relations ( Molm, 2003 ) to mature ones ( Eisenberger et al., 2004 ). Building on the premise of increasingly complex relationships at the workplace, Methot et al. (2016) introduced the term “multiplex” relations at the workplace, which include both formal (work-related) and informal (friendship) elements. Such relations cover both positive (e.g., emotional support) and negative (e.g., emotional exhaustion) aspects. Cooper-Thomas and Morrison (2019) identified that it is not clear how SET might apply in conditions where positive and negative exchanges are simultaneously taking place.

As multiple behaviors are exchanged in the workplace, Cropanzano et al. (2017) tossed the term “transactional chains” through which relationships are developed over time through various exchanges. If we want to understand the form of a relationship, we must understand the principal transaction of resources responsible for a particular relationship. Building on the need to understand SET in further detail highlighted by Cropanzano et al. (2017) and Cooper-Thomas and Morrison (2019) , we shall elaborate on the transactions and resulting exchange relationships.

3.3.1. Transactions and exchange relationships

Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) highlighted two distinguishing aspects of relationships in the literature. One aspect is a relationship as the series of interdependent transactions transpires to interpersonal attachment, which is a relationship. Alternatively, another element is the interpersonal relationship that originates from interdependent exchanges. It is essential to distinguish the relationship from the transaction process because of its interchangeability. The nature of the relationship between two parties is dictated by the process of exchange or the benefits they exchange between them. When a series of exchanges happen, it becomes rather challenging to find which exchange caused the relationship.

Researchers separated the form of exchange from the exchange relationship presented in Figure 1 . Cells 1 and 4 can be termed matches as the form of transaction coinciding with the relationship. The situation in Cell 2, where the social exchange relationship coincides with the economic transaction, could reap both risks and rewards. For instance, social relations are at greater risk in economic exchanges, and hence, economic exchanges can pose a more significant threat to relationships (clashes in the inheritance among family members). Alternatively, while considering rewards, greater trust and stronger relationships can be an outcome for such exchanges (father giving money to son and not asking for details). Cell 3 presents the unusual case of emotional labor where employees from the hospitality industry or health workers attend to the emotional needs of their clients or patients for money (economic transaction).

Relationships of transactions in exchanges.

People working in mental asylums display such behaviors to fulfill their professional duties. Similarly, people working in the hotel and hospitality sector are expected to be friendly with their clients. It is tricky and stressful to share such emotions with others, expected to be family members or other loved ones. While keeping in view, the vagueness of the concept of relationships in SET, Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) highlighted two distinct conceptual dimensions of the relationship. One is a sequence of inter-related exchanges, and the other is relationships as an outcome of codependent exchanges. These are termed transactional and interpersonal relationships in the literature. When relationships seem to transcend over one another, it becomes more challenging to define them. It is essential to understand that two different things can be exchanged through various means among two different parties.

4. Discussion: Beyond socio-economic transactions

Building on the aforementioned model, we propose that while looking beyond the lens of social and economic transactions and exchanges, relationships are also psychological. This premise is based on the idea of implicit or inactive exchanges proposed by Cropanzano et al. (2017) . The concept of psychological capital ( Luthans et al., 2007 ) also supports this idea, and exchanges in such relations can be termed psychological exchanges. Referring to Figure 2 , Cells 1, 2, 4, and 5 are similar to Cells 1, 2, 3, and 4 in Figure 1 . Unique cells in Figure 2 are Cells 3, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Cell 9 is a matching cell coinciding psychological transaction with a psychological exchange relationship. Let us first hone ourselves with the idea of psychological transactions.

Proposed model of transactions and exchanges.

To start with, psychological transactions are usually inactive exchanges. From this dimension, it sounds easier to draw that psychological exchange relations are inactive relations, which is incorrect. Psychological relations are based on the understanding between the two parties. From “understanding,” it means how well parties in a social exchange know each other. This, according to the empirical evidence, indicates that parties develop relationships after being involved in a series of exchanges, and eventually, they develop a relationship so good that they can understand each other on psychological fronts as well. Nevertheless, this is not true as Cell 3 clarifies that psychological transactions may not necessarily occur in every social relationship.

Putting it further, it is challenging to find like-minded people with whom our mental chemistry aligns. Referring to Cell 6, which draws a dimension about the psychological transaction in an economic relationship, it is evident that psychological transactions do occur during economic relations, but such transactions are usually dubious. The reason for this is that such transactions are generally solitary and not dyad. Due to this attribute, past researchers called them inactive exchanges. Cell 7 presents the case of clinical psychology, where psychiatrists develop a psychological relationship with patients or subjects in a social setting.

Similarly, researchers also fall into this category to build empathy through social transactions to collect data. Cell 8 is similar to Cell 7, and diffusion can be drawn in the intent . Cell 7 refers to social welfare, while Cell 8 refers to economic return. If a researcher is working on a social problem or aiming to find a cure for a disease such as COVID-19 without aiming for lucrative gains, he will fall into Cell 7. On the contrary, if Toyota launches an electric vehicle or Philips launches a light bulb that consumes less electricity with a pure aim to sell these products to those consumers who want to save on their gas or electricity bills, they would fall in the Cell 8. If a transaction is taken as a relationship, then successful exchanges will be accepted as its outcome. It works both ways, from transactions in relations to relations in transactions ( Figure 2 ).

To explain how psychological transaction and psychological exchange relations work, the model by Foa and Foa (1980) comes to rescue from the literature. This model aligns a variety of resources according to different relationships, such as causal and universal. Causal relations complement universal resources, while intimate relations complement particularistic resources. Interestingly, a universal benefit paves the way for particularistic use, and this is how relationships become an outcome of reciprocal exchanges. Hence to understand this concept of exchange, we need to further our understanding related to exchange models. As to further contribution to SET literature, two models are proposed below to provide conceptual support to the dimensions of psychological transactions and psychological exchange relationships.

4.1. Nature of relations affects the psychological exchanges

Eisenberger et al. (2001) suggested that employees in an organization can exchange commitment in the reciprocation of organizational support. This finding allowed us to build our argument that the nature of relations between parties who participate in an exchange process can affect psychological exchanges. In other words, the closer the relationship between the two parties (pluralistic exchanges), the more there will be psychological exchanges. The key term to note here is “close,” which means seeing someone like peers or classmates every day. Furthermore, the achievement of a friend or classmate who went abroad will affect us less than someone we see every day.

This happens because of the social comparison we do with people near us. Hence, social distance or space between the parties does affect the relationship between them. Moreover, such a relationship will directly impact the intensity or type of psychological exchanges between them. It is important to note that not only the positive relationship enables the possibility of psychological exchanges, but it can also have a similar impact in terms of hostile relations as well. Similarly, a positive relationship does not necessarily mean that there will be only complementary psychological exchanges; negative psychological exchanges can also occur. For instance, you are feeling jealous about the good grades of your best friend. But such a psychological exchange would be different from the one you would have against someone in the class you dislike.

4.2. Psychological exchanges affect the nature of relations

Psychological exchanges in an organization are not a one-time thing but a continuous process like climbing a ladder. In other words, it constitutes a series of transactions between parties in a work setting. Hence, the output of a transaction today will form the psychological resource (both positive and negative) that can be exchanged tomorrow or anytime in the future. Therefore, psychological exchanges can form the basis of relationships between the parties. Positive psychological exchanges become a reason for positive relations, and negative psychological exchanges can cause negative associations (rivalry—usually between coworkers).

It is imperative to note that the exchange timing plays a significant role in forming the relations between parties. This timing of exchange dimension is coherent with the model of LMX development proposed by Uhl-Bien and Maslyn (2003) . This model suggests that leaders and members start their relationship journey by testing one another in terms of obligations, and the quality of relations depends upon the reciprocity of commitments. Suffice it to say that positive psychological exchanges result in the exchange of positive psychological resources. Similarly, negative psychological exchanges result in the exchange of harmful psychological resources, which impact resulting relationships.

5. Recommendations and future directions

Having its roots in the 1920s ( Malinowski, 1922 ; Mauss, 1925 ), the scope and foundations of SET are yet to be sufficiently explored. Management researchers have characteristics of a variety and multiple applications and are doing injustice with this theory in two ways. First, they lack the indulgent understanding of ideas that set the foundations of SET. Second, limited avenues are being explored in the research as reciprocity principles and economic orientation of SET. Cropanzano et al. (2017) investigated that people may not reciprocate according to their wishes due to certain uncontrollable factors. Cooper-Thomas and Morrison (2019) identified that it is not clear how SET might apply in conditions where positive and negative exchanges are simultaneously taking place.

We believe that this article shall help address both shortfalls as it adopts a meek way to outline the evolution of SET and identify essential areas where researchers can direct their future efforts. This article shall help dramatically evolve the theory by revising existing concepts, orientations, and forming new ones. According to Eisenberger et al. (1986) and Graen and Scandura (1987) , SET comprises two types of social exchanges. First is perceived organizational support (POS) that emphasizes employee–organization exchange relationships.

The second is the exchange between the leader and member, which elaborates on the interaction between the supervisor and the employee through the exchange of resources ( Lee and Duffy, 2019 ). In both types of exchanges, resulting relationships work as a cynosure of the exchange process. Consequently, the understanding of SET would remain meager if we could not hone the idea of exchanges and resulting relationships. This article pronounced the social and economic transactions and exchanges from the literature and proposed a new psychological dimension with empirical and conceptual justifications. This idea is similar to Cropanzano et al. (2017) , who introduced the concept of active and inactive exchanges, which revolutionized the whole notion of SET.

According to these dimensions, exchanges in organizational settings happen both explicitly (active exchanges) and implicitly (inactive exchanges). More notably, in the presence of uncontrollable factors, employees will still reciprocate but implicitly. The idea of how employees may get involved in inactive exchanges, even in the absence of uncontrollable factors, is another open avenue for future research. Take an instance of workplace envy: Workplace envy is an inactive exchange (beneficial or costly) of an employee in an organizational setting. It is a feeling that could be visible through active exchanges.

Building on these developments, this study proposes that social exchange may not necessarily be dyadic; it can be individualistic or monotonous where an employee feels on his own. The role of psychological transactions and resulting psychological exchange relationships can be understood from a case as simple as an employee feeling jealous about the achievement of a coworker. This dimension is inevitable, and it nulls the first part of the definition of SET, that is, initiation by an actor . This is because no one is initiating, and an employee envies himself or inactive exchange is taking place. Future studies should help to unveil this process of SET in further detail. Moreover, the current study focused on organizational exchanges and resulting relationships, and future research efforts can be directed toward social exchanges among family, friends, and relatives to improve the understanding and scope of SET.

It is also pertinent to note that negative emotions and feelings may be controlled through specific skills such as political skills and social skills. While there is much research on social exchanges in organizational relationships, areas of coworkers, supervisors, and outsiders are yet to be sufficiently explored. Moreover, Foa and Foa (1980) proposed classifications of exchange resources as status, information, goods, love, money, and services. These resources can be further classified into two dimensions economic (tangible) and socioemotional resources (symbolic). On account of social exchange relationships, much of the research is done on exploring relations among institutions and individuals ( Moorman et al., 1998 ), customers ( Houston et al., 1992 ), and suppliers ( Perrone et al., 2003 ), whereas literature is comparatively silent on the area of interpersonal relationships in an organizational setting.

There are exchange rules beyond reciprocity, exchange resources above money, and trust, and there are types of relationships other than social, economic, and psychological that need to be explored. These resources and their impact on social relationships are also unexplored areas asking for attention from the researchers. In addition to the above discussion, the following points can pave the way for a better understanding of SET and future research.

• It is unnecessary for a social exchange process that a positive initiating action would generate a positive response.
• Positive initiating action may not form a positive relationship.
• Positive initiating action may not always form a positive relationship, and it can be negative too.
• With changing workplace landscape, relationships are becoming increasingly complex in modern organizations; hence, relations are increasingly affecting the modern exchange process.
• An implicit initiating action can cause implicit and explicit behavioral responses.
• In some social instances, such as envy, the exchange process can be hidden, and hence, an actual exchange process could be altered with a fabricated exchange process.

6. Conclusion

While SET is evolving, it is inviting researchers to explore various related avenues. Thus, a broad theory that can shadow many other theories under its umbrella can describe multiple social phenomena. This article provided comprehensive commentary about how SET evolved and recent progressions, and it also provides fruit of thought on the psychological dimension that exists under the disguise of inactive exchanges. Beyond social and economic transactions, the idea and implications of psychological transactions are proposed in this article. Based on the idea of inactive exchanges, it is also proposed that other than reciprocity, other less explored exchange rules are dominant in psychological transactions.

Data availability statement

Author contributions.

RA and MN: concept development and systematic review strategy and final write-up. MI and MK: downloading and reviewing manuscript to be selected for the final review. HA: language of the manuscript, bibliography, and final formatting and review. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Appendix 1 Studies examining individual differences in reciprocity.

• Ahmad R., Khan M. M., Ishaq M. I. (2020). The role of envy and psychological capital on performance in the banking industry of Pakistan . Pak. Soc. Sci. Rev. 4 , 96–112. doi: 10.35484/pssr.2020(4-IV)07 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Anderson B., Berger J., Zelditch M., Jr., Cohen B. P. (1969). Reactions to inequity . Acta Sociol. 12 , 1–12. doi: 10.1177/000169936901200101 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Andersson L. M., Pearson C. M. (1999). Tit for tat? The spiraling effect of incivility in the workplace . Acad. Manag. Rev. 24 , 452–471. doi: 10.5465/amr.1999.2202131 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Andrews M. C., Witt L. A., Kacmar K. M. (2003). The interactive effects of organizational politics and exchange ideology on manager ratings of retention . J. Vocat. Behav. 62 , 357–369. doi: 10.1016/S0001-8791(02)00014-3 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Batson C. D. (1995). “ Prosocial motivation: why do we help others? ” in Advanced Social Psychology . ed. Tesser A. T. (New York: McGraw-Hill; ), 332–381. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bies R. J., Tripp T. M. (1996). “ Beyond distrust: getting even and the need for revenge ” in Trust in Organizations . eds. Kramer R. M., Tyler T. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; ), 246–260. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bishop J. W., Scott K. D., Burroughs S. M. (2000). Support, commitment, and employee outcomes in a team environment . J. Manag. 26 , 1113–1132. doi: 10.1177/014920630002600603 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Blau P. M. (1964). Exchange and Power in Social Life . New York: John Wiley. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chen C. C. (1995). New trends in rewards allocation preferences: a Sino-U.S. comparison . Acad. Manag. J. 38 , 408–428. doi: 10.5465/256686 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chernyak-Hai L., Rabenu E. (2018). The new era workplace relationships: is social exchange theory still relevant? Ind. Organ. Psychol. 11 , 456–481. doi: 10.1017/iop.2018.5 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Clark M. S., Mills J. (1979). Interpersonal attraction in exchange and communal relationships . J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 37 , 12–24. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.37.1.12 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cook K. S., Emerson R. M., Gillmore M. R. (1983). The distribution of power in exchange networks: theory and experimental results . Am. J. Sociol. 89 , 275–305. doi: 10.1086/227866 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cooper-Thomas H. D., Morrison R. L. (2019). Give and take: needed updates to social exchange theory . Ind. Organ. Psychol. 11 , 493–498. doi: 10.1017/iop.2018.101 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cotterell N., Eisenberger R., Speicher H. (1992). Inhibiting effects of reciprocation wariness on interpersonal relationships . J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 62 , 658–668. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.62.4.658 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Coyle-Shapiro J. A.-M., Conway N. (2004). “ The employment relationship through the lens of social exchange theory ” in The Employment Relationship: Examining Psychological and Contextual Perspectives . eds. Coyle-Shapiro J., Shore L. M., Taylor M. S., Tetrick L. (Oxford: Oxford University Press; ), 5–28. [ Google Scholar ]
• Coyle-Shapiro J. A.-M., Neuman J. H. (2004). The psychological contract and individual differences: the role of exchange and creditor ideologies . J. Vocat. Behav. 64 , 150–164. doi: 10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00031-9 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cropanzano R., Anthony E. L., Daniels S. R., Hall A. V. (2017). Social exchange theory: a critical review with theoretical remedies . Acad. Manag. Ann. 11 , 479–516. doi: 10.5465/annals.2015.0099 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cropanzano R., Baron R. A. (1991). Injustice and organizational conflict: the moderating effect of power restoration . Int. J. Confl. Manag. 2 , 5–26. doi: 10.1108/eb022691 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cropanzano R., Mitchell M. S. (2005). Social exchange theory: an interdisciplinary review . J. Manag. 31 , 874–900. doi: 10.1177/0149206305279602 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cropanzano R., Rupp D. E. (2008). “ Social exchange theory and organizational justice: job performance, citizenship behaviors, multiple foci, and a historical integration of two kinds of literature ” in Research in Social Issues in Management: Justice, Morality, and Social Responsibility . eds. Gilliland S. W., Skarlicki D. P., Steiner D. D. (Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing; ) [ Google Scholar ]
• de Ruyter K., Wetzels M. (2000). Determinants of a relational exchange orientation in the marketing-manufacturing interface . J. Manag. Stud. 37 , 257–276. doi: 10.1111/1467-6486.00180 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dirks K. T., Ferrin D. L. (2002). Trust in leadership: meta-analytic findings and implications for research and practice . J. Appl. Psychol. 87 , 611–628. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.611, PMID: [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Eisenberger R., Armeli S., Rexwinkel B., Lynch P. D., Rhoades L. (2001). Reciprocation of perceived organizational support . J. Appl. Psychol. 86 , 42–51. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.42 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Eisenberger R., Cotterell N., Marvel J. (1987). Reciprocation ideology . J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 53 , 743–750. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.743 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Eisenberger R., Fasolo P., Davis-LaMastro V. (1990). Perceived organizational support and employee diligence, commitment, and innovation . J. Appl. Psychol. 75 , 51–59. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.75.1.51 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Eisenberger R., Huntington R., Hutchison S., Sowa D. (1986). Perceived organizational support . J. Appl. Psychol. 71 , 500–507. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.71.3.500 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Eisenberger R., Lynch P., Aselage J., Rohdieck S. (2004). Who takes the most revenge? Individual differences in negative reciprocity norm endorsement . Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 30 , 787–799. doi: 10.1177/0146167204264047 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Emerson R. M. (1976a). Social exchange theory . Annu. Rev. 2 , 335–362. [ Google Scholar ]
• Emerson R. M. (1976b). Imperial administration as an exchange network; the length of dynastic rule in the Mugha1 empire . Inst. Social. Res. Univ. Wash . [ Google Scholar ]
• Firth R. (1967). Themes in Economic Anthropology . London: Tavistock. [ Google Scholar ]
• Fiske A. P. (1991). Structures of Social Life: The Four Elementary Forms of Human Relations . New York: Free Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Foa U. G., Foa E. B. (1974). Societal Structures of the Mind . Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas. [ Google Scholar ]
• Foa U. G., Foa E. B. (1980). “ Resource theory: interpersonal behavior as exchange ” in Social Exchange . eds. Gergen K. J., Greenberg M. S., Willis R. H. (Boston, MA: Springer; ) [ Google Scholar ]
• Folger R., Konovsky M. A. (1989). Effects of procedural and distributive justice on reactions to pay raise decisions . Acad. Manag. J. 32 , 115–130. doi: 10.5465/256422 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gallucci M., Perugini M. (2003). Information seeking and reciprocity: a transformational analysis . Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 33 , 473–495. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.156 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gergen K. J. (1969). The Psychology of Behavioral Exchange . Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. [ Google Scholar ]
• Goode W. J. (1973). Explorations in Social Theory New York: Oxford Theory University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gouldner A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: a preliminary statement . Am. Sociol. Rev. 25 , 161–178. doi: 10.2307/2092623 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Graen G. B., Scandura T. A. (1987). Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing . Res. Organ. Behav. 9 , 175–208. [ Google Scholar ]
• Greco L. M., Whitson J. A., O'Boyle E. H., Wang C. S., Kim J. (2019). An eye for an eye? A meta-analysis of negative reciprocity in organizations . J. Appl. Psychol. 104 , 1117–1143. doi: 10.1037/apl0000396, PMID: [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Homans G. C. (1958). Social behavior as exchange . Am. J. Sociol. 63 , 597–606. doi: 10.1086/222355 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Homans G. C. (1969). “ The sociological relevance of behaviourism ” in Behavioural Sociology: The Experimental Analysis of Social Process . eds. Burgess R. L., Bushell D., Jr. (New York: Columbia University Press; ) [ Google Scholar ]
• Hossen M. M., Chan T. J., Mohd Hasan N. A. (2020). Mediating role of job satisfaction on internal corporate social responsibility practices and employee engagement in higher education sector . Contemp. Manag. Res. 16 , 207–227. doi: 10.7903/cmr.20334 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Houston F. S., Gassenheimer J. B., Maskulka J. M. (1992). Marketing Exchange Transactions and Relationships . Westport, CT: Quorum Books. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ko J., Hur S. (2014). The impacts of employee benefits, procedural justice, and managerial trustworthiness on work attitudes: integrated understanding based on social exchange theory . Public Adm. Rev. 74 , 176–187. doi: 10.1111/puar.12160 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ladd D., Henry R. A. (2000). Helping coworkers and helping the organization: the role of support perceptions, exchange ideology, and conscientiousness 1 . J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 30 , 2028–2049. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02422.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lee K., Duffy M. K. (2019). A functional model of workplace envy and job performance: when do employees capitalize on envy by learning from envied targets? Acad. Manag. J. 62 , 1085–1110. doi: 10.5465/amj.2016.1202 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lerner M. J. (1980). “ The belief in a just world ” in The Belief in a Just World: A Fundamental Delusion . ed. Lerner M. J. (Boston, MA: Springer; ), 9–30. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lind E. A. (1995). “ Justice and authority relations in organizations ” in Organizational Politics, Justice, and Support: Managing the Social Climate of the Workplace . eds. Cropanzano R., Kacmar M. K. (Westport, CT: Quorum Books; ), 83–96. [ Google Scholar ]
• Luthans F., Avolio B. J., Avey J. B., Norman S. M. (2007). Positive psychological capital: measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction . Pers. Psychol. 60 , 541–572. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00083.x [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lynch P. D., Eisenberger R., Armeli S. (1999). Perceived organizational support: inferior versus superior performance by wary employees . J. Appl. Psychol. 84 , 467–483. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.84.4.467 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lyons B. J., Scott B. A. (2012). Integrating social exchange and affective explanations for the receipt of help and harm: a social network approach . Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 117 , 66–79. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.10.002 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• MacInnis D. J. (2011). A framework for conceptual contributions in marketing . J. Mark. 75 , 136–154. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.10.002 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Malinowski B. (1922). Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An Account of Native Enterprise and Adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea . London: Routledge [ Google Scholar ]
• Martin J., Harder J. W. (1994). Bread and roses: justice and the distribution of financial and socioemotional rewards in organizations . Soc. Justice Res. 7 , 241–264. doi: 10.1007/BF02334833 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Masterson S. S., Lewis K., Goldman B. M., Taylor M. S. (2000). Integrating justice and social exchange: the differing effects of fair procedures and treatment on work relationships . Acad. Manag. J. 43 , 738–748. doi: 10.5465/1556364 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mauss M. (1925). The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies . New York: The Norton Library. [ Google Scholar ]
• Meeker B. F. (1971). Decisions and exchange . Am. Sociol. Rev. 36 , 485–495. doi: 10.2307/2093088 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Methot J. R., Lepine J. A., Podsakoff N. P., Christian J. S. (2016). Are workplace friendships a mixed blessing? Exploring tradeoffs of multiplex relationships and their associations with job performance . Pers. Psychol. 69 , 311–355. doi: 10.1111/peps.12109 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mills J., Clark M. S. (1982). Exchange and communal relationships . Rev. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 3 , 121–144. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mitchell M. S., Cropanzano R. S., Quisenberry D. M. (2012). “ Social exchange theory, exchange resources, and interpersonal relationships: a modest resolution of theoretical difficulties ” in Handbook of Social Resource Theory . eds. Törnblom K., Kazemi A. (New York, NY: Springer; ), 99–118. [ Google Scholar ]
• Molm L. D. (1994). Dependence and risk: transforming the structure of social exchange . Soc. Psychol. Q. 57 , 163–176. doi: 10.2307/2786874 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Molm L. D. (2003). Theoretical comparisons of forms of exchange . Sociol Theory 21 , 1–17. doi: 10.1111/1467-9558.00171 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Moorman R. H., Blakely G. L., Niehoff B. P. (1998). Does perceived organizational support mediate the relationship between procedural justice and organizational citizenship behavior? Acad. Manag. J. 41 , 351–357. doi: 10.5465/256913 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Murstein B. I., Cerreto M., Mac Donald M. G. (1977). A theory and investigation of the effect of exchange orientation on marriage and friendship . J. Marriage Fam. 39 , 543–548. doi: 10.2307/350908 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Organ D. W. (1990). The motivational basis of organizational citizenship behavior . Res. Organ. Behav. 12 , 43–72. [ Google Scholar ]
• Orpen C. (1994). The effects of exchange ideology on the relationship between perceived organizational support and job performance . J. Soc. Psychol. 134 , 407–408. doi: 10.1080/00224545.1994.9711749 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Parker B. (1998). Globalization: Managing Across Boundaries . London: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pearson C. M., Andersson L. M., Porath C. L. (2005). “ Workplace incivility ” in Counterproductive Work Behavior: Investigations of Actors and Targets . eds. Fox S., Spector P. E. (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; ), 177–200. [ Google Scholar ]
• Perrone V., Zaheer A., McEvily B. (2003). Free to be trusted? Organizational constraints on trust in boundary spanners . Organ. Sci. 14 , 422–439. doi: 10.1287/orsc.14.4.422.17487 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Perugini M., Gallucci M. (2001). Individual differences and social norms: the distinction between reciprocators and prosocial . Eur. J. Personal. 15 , S19–S35. doi: 10.1002/per.419 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rayner C., Keashly L. (2005). “ Bullying at work: a perspective from Britain and North America ” in Counterproductive work behavior: Investigations of actors and targets . eds. Fox S., Spector P. E. (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; ), 271–296. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rhoades L., Eisenberger R. (2002). Perceived organizational support: a review of the literature . J. Appl. Psychol. 87 , 698–714. doi: 10.1037//0021-9010.87.4.698 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Riggle R. J., Edmondson D. R., Hansen J. D. (2009). A meta-analysis of the relationship between perceived organizational support and job outcomes: 20 years of research . J. Bus. Res. 62 , 1027–1030. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.05.003 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rupp D. E., Cropanzano R. (2002). The mediating effects of social exchange relationships in predicting workplace outcomes from multifocal organizational justice . Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 89 , 925–946. doi: 10.1016/S0749-5978(02)00036-5 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sahlins M. D. (1972). Stone Age Economics (No. 306.3 S2) . London: Routledge. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sharpley R. (2014). Host perceptions of tourism: a review of the research . Tour. Manag. 42 , 37–49. doi: 10.1016/j.tourman.2013.10.007 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shore L. M., Coyle-Shapiro J. A.-M. (2003). New developments in the employee-organization relationship . J. Organ. Behav. 24 , 443–450. doi: 10.1002/job.212 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sinclair R. R., Tetrick L. E. (1995). Social exchange and union commitment: a comparison of union instrumentality and union support perceptions . J. Organ. Behav. 16 , 669–680. doi: 10.1002/job.4030160706 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tepper B. J., Carr J. C., Breaux D. M., Geider S., Hu C., Hua W. (2009). Abusive supervision, intentions to quit, and employees’ workplace deviance: a power/dependence analysis . Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 109 , 156–167. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.03.004 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tepper B. J., Taylor E. C. (2003). Relationships among supervisors' and subordinates' procedural justice perceptions and organizational citizenship behaviors . Acad. Manag. J. 46 , 97–105. doi: 10.5465/30040679 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Thibault J. W., Kelley H. H. (1959). The Social Psychology of Groups . New York: John Wiley. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tsui A. S., Wang D. X. (2002). “ Employment relationships from the employer’s perspective: current research and future directions ” in International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology . eds. Cooper C. L., Robertson I. T. (Chichester: Wiley; ), 77–114. [ Google Scholar ]
• Turillo C. J., Folger R., Lavelle J. J., Umphress E. E., Gee J. O. (2002). Is virtue its own reward? Self-sacrificial decisions for the sake of fairness . Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 89 , 839–865. doi: 10.1016/S0749-5978(02)00032-8 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Uhl-Bien M., Maslyn J. M. (2003). Reciprocity in manager-subordinate relationships: components, configurations, and outcomes . J. Manag. 29 , 511–532. doi: 10.1016/S0149-2063_03_00023-0 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wang D., Tsui A. S., Zhang Y., Ma L. (2003). Employment relationships and firm performance: evidence from an emerging economy . J. Organ. Behav. 24 , 511–535. doi: 10.1002/job.213 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Witt L. A. (1991). Equal opportunity perceptions and job attitudes . J. Soc. Psychol. 131 , 431–433. doi: 10.1080/00224545.1991.9713869 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Witt L. A. (1992). Exchange ideology as a moderator of the relationships between the importance of participation in decision making and job attitudes . Hum. Relat. 45 , 73–85. doi: 10.1177/001872679204500104 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Witt L. A., Broach D. (1993). Exchange ideology as a moderator of the procedural justice-satisfaction relationship . J. Soc. Psychol. 133 , 97–103. doi: 10.1080/00224545.1993.9712122 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Witt L. A., Kacmar K. M., Andrews M. C. (2001). The interactive effects of procedural justice and exchange ideology on supervisor-rated commitment . J. Organ. Behav. 22 , 505–515. doi: 10.1002/job.99 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Witt L. A., Wilson J. W. (1990). Income sufficiency as a predictor of job satisfaction and organizational commitment: dispositional differences . J. Soc. Psychol. 130 , 267–268. doi: 10.1080/00224545.1990.9924578 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yadav M. S. (2014). Enhancing theory development in marketing . AMS Rev. 4 , 1–4. doi: 10.1007/s13162-014-0059-z [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Social Exchange Theory of Relationships: Examples & More

Charlotte Nickerson

Research Assistant at Harvard University

Undergraduate at Harvard University

Charlotte Nickerson is a student at Harvard University obsessed with the intersection of mental health, productivity, and design.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

On This Page:

Key Takeaways

• Social Exchange stipulates that people apply economic principles when evaluating relationships, either consciously or unconsciously, conducting cost-benefit analysis while also comparing alternatives.
• Thibaut and Kelley assume that people try to maximize the rewards they obtain from a relationship and minimize the costs (the minimax principle).
• According to social exchange theory, people will pursue relationships where rewards are greater than cost (net profit) and abandon those where costs are greater than profit (net loss). These profits can be measured in the short term or cumulatively. The value of costs and rewards is highly subjective.
• Several scholars have expanded social exchange theory to describe power, social cohesion, and risk and uncertainty.

What is social exchange theory?

According to social exchange theory (Thibault & Kelly, 1959), social behavior involves social exchanges where people are motivated by obtaining something of value (reward) in exchange for forfeiting something else of value (cost).

In social exchanges, like economic exchanges, people seek profit and are disturbed when there is no equity in an exchange or when others are rewarded more at the same costs incurred by the individual (Redmond, 2015).

Social exchange theory addresses three questions. Firstly, the question of how people make decisions about how much they are willing to give in exchange for a particular reward. Secondly, what factors influence people to pursue or terminate relationships.

And lastly, Why and whether people feel resentment when they feel they have put more effort into sustaining a relationship than their partner (Redmond, 2015).

Social exchange theory has its roots in Homan’s (1958) paper Social Behavior as Exchange. In this work, Homans contrasted the actions and exchanges of individuals to the actions of institutions.

He believed that individual behaviors and exchanges could affect the actions of institutions.

Blau’s (2017) Exchange and Power in Social Life drew on Homan’s focus on groups and institutions to lay the theoretical foundation for social exchange theory.

Unlike Humans, who emphasized psychology as the foundation of human decision-making, Blau’s vision of social behavior paralleled microeconomics. He labeled this vision with Homan’s term “social exchange theory” (Cook and Emerson, 1987).

Social exchange theory’s foundational principles have inspired a large number of alternate theories. These range from applications of social exchange theory in a specific concept to expanding upon the foundational principles of the theory.

Social Exchange Theory (SET) Explained

There are five guiding principles of social exchange theory (Redmond, 2015):

Principle 1 : Social behavior can be explained in terms of costs, rewards, and exchanges: this principle’s importance comes from how it loosely applied economics to human decision-making.

Principle 2 : People seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs in the pursuit of the greatest profit: this reflects a belief that people are generally motivated by their own self-interest, regardless of the decision.

A relationship that at one time seemed to be a high reward or low cost may shift to one with increasing costs and low rewards, causing that person to return to a more rewarding level or terminate the relationship.

Principle 3 : Social interaction involves two parties, each exchanging a reward needed by the other person: in order to get rewards, people must exchange something better (Burns, 1973). This creates interdependent relationships.

Principle 4 : Social exchange theory can be used to explain the development and management of interpersonal relationships: the economic principles underlying social exchange theory must be adapted so that they can be applied sociologically. This has led sociologists such as Altman and Taylor (1973) to create a social penetration theory to describe relational development.

Principle 5 : Social exchanges affect the relationships among members of groups and organizations. For decades, researchers such as Blau (2017) have discussed how the need for advice and assistance leads to exchanges among group members.

These fortify group structures, as those who are able to give advice are rewarded with respect, prestige, or possibly reciprocal action from the person receiving the assistance. Initially, seeking advice can form the basis of a mutually beneficial relationship; however, the equitable exchange needs to continue.

Costs vs. Benefits

Rewards are the amount of benefit that someone receives from a relationship. Rewards can be abstract (such as love and companionship), or concrete (such as goods and services) and are immediate or cumulative.

Ultimately, costs demotivate relationships; however, people must trade something of value (cost) for something they need or value (rewards). Like rewards, they can be either abstract or concrete and exist instantaneously or cumulatively.

In a relationship, people gain rewards (such as attention from their partner, sex, gifts, and a boost to their self-esteem) and incur costs (paying money for gifts, compromising on how to spend their time or stress).

There is also an opportunity cost in relationships, such as stress, arguments, compromises, and time commitments,

spending time with a partner that does not develop into a lasting relationship could have been spent with another partner with better long-term prospects.

How much value is placed on each cost and benefit is subjective and determined by the individual.

For example, whilst some people may want to spend as much time as possible with their partner in the early stages of the relationship and see this time together as a reward of the relationship, others may value their space and see extended periods spent together as more of a necessary investment to keep the other person happy.

Profit, as in economics, is rewards minus costs. Positive outcomes happen when there is a net profit, and negative outcomes happen when there is a net loss.

Thibault and Kelley (1959) also identified a number of different stages of a relationship:

• Sampling : partners consider the possible costs and benefits in the new relationship through direct or indirect interactions and compare it to other relationships available.
• Bargaining : partners exchange costs and benefits; they negotiate and identify what is the most profitable.
• Commitment : the relationship is stable and maintained by a predictable exchange of rewards.
• Institutionalization : partners have established norms in terms of costs and benefits. They now settle down.

Expectations and Comparison Levels

The comparison level (CL) in a relationship is a judgment of how much profit an individual is receiving (benefits minus costs). The acceptable CL needed to continue to pursue a relationship changes as a person matures and can be affected by a number of external and internal factors.

External factors may include the media (younger people may want more from a relationship after being socialized by images of romance on films and television), seeing friends and families in relationships (people who have divorced or separated parents may have a different CL to those with parents who are still married), or experiences from prior relationships, which have taught the person to expect more or less from a partner.

Internal perceptions of self-worth, such as self-esteem, will directly affect the CL that a person believes they are entitled to in a relationship.

Cumulative rewards and costs refer to the total rewards and costs someone has incurred over the course of a relationship. Profits add up in such a way that people will not immediately end relationships where immediate costs exceed rewards.

Not only do people assess the current profits of their relationships, but they also evaluate potential rewards and costs. Thibaut and Kelley (2017) believe that this is especially applicable at the beginning and during the stabilization phase of relationships.

Communications scholars such as Michael Sunnafrank have labeled this evaluation of the likelihood of positive and negative outcomes as predicted outcome values (1986).

Evaluating the Alternatives

Comparison level for alternatives (CLalt) refers to a person’s judgment of whether they could be getting fewer costs and greater rewards from another alternative relationship with another partner.

Steve Duck (1994) suggested that a person’s comparison level for alternatives is dependent on the level of reward and satisfaction in their current relationship. If the CL is positive, then the person may not consider the potential benefits of a relationship with another person.

People evaluate the costs and rewards of a relationship in terms of how they compare to expectations. People are likely to continue relationships that exceed their expectations and cut off those that fall short.

Research Examining Social Exchange Theory

Rusbult (1983)- carried out a longitudinal study over a seven-month period on heterosexual college students. The participants completed questionnaires every few weeks.

He found that satisfaction, investment, and alternatives predicted how committed they were to their relationship and whether it lasted.

He also found that during the “honeymoon” phase of the relationship, the balance of exchanges was ignored; however, later on, relationship costs were compared with the degree of satisfaction.

This supports the theory because it shows the importance of rewards in a relationship and comparison levels. It also suggests that the SET is best applied to the maintenance of relationships.

Hatfield (1989) studied people who felt over or under-benefited. The under-benefitted felt angry and deprived, while the over-benefited felt guilty and uncomfortable.

This supports SET theory by suggesting that regardless of whether individuals benefit, they do not wish to maintain a relationship that is unfair. This also highlights a weakness of SET; it ignores equity.

A number of social exchange theorists have focused extensively on power. These theories picture power as being based on someone’s ability to control and manage another person by being able to meet their needs.

Emerson (1962) acknowledges that every relationship is about power and that withholding rewards or punishment can create negative actions (Blau, 2017).

For example, an employer can withhold a bonus from an employee until he has met a particular work standard.

Social structure can also define power relationships — the position of “employer” gives whoever is in that position the power to fire an employee, and this power originates exclusively from the position the employer holds.

Social structures involving power also necessitate unequal rewards — employers are usually paid more than employees. This system of power and unequal rewards is mediated by social exchanges that weigh rewards and costs.

Social structure is both a product of social exchanges and constrained by it (Cook and Whitmeyer, 1992). Power constraints, for example, who can interact with whom in an organization.

The study of how power impacts individuals’ access to other organization members is called exchange network theory (Redmond, 2015).

Central to Emerson’s framework of power is exchange relations as a unit of analysis. This shift, according to Turner (1978), made exchange theory less reductionist and tautological.

Rather than emphasizing the value of rewards to individuals, Emerson sought to understand the structure of the networks and groups that embed exchange relations. This emphasis on social relations differentiated Emerson from Homans and Blau (Cook and Emerson, 1987).

Risk and Uncertainty

Cook and Emerson (1978) established that people are more likely to form committed exchange relationships when they are in an uncertain environment, as this reduces how much these individuals seek alternative exchange relationships, reducing the inequalities of power in the exchange relationship.

Kollock (1995) also notes that uncertainty also creates higher feelings of trust in those in an exchange relationship.

Yamagishi et al. (1998) motivate this heightened trust. When there is low uncertainty, individuals are more likely to maximize their access to rewards by avoiding commitment.

However, in uncertain situations, people commit in order to avoid possible exploitation by new partners (Cook and Emerson, 1987). Different types of exchanges vary in how much risk and uncertainty is involved in them.

For example, exchanges that are reciprocal usually result in more trust than negotiated exchanges with binding agreements (Molm, 2010; Cook and Emerson, 1987).

Relational Cohesion

According to Lawler and Yoon (1993), positive emotions and then feelings of cohesion and solidarity develop from the belief that the outcomes of exchanges are positive and frequent.

People have fewer positive feelings and are less likely to commit to exchanges that do not generate positive feelings or that are infrequent.

Anthropological theories attempting to link exchange and solidarity have complexified social exchange theory by detailing exchange theory’s emotional basis.

It has connected social exchange theories to the study of social commitments (Lawler, 2009) and social order. For example, Lawler et al. (2008) have explained how reciprocal, negotiated, generalized, and productive exchange reflect emotional responses, how one thinks of oneself in the group, and attachment to the group.

These bonds are strong in joint activities and exchanges that promote a joint sense of responsibility.

Critical Evaluation

Operationalizing rewards and costs is hugely subjective, making comparisons between people and relationships in controlled settings very difficult.

Most studies that are used to support Social Exchange Theory account for this by using artificial procedures in laboratory settings, reducing the external validity of the findings.

Michael Argyle (1987) questions whether it is the CL that leads to dissatisfaction with the relationship or dissatisfaction that leads to this analysis. It may be that Social Exchange Theory serves as a justification for dissatisfaction rather than the cause of it.

Social Exchange Theory ignores the idea of social equity explained by the next relationship theory concerning equality in a relationship – would a partner really feel satisfied in a relationship where they received all of the rewards and their partner incurred all of the costs?

The theory predicts that if the costs outweigh the benefits, dissatisfaction will occur, and the relationship will end; however, it might be that when we are dissatisfied, we value less the benefits and value more the costs and start considering more attractive alternatives.

However, this does not take into account the size of the investment already put in the relationship (see Rusbult’s investment model of commitment).

Real-world application – Social Exchange Theory is used in Integrated Behavioral Couples Therapy, where couples are taught how to increase the proportion of positive exchanges and decrease negative exchanges.

Chritensen (2004) found that it led to a significant improvement in two third of the 40 couples who took part in the study.

This shows high mundane realism in terms of the practical, real-world application of the theory; therefore, SET is really beneficial for improving real relationships.

Many have criticized the original propositions and assumptions in Homan’s social exchange theory. Prominently, scholars have questioned the degree to which humans are rational and thus make conscious, continuous cost-benefit analyses in their analysis (Redmond, 2015).

Homan has also drawn criticism for his methodology, as his analysis of human behavior relies more on observations of, for example, how pigeons react to reinforcements than on studying human’s calculated decision-making and reality.

There has also been a considerable amount of confusion in social exchange theory about the variability of reward values.

Because ten dollars is a very different reward for, say, a homeless person and a millionaire, measuring reward value absolutely and being able to conduct social exchange theory research is problematic.

There are also symbolic rewards, where the cost of creating a reward (for example, baking cookies) is unrelated to the symbolic value of the gesture.

Homan’s social exchange theory also fails to address the restrictions created by roles and social structure.

Exchanges can happen without any option to negotiate, and actions carried out of the obligation of a role could be carried out without an individual thinking about the reward of each interaction. For example, an office worker may not think about how much he is being paid per hour to sit in a meeting because meetings are obligatory for him.

Finally, critics call Homan’s social exchange theory overly reductionist, as it only considers costs, rewards, profits, and exchanges in human interaction.

Although derivative research (such as those on power, equity, and interdependence) has complexified the theory, scholars still consider social exchange theory to be poor at meeting its goals (Redmond, 2015).

Argyle, M., & Crossland, J. (1987). The dimensions of positive emotions. British Journal of Social Psychology, 26(2), 127-137.

Altman, I., & Taylor, D. A. (1973). Social penetration: The development of interpersonal relationships: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Beebe, S. A., & Masterson, J. T. (2003). Communicating in small groups. Boston, MA.

Blau, P. M. (2017). Exchange and power in social life: Routledge.

Christensen, A., Atkins, D. C., Berns, S., Wheeler, J., Baucom, D. H., & Simpson, L. E. (2004). Traditional versus integrative behavioral couple therapy for significantly and chronically distressed married couples. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 72(2), 176.

Cook, K. S., & Emerson, R. M. (1978). Power, equity and commitment in exchange networks. American sociological review, 721-739.

Cook, K. S., & Emerson, R. M. (1987). Social exchange theory.

Emerson, R. M. (1962). Power-dependence relations. American sociological review, 31-41.

Homans, G. C. (1958). Social behavior as exchange. American journal of sociology, 63(6), 597-606.

Lawler, E. J., Thye, S. R., & Yoon, J. (2008). Social exchange and micro social order. American sociological review, 73(4), 519-542.

Lawler, E. J., Thye, S. R., & Yoon, J. (2009). Social commitments in a depersonalized world: Russell Sage Foundation.

Lawler, E. J., & Yoon, J. (1993). Power and the emergence of commitment behavior in negotiated exchange. American sociological review, 465-481.

Molm, L. D. (2010). The structure of reciprocity. Social psychology quarterly, 73(2), 119-131.

Redmond, M. V. (2015). Social exchange theory.

Rusbult, C. E. (1983). A longitudinal test of the investment model: The development (and deterioration) of satisfaction and commitment in heterosexual involvements. Journal of personality and social psychology, 45(1), 101.

Sunnafrank, M. (1986). Predicted outcome value during initial interactions: A reformulation of uncertainty reduction theory. Human Communication Research, 13(1), 3-33.

Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. (1959). The social psychology of groups. Routledge.

Turner, J. H., & Turner, P. R. (1978). The structure of sociological theory: Dorsey Press Homewood, IL.

Yamagishi, T., Cook, K. S., & Watabe, M. (1998). Uncertainty, trust, and commitment formation in the United States and Japan. American journal of sociology, 104(1), AJSv104p165-194.

Further Information

Cook, K. S., Cheshire, C., Rice, E. R., & Nakagawa, S. (2013). Social exchange theory. Handbook of social psychology, 61-88.

Social Exchange Theory

Related Articles

Social Science

Hard Determinism: Philosophy & Examples (Does Free Will Exist?)

Functions of Attitude Theory

Understanding Conformity: Normative vs. Informational Social Influence

Social Control Theory of Crime

Emotions , Mood , Social Science

Emotional Labor: Definition, Examples, Types, and Consequences

Famous Experiments , Social Science

Solomon Asch Conformity Line Experiment Study

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2024 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

Understanding Social Exchange Theory in Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Caiaimage / Sam Edwards / Getty Images

What Is Social Exchange Theory?

• Key Concepts

Frequently Asked Questions

Social exchange theory is a concept based on the idea that social behavior is the result of an exchange process. According to this theory, people weigh the potential benefits and risks of their social relationships. When the risks outweigh the rewards, they will terminate or abandon the relationship . The purpose of this exchange is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

Most relationships are made up of a certain amount of give-and-take, but this does not mean that they are always equal. Social exchange suggests that it is the valuing of the ​benefits and costs of each relationship that determine whether or not we choose to continue a social association.

This theory of social interaction has been used across a variety of fields, including sociology, psychology, and even economics.

One of the most basic examples of social exchange theory is being asked on a date. If you feel that the benefits of going on the date outweigh the costs (there are more pros than cons), you will say yes. Conversely, if the costs outweigh the benefits (more cons than pros), you'll likely say no.

The notion of "social behavior as exchange" was first identified by American sociologist George C. Homans in 1958. Homans was a pioneer in behavioral sociology and held several roles of distinction in his career, including serving as president of the American Sociological Association (1963 to 1964) and chairman of Harvard's Department of Sociology (1970 to 1975).

Homans is known for being rather matter-of-fact. For example, although a sociologist himself, if asked, he would respond that "most sociological theorists are idiots."

Other figures that contributed to the development of Homans' social exchange theory, albeit in different ways, were John Thibaut, Harold Kelley, and Peter Blau. Thibaut and Kelley were both social psychologists and Blau was a sociologist and theorist.

While Homans approached the study of social exchange by starting with groups, then working down to individuals, Thibaut and Kelley started with individuals and worked up to groups. Blau subscribed to neither of these approaches, instead, warning that the aspects of social exchange shouldn't be blinded by psychology.

What Are the Key Concepts of Social Exchange Theory?

To truly understand social exchange theory requires recognizing the aspects on which it is based.

Costs vs. Benefits

Social exchange theory suggests that we essentially take the benefits of a relationship and subtract the costs in order to determine how much it is worth.

• Costs involve things that you see as negatives, such as having to put money, time, and effort into a relationship. For example, if you have a friend who always borrows money from you and does not repay it, this might be seen as a high cost.
• Benefits are things that you get out of the relationship, such as fun, friendship , companionship, and social support . Your friend might be a bit of a freeloader, but bring a lot of fun and excitement to your life. As you are determining the value of the friendship, you might decide that the benefits outweigh the potential costs.

Positive relationships are those in which the benefits outweigh the costs. Negative relationships occur when the costs are greater than the benefits.

Expectations and Comparison Levels

Cost-benefit analysis plays a major role in the social exchange process, but so do expectations . As people weigh benefits against the costs, they do so by establishing a comparison level that is often influenced by past experiences.

For example, if your previous romantic partner showered you with displays of affection, your comparison level for your next relationship is going to be quite high when it comes to affection. If your next romantic partner tends to be more reserved and less emotional, that person might not measure up to your expectations.

If you have always had poor friendships, your comparison levels at the start of a relationship will be lower than a person who has always had supportive and caring friends .

Expectations can appear within work relationships as well. Research indicates that there is an "expectation of reciprocity" within workplace settings between management and staff. If an employee doesn't feel that their effort is being reciprocated from higher-ups, this can affect their work.

Impact of Social Exchange Theory on Relationships

The idea that relationships are based on an exchange can affect how we relate with others.

The Honeymoon Phase

The length of a friendship or romance can play a role in the social exchange process. During the early weeks or months of a relationship, often referred to as the "honeymoon phase," people are more likely to ignore the social exchange balance.

Things that would normally be viewed as high cost are dismissed, ignored, or minimized, while potential benefits are often exaggerated. When this honeymoon period finally comes to an end, there will often be a gradual evaluation of the exchange balance.

At this point, downsides become more apparent and benefits start to be seen more realistically. This recalibration of the exchange balance might lead to the termination of the relationship if the balance is tipped too far toward the negative side.

Evaluating the Alternatives

Another aspect of the social exchange process involves looking at possible alternatives. After analyzing the costs and benefits and contrasting these against your comparison levels, you might start to look at other options.

The relationship might not measure up to your comparison levels, but as you survey the potential alternatives, you might determine it is still better than anything else available. As a result, you might reassess the relationship in terms of what may now be a somewhat lower comparison level.

Equity Determines Health

Since social exchange theory is based on give and take, if this back and forth exchange is not considered equitable, it can affect the health of the relationship. The primary giver may feel resentful while the primary receiver may be riddled with guilt .

If this type of exchange happens only once or twice, it likely won't impact the relationship. However, if it becomes a pattern, feelings of resentment and guilt can start to build, creating a point of contention between the two.

The communication theory of social exchange says that people communicate with others with the expectation that their communication will be equally reciprocated. For example, if you reach out to someone at a networking event, you might assume that they will respond with the same desire and enthusiasm.

Typically, being altruistic means giving without expecting anything in return, which contradicts the basis of social exchange. However, research indicates that there are two types of altruism: true and reciprocal. While a true altruist gives solely to give, a reciprocal gives with some expectation of a return.

Some suggest that since social exchange theory was crafted based on the White middle class, it neglects the realities of other race groups. This helps form the basis of systemic racism, forcing other races to deal with a system that doesn't take their cultural differences into consideration—and be judged negatively for these differences.

Deausealt M, Walbridge H. Social exchange theory: What is it, and how can it be applied to everyday situations? . University of Southern Maine.

Emerson R. Social exchange theory . Ann Rev Sociol . 1976;2:335-62. doi:10.1146/annurev.so.02.080176.002003

American Sociological Association. George C. Homans .

Thomas A, Gupta V. Social capital theory, social exchange theory, social cognitive theory, financial literacy, and the role of knowledge sharing as a moderator in enhancing financial well-being: from bibiometric analysis to a conceptual framework model . Front Psychol . 2021. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.664638

University of Kentucky. Social exchange theory .

Paraskevaidis P, Andriotis K. Altruism in tourism: Social exchange theory vs altruistic surplus phenomenon in host volunteering . Ann Tourism Res . 2017;62:26-37. doi:10.1016/j.annals.2016.11.002

Landor A, Barr A. Politics of respectability, colorism, and the terms of social exchange in family research . J Fam Theory Rev . 2018;10(2):330-47. doi:10.1111/jifr.12264

Cook KS, Cheshire C, Rice ERW, Nakagawa S. Social exchange theory . In: DeLamater J, Ward A, eds. Handbook of Social Psychology . 2013. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6772-0_3

Homans GC. Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms . Harcourt, Brace.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Social Exchange Theory (SET)

Social exchange theory: a review, introduction.

Applications

Limitations.

Click to subscribe to our YouTube Channel.

Dinara Davlembayeva (Business School, Cardiff University, UK) & Eleftherios Alamanos (Business School, Newcastle University, UK)

How to Cite

Davlembayeva, D. & Alamanos, E. (2023) Social Exchange Theory: A review . In S. Papagiannidis (Ed), TheoryHub Book . Available at https://open.ncl.ac.uk / ISBN: 9781739604400

Theory Profile

Discipline Sociology Unit of Analysis Social Groups, Dyadic relations

Operationalised Qualitatively / Quantitatively Level Meso-level

Theory Tags

ISBN: 978-1-7396044-0-0

Published under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License .

• About TheoryHub
• Submissions
• YouTube Channel

TheoryHub © 2020-2024 All rights reserved

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

Social exchange theory: systematic review and future directions.

• 1 Imperial College of Business Studies, Lahore, Pakistan
• 2 Banking and Finance, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
• 3 Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
• 4 Management Sciences, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan

Social exchange theory (SET) is one of the most influential theories in social sciences, which has implications across various fields. Despite its usefulness being a typical social transaction, there is a need to look at it from the lens of psychological transactions to further its evolution and to identify future directions. After generally reviewing 3,649 articles from the Social Science Citation Index and Scopus, a total of 46 articles were selected for final review using a comprehensive systematic review approach. We have highlighted the need for further research in psychological transactions, reciprocity principles, exchange relations, and the impact of various factors on the exchange process. Among other exchange rules (social, economic, and psychological) and transactions (social, economic, and psychological), this research provides an elevation platform for the less explored exchange rules in psychological transactions. Among other theories in the social sciences, social exchange theory is a theory that shadows many other theories under its umbrella.

1. Introduction

Social exchange theory (SET) is one of the gold standards to understand workplace behavior ( Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ). It is such a common phenomenon that is deeply inculcated in our daily lives. Exchanges are not limited to the organizations but extended to our family, friends, and relatives, and that too on a subtle basis. Cropanzano et al. (2017) defined the SET as (i) an initiation by an actor toward the target, (ii) an attitudinal or behavioral response from the target in reciprocity, and (iii) the resulting relationship. Relationships in the corporate world today are becoming increasingly complex ( Chernyak-Hai and Rabenu, 2018 ). Hence, there is a need to update SET with the increasing complexity of how organizations operate and how employees behave ( Cooper-Thomas and Morrison, 2019 ).

Rooted back in the 1920s ( Malinowski, 1922 ; Mauss, 1925 ), social exchange theory has implications across various fields like social psychology ( Homans, 1958 ; Thibault and Kelley, 1959 ; Gouldner, 1960 ), sociology ( Blau, 1964 ), and anthropology ( Firth, 1967 ; Sahlins, 1972 ). It was Homans (1958) , who, for the first time, proposed the idea of “Social behavior as exchange” in the literature, and he further evolved this idea into its elementary forms in 1961. Thibault and Kelley (1959) proposed the converging notion of the “social psychology of groups.” Blau (1964) further evolved this idea by presenting the concept of “exchange and power,” which refers to the ability of one party to influence another party to do something. Blau highlighted the economic orientation of the theory, while Homans lodged more upon psychological orientation, that is, instrumental behavior. According to a significant contribution by Blau (1964) in literature, social exchange conceived here is limited to actions that are contingent on rewarding reactions from others, and exchange behavior means voluntary actions of individuals that are motivated by the returns they are expected to bring.

Homans (1969) further evolved his study in SET, incorporated sociology, and behavioral psychology concepts and stressed the need for further research on the subject, while Anderson et al. (1969) reinforced the economic implications of the theory. Goode proposed the idea that the role theory and exchange theory were convergent to one another in 1973. Emerson (1976a) suggested that SET is not a theory but a frame covering many theories under its shadow. Other areas analyzed under the light of SET include commitment ( Bishop et al., 2000 ), organizational citizenship behaviors ( Organ, 1990 ), supervisory and organizational support ( Ladd and Henry, 2000 ), and justice ( Tepper and Taylor, 2003 ). Mitchell et al. (2012) proposed the idea of a social life cycle that refers to events/transactions between parties.

Cropanzano et al. (2017) proposed that the action of the first actor is termed initiating action and is divided into positive and negative ones. Positive initiating actions include justice ( Cropanzano and Rupp, 2008 ) and organizational support ( Riggle et al., 2009 ), and negative actions may consist of incivility ( Andersson and Pearson, 1999 ; Pearson et al., 2005 ), abusive supervision ( Tepper et al., 2009 ), and bullying ( Rayner and Keashly, 2005 ). The resulting response from the target can be classified as behavioral and relational. Subsequently, successful exchanges eventually transform a preliminary economic exchange into a social exchange relationship ( Cropanzano et al., 2017 ). Lyons and Scott (2012) proposed the idea of “homeomorphic reciprocity” which refers to the ability of an employee to receive help or harm shall depend upon the extent to which that employee engages in benefit and harm. Additionally, the behaviors exchanged between an employee and a given coworker should be equivalent, such that engaging in help, but no harm, is associated with receiving support, and engaging in harm, but not help, is associated with receiving harm.

Having such broad applications, according to the study of Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) , the core ideas that comprise SET have yet to be adequately articulated and integrated. Researchers further concluded that SET is a broad framework that can describe almost any finding ( Sharpley, 2014 ; Cropanzano et al., 2017 ). Such broadness shows the presence of flexibility and variety in SET consequently. At the same time, various researchers embark upon social and economic transactions and exchanges in SET. Based on the call of Cropanzano et al. (2017) , this article aims to investigate more upon inactive exchanges, which we termed as psychological exchanges. Active exchanges are visible, while inactive exchanges are less visible and are positive (withholding undesirable behavior) as well as negative (withholding desirable behavior). The shadow nature of the inactive exchanges can turn out to be more damaging for the organization as it is difficult to trace. Moreover, on the basis of the rules of reciprocity, usually more behaviors are inactive and destructive rather than inactive and constructive. Hence, these inactive exchanges are important to explore for a better understanding of SET.

Moreover, building on the definition of SET by Cropanzano et al. (2017) , this article further proposes that initiating action, which is found to be explicit, can be implicit, such as a feeling (positive or negative), and can be an outcome of someone’s achievement (feeling jealousy at the promotion of a coworker, a psychological exchange). This article comprehensively outlines the evolution of SET and introduces a new dimension in social exchange relationships and ultimately provides future direction for further research.

To understand the social exchange theory and its evolution, one should begin by identifying the roots of the concept and elaborate on the differences and commonalities in the work of various authors in academic literature. The literature highlights different definitions, rules, approaches, and dimensions in the evolution of SET. To understand the concept of SET, three different areas are acknowledged using content analysis of 3,221 articles indexed in the ISI Web of Knowledge and Scopus. The areas are (1) basic concepts of SET as they evolved, (2) exchange rules that govern social exchanges, and (3) evolving dimensions of the exchange relationships. The theoretical framework used in this article is in line with the study of Yadav (2014) and MacInnis (2011) , where they propose to differentiate and assimilate particular conceptual goals. We searched the ISI Web of Knowledge and Scopus along with Social Sciences Citation Index from 1920 to 2020 because the concept of SET goes back to 1920.

Search results from the Sciences, Arts, and Humanities Citation Index were eliminated, and the results were filtered for Business and Management, Social Sciences, and Psychology. We used multiple keywords in the ISI search engine in the topic field using a complete list of possibilities including “social exchange theory,” “exchange relationships,” “evolution of social exchange theory,” and “exchange relations.” These searches returned highly significant empirical and conceptual references ( n  = 3,221; Scopus = 1954 and ISI Web of Knowledge = 1,267). After the search, duplicate articles ( n  = 1,526) in both databases were deleted.

In the next step, conceptual and empirical articles on SET were separated and analyzed to identify and track evolution patterns, and empirical articles with no theoretical contribution ( n  = 1,202) were excluded. In the next phase, those articles were eliminated through contextual analysis that had meager theoretical contributions or available models’ allowance ( n  = 446). The purpose of this article was to classify the evolution of SET to propose needed contributions. Hence, after excluding empirical articles and literature reviews with no progression in SET, we ended up with 47 articles ( Table 1 ). Out of the articles that were selected for the final review, two of them were published in the decade between 1920 and 1930, three between 1951 and 1960, five between 1961 and 1970, nine between 1971 and 1980, four between 1981 and 1990, eight between 1991 and 2000, 10 between 2001 and 2010, and nine between 2011 and 2020.

Table 1 . Evolution of social exchange theory.

3. Key ideas of set

We shall begin by curating the underlying ideas which comprise SET which involve rules and norms of exchange, resources exchanged, and resulting relationships ( Methot et al., 2016 ; Cropanzano et al., 2017 ). A comprehensive snapshot of key ideas related to SET across the years is presented in Table 2 .

Table 2 . Key ideas related to SET.

3.1. Rules and norms of exchange

One of the fundamental pillars of SET is that commitment, loyalty, and trust are upshot of evolving relationships with time ( Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ). This pillar demands that parties must show compliance toward specific rules (i.e., rules of exchange). According to Emerson (1976b) , such rules form a normative definition of the participants in an exchange relation adopted. Hence, such an exchange principle facilitated avenues for researchers in organizational behavior to further their work ( Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ). Most management research is focused on the potential of reciprocity. Ko and Hur (2014) stressed that other rules of exchange exist that the researchers do not sufficiently explore. This article, therefore, analyzes reciprocity and other less-explored exchange rules.

3.1.1. Reciprocity rules

Gouldner (1960) made a significant contribution to the literature by outlining rules of reciprocity as (a) transaction, (b) belief, and (c) moral norm. The transaction, according to Gouldner (1960) , meant interdependent (both dependent on one another) exchanges, and this idea was then reinforced by Molm (1994) . A reciprocal exchange due to interdependence curbs risks and supports cooperation, according to Molm (1994) , and does not include pronounced bargaining ( Molm, 2003 ). As per the idea, the exchange is a continuous cycle where one party makes a move, and the other reciprocates, and it begins a new cycle of exchanges ( Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ). Suffice it to say that there is a vast literature on the interdependence of exchange and transaction, and reviewing that literature would bypass the scope of this article.

The second rule of reciprocity, that is, reciprocity as belief, revolves around cultural orientation ( Gouldner, 1960 ). This orientation is in line with the idea of karma: You get what you deserve. The idea of a “just world” proposed by Lerner (1980) is consistent with this type of reciprocity. Furthermore, it reduces destructive behavior in people ( Bies and Tripp, 1996 ). Gouldner (1960) speculated that reciprocity is a moral norm and is embedded in humans universally ( Tsui and Wang, 2002 ; Wang et al., 2003 ). Nevertheless, it is important to note that humans are different, and the way they reciprocate depends heavily on their cultural and individual differences ( Parker, 1998 ; Coyle-Shapiro and Neuman, 2004 ).

Social psychologists such as Clark and Mills (1979) and Murstein et al. (1977) proposed classifications of individuals based on the degree of reciprocity. They termed the classification “high exchange orientation” (those who readily reciprocate) and “low exchange orientation” (those who do not return or reciprocate less). This unleashed avenues for further research in management as scholars worked on various avenues such as absenteeism ( Eisenberger et al., 1986 ), felt obligation ( Eisenberger et al., 2001 ), citizenship behavior ( Witt, 1991 ), satisfaction and training ( Witt and Broach, 1993 ), performance ( Orpen, 1994 ), union support ( Sinclair and Tetrick, 1995 ), job commitment and satisfaction ( Witt et al., 2001 ), and organizational politics ( Andrews et al., 2003 ).

Many researchers, including Uhl-Bien and Maslyn (2003) and Eisenberger et al. (2004) , further classified reciprocity as positive (reciprocating favorable treatment) and negative (reciprocating unfavorable treatment). Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) called for further investigation into the impact of social exchanges on organizational relationships and also proposed the need for research in unexplored areas such as coworkers, supervisors, and outsiders. Building on previous literature, Cropanzano et al. (2017) proposed that people may not reciprocate the way they wish due to various uncontrollable factors (the presence of inadequate supervision and fewer turnover intentions due to a bad economy). Cropanzano et al. (2017) further added to the literature of SET that reciprocity happens, both explicitly (active exchanges) and implicitly (inactive exchanges). Both forms communicate in exciting ways. For instance, an employee will have high work deviance (implicit) but will not leave the job due to a lousy economy in terms of inactive exchanges (explicit). Moreover, Greco et al. (2019) investigated the reciprocity of negative work behaviors between two parties and reported that negative work behaviors are returned on the similar intensity and capacity between the two parties.

Individual differences in reciprocity are presented in chronological order in Appendix 1 .

3.1.2. Negotiated rules and other exchange rules

Parties in a social exchange may negotiate terms or rules to reach interdependent goals ( Cook et al., 1983 ). There is significant literature on the comparison of reciprocal and negotiated exchanges ( Molm, 2003 ). Key findings suggest that better work relations are the outcome of reciprocity than negotiations. Exchange rules other than reciprocity and negotiation gained more attention in literature from sociology and anthropology researchers than from management researchers ( Fiske, 1991 ). One notable study by Meeker (1971) proposed six exchange rules: competition, group gain, status consistency, altruism, rationality, and reciprocity.

According to Meeker (1971) , rationality is a thought process asking for justification for various actions taken by a person according to his preferences. Altruism is about being compassionate and kind, where the good of others is essential, even at the cost of ourselves. This sounds uncanny, but the literature supports the take of Meeker (1971) on altruism as an exchange rule ( Batson, 1995 ). Group gain refers to contributions, and everybody takes (benefits) according to their desire. Group gain omits the idea of interpersonal exchanges and extends the horizon toward group exchanges. Status consistency is also called rank equilibrium, where the disunion of benefits depends upon one’s standing in a social group. Lind (1995) experimented with and supported this exchange rule.

Competition is directly the opposite of altruism, where altruism is about benevolence, and competition is about self-seeking behavior ( Meeker, 1971 ). This opened doors for research on modern-day variables in organizational behavior such as workplace envy ( Ahmad et al., 2020 ), organizational politics, and political skills. The study of Meeker (1971) also strengthened the idea of seeking revenge in an exchange relationship ( Cropanzano and Baron, 1991 ; Turillo et al., 2002 ). A great deal of literature exists on reciprocity as a rule of exchange. Still, there are other rules, such as group gain, status consistency, competition, altruism, and rationality, which require attention and investigation. Exploring these will open doors to fathom the process of social exchanges, which is still unexplored to a great deal ( Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ). Moreover, there is a possibility that multiple exchange rules are employed at once.

3.2. The resources of exchange

Foa and Foa (1974) proposed classifications of exchange resources as status, information, goods, love, money, and services. These resources can be termed as benefits that a person seeks in social exchange and can be further classified into two dimensions economic (tangible) and socioemotional resources (symbolic) ( Foa and Foa, 1980 ). Both dimensions work on different exchange rules ( Martin and Harder, 1994 ). Resources and their dimensional classification are still not sufficiently explored and are open for further investigation. Furthermore, the relationship between types of resources and the type of relationship is also an open area for research ( Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ).

3.3. Resulting relationships: Social exchange relationships

Workplace relationships are the most explored area in management research ( Coyle-Shapiro and Conway, 2004 ). However, much of the research on exchange relations is done in employer–employee relations ( Blau, 1964 ). His study is based on the premise that much of social relations are based on unspecified obligations. This makes the relations more casual while successful exchanges are based on the commitment between parties. Blau (1964) also considered relations as transactions. Mills and Clark (1982) further contributed to the literature by proposing two types of exchange relationships. One is exchange relations based on competition, and the others are communal relations based on benevolence. Organ (1990) found that SET is beyond the rules of transactions and benefits, and this extended the scope for further research in SET.

Suffice it to note that relations are termed as associations between partners, which can be institutions and individuals ( Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005 ). Although much of the research is done on exploring the relations between institutions and individuals such as employing organizations ( Moorman et al., 1998 ), customers ( Houston et al., 1992 ), and suppliers ( Perrone et al., 2003 ), the literature is comparatively silent on the area of individual relationships in an organizational setting such as peer relations. Notable work in management is done in terms of exchange relationships which are perceived organizational support (POS), Leader–Member Exchange (LMX; Eisenberger et al., 2004 ), support to commitment ( Eisenberger et al., 1990 ), team support and organizational support ( Bishop et al., 2000 ), supervisor support ( Masterson et al., 2000 ), and trust ( Dirks and Ferrin, 2002 ).

It is also important to state that relationships develop over time ranging from premature relations ( Molm, 2003 ) to mature ones ( Eisenberger et al., 2004 ). Building on the premise of increasingly complex relationships at the workplace, Methot et al. (2016) introduced the term “multiplex” relations at the workplace, which include both formal (work-related) and informal (friendship) elements. Such relations cover both positive (e.g., emotional support) and negative (e.g., emotional exhaustion) aspects. Cooper-Thomas and Morrison (2019) identified that it is not clear how SET might apply in conditions where positive and negative exchanges are simultaneously taking place.

As multiple behaviors are exchanged in the workplace, Cropanzano et al. (2017) tossed the term “transactional chains” through which relationships are developed over time through various exchanges. If we want to understand the form of a relationship, we must understand the principal transaction of resources responsible for a particular relationship. Building on the need to understand SET in further detail highlighted by Cropanzano et al. (2017) and Cooper-Thomas and Morrison (2019) , we shall elaborate on the transactions and resulting exchange relationships.

3.3.1. Transactions and exchange relationships

Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) highlighted two distinguishing aspects of relationships in the literature. One aspect is a relationship as the series of interdependent transactions transpires to interpersonal attachment, which is a relationship. Alternatively, another element is the interpersonal relationship that originates from interdependent exchanges. It is essential to distinguish the relationship from the transaction process because of its interchangeability. The nature of the relationship between two parties is dictated by the process of exchange or the benefits they exchange between them. When a series of exchanges happen, it becomes rather challenging to find which exchange caused the relationship.

Researchers separated the form of exchange from the exchange relationship presented in Figure 1 . Cells 1 and 4 can be termed matches as the form of transaction coinciding with the relationship. The situation in Cell 2, where the social exchange relationship coincides with the economic transaction, could reap both risks and rewards. For instance, social relations are at greater risk in economic exchanges, and hence, economic exchanges can pose a more significant threat to relationships (clashes in the inheritance among family members). Alternatively, while considering rewards, greater trust and stronger relationships can be an outcome for such exchanges (father giving money to son and not asking for details). Cell 3 presents the unusual case of emotional labor where employees from the hospitality industry or health workers attend to the emotional needs of their clients or patients for money (economic transaction).

Figure 1 . Relationships of transactions in exchanges.

People working in mental asylums display such behaviors to fulfill their professional duties. Similarly, people working in the hotel and hospitality sector are expected to be friendly with their clients. It is tricky and stressful to share such emotions with others, expected to be family members or other loved ones. While keeping in view, the vagueness of the concept of relationships in SET, Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) highlighted two distinct conceptual dimensions of the relationship. One is a sequence of inter-related exchanges, and the other is relationships as an outcome of codependent exchanges. These are termed transactional and interpersonal relationships in the literature. When relationships seem to transcend over one another, it becomes more challenging to define them. It is essential to understand that two different things can be exchanged through various means among two different parties.

4. Discussion: Beyond socio-economic transactions

Building on the aforementioned model, we propose that while looking beyond the lens of social and economic transactions and exchanges, relationships are also psychological. This premise is based on the idea of implicit or inactive exchanges proposed by Cropanzano et al. (2017) . The concept of psychological capital ( Luthans et al., 2007 ) also supports this idea, and exchanges in such relations can be termed psychological exchanges. Referring to Figure 2 , Cells 1, 2, 4, and 5 are similar to Cells 1, 2, 3, and 4 in Figure 1 . Unique cells in Figure 2 are Cells 3, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Cell 9 is a matching cell coinciding psychological transaction with a psychological exchange relationship. Let us first hone ourselves with the idea of psychological transactions.

Figure 2 . Proposed model of transactions and exchanges.

To start with, psychological transactions are usually inactive exchanges. From this dimension, it sounds easier to draw that psychological exchange relations are inactive relations, which is incorrect. Psychological relations are based on the understanding between the two parties. From “understanding,” it means how well parties in a social exchange know each other. This, according to the empirical evidence, indicates that parties develop relationships after being involved in a series of exchanges, and eventually, they develop a relationship so good that they can understand each other on psychological fronts as well. Nevertheless, this is not true as Cell 3 clarifies that psychological transactions may not necessarily occur in every social relationship.

Putting it further, it is challenging to find like-minded people with whom our mental chemistry aligns. Referring to Cell 6, which draws a dimension about the psychological transaction in an economic relationship, it is evident that psychological transactions do occur during economic relations, but such transactions are usually dubious. The reason for this is that such transactions are generally solitary and not dyad. Due to this attribute, past researchers called them inactive exchanges. Cell 7 presents the case of clinical psychology, where psychiatrists develop a psychological relationship with patients or subjects in a social setting.

Similarly, researchers also fall into this category to build empathy through social transactions to collect data. Cell 8 is similar to Cell 7, and diffusion can be drawn in the intent . Cell 7 refers to social welfare, while Cell 8 refers to economic return. If a researcher is working on a social problem or aiming to find a cure for a disease such as COVID-19 without aiming for lucrative gains, he will fall into Cell 7. On the contrary, if Toyota launches an electric vehicle or Philips launches a light bulb that consumes less electricity with a pure aim to sell these products to those consumers who want to save on their gas or electricity bills, they would fall in the Cell 8. If a transaction is taken as a relationship, then successful exchanges will be accepted as its outcome. It works both ways, from transactions in relations to relations in transactions ( Figure 2 ).

To explain how psychological transaction and psychological exchange relations work, the model by Foa and Foa (1980) comes to rescue from the literature. This model aligns a variety of resources according to different relationships, such as causal and universal. Causal relations complement universal resources, while intimate relations complement particularistic resources. Interestingly, a universal benefit paves the way for particularistic use, and this is how relationships become an outcome of reciprocal exchanges. Hence to understand this concept of exchange, we need to further our understanding related to exchange models. As to further contribution to SET literature, two models are proposed below to provide conceptual support to the dimensions of psychological transactions and psychological exchange relationships.

4.1. Nature of relations affects the psychological exchanges

Eisenberger et al. (2001) suggested that employees in an organization can exchange commitment in the reciprocation of organizational support. This finding allowed us to build our argument that the nature of relations between parties who participate in an exchange process can affect psychological exchanges. In other words, the closer the relationship between the two parties (pluralistic exchanges), the more there will be psychological exchanges. The key term to note here is “close,” which means seeing someone like peers or classmates every day. Furthermore, the achievement of a friend or classmate who went abroad will affect us less than someone we see every day.

This happens because of the social comparison we do with people near us. Hence, social distance or space between the parties does affect the relationship between them. Moreover, such a relationship will directly impact the intensity or type of psychological exchanges between them. It is important to note that not only the positive relationship enables the possibility of psychological exchanges, but it can also have a similar impact in terms of hostile relations as well. Similarly, a positive relationship does not necessarily mean that there will be only complementary psychological exchanges; negative psychological exchanges can also occur. For instance, you are feeling jealous about the good grades of your best friend. But such a psychological exchange would be different from the one you would have against someone in the class you dislike.

4.2. Psychological exchanges affect the nature of relations

Psychological exchanges in an organization are not a one-time thing but a continuous process like climbing a ladder. In other words, it constitutes a series of transactions between parties in a work setting. Hence, the output of a transaction today will form the psychological resource (both positive and negative) that can be exchanged tomorrow or anytime in the future. Therefore, psychological exchanges can form the basis of relationships between the parties. Positive psychological exchanges become a reason for positive relations, and negative psychological exchanges can cause negative associations (rivalry—usually between coworkers).

It is imperative to note that the exchange timing plays a significant role in forming the relations between parties. This timing of exchange dimension is coherent with the model of LMX development proposed by Uhl-Bien and Maslyn (2003) . This model suggests that leaders and members start their relationship journey by testing one another in terms of obligations, and the quality of relations depends upon the reciprocity of commitments. Suffice it to say that positive psychological exchanges result in the exchange of positive psychological resources. Similarly, negative psychological exchanges result in the exchange of harmful psychological resources, which impact resulting relationships.

5. Recommendations and future directions

Having its roots in the 1920s ( Malinowski, 1922 ; Mauss, 1925 ), the scope and foundations of SET are yet to be sufficiently explored. Management researchers have characteristics of a variety and multiple applications and are doing injustice with this theory in two ways. First, they lack the indulgent understanding of ideas that set the foundations of SET. Second, limited avenues are being explored in the research as reciprocity principles and economic orientation of SET. Cropanzano et al. (2017) investigated that people may not reciprocate according to their wishes due to certain uncontrollable factors. Cooper-Thomas and Morrison (2019) identified that it is not clear how SET might apply in conditions where positive and negative exchanges are simultaneously taking place.

We believe that this article shall help address both shortfalls as it adopts a meek way to outline the evolution of SET and identify essential areas where researchers can direct their future efforts. This article shall help dramatically evolve the theory by revising existing concepts, orientations, and forming new ones. According to Eisenberger et al. (1986) and Graen and Scandura (1987) , SET comprises two types of social exchanges. First is perceived organizational support (POS) that emphasizes employee–organization exchange relationships.

The second is the exchange between the leader and member, which elaborates on the interaction between the supervisor and the employee through the exchange of resources ( Lee and Duffy, 2019 ). In both types of exchanges, resulting relationships work as a cynosure of the exchange process. Consequently, the understanding of SET would remain meager if we could not hone the idea of exchanges and resulting relationships. This article pronounced the social and economic transactions and exchanges from the literature and proposed a new psychological dimension with empirical and conceptual justifications. This idea is similar to Cropanzano et al. (2017) , who introduced the concept of active and inactive exchanges, which revolutionized the whole notion of SET.

According to these dimensions, exchanges in organizational settings happen both explicitly (active exchanges) and implicitly (inactive exchanges). More notably, in the presence of uncontrollable factors, employees will still reciprocate but implicitly. The idea of how employees may get involved in inactive exchanges, even in the absence of uncontrollable factors, is another open avenue for future research. Take an instance of workplace envy: Workplace envy is an inactive exchange (beneficial or costly) of an employee in an organizational setting. It is a feeling that could be visible through active exchanges.

Building on these developments, this study proposes that social exchange may not necessarily be dyadic; it can be individualistic or monotonous where an employee feels on his own. The role of psychological transactions and resulting psychological exchange relationships can be understood from a case as simple as an employee feeling jealous about the achievement of a coworker. This dimension is inevitable, and it nulls the first part of the definition of SET, that is, initiation by an actor . This is because no one is initiating, and an employee envies himself or inactive exchange is taking place. Future studies should help to unveil this process of SET in further detail. Moreover, the current study focused on organizational exchanges and resulting relationships, and future research efforts can be directed toward social exchanges among family, friends, and relatives to improve the understanding and scope of SET.

It is also pertinent to note that negative emotions and feelings may be controlled through specific skills such as political skills and social skills. While there is much research on social exchanges in organizational relationships, areas of coworkers, supervisors, and outsiders are yet to be sufficiently explored. Moreover, Foa and Foa (1980) proposed classifications of exchange resources as status, information, goods, love, money, and services. These resources can be further classified into two dimensions economic (tangible) and socioemotional resources (symbolic). On account of social exchange relationships, much of the research is done on exploring relations among institutions and individuals ( Moorman et al., 1998 ), customers ( Houston et al., 1992 ), and suppliers ( Perrone et al., 2003 ), whereas literature is comparatively silent on the area of interpersonal relationships in an organizational setting.

There are exchange rules beyond reciprocity, exchange resources above money, and trust, and there are types of relationships other than social, economic, and psychological that need to be explored. These resources and their impact on social relationships are also unexplored areas asking for attention from the researchers. In addition to the above discussion, the following points can pave the way for a better understanding of SET and future research.

a. It is unnecessary for a social exchange process that a positive initiating action would generate a positive response.

b. Positive initiating action may not form a positive relationship.

c. Positive initiating action may not always form a positive relationship, and it can be negative too.

d. With changing workplace landscape, relationships are becoming increasingly complex in modern organizations; hence, relations are increasingly affecting the modern exchange process.

e. An implicit initiating action can cause implicit and explicit behavioral responses.

f. In some social instances, such as envy, the exchange process can be hidden, and hence, an actual exchange process could be altered with a fabricated exchange process.

6. Conclusion

While SET is evolving, it is inviting researchers to explore various related avenues. Thus, a broad theory that can shadow many other theories under its umbrella can describe multiple social phenomena. This article provided comprehensive commentary about how SET evolved and recent progressions, and it also provides fruit of thought on the psychological dimension that exists under the disguise of inactive exchanges. Beyond social and economic transactions, the idea and implications of psychological transactions are proposed in this article. Based on the idea of inactive exchanges, it is also proposed that other than reciprocity, other less explored exchange rules are dominant in psychological transactions.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

RA and MN: concept development and systematic review strategy and final write-up. MI and MK: downloading and reviewing manuscript to be selected for the final review. HA: language of the manuscript, bibliography, and final formatting and review. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Ahmad, R., Khan, M. M., and Ishaq, M. I. (2020). The role of envy and psychological capital on performance in the banking industry of Pakistan. Pak. Soc. Sci. Rev. 4, 96–112. doi: 10.35484/pssr.2020(4-IV)07

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Anderson, B., Berger, J., Zelditch, M.Jr., and Cohen, B. P. (1969). Reactions to inequity. Acta Sociol. 12, 1–12. doi: 10.1177/000169936901200101

Andersson, L. M., and Pearson, C. M. (1999). Tit for tat? The spiraling effect of incivility in the workplace. Acad. Manag. Rev. 24, 452–471. doi: 10.5465/amr.1999.2202131

Andrews, M. C., Witt, L. A., and Kacmar, K. M. (2003). The interactive effects of organizational politics and exchange ideology on manager ratings of retention. J. Vocat. Behav. 62, 357–369. doi: 10.1016/S0001-8791(02)00014-3

Batson, C. D. (1995). “Prosocial motivation: why do we help others?” in Advanced Social Psychology . ed. A. T. Tesser (New York: McGraw-Hill), 332–381.

Google Scholar

Bies, R. J., and Tripp, T. M. (1996). “Beyond distrust: getting even and the need for revenge” in Trust in Organizations . eds. R. M. Kramer and T. Tyler (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage), 246–260.

Bishop, J. W., Scott, K. D., and Burroughs, S. M. (2000). Support, commitment, and employee outcomes in a team environment. J. Manag. 26, 1113–1132. doi: 10.1177/014920630002600603

Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and Power in Social Life . New York: John Wiley.

Chen, C. C. (1995). New trends in rewards allocation preferences: a Sino-U.S. comparison. Acad. Manag. J. 38, 408–428. doi: 10.5465/256686

Chernyak-Hai, L., and Rabenu, E. (2018). The new era workplace relationships: is social exchange theory still relevant? Ind. Organ. Psychol. 11, 456–481. doi: 10.1017/iop.2018.5

Clark, M. S., and Mills, J. (1979). Interpersonal attraction in exchange and communal relationships. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 37, 12–24. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.37.1.12

Cook, K. S., Emerson, R. M., and Gillmore, M. R. (1983). The distribution of power in exchange networks: theory and experimental results. Am. J. Sociol. 89, 275–305. doi: 10.1086/227866

Cooper-Thomas, H. D., and Morrison, R. L. (2019). Give and take: needed updates to social exchange theory. Ind. Organ. Psychol. 11, 493–498. doi: 10.1017/iop.2018.101

Cotterell, N., Eisenberger, R., and Speicher, H. (1992). Inhibiting effects of reciprocation wariness on interpersonal relationships. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 62, 658–668. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.62.4.658

Coyle-Shapiro, J. A.-M., and Conway, N. (2004). “The employment relationship through the lens of social exchange theory” in The Employment Relationship: Examining Psychological and Contextual Perspectives . eds. J. Coyle-Shapiro, L. M. Shore, M. S. Taylor, and L. Tetrick (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 5–28.

Coyle-Shapiro, J. A.-M., and Neuman, J. H. (2004). The psychological contract and individual differences: the role of exchange and creditor ideologies. J. Vocat. Behav. 64, 150–164. doi: 10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00031-9

Cropanzano, R., Anthony, E. L., Daniels, S. R., and Hall, A. V. (2017). Social exchange theory: a critical review with theoretical remedies. Acad. Manag. Ann. 11, 479–516. doi: 10.5465/annals.2015.0099

Cropanzano, R., and Baron, R. A. (1991). Injustice and organizational conflict: the moderating effect of power restoration. Int. J. Confl. Manag. 2, 5–26. doi: 10.1108/eb022691

Cropanzano, R., and Mitchell, M. S. (2005). Social exchange theory: an interdisciplinary review. J. Manag. 31, 874–900. doi: 10.1177/0149206305279602

Cropanzano, R., and Rupp, D. E. (2008). “Social exchange theory and organizational justice: job performance, citizenship behaviors, multiple foci, and a historical integration of two kinds of literature” in Research in Social Issues in Management: Justice, Morality, and Social Responsibility . eds. S. W. Gilliland, D. P. Skarlicki, and D. D. Steiner (Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing)

de Ruyter, K., and Wetzels, M. (2000). Determinants of a relational exchange orientation in the marketing-manufacturing interface. J. Manag. Stud. 37, 257–276. doi: 10.1111/1467-6486.00180

Dirks, K. T., and Ferrin, D. L. (2002). Trust in leadership: meta-analytic findings and implications for research and practice. J. Appl. Psychol. 87, 611–628. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.611

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Eisenberger, R., Armeli, S., Rexwinkel, B., Lynch, P. D., and Rhoades, L. (2001). Reciprocation of perceived organizational support. J. Appl. Psychol. 86, 42–51. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.42

Eisenberger, R., Cotterell, N., and Marvel, J. (1987). Reciprocation ideology. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 53, 743–750. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.53.4.743

Eisenberger, R., Fasolo, P., and Davis-LaMastro, V. (1990). Perceived organizational support and employee diligence, commitment, and innovation. J. Appl. Psychol. 75, 51–59. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.75.1.51

Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., and Sowa, D. (1986). Perceived organizational support. J. Appl. Psychol. 71, 500–507. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.71.3.500

Eisenberger, R., Lynch, P., Aselage, J., and Rohdieck, S. (2004). Who takes the most revenge? Individual differences in negative reciprocity norm endorsement. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 30, 787–799. doi: 10.1177/0146167204264047

Emerson, R. M. (1976a). Social exchange theory. Annu. Rev. 2, 335–362.

Emerson, R. M. (1976b). Imperial administration as an exchange network; the length of dynastic rule in the Mugha1 empire. Inst. Social. Res. Univ. Wash .

Firth, R. (1967). Themes in Economic Anthropology . London: Tavistock.

Fiske, A. P. (1991). Structures of Social Life: The Four Elementary Forms of Human Relations . New York: Free Press.

Foa, U. G., and Foa, E. B. (1974). Societal Structures of the Mind . Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas.

Foa, U. G., and Foa, E. B. (1980). “Resource theory: interpersonal behavior as exchange” in Social Exchange . eds. K. J. Gergen, M. S. Greenberg, and R. H. Willis (Boston, MA: Springer)

Folger, R., and Konovsky, M. A. (1989). Effects of procedural and distributive justice on reactions to pay raise decisions. Acad. Manag. J. 32, 115–130. doi: 10.5465/256422

Gallucci, M., and Perugini, M. (2003). Information seeking and reciprocity: a transformational analysis. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 33, 473–495. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.156

Gergen, K. J. (1969). The Psychology of Behavioral Exchange . Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Goode, W. J. (1973). Explorations in Social Theory New York: Oxford Theory University Press.

Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: a preliminary statement. Am. Sociol. Rev. 25, 161–178. doi: 10.2307/2092623

Graen, G. B., and Scandura, T. A. (1987). Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing. Res. Organ. Behav. 9, 175–208.

Greco, L. M., Whitson, J. A., O'Boyle, E. H., Wang, C. S., and Kim, J. (2019). An eye for an eye? A meta-analysis of negative reciprocity in organizations. J. Appl. Psychol. 104, 1117–1143. doi: 10.1037/apl0000396

Homans, G. C. (1958). Social behavior as exchange. Am. J. Sociol. 63, 597–606. doi: 10.1086/222355

Homans, G. C. (1969). “The sociological relevance of behaviourism” in Behavioural Sociology: The Experimental Analysis of Social Process . eds. R. L. Burgess and D. BushellJr. (New York: Columbia University Press)

Hossen, M. M., Chan, T. J., and Mohd Hasan, N. A. (2020). Mediating role of job satisfaction on internal corporate social responsibility practices and employee engagement in higher education sector. Contemp. Manag. Res. 16, 207–227. doi: 10.7903/cmr.20334

Houston, F. S., Gassenheimer, J. B., and Maskulka, J. M. (1992). Marketing Exchange Transactions and Relationships . Westport, CT: Quorum Books.

Ko, J., and Hur, S. (2014). The impacts of employee benefits, procedural justice, and managerial trustworthiness on work attitudes: integrated understanding based on social exchange theory. Public Adm. Rev. 74, 176–187. doi: 10.1111/puar.12160

Ladd, D., and Henry, R. A. (2000). Helping coworkers and helping the organization: the role of support perceptions, exchange ideology, and conscientiousness 1. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 30, 2028–2049. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02422.x

Lee, K., and Duffy, M. K. (2019). A functional model of workplace envy and job performance: when do employees capitalize on envy by learning from envied targets? Acad. Manag. J. 62, 1085–1110. doi: 10.5465/amj.2016.1202

Lerner, M. J. (1980). “The belief in a just world” in The Belief in a Just World: A Fundamental Delusion . ed. M. J. Lerner (Boston, MA: Springer), 9–30.

Lind, E. A. (1995). “Justice and authority relations in organizations” in Organizational Politics, Justice, and Support: Managing the Social Climate of the Workplace . eds. R. Cropanzano and M. K. Kacmar (Westport, CT: Quorum Books), 83–96.

Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., and Norman, S. M. (2007). Positive psychological capital: measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction. Pers. Psychol. 60, 541–572. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00083.x

Lynch, P. D., Eisenberger, R., and Armeli, S. (1999). Perceived organizational support: inferior versus superior performance by wary employees. J. Appl. Psychol. 84, 467–483. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.84.4.467

Lyons, B. J., and Scott, B. A. (2012). Integrating social exchange and affective explanations for the receipt of help and harm: a social network approach. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 117, 66–79. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.10.002

MacInnis, D. J. (2011). A framework for conceptual contributions in marketing. J. Mark. 75, 136–154. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.10.002

Malinowski, B. (1922). Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An Account of Native Enterprise and Adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea . London: Routledge

Martin, J., and Harder, J. W. (1994). Bread and roses: justice and the distribution of financial and socioemotional rewards in organizations. Soc. Justice Res. 7, 241–264. doi: 10.1007/BF02334833

Masterson, S. S., Lewis, K., Goldman, B. M., and Taylor, M. S. (2000). Integrating justice and social exchange: the differing effects of fair procedures and treatment on work relationships. Acad. Manag. J. 43, 738–748. doi: 10.5465/1556364

Mauss, M. (1925). The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies . New York: The Norton Library.

Meeker, B. F. (1971). Decisions and exchange. Am. Sociol. Rev. 36, 485–495. doi: 10.2307/2093088

Methot, J. R., Lepine, J. A., Podsakoff, N. P., and Christian, J. S. (2016). Are workplace friendships a mixed blessing? Exploring tradeoffs of multiplex relationships and their associations with job performance. Pers. Psychol. 69, 311–355. doi: 10.1111/peps.12109

Mills, J., and Clark, M. S. (1982). Exchange and communal relationships. Rev. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 3, 121–144.

Mitchell, M. S., Cropanzano, R. S., and Quisenberry, D. M. (2012). “Social exchange theory, exchange resources, and interpersonal relationships: a modest resolution of theoretical difficulties” in Handbook of Social Resource Theory . eds. K. Törnblom and A. Kazemi (New York, NY: Springer), 99–118.

Molm, L. D. (1994). Dependence and risk: transforming the structure of social exchange. Soc. Psychol. Q. 57, 163–176. doi: 10.2307/2786874

Molm, L. D. (2003). Theoretical comparisons of forms of exchange. Sociol Theory 21, 1–17. doi: 10.1111/1467-9558.00171

Moorman, R. H., Blakely, G. L., and Niehoff, B. P. (1998). Does perceived organizational support mediate the relationship between procedural justice and organizational citizenship behavior? Acad. Manag. J. 41, 351–357. doi: 10.5465/256913

Murstein, B. I., Cerreto, M., and Mac Donald, M. G. (1977). A theory and investigation of the effect of exchange orientation on marriage and friendship. J. Marriage Fam. 39, 543–548. doi: 10.2307/350908

Organ, D. W. (1990). The motivational basis of organizational citizenship behavior. Res. Organ. Behav. 12, 43–72.

Orpen, C. (1994). The effects of exchange ideology on the relationship between perceived organizational support and job performance. J. Soc. Psychol. 134, 407–408. doi: 10.1080/00224545.1994.9711749

Parker, B. (1998). Globalization: Managing Across Boundaries . London: Sage.

Pearson, C. M., Andersson, L. M., and Porath, C. L. (2005). “Workplace incivility” in Counterproductive Work Behavior: Investigations of Actors and Targets . eds. S. Fox and P. E. Spector (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association), 177–200.

Perrone, V., Zaheer, A., and McEvily, B. (2003). Free to be trusted? Organizational constraints on trust in boundary spanners. Organ. Sci. 14, 422–439. doi: 10.1287/orsc.14.4.422.17487

Perugini, M., and Gallucci, M. (2001). Individual differences and social norms: the distinction between reciprocators and prosocial. Eur. J. Personal. 15, S19–S35. doi: 10.1002/per.419

Rayner, C., and Keashly, L. (2005). “Bullying at work: a perspective from Britain and North America” in Counterproductive work behavior: Investigations of actors and targets . eds. S. Fox and P. E. Spector (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association), 271–296.

Rhoades, L., and Eisenberger, R. (2002). Perceived organizational support: a review of the literature. J. Appl. Psychol. 87, 698–714. doi: 10.1037//0021-9010.87.4.698

Riggle, R. J., Edmondson, D. R., and Hansen, J. D. (2009). A meta-analysis of the relationship between perceived organizational support and job outcomes: 20 years of research. J. Bus. Res. 62, 1027–1030. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.05.003

Rupp, D. E., and Cropanzano, R. (2002). The mediating effects of social exchange relationships in predicting workplace outcomes from multifocal organizational justice. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 89, 925–946. doi: 10.1016/S0749-5978(02)00036-5

Sahlins, M. D. (1972). Stone Age Economics (No. 306.3 S2) . London: Routledge.

Sharpley, R. (2014). Host perceptions of tourism: a review of the research. Tour. Manag. 42, 37–49. doi: 10.1016/j.tourman.2013.10.007

Shore, L. M., and Coyle-Shapiro, J. A.-M. (2003). New developments in the employee-organization relationship. J. Organ. Behav. 24, 443–450. doi: 10.1002/job.212

Sinclair, R. R., and Tetrick, L. E. (1995). Social exchange and union commitment: a comparison of union instrumentality and union support perceptions. J. Organ. Behav. 16, 669–680. doi: 10.1002/job.4030160706

Tepper, B. J., Carr, J. C., Breaux, D. M., Geider, S., Hu, C., and Hua, W. (2009). Abusive supervision, intentions to quit, and employees’ workplace deviance: a power/dependence analysis. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 109, 156–167. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2009.03.004

Tepper, B. J., and Taylor, E. C. (2003). Relationships among supervisors' and subordinates' procedural justice perceptions and organizational citizenship behaviors. Acad. Manag. J. 46, 97–105. doi: 10.5465/30040679

Thibault, J. W., and Kelley, H. H. (1959). The Social Psychology of Groups . New York: John Wiley.

Tsui, A. S., and Wang, D. X. (2002). “Employment relationships from the employer’s perspective: current research and future directions” in International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology . eds. C. L. Cooper and I. T. Robertson (Chichester: Wiley), 77–114.

Turillo, C. J., Folger, R., Lavelle, J. J., Umphress, E. E., and Gee, J. O. (2002). Is virtue its own reward? Self-sacrificial decisions for the sake of fairness. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 89, 839–865. doi: 10.1016/S0749-5978(02)00032-8

Uhl-Bien, M., and Maslyn, J. M. (2003). Reciprocity in manager-subordinate relationships: components, configurations, and outcomes. J. Manag. 29, 511–532. doi: 10.1016/S0149-2063_03_00023-0

Wang, D., Tsui, A. S., Zhang, Y., and Ma, L. (2003). Employment relationships and firm performance: evidence from an emerging economy. J. Organ. Behav. 24, 511–535. doi: 10.1002/job.213

Witt, L. A. (1991). Equal opportunity perceptions and job attitudes. J. Soc. Psychol. 131, 431–433. doi: 10.1080/00224545.1991.9713869

Witt, L. A. (1992). Exchange ideology as a moderator of the relationships between the importance of participation in decision making and job attitudes. Hum. Relat. 45, 73–85. doi: 10.1177/001872679204500104

Witt, L. A., and Broach, D. (1993). Exchange ideology as a moderator of the procedural justice-satisfaction relationship. J. Soc. Psychol. 133, 97–103. doi: 10.1080/00224545.1993.9712122

Witt, L. A., Kacmar, K. M., and Andrews, M. C. (2001). The interactive effects of procedural justice and exchange ideology on supervisor-rated commitment. J. Organ. Behav. 22, 505–515. doi: 10.1002/job.99

Witt, L. A., and Wilson, J. W. (1990). Income sufficiency as a predictor of job satisfaction and organizational commitment: dispositional differences. J. Soc. Psychol. 130, 267–268. doi: 10.1080/00224545.1990.9924578

Yadav, M. S. (2014). Enhancing theory development in marketing. AMS Rev. 4, 1–4. doi: 10.1007/s13162-014-0059-z

Appendix 1 Studies examining individual differences in reciprocity.

Keywords: social exchange theory, reciprocity, workplace relations, evolution of social behaviors, social exchange behavior

Citation: Ahmad R, Nawaz MR, Ishaq MI, Khan MM and Ashraf HA (2023) Social exchange theory: Systematic review and future directions. Front. Psychol . 13:1015921. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1015921

Received: 10 August 2022; Accepted: 22 December 2022; Published: 12 January 2023.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2023 Ahmad, Nawaz, Ishaq, Khan and Ashraf. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

A Systems View Across Time and Space

• Open access
• Published: 21 January 2016

Social exchange in collaborative innovation: maker or breaker

• Malin M. Malmström 1 &
• Jeaneth Johansson 1  

Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship volume  5 , Article number:  4 ( 2015 ) Cite this article

5609 Accesses

9 Citations

2 Altmetric

Metrics details

Collaborations in innovation work between competitors have become a common practice in the information and communication technology sector (ICT), and substantial investments are made in such collaborations. Significant rationales for these collaborations include the high expectations placed on rapid and front-edge technology development and business exploitation. However, there is often a failure to reach the expected outcomes of such collaborations. This may be explained not only by the challenges and obstacles in technology development but also by the social relations within the collaborations. The purpose of this study is to explore the role of social exchange in the outcomes of early-stage innovation collaborations. More specifically, we explore the social facilitators of exchange and how such facilitators may influence collaboration outcomes. Social exchange theory is used for this purpose. This longitudinal study is based on a 3-year collaboration project for innovation using qualitative methods (29 interviews, observations of 7 project meetings). Three phases of social exchange in the collaboration are empirically identified: the dating phase, brainstorming phase, and decision phase. Three social facilitators of social exchange within these phases are conceptualized: trust, commitment, and congruence. Further, direct contacts are conceptualized as a social accelerator fueling these social facilitators. This study advances understanding of social facilitators in social exchange and their significance with regard to success/failure outcomes. Risks of lock-in situations in collaborations for innovation are outlined in a knowledge exchange paradox.

Academic interest as well as practitioners and policymakers’ interest has long been focused on innovation-related topics. This is not surprising, as innovations are engines allowing businesses to stay competitive and prosper in the marketplace (Amit and Schoemaker 1993 ; Rakhmatullin and Brennan 2014 ; Chronéer et al. 2015 ; Johansson and Malmström 2013 ). Successful innovations help develop successful organizations, and society as a whole benefits as new ventures emerge and grow (Osterwalder and Pigneur 2004 ; Chesbrough 2010 ). Today, interorganizational collaborations are considered to be an answer to a range of challenges that may hamper businesses from remaining competitive. Most collaborations with other organizations targeting innovation facilitate the exchange of information, knowledge, and experiences, accelerating learning and new ways of thinking and working in the organization (Malmström and Wincent 2012 ; Malmström et al. 2013 ) . Although it is commonly believed that increased levels of collaboration between organizations lead to better innovation outcomes (Rigby and Edler 2005 ), there is debate as to the effect of collaboration on innovation outcomes, with a broad range of views on what roles such collaborations have with regard to innovation outcomes and aligned competitiveness. In particular, recent interest has focused on the effects of collaboration for innovation on organizational performance. One question is whether investments in collaboration for innovation result in commercial innovations (Rakhmatullin and Brennan 2014 ). However, much of the extant literature shows inconsistent results. While collaborations for innovation are expected to bring advantages to collaborative partners, findings in prior studies have been mixed. On the other hand, individual organizations have little incentive to make heavy investments in early-stage innovations, when the risks of failure are high.

Studies have provided evidence that collaboration for innovation alone does not guarantee successful outcomes, and in some cases, it may produce even poorer outcomes (Miles et al. 1999 ; Nieto and Santamaría 2007 ). Even so, there is a lack of insight into why collaborations succeed or fail to reach the intended outcomes, and this study aims to address this shortcoming. For collaboration to occur, some form of social exchange is needed. Thus, we posit that social exchange is critical for collaboration outcomes concerning innovation. However, studies have largely overlooked the potential of social relations to explain the outcomes of collaborations for innovation. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the role of social exchange in explaining the outcomes of an early-stage innovation collaboration. More specifically, we explore social facilitators for exchange and how such facilitators may influence the collaboration outcomes. Social exchange theory is used for this purpose. As such, this research contributes with a new conceptualization of social exchange by detailing the microfoundations of social exchange. We conceptualize social exchange elements in collaboration in innovation (four types of exchange capital and social exchange mechanisms, i.e., three social facilitators and an accelerator fueling the social facilitators) and thus add to the literature on collaboration in innovation. Although our work cannot be considered definitive, our most significant contribution is demonstrating how actual collaboration work may evolve as well as the role and nature of social exchange in collaboration—something that has, to the best of our knowledge, not previously been explored.

The paper is organized as follows. First, we report on a literature review and outline the theoretical basis of social exchange in collaboration and for collaboration outcomes. Next, we discuss our case and issues pertaining to our research methods and present our analytical procedures. We then outline the findings in three identified phases—the dating phase, brainstorming phase, and decision phase—and depict the essence of exchange in these phases. This study conceptualizes three specific social facilitators and their roles in cultivating social exchange of four types of capital (financial, human, social, and innovation capital) in the three identified phases of a collaboration innovation project and examines the accelerating effect of direct contact on the social facilitators. Finally, the paper concludes with a discussion of our findings along with implications, limitations, and directions for future research.

Literature review and theoretical perspective

Collaboration in innovation projects has become a common practice in the information and communication technology sector (ICT sector) (Emden et al. 2006 ), and substantial investments are made in such projects (Madill et al. 2007 ). Significant rationales for these innovation collaborations include the high expectations placed on rapid and front-edge technology development, better access to resources, and business exploitation (Goerzen 2007 ; Laperche and Liu 2013 ). In addition, organizations expect to achieve technology transfer for the development of new technologies and services, knowledge transfer for the acquisition of new competencies, and competitive advantages. Such achievements might otherwise not have been obtained (Knudsen 2007 ). A large body of literature has highlighted other benefits from collaboration for innovation, such as offering a mechanism to parry potential market failures ahead of market launch (Caloghirou et al. 2003 ; Hagedoorn et al. 2000 ; Vonortas 1997 ). The fundamental argument regarding the risk of market failure when making innovation investments illuminates the lack of incentive for individual organizations to solely undertake such investments. Another advantage of collaboration in innovation that has been pinpointed in the literature is better access to markets (Laperche and Liu 2013 ). It has been argued that innovation collaborations may enable organizations to share innovation costs and reduce uncertainty while providing opportunities to internalize new knowledge and achieve innovation synergies (Spivack 2013 ). Such aspects may be particularly important in early-stage innovation work, when risks and uncertainty are high and collaboration may enable organizations to spread these risks (Miles et al. 1999 ; Anderson 1990 ). In particular, studies emphasize the advantage for “resource poor” small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) that gain access to other organizations’ innovation capacity and paths to commercialization. Further, since the commercial success of innovations is often time lagged to when the financing for the innovation work is needed, participating in interorganizational collaborations may be beneficial (Malmström 2014 ). Such collaborations may be particularly beneficial to SMEs since traditional financiers are rarely willing to fund SMEs in their early innovation work as it may take several years before the innovations provide any return on the financiers’ investments. Typically, it is not until a business can demonstrate a solid track record in sales and innovation development, show a prototype, or are about to commercialize a product that venture capitalists and other financiers are willing to invest (Johansson and Malmström 2013 ). However, it could be argued that when SMEs participate in innovation collaborations, they risk becoming dependent and thus jeopardize their ability to appropriate most—or all—of the returns from their investments (Miles et al. 1999 ).

While collaborations in innovation projects are expected to result in advantages to collaborative partners, findings in prior studies have been mixed. In fact, the degree of failure in the business models of innovative organizations as a result of collaborative innovation projects is high (Chesbrough and Rosenbloom 2002 ; Malmström et al. 2015 ). This high rate of failure is not only due to the challenges and obstacles in technology development but also to the social relations within the collaborations. Therefore, it is surprising that so few studies have explored the importance of social relations in collaborations intended to move early-stage technologies towards financially viable business offerings. In one such study, it was found that limitations in partners’ abilities/willingness to exchange information regarding their own high-tech offerings had negative effects on innovation outcomes in collaboration projects (Knudsen 2007 ). Similarly, negative effects of social relations in collaborations have been reported in terms of leakage of core competitive knowledge to collaborative partners (Emden et al. 2006 ).

Social exchange theory has shown the potential to explain collaborations in innovation projects (Brass et al. 2004 ). According to the theory, an exchange requires a bidirectional exchange—something has to be given and something has to be returned—and over time, the exchange results in mutually rewarding transactions and interdependent relationships (Blau 1964 ; Cropanzano and Mitchell 2005 ). Social interactions are focused on discerning how actors’ pasts and anticipated rewards mutually influence their choices, conduct, and social relations in a group (Blau 1964 ). The main idea of the theory is that social exchange is built on a cost-benefit perspective based on self-interest (Homans 1958 ). Actors only contribute resources when they perceive that their contributions will be reciprocated (Blau 1964 ), and as relationships evolve, the possibility for exchange emerges. Partners adapt to certain principles that form norms guiding the exchange; namely, the reciprocity and negotiation principles (Emerson 1976). The reciprocity principle is a standard for behaving in an exchange. When partners negotiate (e.g., to gain benefits such as financial exchange), they apply the negotiation principle (Gouldner 1960 ; Cropanzano and Mitchell 2005 ). Social exchange is thus proposed to be central to the success or failure of collaboration projects.

This embedded case study (Yin 2003 ; Eisenhardt 1989 ) is based on a 3-year collaboration project for innovation in the ICT sector. The project included 19 organizations in 7 European countries in a private public partnership (PPP), consisting of a range of organizations from research institutes ( N  = 2), universities ( N  = 2), organizations representing clusters of SMEs ( N  = 5), public companies ( N  = 4), and large international corporations ( N  = 6). The organizations were based in several countries: four in Germany, four in France, four in Greece, three in Finland, one in Ireland, one in Spain, one in Sweden, and one in Italy. Data were collected via 29 interviews with collaborative partners, totaling 30 h, and in situ observations of 7 collaboration meetings, totaling 14 working days. Interviews were recorded and transcribed. In situ observations of collaboration meetings were recorded when allowed, and notes of discussions were taken during all observations.

As recommended in the methodological literature on qualitative research, we engaged in content analysis of the data collected to capture themes and the nature of exchange in collaboration in innovation as well as aligned mechanisms fostering exchange. An established three-step procedure was used to guide this work. First, content analyses of the collaboration contract, which included 176 pages and 70,839 words, was carried out using NVivo software ( http://www.qsrinternational.com/product ) to identify which kinds of exchanges were emphasized and negotiated when entering the collaboration projects. Second, we began to code the interview data and the observation data. In this coding process, we first identified three project phases: the dating, brainstorming, and decision phases. The dating phase lasted for roughly 1 year while the brainstorming phase extended for 1 year and 3 months. The decision phase lasted 9 months. Project meetings marked the change from one phase to another. The dating phase consisted mainly of discussions related to getting to know each other, identifying who could contribute and how, and exploring overall technology design and strategic choices. In the second phase, considerable attention was given to solving technology difficulties and presenting a viable solution along with preliminary discussions on how to design a sustainable business model for the innovation. The last transit to the decision phase revolved around taking a stance on the produced technology and business model alternatives.

In the subsequent coding of the phases, we identified the following when categorizing the themes of exchange: (1) social exchange elements, i.e., four types of exchange capital, financial capital, innovation capital, social capital, and human capital; and (2) social exchange mechanisms, including three social facilitators and one accelerator. We reached this result by engaging in a line-by-line examination of the transcribed text, which was guided by our conceptual basis for generating themes and relationships among the themes, as recommended by Strauss and Corbin ( 1990 ). We used a set of guiding questions when we scanned and searched for statements and expressions, such as: What type of exchange took place/did not take place? What were the main arguments for exchange or no exchange? What enabled/hindered the exchange? These questions helped us to balance between richness and direction (Miles and Huberman 1994 ). Triangulation using different data sources aimed to validate and crystallize the studied phenomena. Content analyses were carried out by the two researchers individually and compared for matching degree (over 95 % matching). The findings were also validated through feedback from the organizations’ representatives.

Collaboration exchange

The aim of the collaboration innovation project and its aligned exploitation activities, as outlined in the collaboration agreement contract, was the creation of a self-sustained, economically viable, and legally formalized organization to provide an infrastructure for the commercialization of European testbed services through a collaboration model. We identify three main phases in the collaboration innovation project: the dating phase, brainstorming phase, and decision phase. Each phase is presented below, where we identify four types of exchange capital (financial, human, social, and innovation capital), exchange mechanisms in terms of three social facilitators (i.e., trust, commitment, and congruence), and one accelerator for exchange (direct contacts) as a way to strengthen the social facilitators.

Dating phase

Collaboration agreement.

The collaboration agreement contract shows a negotiation emphasis on innovation capital while financial capital, human capital, and social capital are more overlooked and thus left to develop over time, following the reciprocity principle. A word frequency search illustrates the emphasis on innovation capital (Table  1 ). Accordingly, the most established exchange in the collaboration agreement contract was innovation capital, supported by the negotiation principle.

According to the collaboration agreement contract, the collaboration set out to build on four fundamental collaboration cornerstones in which the emphasis on innovation capital is evident: (1) openness, (2) excellence, (3) efficient management, and (4) governance, (see Appendix 1 for details). Regarding openness, the focus is on intellectual property rights (IPR), and thus innovation capital, and pinpoints the importance of possibilities for exchanging innovation capital. For instance, it is stated that important challenges regarding innovation capital are: “ Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), how to exchange results and what may be shared, the standardization of interfaces, common procedures, and usage policies .” Excellence refers to innovation excellence in the collaborative model, thus focusing on innovation capital. Efficient management refers to achieving cost efficiencies and improving the sustainability and quality of the collaboration, thus focusing on financial and innovation capital. Finally, governance refers to the exchange of innovation capital, emphasizing that legal frameworks should include definitions for confidentiality and trust as well as sanctions for conflicts and misuse of the innovation capital.

Innovation capital is highly present in the collaboration agreement contract, where emphasis is placed on technology. Aspects of technology are placed at the heart of the collaboration, and trust regarding innovation capital is emphasized. For instance, the contract states: “ The proposed testing service infrastructure will have a major goal of building trust-enhancing capabilities. ” The negotiation principle is considered as a means for solving trust challenges of the innovation capital exchange through the establishment of rules and structures for contracts regarding confidentiality issues and IPR.

The environment for the collaboration between the partners and the attached industry cluster(s) is further outlined in the collaboration agreement contract, which “ will be characterized by a close cooperation among the participating actors and with strong ties with the local business infrastructure and the local higher education and research establishments. ” An expression of how to build commitment among partners is stated in the first exploitation activity: “ Building commitment among relevant stakeholders for their longer-term engagement in testbed collaboration through bi- and multilateral discussions and memorandums of understanding .” Further, negotiation of partners’ commitment is also evident with regard to solving IPR issues: “ In order to ensure an effective exploitation of the project results, the consortium partners will make an effort to solve any potential intellectual property issues that might arise. ”

The collaboration agreement contract shows partners’ congruence for actions (if required) for dealing with pre-identified collaboration risks, which may be categorized as belonging to the four types of capital. These risks are: (1) financial capital risks, including the risk that no major customers will use the results, the market environment or the end-user views may change and make the results obsolete, and a competing solution will emerge and make the results less valuable; (2) human capital risks, including the risk that a key person with a specific type of expertise leaves the project; (3) social capital risks, including the risk that a partner is underperforming, a key partner is leaving the project, or the partners cannot agree due to conflicting interests; and (4) innovative capital risks, including the risk that key technologies or components are not available at the expected time and that key milestones or critical deliverables are delayed.

Expressions of collaboration exchange

At the initial meetings, partners showed enthusiasm and expressed excitement. One partner offered a typical expression of trust and commitment for reaching the collaboration goals: “ I’m excited about this project because we’re going a step further than most projects… ” Partners expressed a congruent view and optimistic expectations of reaching a collaborative business model for financial, human, social, and technology exchange. For instance, one partner said, “ competition isn’t an issue as it would be for others. I think the businessmen in our cluster would actually be very happy to work with a lot of the partners …”

In the initial project meetings, it became clear that there was generally a neutral attitude among partners regarding how to deal with the financial capital. They spoke of pricing, finance, and doing business within the collaboration model, assuming that the innovation would automatically generate financial capital. This shows the high level of congruence among partners regarding financial capital. For instance, one partner stated, “ I think anybody should be interested to pay for this kind of service. ” They avoided detailed discussions on who, where, how, and when to exchange, indicating a moderate commitment and level of trust regarding financial capital. Human capital was scarcely discussed, and when it was, the focus was on the exchange of technology competence. For example, when one partner stated, “ Of course there are risks related to the competencies of the people whether companies send the right people or if, the level of engagement is low or so ,” another responded, “ I have trust in the people who are doing the technology development. ” This demonstrates that trust levels were high that partners had the appropriate competences to succeed, but there were some doubts as to whether partners would actually provide that competence, indicating moderate commitment and congruence regarding human capital.

Much focus in the discussions was placed on the social capital. Long-term social exchange related to technology was emphasized while social relations related to business were neglected. Overall, high levels of trust, commitment, and congruence among partners were expressed. One partner displayed a typical expression of trust and commitment: “ A lot of trust is needed… This is based on the professional social networks that exist from previous relationships, from previous projects and generally the engagement of all partners in different forms of collaboration over the years .” Typical expressions of congruence by partners included: “ we have very good collaboration with project partners in the past and we still have that ”, “ we know them and we have worked with them before ,” and “ I’m here for collaborating in a specific technical area, it’s much easier for me to do with somebody that I know. ” A few partners discussed social exchange differently, emphasizing the need for developing trust to accomplish social exchange activities as well as efforts to build trust and commitment. One partner stated, “ you have to build trust over and over again, with different people. Sometimes in big companies if you loose one contact it takes a year or two to find another who is in charge of that business area. That’s hard work. ”

Partners emphasized innovation capital in an optimistic tone, where collaborations were expected to provide access to others’ resources, demonstrating the partners’ high commitment and congruence. High congruence was also evident in the shared view of striving to create a technology infrastructure that would be beneficial to all collaborating partners for a long period of time. They expressed a high level of trust that their partners would contribute in the exchange, and they perceived the risks related to collaboration in technology to be relatively low. One partner reasoned that the project would help technologies mature and allow customers to learn about them, speculating that in maybe 2 or 3 years, the innovation of new services could be offered to the market (see Table  2 for example quotations).

The findings in the dating phase indicate trust, commitment, and congruence at moderate to high levels. The partners expressed high expectations and potential of the collaboration. The project is part of a wider innovation community, in which many of the partners have collaborated in earlier projects and thus have knowledge of one another. This enabled high initial levels of trust, commitment, and congruence. Moreover, the partners had extended experiences of technology exchange through the previous collaboration projects. However, the new component of this collaboration was the extent to which it included the development of joint business offerings.

Brainstorming phase

In the brainstorming phase of the collaboration, the partners placed particular emphasis on technology exchange and progress. Regarding financial capital, the creation of a mutual business model was generally considered to be important for commitment. At the same time, some partners began to express concerns about the financial exchange and progress in the collaboration, indicating decreasing levels of trust. They reported difficulties in communicating the financial benefits of partnership and emphasized the lack of financial exchange. Although there was a generally neutral tone among the partners regarding how to finance and conduct business within the collaboration model, they avoided discussing details of who, where, and how. The partners began to express doubts about the business potential of the collaboration. Taken together, this shows low levels of trust, commitment, and congruence in terms of financial capital.

Human capital primarily involved engineers and only a few business people. We observed in the project meetings that neglecting the inclusion of business competence appeared to be a conscious and deliberate decision since the exchange of information on the design of business offerings could be avoided. Some partners signaled a need to involve business competence to attain progress in the collaboration model, indicating moderate levels of congruence. Trust and commitment that the partners provided the appropriate competence was low in terms of business competence and high for technology competence.

Social capital primarily revolving around technology exchange was viewed in a relatively positive way. The importance of closeness and trust among partners was emphasized, indicating a high level of trust. The partners particularly emphasized the value of collaboration and exchange in technology and focused on the progress of technology. However, the partners noted a varying degree of commitment among each other, where some partners worked daily with the innovation while others were less active, indicating a moderate level of commitment. Some expressed that the value of the collaboration was that it provided a way to keep their relations alive. Others noted that there might not be actual incentives for all partners to participate, indicating moderate levels of congruence.

The partners focused on innovation capital, viewing the collaboration as a platform for the potential exchange of ideas. They began to address business model issues, and the core topic was technology exchange. Trust issues were also raised regarding information leakage related to innovation capital, that is, concern as to whether the partners had each others’ best interests at heart, indicating a moderate level of trust and congruence as partners had, to some extent, different views on the exchange of innovation capital. The partners who had direct contact in the collaboration expressed higher levels of trust, commitment, and congruence compared to those who did not have such contact. The commitment of the partners decreased slightly, and they began to discuss risks regarding the exchange of innovation capital, but they still emphasized the need for innovation capital exchange (see Table  3 for example quotations).

The findings in the brainstorming phase indicate a lack of collaboration regarding business exchange, and neglecting the inclusion of business competence appeared to be a conscious and deliberate decision. Trust, commitment, and congruence were predominantly expressed as facilitators for the technology exchange. The partners also expressed the importance of direct collaboration in the technology exchange, whereas it was more or less absent in the business exchange.

Decision phase

During the decision phase, the partners primarily exchanged innovation capital by focusing on technology development activities supported by financial, human, social, and innovation capital, and the collaboration generated a successful infrastructure technology platform. Nevertheless, the lack of exchange related to joint business exploitation resulted in project failure as no commercial or sustainable business platform was generated. The competitive situation became evident as opportunities to make money on the developed technology motivated solitary business exploitation, resulting in a low degree of business information exchange. Financial capital issues related to pricing became central, with discussions in meetings focused on “ who will buy and who will get paid. ” It became evident through observations of meetings that the partners did not agree on how money should flow, raising doubts about market potential and showing low levels of trust, commitment, and congruence in terms of financial capital.

While the project staff had the technological competence needed to carry out the innovation, business competence was lacking. Thus, in regard to human capital, there were continued high levels of trust and commitment in technology competence but low levels of trust and commitment in business competence. The congruence in human capital was low as large company partners expressed a lack of joint business potential while other partners saw significant joint business potential. The commitment of the partners became a central issue with regard to social capital, and doubts were expressed as to whether the partners would commit to and sign contracts due to conflicting views on how to conduct business, that is low levels of congruence how to do business. Several partners were more interested in the collaboration as such than in the joint business offerings. Some even expressed that collaborating made their efforts worthwhile even though the end results of the collaboration might be poor. Important observations of meetings at the end of the collaboration project revealed that the social capital of business collaboration between partners consisted of low levels of trust and commitment among partners, which negatively influenced the development of the collaboration model.

In discussions, the competitive situation became evident, where opportunities to make money on the developed technology motivated solitary rather than collaborative business exploitation. Innovation capital revolved around the complexity of the technology, where doubts about customers’ needs for the service and divergent partner interests were raised, which negatively affected trust and commitment in innovation capital. Partners rationalized the lack of a good business outcome from the technology as a timing and sensitivity issue related to information and resources. General incentives for being part of the collaboration project were expressed by emphasizing visibility, the shorter time to market, and staying updated on emerging technologies. Rationalizations of the failure revolved around timing and market window problems (see Table  4 for example quotations).

At the point in time when the business model was meant to be launched, the tone of the partners changed, becoming increasingly skeptical and questioning. Partners who had intended to share sensitive business model information from their own organizations changed their minds and either kept quiet or did not participate in partner meetings when it became evident that other partners had no intention of sharing or the implications of making use of the information became apparent, showing overall low levels of trust, commitment, and congruence.

Social facilitators and a social accelerator for exchange

The case illustrates that the extensive social exchange of information in technology development does not automatically result in successful business information exchange and exploitation. The initial high levels of trust, commitment, and congruence in financial, human, social, and innovation capital kick-started the technology exchange in the dating phase, as summarized in Table  5 . The trust revolved mainly around confidence in the partners having the appropriate competence for success. Commitment was built on the mutual benefits that would be realized if the collaboration project was successful, and congruence was generally high due to the negotiated collaboration agreement.

In the brainstorming phase, trust was expanded to include the question of whether partners had each others’ best interests at heart, for instance, with regard to information leakage. This indicates that trust may have several facets and may change during the course of a collaboration project. Commitment and congruence were also affected during this phase, where some partners were fully committed while others were more or less inactive or even absent. Direct contact in a collaboration can be viewed as an accelerator for exchange as it is a way to strengthen trust, commitment, and congruence among partners. Congruence appears to be less important when trust and commitment are low.

The findings in the decision phase indicate that while a lack of trust, commitment, and congruence manifested in the collaboration regarding business exchange, these facilitators still existed between the partners with regard to technology exchange. The partners also expressed direct collaboration in the technology exchange, although the neglect of—or refusal to—participate in business exchange severely hindered the progress of implementing innovation capital in a collaborative business model. Although the technology was successfully developed, the failure to negotiate the business terms caused the project to fail to achieve its overall objectives. Low levels of trust, commitment, and congruence led the collaborating partners to neglect or even refuse to engage in business exchange and instead resort to alternative forms of exchange (e.g., hindering business information exchange or making it less productive, pretending to be interested in exchange, and making positive business effects less likely to occur). It is evident from the three phases that trust may be viewed as a particularly important facilitator as it is the foundation for commitment, and without trust and commitment, congruence is not particularly interesting for partners.

Conceptualizing three social facilitators and a social accelerator

Based on the findings above, we further conceptualize the social facilitators below. Trust consists of the belief that partners will have and provide the appropriate resources (including competence) for the collaboration project to succeed, and that partners will have each others’ best interests at heart in actions taken during the collaboration project. Trust thus involves the willingness of a partner to be vulnerable to another partner’s actions based on the anticipation that the other partner will act in a way that is beneficial to the trustor.

Commitment is conceptualized as the willingness of partners to invest resources including competences into the collaboration project because of the importance of strengthening and maintaining the ongoing relationship with exchange partners. High commitment necessitates positive regard for the other partners. Commitment is also related to the trade-off between termination or switching costs associated with leaving the relationship and the benefits of remaining in the collaboration. Congruence is conceptualized as the agreement among collaboration partners regarding a shared exchange process and outcome view. Trust, commitment, and congruence are thus highly interrelated.

The accelerator for exchange is viewed as the direct contacts in the collaboration, which are a means of strengthening trust, commitment, and congruence among collaborating partners. In our study, direct contacts based on negotiated established structures for exchange were present in the technology exchange between the collaboration partners. Direct contact was available in the technology exchange because of the partners’ previous collaboration in similar projects. In direct contact situations, partners build trust, commitment, and congruence through advisory practices (i.e., asking for others’ expertise on various matters in solving project progress issues). Consequently, they create bounds and “flatter” each other, which accelerate the social facilitators for exchange. The project was staged with recurring forums for direct contact and advisory practices related to technology. In contrast, business forums occurred on only three occasions and on a general level, without the appropriate competences present. Participating engineers discussed the business model, but they lacked the competence to ask for or provide advice, which hindered building trust, commitment, and congruence in the business exchange. The business exchange was built on indirect contacts since the personnel involved lacked business competence and each partner was either only indirectly engaged or non-existing. Further, the business exchange was intended to be reciprocally developed and negotiated at the end of the project.

The three social facilitators relate to the general principle of reciprocity in social exchange theory (Blau 1964 ; Emerson, 1976). High levels of trust make partners willing to take risks and contribute directly to collaborations as they anticipate reciprocity in their partners’ contributions. In contrast, low levels of trust cause partners to become hesitant or unwilling to take any risks by contributing since they are not convinced that their partners will contribute reciprocally. High commitment stems from the willingness of the partners to invest resources to strengthen the relationship. This is evident through repeated reciprocity and facilitates exchange as it leads to loyalty among partners. With low commitment levels, partners will avoid investing in the relationship, and thus reciprocity will not occur. High congruence stems from the collaborating partners agreeing on the exchange and the outcome of the collaboration, which makes expected reciprocity actions clear to partners. Low congruence means that partners do not agree or coincide on the exchange or the outcome of the collaboration, which hinders reciprocity actions.

Discussion and Conclusions

This article shows the role of social facilitators in project success and failure and provides implications of how such social facilitators may be accelerated by direct contact. Trust, commitment, and congruence are three interrelated facilitators, which stimulate a relational bond between the collaborating partners that facilitates productive collaborations. However, if the facilitators are weak, the collaboration may be in jeopardy and risks failure. Our findings imply that if the partners that are selected to be involved in the collaboration have appropriate competences, significant opportunities will be provided for direct contact. A lack of competence inhibits the ability to exchange and prevents social facilitators from working efficiently in the exchange, whereas the presence of competence enables exchange, which the social facilitators enable and the direct contacts accelerate.

This study is anchored in Blau’s ( 1964 ) work regarding the social exchange process and the collaboration in innovation that follows from organizations’ desire for innovation competitiveness and growth. However, while social exchange theory offers little guidance in understanding the microfoundations of why some collaborations in innovation lead to business offerings that prosper in a marketplace while others fail, the findings of this study support the notion that social facilitators and a social accelerator in the process and outcomes of collaborations in innovation make it possible to manage the collaboration outcomes. This study shows the importance of the mechanisms, direct contacts for accelerating social facilitators for exchange, and collaboration outcomes. Although social facilitators are dealt with in collaboration agreement contracts in line with the negotiation principle, the reciprocity principle appears to be more powerful than the negation principle in successful exchange and collaboration outcomes (Das and Teng 1998 ; Molm et al. 1999 ; Molm et al. 2000 ). As such, this study provides implications regarding conceptual development to the literature on collaboration in innovation.

The three collaboration project phases and four types of capital identified reflect the way in which social exchange influences collaboration outcomes. The conceptualization of the types of capital extends the previous research on innovation collaboration (e.g., Caloghirou et al. 2003 ; Hagedoorn et al. 2000 ; Vonortas 1997 ; Laperche and Liu, 2013 ; Spivack 2013 ). The collaborative partners focused on building long-term relations in technology development while they placed less emphasis on generating business exploitation, which may be understood by the three social facilitators and the social accelerator. “Poor” relationships among collaborative partners have been identified in prior studies as one reason for collaboration failure (Timmons 1994 ). By understanding how social facilitators drive the exchange in relationships, dysfunctional collaboration processes may be redirected and positive interactions enhanced. Trust, commitment, and congruence are the three types of social facilitators that cultivate exchange, and our findings show how a lack of social facilitators leads to failure in achieving commercialization, sustainability, and success in technology development (Mouritsen et al. 2001 ). These social facilitators appear to be central for understanding collaboration project failure. Low levels of trust, commitment, and congruence impede social exchange in business exploitation and consequently result in negative outcomes since no common business offering is generated. In contrast, these facilitators enable social exchange in technology development and are accelerated by direct contacts, leading to significant progress (Blau 1964 ; Holmes 1981 ; Kingshott 2006 ; Johansson 2007 ; Blomkvist et al. 2015 ). Prior studies have also found that trust in collaborative relationships is crucial for exchange to result in positive effects such as technology and business exploitation (Lado et al. 2008 : Das and Teng 1998 ). Barns and colleagues ( 2006 ) stress the importance of social relationships and trust for successful collaborative projects. In addition, prior studies have shown commitment to be useful for predicting collaborative progress (Meyer 1997 ; Mohr and Speakman 1994 ). Studies have also shown that commitment is more important for the implementation of business innovation than for the initiation of technology innovation. Congruence has also been shown to be critical for technological innovations, with a cultural foundation of congruence among partners enhancing the potential for exchange information (Gudmundson et al. 2003 ; Jones et al. 1997 ). This study adds to the insights of previous studies with a new conceptualization of social exchange that details the microfoundations of social exchange.

The partners’ unwillingness to exchange business information impeded the overall project outcome. There is a risk of a lock-in situation in innovation projects, where collaborations repeat positive progress in technology development but fail to exploit business opportunities. Such lock-in situations may place the organizations’ competitive advantages at risk, leading to a paradox. Partners contributing essential business information to the innovative collaboration may severely weaken the competitive advantages of their own organizations. In contrast, an organization that does not contribute such information to the collaboration may sustain their own competitive advantages while simultaneously impeding the progress of the innovation outcomes, thereby potentially weakening their future competitive advantages. This drives collaboration exchanges in opposite directions and highlights a collaboration exchange paradox. Taken together, this helps to explain challenges in innovation collaboration by showing that low levels of trust, commitment, and congruence improve understanding of the consequences of social facilitators in social exchange and their significance to the outcomes of innovation collaborations as well as the impact of direct contacts on the accelerating social facilitators for exchange.

Practically, this study highlights the importance of building and operating structures for exchange aligned with the scope of the collaboration project. Accordingly, the collaboration model needs to address social exchange of all types of capital central to the collaboration objectives. In addition, collaboration models need to enable trust, commitment, and congruence as well as direct collaborative contacts in the exchange of all types of capital. Such collaboration models may enhance the outcomes of collaboration projects and simultaneously lower the potential of failure.

Limitations and future research

As with all studies, our work has limitations. We encourage future studies to use larger samples of social exchange processes to test the current findings. Such studies will help assess the reliability and validity of the presented results and further extend our knowledge of collaborative innovation processes in social exchange frameworks. We argue for more explorative studies that include social exchange theory concerning the circumstances of collaboration in innovation. While the present study was conducted with a qualitative research setup, we encourage future researchers to expand on this topic. Social exchange processes are not static; they are adaptable social systems and typically evolve over time, which is why a qualitative approach may reveal valuable insights. Therefore, future studies are encouraged to consider further testing and development through longitudinal studies over longer time horizons.

Amit, R., & Schoemaker, P. J. H. (1993). Strategic assets and organizational rents. Strategic Management Journal, 14 (1), 33–46.

Article   Google Scholar  

Anderson, E. (1990). Two firms, one frontier: on assessing joint venture performance. Sloan Management Review, 31 (2), 19–30.

Google Scholar  

Barnes, T. A., Pashby, I. R., & Gibbons, A. M. (2006). Managing collaborative R&D projects development of a practical management tool. International Journal of Project Management, 24 (5), 395–404.

Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life . New York: John Wiley.

Blomkvist, M., Johansson, J., & Malmström, M. (2015). Accounting Knowledge in Innovative Firms: Direct Contacts with Auditors for Strategic Actions. Artikeln har presenterats vid American Accounting Association Annual meeting and conference on teaching and learning in Accounting, Chicago, USA.

Brass, D. J., Galaskiewicz, J., Greve, H. R., & Tsai, W. (2004). Taking stock of networks and organizations: a multilevel perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 47 , 795–817.

Caloghirou, Y., Ioannides, S., & Vonortas, N. S. (2003). Research joint ventures: a critical survey of theoretical and empirical literature. Journal of Economic Surveys, 17 (4), 541–570.

Chesbrough, H. (2010). Business model innovation: opportunities and barriers. Long Range Planning, 43 (2), 354–363.

Chesbrough, H., & Rosenbloom, R. S. (2002). The role of the business model in capturing value from innovation: evidence from Xerox Corporation's technology spin-off companies. Industrial and Corporate Change, 11 (3), 529–555.

Chronéer, D., Johansson, J., & Malmström, M. (2015). Business Model Management Typologies: Cognitive Mapping of Business Model Landscapes. International Journal of Business and Management, 10(3), 67–80.

Cropanzano R., & Mitchell, M. S. (2005). Social exchange theory: an interdisciplinary review. Journal of Management, 31 (6), 874–900.

Das, T. K., & Teng, B.-S. (1998). Between trust and control: developing confidence in partner cooperation in alliances. Academy of Management Review, 3 (July), 491–512.

Emerson, R. M. (1976). Social exchange theory. Annual review of sociology, 335–362.

Emden, Z., Calatone, R. J., & Droge, C. (2006). Collaborating for new product development: selecting the partner with maximum potential to create value. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 23 , 330–341.

Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management Review, 14 (4), 532–50.

Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: a preliminary statement. American Sociological Review, 25 , 161–178.

Goerzen, A. (2007). Alliance networks and firm performance: the impact of repeated partnerships. Strategic Management Journal, 28 (1), 487–509.

Gudmundson, D., Tower, C. B., & Hartman, E. A. (2003). Innovation in small businesses: culture and ownership structure do matter. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 8 (1), 1–17.

Hagedoorn, J., Link, A. N., & Vonortas, N. S. (2000). Research partnerships. Research Policy, 29 (4–5), 567–586.

Holmes, J. G. (1981). The exchange process in close relationships: microbehavior and macromotives. In M. J. Learner & S. C. Lerner (Eds.), The justice motive in social behavior (pp. 261–284). New York: Plenum.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Homans, G. C. (1958). Social behavior as exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 63 , 579–606.

Johansson, J., & Malmström, M. (2013). The business model transparency paradox in innovative growth ventures: trade-offs between competitive advantages and agency costs. Entrepreneurship Research Journal, 3(2), 238-263.

Johansson, J. (2007). Sell-side analysts' creation of value: key roles and relational capital. Journal of Human Resource Costing & Accounting, 11(1), 30–52.

Jones, C., Hesterly, W. S., & Borgatti, S. P. (1997). A general theory of network governance: exchange conditions and social mechanisms. Academy of Management Review, 22 (4), 911–945.

Kingshott, R. P. J. (2006). The impact of psychological contracts upon trust and commitment within supplier buyer relationships: a social exchange view. Industrial Marketing Management, 35 (6), 724–739.

Knudsen, M. P. (2007). The relative importance of interfirm relationships and knowledge transfer for new product development success. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 24 , 117–138.

Lado, A. A., Dant, R. R., & Tekleab, A. G. (2008). Trust-opportunism paradox, relationalism, and performance in interfirm relationships: evidence from the retail industry. Strategic Management Journal, 29 (4), 401–423.

Laperche, B., & Liu, Z. (2013). SMEs and knowledge-capital formation in innovation networks: a review of literature. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 2 , 21. http://www.innovation-entrepreneurship.com/content/2/1/21 .

Madill, J. J., Haines, G. H., Jr., & Riding, A. L. (2007). Managing customer relationships: account manager turnover and effective account management. Industrial Marketing Management, 36 , 241–248.

Malmström, M., Johansson, J., & Wincent, J. (2015). Cognitive Constructions of Low-Profit and High-Profit Business Models: A Repertory Grid Study of Serial Entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice.

Malmström, M. (2014). Typologies of bootstrap financing behavior in small ventures. Venture Capital - An International Journal of Entrepreneurial Finance, 16 (1), 27–50.

Malmström, M., Wincent, J., & Johansson, J. (2013). Managing competence acquisition and financial performance: An empirical study of how small firms use competence acquisition strategies. Journal of Engineering and Technology Management, 30(4), 327–349.

Malmström, M. & Wincent, J. (2012). Modeling Competence Acquisition in Small Firms. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation Management. 15, 1/2, 131–158.

Meyer, J. P. (1997). Organizational commitment. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robertson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 175–228). New York: John Wiley.

Miles, G., Preece, S. B., & Baetz, M. C. (1999). Dangers of dependence: the impact of strategic alliance use by small technology-based firms. Journal of Small Business Management, 37 , 2.

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. A. (1994). An expanded sourcebook: qualitative data analyses (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Molm, L. D., Peterson, G., & Takahashi, N. (1999). Power in negotiated and reciprocal exchange. American Sociological Review, 64 , 876–890.

Molm, L. D., Takahashi, N., & Peterson, G. (2000). Risk and trust in social exchange: an experimental test of a classical proposition. American Journal of Sociology, 105 , 1396–1427.

Mohr, J., & Speakman, R. (1994). Characteristics of partnership success: partnership attributes, communication behaviour, and conflict resolution techniques. Strategic Management Journal, 15 , 135–152.

Mouritsen, J., Larsena, H. T., & Bukhb, P. N. D. (2001). Intellectual capital and the ‘capable firm’: narrating, visualising and numbering for managing knowledge. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 26 , 735–762.

Nieto, M. J., & Santamaría, L. (2007). The importance of diverse collaborative networks for the novelty of product innovation. Technovation, 27 (6), 367–377.

NVivo software, QSR International ( http://www.qsrinternational.com/product ) Accessed 25 Nov 2015.

Osterwalder, A., & Pigneur, Y. (2004). An ontology for e-business models. In W. Currie (Ed.), Value creation from e-business models . Oxford: Butterworth-Heinermann.

Rakhmatullin, R., & Brennan, L. (2014). Facilitating innovation in European research area through pre-competitive EU-funded COST actions. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 3 , 6. http://www.innovation-entrepreneurship.com/content/3/1/6 .

Rigby, J., & Edler, J. (2005). Peering inside research networks: some observations on the effect of the intensity of collaboration on the variability of research quality. Research Policy, 34 (6), 784–794.

Spivack, R. N. (2013). Small business participation in the advanced technology program research alliances. Journal of Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 2 , 19. http://www.innovation-entrepreneurship.com/content/2/1/19 .

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: grounded theory procedures and techniques . Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Timmons, J. A. (1994). New venture creation; entrepreneurship for the 21st century . Sydney: Irwin.

Vonortas, N. S. (1997). Cooperation in research and development . Boston; Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Book   Google Scholar  

Yin, R. (2003). Case study research . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

Download references

Biographical notes

Malin Malmström is an associate professor of accounting and control at the Luleå University of Technology. Much of her research revolves around behavioral, social, and organizational aspects related to strategic actions and performance consequences. Her research interests relate to cognitive foundations, competences and experiences in entrepreneurship, and innovation.

Jeaneth Johansson is an associate professor of accounting and control at the Luleå University of Technology. Her research interests are in the field of financial decision-making, financial accounting, entrepreneurship, and innovation.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Luleå University of Technology, 97187, Luleå, Sweden

Malin M. Malmström & Jeaneth Johansson

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Malin M. Malmström .

Additional information

Competing interests.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors’ contributions

They were equally and actively involved in the design, data collection, analysis work, literature review, and writing of the article.

Malin M. Malmström and Jeaneth Johansson contributed equally to this work.

Fundamental collaboration principles

In particular, the following principles are adopted as fundamental for an efficient testbed collaboration that provides added value to European research on future networks and services.

Collaboration implies openness at all levels, including provision, implementation, and use. Concerning provision, the collaboration must be open for any testbed of the European testbed ecosystem. There are many related issues that make the implementation of openness a challenge. These include intellectual property rights (IPR), how to exchange results and what may be shared, the standardization of interfaces, common procedures, and usage policies. The implementation could be done through open source tools and open hardware design details, which would enable easy replication, interfacing, and inter-operation among various testbed components, and consequently, would increase the overall effectiveness and impact of the collaboration. Use will be open to any relevant European and worldwide initiative under fair access terms and in accordance with IPR-related rules adopted by testbed providers and users.

The collaboration principle aims for “best of breed” and must ensure excellence of the capabilities of the collaboration from various aspects. These aspects include, among others, (1) degree of innovation, (2) measurable quality or compliance to essential standards, (3) diversity, and (4) scale or geographic coverage. Criteria must be developed that allow for a transparent evaluation of excellence and the reclassification of a testbed as a commodity—and thus its removal from the collaboration.

Efficient management

Managing collaboration testbeds is complex but necessary for achieving scale, diversity, cost-efficiency, and to improve the sustainability and quality of the individual testbeds and the collaboration as a whole. The traditional network management objectives also apply to the management of collaborated testbeds. In order to provide efficient and cost-effective management of the collaborated testbeds, a dedicated entity responsible for (project) operation, including handling of all organizational issues, might be established. The operation and management of each of the testing resources assigned to the collaboration remain the responsibility of its original owner, who determines the extent/level of operating and managing the resource through the collaboration environment.

Interconnecting different testbeds belonging to different administrative domains means granting access to remote resources that are owned by different stakeholders. This has the consequence that a legal framework must be in place that governs these relations and must include the following: handling of IPR, a definition of confidentiality and trust, a process for resolving conflicts, and handling of the misuse of rights or neglected obligations. In order to lay the foundation for establishing a long-term sustainable testbed collaboration, a legal entity might prove necessary. This legal entity must manage the different relations, possibly manifested as contracts, between the stakeholders that interconnect their resources in the scope of the collaboration.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Malmström, M.M., Johansson, J. Social exchange in collaborative innovation: maker or breaker. J Innov Entrep 5 , 4 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-016-0034-z

Download citation

Received : 08 October 2015

Accepted : 08 January 2016

Published : 21 January 2016

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13731-016-0034-z

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Collaboration model
• Social facilitators
• Project failure

Communication Studies

The #1 resource for the communication field, social exchange theory.

Within the area of social psychology, Social Exchange Theory was developed to explain communication and interaction, as well as the factors governing interaction in humans. This theory has had tremendous impact on social psychology, sociology, and many other fields, including areas that initially influenced the development of the theory.

What is Social Exchange Theory?

Social Exchange Theory discusses an individual’s outcome to different social interactions by examining the exchange of resources during social interactions. These resources can be material goods and services or an exchange of social value. This theory is highly reliant on reciprocity for whatever costs are incurred by the individual.

The outcome can be calculated by subtracting the costs from the benefits. This analysis is subjective because different individuals place different values on resources, even those resources defined by a measurable system, such as currency. It should be noted that this expectation plays a large role in an individual’s analysis of the value of the outcome. This affects the individual’s social relationships because an individual anticipating a particularly high outcome will be disappointed and ultimately unsatisfied with the relationship if a smaller outcome is reached. However, an individual with a lower expectation for the outcome will not encounter this difficulty. Therefore, satisfaction can be calculated by subtracting a “comparison level” from the outcome. If the comparison level is higher than the outcome, the value for satisfaction will be negative.

For example, Steve buys Mary a pricey Christmas present which required hours of thought and scouring the mall. Come Christmas Day, Mary gives Steve a keychain she purchased from a dollar store. In this simple example of exchanges, Steve made a large investment of time and money, but the benefits received are subjectively small. For Steve, the outcome will be very small or in the negative range. His expectations were also very high, so subtracting his comparison level from the outcome results is a low level of satisfaction.

Steve is unlikely to simply sever his relationship with Mary over this particular outcome. There is also the factor of dependence to consider. Dependence is calculated by subtracting the comparison level of alternatives from the outcome. There are other individuals in the world, and Steve could form interactions and relationships with these individuals. However, these alternatives must have a higher comparison level than the outcome of interactions with Mary.

One common example of dependence occurs in exchanges for goods and services. Steve might frequent a family-owned grocery store in his small hometown. The prices are annoyingly high and the selection of products is poor, so Steve is unsatisfied with the outcome of his grocery shopping experience. However, this might be the only grocery store for miles. The only possible alternative is a gas station convenience store with an even smaller selection, so this is not a viable alternative. Steve continues to interact with the grocery store and its owners because the alternatives are not better than the outcome of his current interaction.

Overall, the Social Exchange Theory asserts that humans seek to maximize rewards with minimal costs. This is achieved through analyzing the outcome of social interactions.

The first major publication regarding Social Exchange Theory, which was entitled “The Social Psychology of Groups,” was published by John Thibault and Harold Kelley in 1952. The theory was later refined in the laboratory by two sociologists at University of Washington named Richard Emerson and Karen Cook. This work started in 1978 and continued throughout the 1980s.

Social Exchange Theory possesses the necessary qualities of a scientific theory. Predictions can be generated from applications of the theory, and new hypotheses have been created from the central ideas of the theory. Social Exchange Theory is a parsimonious effort to explain social interactions and communications. Like all scientific theories, it can be proven false.

However, Katherine Miller poses many objections to Social Exchange Theory in her 2005 publication. According to Miller, Social Exchange Theory assumes that the intimacy achieved in relationships is linear in nature, despite many relationships skipping traditional steps or regressing. Also, the theory relies on complete openness in all interactions, even though some exchanges may require less openness. The theory’s background in economic theory assumes that human exchanges are all rational processes. Lastly, Miller argued that this theory’s focus on individual outcomes does not consider cultures with group-oriented interactions.

Despite any criticism, Social Exchange Theory remains relevant within social psychology schools and continues to spawn research. With a firm background in fields such as anthropology, economics, and psychology, this theory is likely to remain an area of interest in many fields for years to come.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mlhHTdDqoBc The Social Exchange theory basically shows our need to either have our needs met or give in compliance to someone else. In this video you can see how on edge Sheldon is in order to get the right gift that will be equivalent to the gift he received. However, it can go the opposite way, if we feel we put more effort in a relationship than the other person than we are inclined to give up on the relationship. for example in this video, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nn3I6-DBLJM

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Copyright Communicationstudies.com 2022

Social Exchange Theory and Aging

• Living reference work entry
• First Online: 01 January 2016
• Cite this living reference work entry

• Wylie H. Wan 2 &
• Toni C. Antonucci 3  

2900 Accesses

5 Citations

Lifespan ; Relationship development ; Social network

Social exchange and aging is defined as the change and stability of exchanges among individuals across the lifespan.

Introduction

Social exchange theory proposes that social behavior and interactions among individuals are a result of an exchange process. This perspective suggests that the relationship between individuals is generated by the pursuit of rewards and benefits and the avoidance of costs and punishment. In this entry, social exchange theory is defined and discussed as it applies to the aging process. First, social exchange theory, which is rooted in economic, psychological, and sociological foundations, is introduced, followed by a description of how social exchanges change and develop as individuals age, why they are important, and innovative perspectives on social exchanges. Next, major psychosocial and sociodemographic factors that can influence the development of social exchanges over the life course...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

Antonucci, T. C., & Jackson, J. S. (1990). The role of reciprocity in social support. In I. G. Sarason, B. R. Sarason, & G. R. Pierce (Eds.), Social support: An interactional view (pp. 173–198). New York: Wiley.

Google Scholar  

Antonucci, T. C., Birditt, K. S., & Webster, N. J. (2010). Social relations and mortality a more nuanced approach. Journal of Health Psychology, 15 (5), 649–659.

Article   Google Scholar  

Antonucci, T. C., Birditt, K. S., & Ajrouch, K. (2011). Convoys of social relations: Past, present, and future. In K. L. Fingerman, C. A. Berg, J. Smith, & T. C. Antonucci (Eds.), Handbook of lifespan development (pp. 161–182). New York: Springer.

Bengtson, V. L., & Kuypers, J. A. (1971). Generational difference and the developmental stake. Aging & Human Development, 2 (1), 249–260.

Birditt, K. S., Hartnett, C. S., Fingerman, K. L., Zarit, S. H., & Antonucci, T. C. (2015). Extending the intergenerational stake hypothesis: Evidence of an intra-individual stake and implications for well-being. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 77 (4), 877–888.

Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life . New Brunswick, NJ:Transaction Publishers.

Bradley, D. E., & Van Willigen, M. (2010). Migration and psychological well-being among older adults: A growth curve analysis based on panel data from the health and retirement study, 1996–2006. Journal of Aging and Health, 22 (7), 882–913.

Carstensen, L. L., Fung, H. H., & Charles, S. T. (2003). Socioemotional selectivity theory and the regulation of emotion in the second half of life. Motivation and Emotion, 27 (2), 103–123.

Cozijnsen, R., Stevens, N. L., & van Tilburg, T. G. (2010). Maintaining work-related personal ties following retirement. Personal Relationships, 17 (3), 345–356.

Dowd, J. J. (1975). Aging as exchange: A preface to theory. Journal of Gerontology, 30 (5), 584–594.

Emerson, R. M. (1976). Social exchange theory. Annual Review of Sociology, 2, 335–362.

Fung, H. H., Yeung, D. Y., Li, K. K., & Lang, F. R. (2009). Benefits of negative social exchanges for emotional closeness. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 64 (5), 612–621.

Ha, J. H. (2008). Changes in support from confidants, children, and friends following widowhood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 70 (2), 306–318.

Homans, G. C. (1958). Social behavior as exchange. The American Journal of Sociology, 63, 597–606.

Kawachi, I., & Berkman, L. F. (2001). Social ties and mental health. Journal of Urban Health, 78 (3), 458–467.

Luo, Y., Hawkley, L. C., Waite, L. J., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2012). Loneliness, health, and mortality in old age: A national longitudinal study. Social Science and Medicine, 74 (6), 907–914.

Ryan, L. H., Wan, W. H., & Smith, J. (2014). Spousal social support and strain: Impacts on health in older couples. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 37 (6), 1108–1117.

Silverstein, M., Conroy, S. J., Wang, H., Giarrusso, R., & Bengtson, V. L. (2002). Reciprocity in parent–child relations over the adult life course. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57 (1), S3–S13.

Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. (1959). The social psychology of groups . New York: Wiley.

Uchino, B. N. (2006). Social support and health: A review of physiological processes potentially underlying links to disease outcomes. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29 (4), 377–387.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA

Wylie H. Wan

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Toni C. Antonucci

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Wylie H. Wan .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

Nancy A. Pachana

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer Science+Business Media Singapore

About this entry

Cite this entry.

Wan, W.H., Antonucci, T.C. (2016). Social Exchange Theory and Aging. In: Pachana, N. (eds) Encyclopedia of Geropsychology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-080-3_285-1

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-080-3_285-1

Received : 05 April 2016

Accepted : 05 April 2016

Published : 25 April 2016

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Online ISBN : 978-981-287-080-3

eBook Packages : Springer Reference Social Sciences Reference Module Humanities and Social Sciences Reference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

To read this content please select one of the options below:

Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, illuminating the principles of social exchange theory with hawthorne studies.

Journal of Management History

ISSN : 1751-1348

Article publication date: 21 November 2018

Issue publication date: 29 January 2019

The purpose of this paper is to suggest Homans’ social exchange theory (SET), a management theory, as an explanation for some of the findings of some of the Hawthorne experiments (1924-1933), which demonstrated how social situations play an important role in task performance and productivity and how social exchanges can facilitate it. The authors also use SET to investigate Elton Mayo’s inquiry as to what caused spontaneous cooperation in Hawthorne.

Design/methodology/approach

The authors used a combination of published work by Homans, Roethlisberger and Dickson, Mayo and others, as well as oral histories conducted by Greenwood and Bolton in 1982-1984, to argue that some of the Hawthorne studies illustrate the principles of SET. Homans’ SET brought together concepts from multiple disciplines and offered a framework to explain social behaviors.

The relay assembly room and the bank wiring tests of Hawthorne studies can illustrate SET as developed by Homans. With the development of SET, Homans not only provided explanations for the creation of strong feelings of affiliation and trust through interactions and mutual dependence between group members but also provided evidence to Mayo’s concept of spontaneous collaboration.

Research limitations/implications

The limitations of the paper are that the studies themselves can lend themselves to multiple perspectives due to design flaws. Therefore, our argument is only one interpretation – even if it is something that the researchers would have supported.

Originality/value

The paper augments the ongoing discussion about the Hawthorne studies in the literature and in the development of management theories such as SET. The authors provide support that it is through the attempts to explain the Hawthorne studies and the post-Second World War controversies over the studies that Homans developed social exchange. Building on previous work, the methods show perspectives beyond the motivations and sentiments of Homans by demonstrating observable behaviors from the Hawthorne studies.

• Social exchange theory
• George Homans
• Hawthorne studies

Zoller, Y.J. and Muldoon, J. (2019), "Illuminating the principles of social exchange theory with Hawthorne studies", Journal of Management History , Vol. 25 No. 1, pp. 47-66. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMH-05-2018-0026

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2018, Emerald Publishing Limited

Related articles

We’re listening — tell us what you think, something didn’t work….

Report bugs here

All feedback is valuable

Please share your general feedback

Join us on our journey

Platform update page.

Visit emeraldpublishing.com/platformupdate to discover the latest news and updates

Questions & More Information

Answers to the most commonly asked questions here

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• My Account Login
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 13 May 2024

The influence of rural tourism landscape perception on tourists’ revisit intentions—a case study in Nangou village, China

• Yuxiao Kou 1 &
• Xiaojie Xue 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  620 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

1 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Environmental studies

Rural tourism development has an important impact on optimizing the rural industrial structure and stimulating local economic growth. China’s Rural Revitalization Strategy has promoted the development of rural tourism nationwide and emphasized Chinese characteristics in the process of local development. Based on the theoretical analysis of landscape perception, this article uses the external Landscape Perception→Satisfaction→Revisit Intention influence path as a theoretical research framework to construct a structural equation model to analyze the willingness of tourists to revisit rural tourism destinations. We selected Nangou Village, Yan’an City, Shaanxi Province, as a key model village for rural revitalization, and conducted an empirical analysis. The empirical analysis results show that landscape perception has a significant positive impact on satisfaction and revisit intention. Tourist satisfaction has a significant positive impact on revisit intention and plays an intermediary role between landscape perception and revisit intention. The five dimensions of natural ecology, historical culture, leisure recreation, research experience, and integral route under landscape perception are all significantly positively correlated with revisit intention, with historical culture and integral route having the greatest impact on landscape perception. The survey about Nangou Village verifies the relationship between landscape perception, satisfaction, and tourists’ revisit intention. Based on the objective data analysis results, this study puts forward suggestions for optimizing Nangou Village’s tourism landscapes and improving tourists’ willingness to revisit from three aspects: deeply excavating rural historical and cultural resources, shaping the national red culture brand, and creating rural tourism boutique routes. It is hoped that the quantitative research method of landscape perception theory in Nangou Village can also provide a reference and inspiration for similar rural tourism planning.

Similar content being viewed by others

Impact of ecological presence in virtual reality tourism on enhancing tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior

Evaluating the potential of suburban and rural areas for tourism and recreation, including individual short-term tourism under pandemic conditions

A geographical perspective on the formation of urban nightlife landscape

Introduction.

Rural tourism, which originated in Europe in the mid-19th century (He, 2003 ), has constructed a new type of urban–rural relationship—the attachment of the cities to the countryside and the integration of the countryside with the city (Liu, 2018 ). In the 1990s, with the continuous improvement of China’s urbanization level, rural tourism began to rise in response to the demand for returning to nature and simplicity (Guo and Han, 2010 ). The main body of rural tourism (i.e., the main target) is urban residents, and its object is a combination of enjoying the agricultural ecological environment, agricultural production activities, and traditional folk customs. These are presented through tourism industry planning and landscape product design, which is based on the unique production, life, and ecological resources in the countryside, and integrates sightseeing, participation, leisure, vacation, recuperation, entertainment, shopping, and other tourism activities (Zhang, 2006 ).

Rural tourism development is of great significance for optimizing the industrial structure in rural areas, realizing the linked development of primary, secondary, and tertiary industries, increasing farmers’ income, stimulating rural economic development, and accelerating the integration of urban and rural areas (Lu et al., 2019 ). Since the implementation of the Rural Revitalization Strategy, China has taken increasing rural tourism as one of the important ways to achieve it (Yin and Li, 2018 ) and has launched construction projects nationwide.

Rural tourism in China started with self-organized agritainment, with farming experiences and sightseeing leisure as the main projects (Guo et al., 2000 ). Early studies have found that rural tourism projects embodying regional characteristics, folklore, and participatory farming activities present stronger competitive advantages in terms of higher rates of tourists’ participation and revisit rates (Wang et al., 2005 ). In the process of the “localization” of rural tourism in China, rural tourism has undergone a top-down evolution. Since the central government’s comprehensive deployment of new rural construction in 2006, national departments and local governments have issued a series of policies to promote the development of rural tourism, leisure agriculture, and culture, which have promoted the prosperity of diversified, high-quality, and distinctive practices of rural tourism nationwide (Ma et al., 2007 ). The rural revitalization strategy is a crucial national policy at present in China, driving various initiatives such as the construction of beautiful countryside and the development of the rural tourism industry. This policy has given rise to trends like the inheritance of local culture, the promotion of green ecological concepts, and the integration of industries. However, there are still challenges encountered, such as the homogenization in tourism development and the necessity to coordinate the development of industries, culture, ecology, and economy. Under the policy guidance of developing the agricultural economy and revitalizing national culture, China has explored rural tourism landscape products that fit the national cultural context and market demand of the country. Its characteristics are mainly reflected at two levels: First, it focuses on the integration of ethnic and regional cultural perspectives. Rural tourism planning focuses on identifying geographical cultural aspects (Sun et al., 2008 ), integrating traditional Chinese red culture and local characteristics (Huang, 2003 ) into tourism landscape products, and creating Chinese cultural brands. Second, we should focus on upgrading traditional sightseeing, farming, folk customs, and leisure tourism projects, develop in-depth experiential research projects, and create a comprehensive boutique tourism route (Chen et al., 2021 ).

With the prosperity of rural tourism, the related research has gradually increased. Zhai ( 2015 ) pointed out that unique cultural and geographical landscapes are not only objects that should be emphasized and protected in the construction of the countryside but also important resources for the development of rural tourism. Zhang and Wang ( 2018 ) believed that the essence of rural tourism is the cultural experience of tourists in the countryside. Chen ( 2020 ) studied the “local sentiment” from an anthropological perspective as an important factor in promoting the development of China’s rural tourism market. Xu and Tang ( 2016 ) argued that local characteristics are essential for rural landscape construction, proposing the planning and construction strategy of “livability, suitability for industry, suitability for tourism, and suitability for culture”. Shi ( 2021 ) pointed out the significance of ecological esthetics theory to the planning and design of rural tourism landscapes and proposed the strategy of integrating local characteristics with ecological features and improving the ecosystems through artistic techniques. Most of the research has focused on the development and upgrading strategies of Chinese rural tourism landscapes from the supply-side perspective but lacks studies on what kind of experience and value tourists expect from the demand-side perspective, and the research methods lack scientific quantitative analyses.

Satisfaction and revisit intention are used to evaluate the perception and experience of rural landscapes, which directly reflect tourists’ actual feelings about the resource endowment, operational management effectiveness, social and cultural environment, and rural landscape planning in the area (Zhang et al., 2014 ). Landscape perception emphasizes the mutual influence of tourists’ perception of the tourism environment (Echtner and Ritchie, 1993 ), recognition of the location (Middleton and Hawkins, 1998 ), preferences (Zhang et al., 2017 ), and other aspects, while the revisit intention reflects tourists’ willingness to experience an activity again (Xu et al., 2014 ). Strengthening tourists’ revisit intention in rural tourism is of great significance for stabilizing and increasing rural income and promoting sustainable development in rural areas. It is an important measure of whether the quality and style of rural areas have been improved and whether rural revitalization has been promoted (Li et al., 2022 ). Therefore, based on the objective data analysis results of tourists’ perception and satisfaction with rural tourism landscapes and their revisit intention, we can objectively and reasonably propose upgrading and optimization strategies for rural landscapes. The relationship diagram is shown in Fig. 1 .

The figure illustrates the interaction between subject and object in rural tourism.

This study selected Nangou Village in Yan’an City, Shaanxi Province, as the research object. Based on the construction of traditional rural tourism facilities, Nangou Village has developed a certain number of distinctive tourism products that integrate production, learning, and research based on the Ansai folk culture and revolutionary humanistic resources in the region. However, as a key model village in China’s rural revitalization strategy, Nangou Village is still exploring a new round of optimization and upgrading. On the basis of the theory of landscape perception and a demonstrated impact mechanism between landscape perception and satisfaction, as well as revisit intention, combined with the perception results, this article proposes feasible strategies for the planning, design, and optimization of the tourism industry in Nangou Village.

Theoretical foundation

Landscape perception theory.

Landscape perception theory originated in the 1950s and is an independent theory developed for environmental psychology research. It combines the research paradigms and methods of environmental psychology and human geography (Deng, 2006 ) and aims to study people’s preferences (Guo et al., 2004 ), perception (Crompton, 1979 ; Fan et al., 2014 ), and satisfaction levels (Tribe and Snaith, 1998 ; Chi and Qu, 2008 ) of the objective environment. Ervin Zube et al. ( 1982 ) integrated the existing research paradigms of landscape perception—expert paradigm, psychophysical paradigm, cognitive paradigm, and empirical paradigm—and further proposed a theoretical model to unify humans, landscapes, and the results of their interaction into a closed loop. Landscape perception is essentially a process in which the human brain acquires environmental information through the sensory systems and then processes it (Purcell, 1987 ). In the interactive relationship between people and landscapes, the landscape is the perceived object while people are the main subjects of the environmental perception. The perception of landscapes is related to individual differences, involving experiences, memories, cognitive level, and social–cultural backgrounds (Qin, 2022 ; Cosgrove, 1984 ).

Based on subjective feelings and psychological evaluations of the surrounding environment, landscape perception further affects individuals’ emotions and environmental behaviors. An emotional state is a psychological product of individuals’ acceptance of external stimuli, combined with their own experiences and cognition, which is an important driving force that can promote individuals’ interactive behavioral responses. Motloch ( 2000 ) proposed that landscape perception will also generate emotional load after observation, recognition, and meaning attribution. Song ( 2013 ) summarizes it as a process of landscape stimulation, generation of feelings, sublimation of cognition, and emotional response. For such emotional reactions, scholars commonly use satisfaction and place identity to measure the positive affective state generated by landscape perception (Baker and Crompton, 2000 ). Behavioral responses are subjective reactions of people to approach or avoid external stimuli, which are especially influenced by their emotional state (Bitner, 1992 ; Mehrabian and Russell, 1974 ). Gobster ( 2008 ) argues that landscape perception is reflected both in cognitive and emotional aspects and that landscape preferences and emotional experiences can affect environmental behavior. Ostoić et al. ( 2017 ) believe that landscape perception emphasizes the mutual influence of tourists’ perceptions, recognition, preferences, and other aspects of the tourism environment, which can directly reflect the effectiveness of the tourism environment’s planning and design, and thus affect tourists’ behavior. In short, there are interactions between landscape environmental stimuli, emotional states, and behavioral responses, and landscape perception has a significant impact on an individual’s sense of environmental responsibility, environmental protection intention, and intention to revisit a destination (Wu et al., 2019 ).

Landscape perception and satisfaction, revisit intention

Satisfaction is a comprehensive feeling experienced by tourists during and after visiting a tourist destination (Chon, 1989 ). It can be an evaluation of a single dimension such as landscape products, tourism services, transportation accessibility, etc., or a comprehensive measure of overall satisfaction in multiple dimensions (Cole and Scott, 2004 ; Sailesh et al., 2023 ). Among them, the physical landscape environment is one of the most important dimensions that affects overall satisfaction (Chi and Qu, 2009 ). Oliver ( 1980 ) proposed the “expectation discrepancy model”, which refers to the process in which tourists form certain expectations based on their previous experiences before traveling, and then compare their expectations with their actual feelings during the travel process to determine their level of satisfaction. If the expectations are met, the tourists are satisfied; otherwise, they are not. The tourism landscape studied in this article is an important component in the study of tourist destination satisfaction, which directly affects the tourists’ selection of tourist destinations, consumption of tourism products and services, and willingness to revisit.

Behavioral intention is the result of rational cognitive processing of situational information by tourists, resulting from psychological comparison and judgment (perception value or satisfaction). In the existing research, tourists’ behavioral intentions are often described as tourists’ recommendation behavior and revisiting intention. Revisit intention refers to the behavioral intention of tourists to visit the destination again in the future (Hung and Petrick, 2011 ). Chen proposed that revisit intention should include two levels of behavioral intention: the intention of the tourists themselves to revisit this place, and the intention to recommend this place to their acquaintances. Xiu, on this basis, included whether tourists would prioritize this attraction in their travel choices into the evaluation indexes of revisit intention (Guo, 2016 ). In addition, some scholars have demonstrated that destination image perception, especially landscape perception, is a direct driver of tourists’ recommendation behavior and intention (Chew and Jahari, 2013 ; Nisco et al., 2015 ; Prayag et al., 2017 ), and satisfaction with the tourism destination is one of the strongest factors affecting revisiting behavior (Campo-Martínez et al., 2010 ; Humagain and Singleton, 2021 ).

In summary, the relationship between landscape perception, satisfaction, and revisit intention has been demonstrated in relevant studies. In spite of this, it remains necessary to further the research on the influence paths of these three factors. For example, Xu et al. ( 2023 ) took the Qilian Village landscape renovation project as the subject of a case study to identify users’ perceptions of landscape characteristics through structural equation modeling. Although they explored the impact of landscape perception on satisfaction, no further study was conducted on users’ behavioral intentions via the influence paths. Similarly, Qu et al. ( 2023 ), referring to the ancient villages in southern Anhui as an example, explored the path to high-quality development of rural tourism from the perspective of the authenticity of rural landscapes. Despite the SPSS data analysis conducted to verify the positive correlation between satisfaction and revisit intention, they ignored the optimization strategies of landscape as the carrier of tourism, which thus affects the applicability of this research. Additionally, in China, there are few papers that quantitatively present tourists’ landscape demands and support planning strategies, with most research focusing on the subjective discussions of tourism landscape planning strategies from the perspective of the supply side. In conclusion, it remains imperative to conduct further research on the strategies of optimizing the design of rural tourism landscapes based on a complete demonstration of the influence paths of landscape perception, satisfaction, and revisit intention, with the results of quantitative data analysis as guidance.

Research hypotheses

Landscape perception theory has been widely applied in tourism-related research and has gradually permeated into the research on rural tourism landscapes (Yang et al., 2022 ; Fan, 2020 ). The rural tourism landscape studied in this article, perceived as a physical environment, usually includes rural ecological landscapes, authentic historical and cultural landscapes, agricultural leisure and entertainment facilities, and experiential red revolutionary landscapes, and it also involves diachronic overall tourism routes.

Some scholars have explored the rationality of the path mechanism of the landscape perception–satisfaction–revisit intention in related studies, and they used the relevant results as a strategic basis for optimizing the development of rural tourism. For example, Acharya et al. ( 2023 ) showed that the better the tourism ecological environment is, the higher the satisfaction and revisit intention of tourists are, and the path from the ecological environment to the revisit intention of tourists needs to be connected by satisfaction. Geng et al. ( 2010 ) analyzed and demonstrated the positive impact of rural natural landscape satisfaction and sightseeing route satisfaction on tourists’ revisit intention using logistic model analysis. Queiroz ( 2017 ) found that cultural experiences can better reflect the authenticity of rural areas, and tourist satisfaction can be improved through the enhancement of cultural facilities, thereby promoting tourists’ willingness to revisit. Yang et al. ( 2022 ) believe that developing recreational activities with rural characteristics can stimulate tourists’ interest and participation, thereby enhancing their satisfaction and willingness to return. Zhou et al. ( 2016 ) posited that recreational facilities and entertainment activities are both important factors that attract tourists to choose rural tourism; in addition, a higher attractiveness of the tourism landscape increases the satisfaction of tourists, creating a greater impact on revisit intention.

Some scholars have further proposed and demonstrated that satisfaction plays a mediating role in the impact path of tourists’ landscape perception on their revisit intention. For example, Kim et al. ( 2013 ) conducted a survey in rural areas and found that satisfaction plays an intermediary role between tourists’ rural image perception and tourists’ revisit intention.Tu et al. ( 2017 )proposed that the internal mechanism of tourists’ behavioral intentions based on destination image perception may be achieved through the mediating effect of positive emotions such as satisfaction. Meng ( 2018 ) argued that in rural tourism, rural landscapes, and related service facilities are important manifestations of rurality, which affect tourists’ satisfaction with their travel experience and indirectly affect their revisit intention.

In summary, this study took Nangou Village as a research sample to explore the influence mechanism between rural tourism landscape perception and its associated satisfaction and revisit intention, and the following hypotheses were made (Fig. 2 ).

The figure presents the hypothesized relationship between the three variables.

Hypothesis 1 (H1) . Rural tourism landscape perception will positively affect the overall satisfaction of rural tourism.

Hypothesis 2 (H2) . Rural tourism landscape perception will positively affect the rural tourism revisit intention.

Hypothesis 3 (H3) . Rural tourism satisfaction will positively affect the rural tourism revisit intention.

Hypothesis 4 (H4) . Satisfaction will act as a mediator in the relationship between rural tourism landscape perception and revisit intention.

Study design

Nangou Village, the research object of this study, is located in Gaoqiao Town, Ansai District, Yan’an City, Shaanxi Province, China, covering approximately 1716 hectares with seven natural villages under its jurisdiction, which are typical loess hilly villages (Fig. 3 ). As a key model village for rural revitalization, Nangou Village has a good natural ecological foundation and abundant agricultural and regional culture resources and has achieved preliminary linkages between the primary, secondary, and tertiary industries. In the first rural tourism development, Nangou Village built the Nangou Paradise for sightseeing and its supporting facilities, the Nangou Soil and Water Conservation Demonstration Park of Ansai District of Yan’an City, and the Agricultural Picking Experience Park, the red military camps based on Yan’an Red Culture, and various characteristic landscape pieces under the influence of Ansai’s unique regional culture, which form a comprehensive cultural tourism village. With the deepening of rural revitalization in China, Nangou Village will serve as a key area for the Ansai District to build a five-billion-level cultural tourism industry cluster, further expanding and upgrading the existing tourism landscape facilities. Therefore, this article aims to propose a scientific strategy for the upgrading and transformation of Nangou Village through subjective evaluation methods.

The figure presents the geographic location of the Nangou village.

Evaluation index construction

Based on the analysis and organization of the existing literature and the construction of the theoretical framework mentioned earlier, this study constructed evaluation indicators for three variables: landscape perception, satisfaction, and revisit intention (Table 1 ).

LP—The research on rural tourism landscape perception is not yet perfect; this study tentatively divided the LP scale into five dimensions on the basis of previous research and combined with a review of the literature. Among them, the Natural Ecology sub-dimension involves the evaluation of the rural landscape’s pastoral characteristics, the quality of the ecological environment, and the integration of landscape facilities and natural ecology (Xie et al., 2002 ; Marianna et al., 2023 ). The Historical Culture sub-dimension involves the evaluation of the regional history and culture of the rural tourism landscapes, the recognizability of the cultural symbols, and the authenticity of the cultural preservation (Huang et al., 2015 ). The Leisure Recreation sub-dimension involves the evaluation of the suitability, attractiveness, and abundance of recreational facilities in rural tourism landscapes (Yuan, 2017 ). The Research Experience sub-dimension involves the evaluation of the attractiveness, abundance, brand value, and impressiveness of the research experiences for tourists (Fan and Liu, 2016 ; Wang and Wang, 2010 ; Huang et al., 2018 ). The Integral Route sub-dimension involves the evaluation of the prominent theme features in the routes, an abundance of scenarios and experiences, and the attractiveness of the integral route (Li, 2003 ; Yan, 2021 ).

SA—This is the evaluation of whether the overall quality and experience of the rural tourism landscapes meet expectations. Here, the overall satisfaction, expectation, and competitiveness of rural tourism landscape quality and experience are used as the evaluation indexes (Chen, 2012 ; Wang et al., 2005 ).

RI—This is the evaluation of tourists’ loyalty to rural tourism destinations, with loyalty, willingness to revisit, and recommendation behavior as the evaluation indexes (Wang et al., 2006 ; Stylos et al., 2015 ).

Questionnaire design and collection

The questionnaire was designed in four parts. The first part covers the demographic characteristics, including gender, age, education level, and occupation. The second part is the evaluation of cultural image perception, while the third part is the evaluation of environmental design, and the fourth part is the evaluation of place perception. The items in these last three parts corresponded to the evaluation indexes shown in Tables 2 – 4 , respectively, and a 5-point Likert scale was used to rank the perception level.

In November 2022, the study conducted a field survey in Nangou village, complemented by an online questionnaire from November 15, 2022, through September 12, 2023. The introduction section of the questionnaire included the research objectives, the anticipated societal benefits, and the scope of information that would be collected. Before proceeding, participants were asked to review this introduction; their agreement to participate was taken as informed consent. In total, the study received 344 valid responses, serving as the sample data. The sample size satisfies the requirements for structural equation modeling that a desirable sample size should be over 200, with at least ten responses correlating to each variable under observation (Barrett, 2007 ).

Quantitative analysis methods

The data were analyzed using SPSS (version 27.0) and AMOS 27.0. Frequency analysis of the demographic characteristics and reliability analysis were conducted.

In this study, structural equation modeling (SEM) was used as the core method, and the three concepts of landscape perception, satisfaction, and revisit intention were set as latent variables, and SEM was utilized to verify the hypotheses on the relationship between the three aspects. First, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was introduced to test whether the relationship between the factors and the corresponding measurement items was as expected, and to further revise the relationship model between the latent variables and the indicator question items and between the indicator question items (Li and Chen, 2010 ). Second, the interaction mechanism between the latent variables was analyzed by SEM to verify or falsify the research hypotheses (Gu et al., 2022 ). Finally, the bootstrap method was used to validate and analyze the indirect effects (Wen and Ye, 2014 ).

Results analysis

Demographic variables and statistical results of travel characteristics.

Using SPSS software to analyze the demographic characteristics of the 354 questionnaires, the sample was found to be well-balanced in terms of gender. The age distribution was broad and predominantly consisted of young and middle-aged people. The occupational status covered various fields, while most respondents had received middle and higher levels of education. The middle-income group accounted for a larger proportion of the sample, which is a good representation of the population (Fig. 4 ).

The figure presents the statistical results of the demographic variables for the 354 questionnaires.

The survey results showed that tourists preferred to choose research experience and historical culture landscape projects at the destination, followed by natural ecology and leisure recreation. In terms of tour length and size, tourists who chose one-day and two-person tours accounted for most of the tourists, and very few tourists chose multiday tours. The majority of tourists who came to this destination came as a unit, and the least frequent response was as individual tourists. The majority of tourists visited this village for the first time, and the number of tourists choosing to revisit the place again was very few (Fig. 5 ).

The figure presents the statistical results of the travel characteristics for the 354 questionnaires.

Reliability analysis results

In this study, the latent variables were tested using Cronbach’s α (Table 2 ), which showed that the Cronbach’s α values of landscape perception, satisfaction, and revisit intention were 0.898, 0.803, and 0.845, respectively, and the scales’ overall Cronbach’s α value was 0.913. The Cronbach’s α values of the sub-dimensions under landscape perception ranged from 0.805 to 0.863, which are all greater than 0.8. In summary, the reliability test coefficients of each sub-dimension scale exceed 0.7, which indicates that the internal consistency of the data was good (Eisinga et al., 2013 ).

Latent variable evaluation results

As shown in Fig. 6 , the overall average landscape perception score was 3.748, which is close to a good level. Comparing the average evaluation score, the five latent variables can be ranked as NE > HC > RE > LR > IR, with scores of 3.976, 3.906, 3.889, 3.836, and 3.826, respectively. The overall average score for satisfaction was 3.625, between average and satisfactory. The overall average score for revisit intention was 3.452, between average and willing, but not reaching the desired level.

The figure presents the statistical results of the latent variable average scores. NE Natural Ecology, HC Historical Culture, LR Leisure Recreation, RE Research Experience, IR Integral Route, LP Landscape Perception, SA Satisfaction, RI Revisit Intention.

This study examined the relationship between the latent and observed variables in the measurement model through CFA to determine the reasonableness of the scale construction by convergent and discriminant validity. For convergent validity, there are usually three discriminating criteria: (1) standardized factor loadings are all greater than 0.5 (Bailey and Ball, 2006 ); (2) average variance extracted (AVE) is greater than 0.5 (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988 ); and (3) composite reliability (CR) is greater than 0.7 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981 ). Satisfying the above criteria indicates good convergent validity. As shown in Table 3 , the standardized factor loading ranged from 0.686 to 0.891, which meets the criterion of greater than 0.5. The minimum value of CR was greater than 0.8, which is greater than the threshold value of 0.7, and the AVEs were all greater than 0.5, which indicates that the scale has a good convergent validity.

For discriminant validity, if the correlation coefficients between a factor and the other factors are all less than the square root of its AVE value, it indicates good discriminant validity between the factors (Hair et al., 2010 ). As shown in Table 4 , the correlation coefficients between landscape perception and the two factors of its sub-dimension are only slightly larger than the square root of the AVE, and the square root of the AVE values of the rest of the factors is higher than the correlation coefficients between the factor and the other factors, which indicates that the present scale has good discriminant validity.

Theoretical model validation

Under the premise of ensuring the reliability and validity of the measurement model, structural modeling was further performed to verify the hypothesized relationships among the three variables of landscape perception, satisfaction, and revisit intention. First, the results of model fit showed that CMID/DF = 1.097, GFI = 0.949, AGFI = 0.936, CFI = 0.995, TLI (NNFI) = 0.994, RMSEA = 0.017, and SRMR = 0.037 (Table 5 ), and all the indexes were in line with the standard, which indicated that the model had a good fit (Hayduk, 1987 ; Scott and Willits, 1994 ).

This study further used AMOS 27 to establish a structural model and measure the causal relationships between the three latent variables, LP, SA, and RI. As shown in Table 6 and Fig. 7 , (1) Landscape perception has a positive and significant effect on Satisfaction, with a path coefficient of 0.559 ( P  < 0.001); (2) Landscape perception has a positive and significant effect on Revisit Intention, with a path coefficient of 0.434 ( P  < 0.001); and (3) Landscape Satisfaction had a positive and significant effect on Revisit Intention, with a path coefficient of 0.377 ( P  < 0.001) (Cabrera-Nguyen, 2010 ). This proves that hypotheses H1, H2, and H3 are supported.

NE Natural Ecology, HC Historical Culture, LR Leisure Recreation, RE Research Experience, IR Integral Route, LP Landscape Perception, SA Satisfaction, RI Revisit Intention.

Mediation analysis of satisfaction

This study adopted the bootstrap method suggested by McKinnom to test the possible mediating effect of SA in the relationship between LP and RI, and the bootstrap sample size was set at 5000 (MacKinnon et al., 2002 ). Usually, if the bootstrap confidence interval does not contain 0, then the corresponding indirect, direct, or total effect exists (MacKinnon et al., 2004 ). The test results show that at a 95% confidence level, the confidence interval of indirect effect was [0.141, 0.314], the confidence interval of direct effect was [0.456, 0.755], and the confidence interval of total effect was [0.682, 0.961], which all exclude 0, indicating that the indirect effect exists, and the ratio of the indirect effect was 0.27. The results of the mediation test support hypothesis H4 (Table 7 ).

Discussion and recommendations

Coupling relationship among lp, sa, and ri.

This study established a hypothesis model based on the a priori theory of the influencing relationship between Landscape Perception→Satisfaction→Revisit Intention, and explored and confirmed the influence paths of LP on SA and RI with Nangou Village as the research object. In the SEM results, the coefficient of LP’s influence path on SA was 0.559, and the coefficient of LP’s influence path on RI was 0.434. LP influences tourists’ revisit intention to the destination through the overall satisfaction of the tourist landscapes, which confirms that the landscape quality and experience of the destination is an important influencing factor that affects tourists’ satisfaction, which then enhances tourists’ revisit intention. This result is consistent with that of many previous studies, such as those conducted by Cao ( 2019 ) and Li ( 2022 ), in which quantitative analysis is conducted under different contexts to investigate the influence paths of landscape perception. Their research also confirms that tourists’ perception of the landscape contributes to enhancing satisfaction and revisiting intention. At present, the intention to revisit Nangou Village has not reached the desired level. Based on the LP → SA → RI influence path, this study concludes that it is necessary to upgrade the tourism landscapes as a whole in the new round of rural tourism planning, to effectively improve the attractiveness of the destination from the environmental level.

Coupling relationship among LP and its sub-variables

Different from previous studies, we defined LP as a second-order variable containing five sub-dimensions: natural ecology, historical culture, leisure recreation, research experience, and integral route. The fitted data showed that the five sub-variables were an accurate representation of the LP structure. In the results of the structural equation, all five latent variables involved in the LP dimension showed significant positive correlations with LP ( P  < 0.01), and the influence path was IR > HC > LR > NE > RE. In the correlation analysis, IR, HC, LR, RE, and IR also showed significant positive correlations with revisit intention, with correlation coefficients in the order of NE > IR > HC > LR > RE (Table S1 ), and the correlation coefficients in the order of IR > LR > LR > RE (Table 2 ). All of these results emphasize the important influence of historical culture and integral route on landscape perception and revisit intention. In the actual evaluation of landscape perception, the evaluation results of the five sub-dimensions did not reach a satisfactory level; therefore, in order to further increase the revisit intention of the destination, it is necessary to upgrade the landscapes of Nangou Village in all dimensions as a whole, and in particular, it should focus on upgrading the historical culture, the integral routes, as well as the facilities of the research experience that tourists are more inclined to choose.

Recommendations

Deeply excavating rural historical and cultural resources.

Rural tourism itself is a large-scale cultural exchange; any tourism product or tourism mode has its own cultural connotation, which is a necessary condition to attract tourism (Li and Wang, 1999 ). Rural culture is both productive and fragile; therefore, cultural protection and inheritance in rural tourism development is essential. Emphasizing the characteristic regional culture can not only improve the visibility, dissemination, and attractiveness of rural tourism destinations, but also enhance the vitality, efficiency, and effectiveness of rural development. The rural landscapes are both the end product of rural tourism and the carrier of rural culture. Based on the principle of protecting the authenticity of rural culture, integrating the elements of native culture into the tourism landscape designs of traditional villages and optimizing the tourism content is conducive to strengthening the attractiveness of traditional villages to tourists (Sun and Zhang, 2020 ). The results of the survey on the preference of tourism types in Nangou Village show that the historical culture and landscapes are popular aspects. Meanwhile, the SEM model results show that historical culture is an important factor influencing tourists’ revisit intention. Therefore, future tourism planning in Nangou Village should strengthen the development of vernacular cultural landscapes and highlight its own distinct characteristics. The tourism landscapes developed in the first round in Nangou Village have problems such as low cultural taste and inconspicuous characteristics. The new tourism planning for Nangou Village should sufficiently mobilize the regional cultural resources of the Ansai District, utilizing the region’s primitive village landscapes and folk cultural resources to create a rich “composite vernacular complex” type of landscape facilities. For example, we could introduce traditional activities such as horse riding, cattle riding, and Paper Cuttings with Ansai characteristics to the local culture experience hall; renovate cave dwelling homestays with distinctive Shaanxi characteristics; and integrate agricultural and folk activities such as tasting farmhouse meals and picking agricultural products into the homestay experience. In summary, the new tourism landscape should showcase the inherent qualities of Nangou Village, such as locality, authenticity, and humanity, from four aspects: food, housing, transportation, and work.

Shaping the National Red Culture Brand

Red cultural resources, as the Chinese excellent culture refined during the revolutionary era, play a prominent role in enhancing national self-confidence and building a strong nation. Meanwhile, the red tourism industry, which inherits and carries forward the red culture, has also become a unique path in China’s rural revitalization (Liu, 2020 ). The purpose of rural red tourism is to jointly develop traditional green ecological resources and red resources with humanistic characteristics. Through the development model of red and green integration, we can carry forward the narrative and dissemination power of the red spirit concept. At the same time, based on the comprehensive development of red tourism routes, sites, events, symbols, and other resources, we can enhance the popularity of rural tourism brands, expand market entities, and attract more visitors (Hong, 2021 ). Nangou Village is located in the red Yan’an revolutionary hometown, which occupies a place in China’s revolutionary history. In the first round of development, Nangou Village built red culture experience facilities, mainly serving units with red education and training needs in the surrounding areas. However, Nangou Village has insufficient scheduling of classic resources such as red sites, red stories, red history, and red characters, and has not established a more competitive and penetrating red tourism culture brand that serves a comprehensive audience. Therefore, we suggest that Nangou Village expand the scale of red travel facilities, create multi-dimensional red tourism experience scenarios, enhance the cultural connotation of red tourism scenic spots, and create educational and training routes with prominent themes of the red spirit. In addition, rural culture, red tourism resources, and natural ecological resources should be integrated under specific local conditions, for example, temperature-controlled greenhouses, characteristic agricultural planting, folk culture experiences, and other projects around the red tourism areas can be incorporated. This is conducive to enhancing the “red tourism integration” brand effect for its greater influence on surrounding facilities. Therefore, the connection between the cultural dimension and tourists’ perception of landscapes can be reinforced. In turn, it enhances the favorability and visibility of the “Red Yan’an” brand, which gives full play to its economic potential while promoting the inheritance of red cultural genes.

Creating rural tourism boutique routes

Rural tourism boutique routes are an arrangement and scientific organization of characteristic tourism landscapes, which is an important strategy for rural tourism destinations to attract tourists. The creation of boutique tourism routes is based on the integration of regional resources, forming a “string of points into a line, with a line leading to the surface, the overall promotion” of the joint development of the countryside, which is able to better utilize and display rural resources, and promote the integrated development of industries and the cultivation of new business models (You, 2014 ; Wang, 2015 ). According to the SEM results, it can be seen that the integral route sub-dimension of Nangou Village had the greatest impact on landscape perception. However, at present, tourists gave the lowest rating for aspect, which affected their satisfaction and led to a low willingness to revisit. At present, the tourism landscape projects in Nangou Village have problems, such as dispersion, small scales, individual operations, a single rural tourism product, and imperfect industrial and economic structures. Therefore, the upgrading strategy should incorporate the cultural theme of “Ansai Five Business Cards” into the integral tourism routes, and form the regional tourism development routes, rural tourism routes, and red knowledge education and training routes in the Greater Nangou area, which rely on the characteristic resources of Nangou Village. Moreover, it should connect the regional construction with the routes, and form a diversified tourism industry integrating “agricultural science popularization + folklore experience + parent-child amusement + leisure agriculture”. Finally, the tourism route planning should make full use of the Nangou Village brand, taking rural culture and tourism as the engine to optimize and expand primary industries, achieve coordinated development of the village and urban economy, and focus on the development of tertiary industries, in order to cooperate with the new rural industrial development system in Nangou Village.

Conclusions

With the gradual evolution of urbanization and the extensive promotion of China’s Rural Revitalization Strategy, rural tourism has become more and more popular and has developed rapidly. Landscape perception is the process of human interactions with the landscape, and the positive or negative results of this perception will directly affect the satisfaction of the tourists with the destination, thus affecting the tourists’ revisit intention. This study was based on the theory of landscape perception, and selected Nangou Village as the research object, on the basis of validating the influencing relationship of Landscape Perception→Satisfaction→Revisit Intention, to put forward reasonable suggestions for the optimization and upgrading of Nangou Village. The results of the research show the following: (1) Tourists’ landscape perception significantly influences tourists’ satisfaction and revisit intention. (2) Tourists’ satisfaction with the destination plays an intermediary role in the influence of landscape perception on revisit intention. (3) Landscape perception contains five dimensions (natural ecology, historical culture, leisure recreation, research experience, and integral route), all of which significantly influence tourists’ satisfaction and revisit intention. Among these dimensions, historical culture and integral route have the greatest influence, which indicates that the cultural and integral nature of the landscape is the core element that drives tourists to generate positive emotions. (4) Tourists prefer landscape projects with historical culture and research experience. (5) The overall landscape planning of Nangou Village was not evaluated highly, and it needs to be upgraded in a focused way. Using the empirical results as a reference, this study proposes strategies for upgrading the tourism landscapes of Nangou Village: deeply excavate rural historical and cultural resources, shape the national red culture brand, and create rural tourism boutique routes. Therefore, exploring the factors affecting revisit intention and thinking about the construction of rural tourism landscape perception elements can provide theoretical guidance for solving the next stage of rural tourism planning in Nangou Village and providing a direction for the construction of beautiful villages in the future.

The methodology of empirical research as applied in this study, along with the corresponding data analysis conducted in the case study of Nangou Village, aims to reveal the influencing factors for revisit intention. By adopting a reverse-thinking approach to constructing the elements of rural tourism landscape perception, theoretical guidance is provided for the next phase of rural tourism planning in Nangou Village. Meanwhile, it gains the strategic insights crucial for local governments and collaborative planning agencies to develop, manage, and market rural tourism destinations. Additionally, the research methods used in this study provide a reference for relevant government and planning agencies to carry out rural tourism planning. Firstly, rural tourism relies heavily on tourism landscape facilities as its primary support system. Therefore, rural tourism is supposed to focus on increasing the attention paid to tourists’ demands from the perspective of the supply side. This can be achieved by constructing landscape perception scales that are more tailored to the advantages and characteristics of tourism destinations. Through the surveys of rural tourism landscape perception elements based on combined scale analysis, tourists’ expectations and demands can be better satisfied. Thus, their satisfaction and revisit intention can be enhanced. Secondly, in the practice of rural tourism marketing, the SEM (structural equation modeling) quantitative results of landscape perception, satisfaction, and revisit intention can be referenced to guide targeted promotion and advertising efforts for landscape elements perceived more strongly by tourists. In this way, the attractiveness to tourist groups can be improved. Lastly, planning agencies can apply the scale developed in this study to measure the satisfaction level of rural tourism industries in tourists’ minds at various stages. By assessing the scores in different dimensions, planning agencies can better identify their strengths and weaknesses, which enables them to maintain their advantages while making improvement.

Some limitations should be noted, which need to be addressed in the future. Firstly, the division of landscape perception dimensions in this study was somewhat subjective and innovative, and there are some immaturity issues. Secondly, the data collection time was short, which may not represent the average situation throughout the year. Finally, this article intended to propose optimization suggestions for Nangou Village at the landscape level, but this should be integrated with the industrial transformation, planning and propaganda, and enhancing service quality and other influencing factors of tourism destinations in the overall tourism planning.

Data availability

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material ( S2 . Dataset), further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

Acharya S, Mekker M, Jonas DV (2023) Linking travel behavior and tourism literature: investigating the impacts of travel satisfaction on destination satisfaction and revisit intention. Transp Res Interdiscip Perspect 17:100745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2022.100745

Article   Google Scholar  

Bagozzi RP, Yi Y (1988) On the evaluation of structural equation models. J Acad Market Sci 16(1):74–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02723327

Bailey R, Ball S (2006) An exploration of the meanings of hotel brand equity. Serv Ind J 26:15–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642060500358761

Baker DA, Crompton JL (2000) Quality, satisfaction and behavioral intentions. Ann Tour Res 27:785–804. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(99)00108-5

Barrett P (2007) Structural equation modelling: adjudging model fit. Pers Individ Differ 42:815–824. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.018

Bitner MJ (1992) Servicescapes: the impact of physical surroundings on customers and employees. J Market 56:57–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224299205600205

Cabrera-Nguyen P (2010) Author guidelines for reporting scale development and validation results in the Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research. J Soc Soc Work Res 01:99–103. https://doi.org/10.5243/jsswr.2010.8

Campo-Martínez S, Garau-Vadell JB, Martínez-ruiz MP (2010) Factors influencing repeat visits to a destination: the influence of group composition. Tour Manag 31:862–870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2009.08.013

Cao YL (2019) A study of the effect of perceived rurality on revisit intention. Master’s Thesis. Xi’an International Studies University, Xi’an, China

Google Scholar  

Chen B (2020) Rural complex and rural revitalization: approaches and prospects of Chinese rural anthropology. Guangxi Ethnic Stud 06:94–102. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1004-454X.2020.06.012

Chen CW, Jin ML, Jin HX, Cheng QY (2021) Beautiful country quality line construction based on region linkage—a case study of the construction practice of Yiwu “Colorful Huaxi”. Chin Landsc Archit 37(2):12–19. https://doi.org/10.19775/j.cla.2021.02.0012

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Chen JH (2012) The research of tourist satisfaction in urban wetland park tourism resort based on tourism experience. Master’s Thesis. Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China

Chew YET, Jahari SA (2013) Destination image as a mediator between perceived risks and revisit intention: a case of post-disaster Japan. Tour Manag 40:382–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.07.008

Chi CG, Qu H (2008) Examining the structural relationships of destination image, tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty: an integrated approach. Tour Manag 29:624–636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2007.06.007

Chi CGQ, Qu H (2009) Examining the relationship between tourists’ attribute satisfaction and overall satisfaction. J Hosp Market Manag 18:4–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/19368620801988891

Chon K (1989) Understanding recreational travelers’ motivation, attitude and satisfaction. Tour Rev 44(1):3–7. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb058009

Cole ST, Scott D (2004) Examining the mediating role of experience quality in a model of tourist experiences. J Travel Tour Market 16:79–90. https://doi.org/10.1300/J073v16n01_08

Cosgrove D (1984) Social formation and symbolic landscape. Groom Helm, London, GBR. pp. 56–84

Crompton JL (1979) An assessment of the image of Mexico as a vacation destination and the influence of geographic allocation upon that image. J Travel Res 17(4):18–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728757901700404

Deng W (2006) Landscape perception: towards landscape semiology. World Archit 07:47–50. https://doi.org/10.16414/j.wa.2006.07.009

Echtner CM, Ritchie JRB (1993) The measurement of destination image: an empirical assessment. J Travel Res 31(4):3–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728759303100402

Eisinga R, Grotenhuis M, Pelzer B (2013) The reliability of a two-item scale: Pearson, Cronbach, or Spearman-Brown? Int J Public Health 58(4):637–642. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-012-0416-3

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Fan J, Qiu HL, Wu XF (2014) Tourist destination image, place attachment and tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior: a case of Zhejiang tourist resorts. Tour Trib 29(1):55–66. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2014.01.006

Fan YH (2020) Research on the evaluation and perception of village landscape in western Sichuan based on the network content analysis method. Master’s Thesis. Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China

Fan YM, Liu H (2016) Landscape and village integrated beautiful village planning. Planners 32(04):97–100. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-0022.2016.04.016

Fornell C, Larcker DF (1981) Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. J Market Res 18(1):39–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104

Geng XH, Wang XQ, Sun QS (2010) Eco-tourism, tourist satisfaction and revisit will: a case study of future Agro-park in Suzhou China. Ecol Econ 06:119–123

Gobster PH (2008) Yellowstone hotspot: reflections on scenic beauty, aesthetics, and ecology. Landscape J 27:291–308

Gu T, Hao E, Ma L, Liu X, Wang L (2022) Exploring the determinants of residents’ behavior towards participating in the sponge-style old community renewal of China: extending the theory of planned behavior. Land 11:1160. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11081160

Guo HC (2016) Study on the experience value of mountain resort tourism, degree of satisfaction and revisit intention—a case of DaWei Mountain. Master’s Thesis. Hunan Normal University, Changsha, China

Guo HC, Han D (2010) Review on the development of rural tourism in China. Prog Geogr 29(12):1597–1605. https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2010.12.018

Guo HC, Liu JP, Wang YC (2000) The study on development of tourism agriculture. Econ Geogr 20:119–124. https://doi.org/10.15957/j.cnki.jjdl.2000.02.025

Guo YZ, Zhang H, Song SL, Li L, Chen XL, Zhang L (2004) A study of market positioning of China’s outbound travel destinations. Tour Trib 19(4):27–32. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2004.04.010

Hair JFJ, Black WC, Babin BJ et al. (2010) Multivariate data analysis. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, USA. pp. 785-785

Hayduk LA (1987) Structural equation modeling with LISREL: essentials and advances. JHU Press, Maryland, USA

He JM (2003) A study on rural tourism overseas. Tour Trib 18:76–80. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2003.01.017

Hong Y (2021) Research on government functions in the integration and development of Yan’an Red Culture and tourism industry, Master’s Thesis, Yan’an University, Yan’an, China

Huang J (2003) Soil complex, family complex and agritourism development. Thinking 29(5):24–26. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1001-778X.2003.05.006

Huang SS, Fan Y, Xiong HG (2018) Study on the development path for red culture resources under the perspective of rural revitalization strategy. Price Month 09:90–94. https://doi.org/10.14076/j.issn.1006-2025.2018.09.16

Huang ZF, Lu L, Su Q, Zhang JH, Sun JX, Wan XC et al. (2015) Research and development of rural tourism under the background of new urbanization: theoretical reflection and breakthrough of predicament. Geogr Res 34(8):1409–1421. https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj201508001

Humagain P, Singleton PA (2021) Examining relationships between COVID-19 destination practices, value, satisfaction and behavioral intentions for tourists’ outdoor recreation trips. J Dest Market Manag 22:100665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2021.100665

Hung K, Petrick JF (2011) The role of self- and functional congruity in cruising intentions. J Travel Res 50:100–112. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287509355321

Kim B, 김용기 GK, Hee Park S (2013) Effects of images of rural tourism on tourists’ satisfaction and revisit intention: case of Changpo and Woiam villages. J Tour Sci 37:303–324

Li D, Wang YQ, You YA, Chen YT (2022) Tourism involvement, destination image and willingness to revisit: a moderated intermediary role model. J Central China Normal University (Natural Sciences) 56(5):871–881. https://doi.org/10.19603/j.cnki.1000-1190.2022.05.017

Li JH (2022) Research on the effects of rurality perception on the tourists’ revisit intentions—taking Nostalgialove Hometown Taihang Water Town in Baoding as a study case. Master’s Thesis, Hebei University, Baoding, China

Li TY, Wang LY (1999) An introduction to tourism principles. Nankai University Press, Tianjin, China. pp. 34–50

Li W (2003) A discussion on the development and plan of rural tourism. Areal Res Dev 22(6):72–75. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-2363.2003.06.018

Article   ADS   Google Scholar  

Li XJ, Chen XZ (2010) Factor analysis under the structural equation model. Sci Technol Eng 10:5708–5711+5727. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1671-1815.2010.23.022

Liu T (2020) Study on the practice path of Honghu Wetland Red Culture promoting rural rejuvenation, Master’s Thesis, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, China

Liu YS (2018) Research on the urban-rural integration and rural revitalization in the new era in China. Acta Geogr Sinica 73(04):637–650. https://doi.org/10.11821/dlxb201804004

Lu L, Ren YS, Zhu DC, Cheng JM, Yang XZ, Yang Z et al. (2019) The research framework and prospect of rural revitalization led by rural tourism. Geogr Res 38(01):102–118. https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj020180454

Ma Y, Zhao L, Song H, Guo QX, Liu MJ (2007) Study on the Chinese rural tourism development pattern—a case of CHENGDU. Econ Geogr 27(2):336–339. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-8462.2007.02.035

MacKinnon DP, Lockwood CM, Hoffman JM, West SG, Sheets V (2002) A comparison of methods to test mediation and variable effects. Psychol Methods 07:83–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.83

MacKinnon DP, Lockwood CM, Willams J (2004) Confidence limits for the indirect effect; distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivar Behav Res 39(1):99–128. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3901_4

Marianna S, Solenè P, Bynum BB (2023) Resident connection to nature and attitudes towards tourism: findings from three different rural nature tourism destinations in Poland. J Sustain Tour 31:664–687. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2021.1995399

Mehrabian A, Russell JA (1974) An approach to environmental psychology. The MIT Press, Cambridge, GBR

Meng XL (2018) Research on rural tourism destination image, perceived value and the relationship between revisit intention: based on the research on rural tourism in Zhejiang province. J Zhejiang Wanli Univ 31(01):8–15. https://doi.org/10.13777/j.cnki.issn1671-2250.2018.01.002

Middleton VTC, Hawkins R (1998) Sustainable tourism: a marketing perspective. Routledge Press, Boston, USA

Motloch JL (2000) Introduction to landscape design. John Wiley & Sons, New York, USA

Nisco AD, Mainolfi G, Marino V, Napolitano MR (2015) Tourism satisfaction effect on general country image, destination image, and post-visit intentions. J Vacat Market 21:305–317. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356766715577502

Oliver RL (1980) A cognitive model of the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction decisions. J Market Res 17:460–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378001700405

Ostoić SK, Van Den Bosch CCK, Vuletić D, Stevanov M, Živojinović I, Mutabdžija-Bećirović S et al. (2017) Citizens’ perception of and satisfaction with urban forests and green space: results from selected Southeast European cities. Urban Forest Urban Green 23:93–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.02.005

Prayag G, Hosany S, Muskat B, Del Chiappa G (2017) Understanding the relationships between tourists’ emotional experiences, perceived overall image, satisfaction, and intention to recommend. J Travel Res 56:41–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287515620567

Purcell AT (1987) Landscape perception, preference, and Schema discrepancy. Environ Plann B Plann Design 14:67–92. https://doi.org/10.1068/b140067

Qin R (2022) Research on children’s outdoor activity space design based on Landscape Perception—Take Tongle Bay of Changchun North Lake Park as an example. Master’s Thesis. Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, China

Queiroz OT (2017) Ruralities as tourist attraction and cultural experience: the Santa Gertrudes farm. Rosa dos Ventos 9(3):447–456. https://doi.org/10.18226/21789061.v9i3p447

Qu GC, Zhao Y, An JH, Xu JY, Qian QQ, Chen MC (2023) Research on the path of high-quality development of rural tourism in southern Anhui based on the original authenticity of nostalgia. Gansu Agri (12):90–95. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-9019.2023.12.017

Sailesh A, Michelle M, Jonas VD (2023) Linking travel behavior and tourism literature: Investigating the impacts of travel satisfaction on destination satisfaction and revisit intention. Transp Res Interdiscip Perspect 17:100745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2022.100745

Scott D, Willits FK (1994) Environmental attitudes and behavior: a Pennsylvania survey. Environ Behav 26(2):239–260. https://doi.org/10.1177/001391659402600206

Shi X (2021) Landscape design for rural tourism under the perspective of ecological aesthetics. Sichuan Drama (10):113–116

Song WY (2013) Outdoor event space landscape perception and its design research. Master’s Thesis. Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China

Stylos N, Vassiliadis AC, Bellou V, Andronikidis A (2015) Destination images, holistic images and personal normative beliefs: predictors of intention to revisit a destination. Tour Manag 53:40–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.09.006

Sun XH, Zhang X (2020) Research on adaptive design of traditional village landscape under the background of rural tourism. Design 33:158–160

Sun YH, Chen T, Wang YC (2008) Progress and prospects in research of the traditional rural cultural landscape. Prog Geogr 27(6):90–96. https://doi.org/10.11820/dlkxjz.2008.06.013

Tribe J, Snaith T (1998) From SERVQUAL TO HOLSAT: holiday satisfaction in Varadero, Cuba. Tour Manag 19:25–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(97)00094-0

Tu HW, Xiong LY, Huang YM, Guo GX (2017) The effect of destination image on tourist behavior intention: an explanation based on the emotion appraisal theory. Tour Trib 32(2):32–41. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-5006.2017.02.009

Wang Q, Ding ZR, Zhang JH, Yang XZ (2006) Study on the model of tourist satisfaction index about tourism environment: a case study of Huangshan Mountain. Geogr Res 25(1):171–181. https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1000-0585.2006.01.020

Wang X, Gu CLMei H (2005) Tourist attraction customer satisfaction index model. Acta Geogr Sinica 60(5):807–816. 10.3321/j.issn:0375-5444.2005.05.012

Wang XR, Wang SJ (2010) The research on customer satisfaction of leisure agriculture garden. Chin Agri Sci Bull 26(13):413–419

CAS   Google Scholar  

Wang YC, Xu CX, Guo HC (2005) Discussions on the new trends of rural tourism development in China. Arid Land Geogr 28(6):862–868. https://doi.org/10.3321/j.issn:1000-6060.2005.06.025

Wang ZJ (2015) Study on the planning and design of beautiful rural top line, Master’s Thesis, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China

Wen ZL, Ye BJ (2014) Analyses of mediating effects: the development of methods and models. Adv Psychol Sci 22(5):731–745. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1042.2014.00731

Wu D, Shen CY, Wang EX, Hou YY, Yang J (2019) Impact of the perceived authenticity of heritage sites on subjective well-being: a study of the mediating role of place attachment and satisfaction. Sustainability 11(21):6148. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11216148

Xie HL, Liu LM, Li L (2002) An inquiry analysis on rural development of ecotourism. Ecol Econ 12:69–71. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1671-4407.2002.12.022

Xu JQ, Zeng Q, Li C (2023) Perception and evaluation of beautiful rural landscape characteristics from the perspective of regional culture-taking Qilian village landscape improvement project as an example. Agri Technol 43(01):89–94. https://doi.org/10.19754/j.nyyjs.20230115023

Xu WH, Tang LZ (2016) Research on the “Four Desirable” strategy in beautiful countryside planning and construction. Chin Landsc Archit 32(09):20–23

Xu YF, Liu MH, Zhang CY (2014) The influence mechanism of tourist loyalty based on perceived destination attributes. Econ Geogr 34(8):167–172

Yan R (2021) Research and application of tourism route optimization based on improved genetic algorithm, Master’s Thesis, North Minzu University, Yinchuan, China https://doi.org/10.27754/d.cnki.gbfmz.2021.0000944

Yang F, Fen J, Xie SY (2022) A study on the evaluation of tourist satisfaction and its influence on the intention to revisit destination: taking 5A scenic spots in Wuhan as examples. J Central China Normal Univ (Natural Sciences) 56(1):116–126. https://doi.org/10.19603/j.cnki.1000-1190.2022.01.013

Yang W, Fan B, Tan J, Lin J, Shao T (2022) The spatial perception and spatial feature of rural cultural landscape in the context of rural tourism. Sustainability 14:4370

Yin Y, Li XQ (2018) The development of mobile internet and the changes of the elderly life. J Chin Acad Gov 05:182–186+193. https://doi.org/10.14063/j.cnki.1008-9314.20181023.026

You JM (2014) The research on the development of rural tourism resources in Zhejiang province based on the construction of beautiful countryside, Master’s Thesis, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou, China

Yuan Y (2017) Planning and construction of rural complex oriented tourism areas: Siliangjiang Rural Tourism Area Planning (2017–2021) example. Planners 33(12):136–143. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-0022.2017.12.020

Zhai YZ (2015) Regional Cultural Studies Rural Cultural Tourism Landscape Design. Master’s Thesis. Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi’an, China

Zhang D (2006) Study on tourist perceived value of rural tourism. Master’s Thesis. Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

Zhang H, Fu X, Ca LA, LU L (2014) Destination image and tourist loyalty: a meta-analysis. Tour Manag 40(1):213–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.06.006

Zhang L, Wang SL (2018) Study on the visitors experience of tourism products in historical and cultural rural tourism. Art Design 06:142–143. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.0412-3662.2018.06.037

Zhang Y, Van Den Berg AE, Van Dijk T, Weitkamp G (2017) Quality over quantity: contribution of urban green space to neighborhood satisfaction. Int J Environ Res Public Health 14(5):535. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14050535

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Zhou Y, He JH, Rong H (2016) Satisfaction evaluation of tourist and influence factors analysis in rural tourism. Bus Manag J 38(07):156–166. https://doi.org/10.19616/j.cnki.bmj.2016.07.014

Zube EH, Sell JL, Taylor JG (1982) Landscape perception: research, application and theory. Landsc Plann 9:1–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3924(82)90009-0

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was funded by the Academy of Agricultural Planning and Engineering, MARD of China “Study on the transformation of rural space and planning response in the suburbs of Xi'an from the perspective of social change”, grant number XC2X2DKT-20230916 and by the Shaanxi Provincial Science and Technology Project of China “Study on Reshaping the Spatial Value of Cultural Memory of Industrial Heritage and the Path of Local Identity”, grant number 2022JM-289.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

School of Art and Design, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China

Yuxiao Kou & Xiaojie Xue

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Conceptualization, YK and XX; methodology, XX; software, YK; validation, YK and XX; formal analysis, YK; investigation, YK; resources, XX; data curation, YK; writing—original draft preparation, YK; writing—review and editing, XX; visualization, YK; supervision, XX; project administration, XX; funding acquisition, XX All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Xiaojie Xue .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval

This study was conducted with approval from the Ethics Committee of the primary author’s institution, School of Art and Design, Xi’an University of Technology. All procedures involving human participants in the research were performed in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable standards.

Informed consent

The informed consent was obtained from all participants before the study started.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supporting material, rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Kou, Y., Xue, X. The influence of rural tourism landscape perception on tourists’ revisit intentions—a case study in Nangou village, China. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 620 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03129-8

Download citation

Received : 21 December 2023

Accepted : 24 April 2024

Published : 13 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03129-8

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies