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• Published: 10 December 2020

Effect of internet use and electronic game-play on academic performance of Australian children

• Md Irteja Islam 1 , 2 ,
• Raaj Kishore Biswas 3 &
• Rasheda Khanam 1  

Scientific Reports volume  10 , Article number:  21727 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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This study examined the association of internet use, and electronic game-play with academic performance respectively on weekdays and weekends in Australian children. It also assessed whether addiction tendency to internet and game-play is associated with academic performance. Overall, 1704 children of 11–17-year-olds from young minds matter (YMM), a cross-sectional nationwide survey, were analysed. The generalized linear regression models adjusted for survey weights were applied to investigate the association between internet use, and electronic-gaming with academic performance (measured by NAPLAN–National standard score). About 70% of the sample spent > 2 h/day using the internet and nearly 30% played electronic-games for > 2 h/day. Internet users during weekdays (> 4 h/day) were less likely to get higher scores in reading and numeracy, and internet use on weekends (> 2–4 h/day) was positively associated with academic performance. In contrast, 16% of electronic gamers were more likely to get better reading scores on weekdays compared to those who did not. Addiction tendency to internet and electronic-gaming is found to be adversely associated with academic achievement. Further, results indicated the need for parental monitoring and/or self-regulation to limit the timing and duration of internet use/electronic-gaming to overcome the detrimental effects of internet use and electronic game-play on academic achievement.

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Introduction

Over the past two decades, with the proliferation of high-tech devices (e.g. Smartphone, tablets and computers), both the internet and electronic games have become increasingly popular with people of all ages, but particularly with children and adolescents 1 , 2 , 3 . Recent estimates have shown that one in three under-18-year-olds across the world uses the Internet, and 75% of adolescents play electronic games daily in developed countries 4 , 5 , 6 . Studies in the United States reported that adolescents are occupied with over 11 h a day with modern electronic media such as computer/Internet and electronic games, which is more than they spend in school or with friends 7 , 8 . In Australia, it is reported that about 98% of children aged 15–17 years are among Internet users and 98% of adolescents play electronic games, which is significantly higher than the USA and Europe 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 .

In recent times, the Internet and electronic games have been regarded as important, not just for better results at school, but also for self-expression, sociability, creativity and entertainment for children and adolescents 13 , 14 . For instance, 88% of 12–17 year-olds in the USA considered the Internet as a useful mechanism for making progress in school 15 , and similarly, electronic gaming in children and adolescents may assist in developing skills such as decision-making, smart-thinking and coordination 3 , 15 .

On the other hand, evidence points to the fact that the use of the Internet and electronic games is found to have detrimental effects such as reduced sleeping time, behavioural problems (e.g. low self-esteem, anxiety, depression), attention problems and poor academic performance in adolescents 1 , 5 , 12 , 16 . In addition, excessive Internet usage and increased electronic gaming are found to be addictive and may cause serious functional impairment in the daily life of children and adolescents 1 , 12 , 13 , 16 . For example, the AU Kids Online survey 17 reported that 50% of Australian children were more likely to experience behavioural problems associated with Internet use compared to children from 25 European countries (29%) surveyed in the EU Kids Online study 18 , which is alarming 12 . These mixed results require an urgent need of understanding the effect of the Internet use and electronic gaming on the development of children and adolescents, particularly on their academic performance.

Despite many international studies and a smaller number in Australia 12 , several systematic limitations remain in the existing literature, particularly regarding the association of academic performance with the use of Internet and electronic games in children and adolescents 13 , 16 , 19 . First, the majority of the earlier studies have either relied on school grades or children’s self assessments—which contain an innate subjectivity by the assessor; and have not considered the standardized tests of academic performance 16 , 20 , 21 , 22 . Second, most previous studies have tested the hypothesis in the school-based settings instead of canvassing the whole community, and cannot therefore adjust for sociodemographic confounders 9 , 16 . Third, most studies have been typically limited to smaller sample sizes, which might have reduced the reliability of the results 9 , 16 , 23 .

By considering these issues, this study aimed to investigate the association of internet usage and electronic gaming on a standardized test of academic performance—NAPLAN (The National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy) among Australian adolescents aged 11–17 years using nationally representative data from the Second Australian Child and Adolescent Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing—Young Minds Matter (YMM). It is hypothesized that the findings of this study will provide a population-wide, contextual view of excessive Internet use and electronic games played separately on weekdays and weekends by Australian adolescents, which may be beneficial for evidence-based policies.

Subject demographics

Respondents who attended gave NAPLAN in 2008 (N = 4) and 2009 (N = 29) were removed from the sample due to smaller sample size, as later years (2010–2015) had over 100 samples yearly. The NAPLAN scores from 2008 might not align with a survey conducted in 2013. Further missing cases were deleted with the assumption that data were missing at random for unbiased estimates, which is common for large-scale surveys 24 . From the initial survey of 2967 samples, 1704 adolescents were sampled for this study.

The sample characteristics were displayed in Table 1 . For example, distribution of daily average internet use was checked, showing that over 50% of the sampled adolescents spent 2–4 h on internet (Table 1 ). Although all respondents in the survey used internet, nearly 21% of them did not play any electronic games in a day and almost one in every three (33%) adolescents played electronic games beyond the recommended time of 2 h per day. Girls had more addictive tendency to internet/game-play in compare to boys.

The mean scores for the three NAPLAN tests scores (reading, writing and numeracy) ranged from 520 to 600. A gradual decline in average NAPLAN tests scores (reading, writing and numeracy) scores were observed for internet use over 4 h during weekdays, and over 3 h during weekends (Table 2 ). Table 2 also shows that adolescents who played no electronic games at all have better scores in writing compared to those who play electronic games. Moreover, Table 2 shows no particular pattern between time spent on gaming and NAPLAN reading and numeracy scores. Among the survey samples, 308 adolescents were below the national standard average.

Internet use and academic performance

Our results show that internet (non-academic use) use during weekdays, especially more than 4 h, is negatively associated with academic performance (Table 3 ). For internet use during weekdays, all three models showed a significant negative association between time spent on internet and NAPLAN reading and numeracy scores. For example, in Model 1, adolescents who spent over 4 h on internet during weekdays are 15% and 17% less likely to get higher reading and numeracy scores respectively compared to those who spend less than 2 h. Similar results were found in Model 2 and 3 (Table 3 ), when we adjusted other confounders. The variable addiction tendency to internet was found to be negatively associated with NAPLAN results. The adolescents who had internet addiction were 17% less and 14% less likely to score higher in reading and numeracy respectively than those without such problematic behaviour.

Internet use during weekends showed a positive association with academic performance (Table 4 ). For example, Model 1 in Table 4 shows that internet use during weekends was significant for reading, writing and national standard scores. Youths who spend around 2–4 h and over 4 h on the internet during weekends were 21% and 15% more likely to get a higher reading scores respectively compared to those who spend less than 2 h (Model 1, Table 4 ). Similarly, in model 3, where the internet addiction of adolescents was adjusted, adolescents who spent 2–4 h on internet were 1.59 times more likely to score above the national standard. All three models of Table 4 confirmed that adolescents who spent 2–4 h on the internet during weekends are more likely to achieve better reading and writing scores and be at or above national standard compared to those who used the internet for less than 2 h. Numeracy scores were unlikely to be affected by internet use. The results obtained from Model 3 should be treated as robust, as this is the most comprehensive model that accounts for unobserved characteristics. The addiction tendency to internet/game-play variable showed a negative association with academic performance, but this is only significant for numeracy scores.

Electronic gaming and academic performance

Time spent on electronic gaming during weekdays had no effect on the academic performance of writing and language but had significant association with reading scores (Model 2, Table 5 ). Model 2 of Table 5 shows that adolescents who spent 1–2 h on gaming during weekdays were 13% more likely to get higher reading scores compared to those who did not play at all. It was an interesting result that while electronic gaming during weekdays tended to show a positive effect on reading scores, internet use during weekdays showed a negative effect. Addiction tendency to internet/game-play had a negative effect; the adolescents who were addicted to the internet were 14% less likely to score more highly in reading than those without any such behaviour.

All three models from Table 6 confirm that time spent on electronic gaming over 2 h during weekends had a positive effect on readings scores. For example, the results of Model 3 (Table 6 ) showed that adolescents who spent more than 2 h on electronic gaming during weekdays were 16% more likely to have better reading scores compared to adolescents who did not play games at all. Playing electronic games during weekends was not found to be statistically significant for writing and numeracy scores and national standard scores, although the odds ratios were positive. The results from all tables confirm that addiction tendency to internet/gaming is negatively associated with academic performance, although the variable is not always statistically significant.

Building on past research on the effect of the internet use and electronic gaming in adolescents, this study examined whether Internet use and playing electronic games were associated with academic performance (i.e. reading, writing and numeracy) using a standardized test of academic performance (i.e. NAPLAN) in a nationally representative dataset in Australia. The findings of this study question the conventional belief 9 , 25 that academic performance is negatively associated with internet use and electronic games, particularly when the internet is used for non-academic purpose.

In the current hi-tech world, many developed countries (e.g. the USA, Canada and Australia) have recommended that 5–17 year-olds limit electronic media (e.g. internet, electronic games) to 2 h per day for entertainment purposes, with concerns about the possible negative consequences of excessive use of electronic media 14 , 26 . However, previous research has often reported that children and adolescents spent more than the recommended time 26 . The present study also found similar results, that is, that about 70% of the sampled adolescents aged 11–17 spent more than 2 h per day on the Internet and nearly 30% spent more than 2-h on electronic gaming in a day. This could be attributed to the increased availability of computers/smart-phones and the internet among under-18s 12 . For instance, 97% of Australian households with children aged less than 15 years accessed internet at home in 2016–2017 10 ; as a result, policymakers recommended that parents restrict access to screens (e.g. Internet and electronic games) in children’s bedrooms, monitor children using screens, share screen hours with their children, and to act as role models by reducing their own screen time 14 .

This research has drawn attention to the fact that the average time spent using the internet, which is often more than 4 h during weekdays tends to be negatively associated with academic performance, especially a lower reading and numeracy score, while internet use of more than 2 h during weekends is positively associated with academic performance, particularly having a better reading and writing score and above national standard score. By dividing internet use and gaming by weekdays and weekends, this study find an answer to the mixed evidence found in previous literature 9 . The results of this study clearly show that the non-academic use of internet during weekdays, particularly, spending more than 4 h on internet is harmful for academic performance, whereas, internet use on the weekends is likely to incur a positive effect on academic performance. This result is consistent with a USA study that reported that internet use is positively associated with improved reading skills and higher scores on standardized tests 13 , 27 . It is also reported in the literature that academic performance is better among moderate users of the internet compared to non-users or high level users 13 , 27 , which was in line with the findings of this study. This may be due to the fact that the internet is predominantly a text-based format in which the internet users need to type and read to access most websites effectively 13 . The results of this study indicated that internet use is not harmful to academic performance if it is used moderately, especially, if ensuring very limited use on weekdays. The results of this study further confirmed that timing (weekdays or weekends) of internet use is a factor that needs to be considered.

Regarding electronic gaming, interestingly, the study found that the average time of gaming either in weekdays or weekends is positively associated with academic performance especially for reading scores. These results contradicted previous literatures 1 , 13 , 19 , 27 that have reported negative correlation between electronic games and educational performance in high-school children. The results of this study were consistent with studies conducted in the USA, Europe and other countries that claimed a positive correlation between gaming and academic performance, especially in numeracy and reading skills 28 , 29 . This is may be due to the fact that the instructions for playing most of the electronic games are text-heavy and many electronic games require gamers to solve puzzles 9 , 30 . The literature also found that playing electronic games develops cognitive skills (e.g. mental rotation abilities, dexterity), which can be attributable to better academic achievement 31 , 32 .

Consistent with previous research findings 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , the study also found that adolescents who had addiction tendency to internet usage and/or electronic gaming were less likely to achieve higher scores in reading and numeracy compared to those who had not problematic behaviour. Addiction tendency to Internet/gaming among adolescents was found to be negatively associated with overall academic performance compared to those who were not having addiction tendency, although the variables were not always statistically significant. This is mainly because adolescents’ skipped school and missed classes and tuitions, and provide less effort to do homework due to addictive internet usage and electronic gaming 19 , 35 . The results of this study indicated that parental monitoring and/ or self-regulation (by the users) regarding the timing and intensity of internet use/gaming are essential to outweigh any negative effect of internet use and gaming on academic performance.

Although the present study uses a large nationally representative sample and advances prior research on the academic performance among adolescents who reported using the internet and playing electronic games, the findings of this study also have some limitations that need to be addressed. Firstly, adolescents who reported on the internet use and electronic games relied on self-reported child data without any screening tests or any external validation and thus, results may be overestimated or underestimated. Second, the study primarily addresses the internet use and electronic games as distinct behaviours, as the YMM survey gathered information only on the amount of time spent on internet use and electronic gaming, and included only a few questions related to addiction due to resources and time constraints and did not provide enough information to medically diagnose internet/gaming addiction. Finally, the cross-sectional research design of the data outlawed evaluation of causality and temporality of the observed association of internet use and electronic gaming with the academic performance in adolescents.

This study found that the average time spent on the internet on weekends and electronic gaming (both in weekdays and weekends) is positively associated with academic performance (measured by NAPLAN) of Australian adolescents. However, it confirmed a negative association between addiction tendency (internet use or electronic gaming) and academic performance; nonetheless, most of the adolescents used the internet and played electronic games more than the recommended 2-h limit per day. The study also revealed that further research is required on the development and implementation of interventions aimed at improving parental monitoring and fostering users’ self-regulation to restrict the daily usage of the internet and/or electronic games.

Data description

Young minds matter (YMM) was an Australian nationwide cross-sectional survey, on children aged 4–17 years conducted in 2013–2014 37 . Out of the initial 76,606 households approached, a total of 6,310 parents/caregivers (eligible household response rate 55%) of 4–17 year-old children completed a structured questionnaire via face to face interview and 2967 children aged 11–17 years (eligible children response rate 89%) completed a computer-based self-reported questionnaire privately at home 37 .

Area based sampling was used for the survey. A total of 225 Statistical Area 1 (defined by Australian Bureau of Statistics) areas were selected based on the 2011 Census of Population and Housing. They were stratified by state/territory and by metropolitan versus non-metropolitan (rural/regional) to ensure proportional representation of geographic areas across Australia 38 . However, a small number of samples were excluded, based on most remote areas, homeless children, institutional care and children living in households where interviews could not be conducted in English. The details of the survey and methodology used in the survey can be found in Lawrence et al. 37 .

Following informed consent (both written and verbal) from the primary carers (parents/caregivers), information on the National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) of the children and adolescents were also added to the YMM dataset. The YMM survey is ethically approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the University of Western Australia and by the Australian Government Department of Health. In addition, the authors of this study obtained a written approval from Australian Data Archive (ADA) Dataverse to access the YMM dataset. All the researches were done in accordance with relevant ADA Dataverse guidelines and policy/regulations in using YMM datasets.

Outcome variables

The NAPLAN, conducted annually since 2008, is a nationwide standardized test of academic performance for all Australian students in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 to assess their skills in reading, writing numeracy, grammar and spelling 39 , 40 . NAPLAN scores from 2010 to 2015, reported by YMM, were used as outcome variables in the models; while NAPLAN data of 2008 (N = 4) and 2009 (N = 29) were excluded for this study in order to reduce the time lag between YMM survey and the NAPLAN test. The NAPLAN gives point-in-time standardized scores, which provide the scope to compare children’s academic performance over time 40 , 41 . The NAPLAN tests are one component of the evaluation and grading phase of each school, and do not substitute for the comprehensive, consistent evaluations provided by teachers on the performance of each student 39 , 41 . All four domains—reading, writing, numeracy and language conventions (grammar and spelling) are in continuous scales in the dataset. The scores are given based on a series of tests; details can be found in 42 . The current study uses only reading, writing and numeracy scores to measure academic performance.

In this study, the National standard score is a combination of three variables: whether the student meets the national standard in reading, writing and numeracy. Based on national average score, a binary outcome variable is also generated. One category is ‘below standard’ if a child scores at least one standard deviation (one below scores) from the national standard in reading, writing and numeracy, and the rest is ‘at/above standard’.

Independent variables

Internet use and electronic gaming.

In the YMM survey, owing to the scope of the survey itself, an extensive set of questions about internet usage and electronic gaming could not be included. Internet usage omitted the time spent in academic purposes and/or related activities. Playing electronic games included playing games on a gaming console (e.g. PlayStation, Xbox, or similar console ) online or using a computer, or mobile phone, or a handled device 12 . The primary independent covariates were average internet use per day and average electronic game-play in hours per day. A combination of hours on weekdays and weekends was separately used in the models. These variables were based on a self-assessed questionnaire where the youths were asked questions regarding daily time spent on the Internet and electronic game-play, specifically on either weekends or weekdays. Since, internet use/game-play for a maximum of 2 h/day is recommended for children and adolescents aged between 5 and 17 years in many developed countries including Australia 14 , 26 ; therefore, to be consistent with the recommended time we preferred to categorize both the time variables of internet use and gaming into three groups with an interval of 2 h each. Internet use was categorized into three groups: (a) ≤ 2 h), (b) 2–4 h, and (c) > 4 h. Similar questions were asked for game-play h. The sample distribution for electronic game-play was skewed; therefore, this variable was categorized into three groups: (a) no game-play (0 h), (b) 1–2 h, and (c) > 2 h.

Other covariates

Family structure and several sociodemographic variables were used in the models to adjust for the differences in individual characteristics, parental inputs and tastes, household characteristics and place of residence. Individual characteristics included age (continuous) and sex of the child (boys, girls) and addiction tendency to internet use and/or game-play of the adolescent. Addiction tendency to internet/game-play was a binary independent variable. It was a combination of five behavioural questions relating to: whether the respondent avoided eating/sleeping due to internet use or game-play; feels bothered when s/he cannot access internet or play electronic games; keeps using internet or playing electronic games even when s/he is not really interested; spends less time with family/friends or on school works due to internet use or game-play; and unsuccessfully tries to spend less time on the internet or playing electronic games. There were four options for each question: never/almost never; not very often; fairly often; and very often. A binary covariate was simulated, where if any four out of five behaviours were reported as for example, fairly often or very often, then it was considered that the respondent had addictive tendency.

Household characteristics included household income (low, medium, high), family type (original, step, blended, sole parent/primary carer, other) 43 and remoteness (major cities, inner regional, outer regional, remote/very remote). Parental inputs and taste included education of primary carer (bachelor, diploma, year 10/11), primary carer’s likelihood of serious mental illness (K6 score -likely; not likely); primary carer’s smoking status (no, yes); and risk of alcoholic related harm by the primary carer (risky, none).

Statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics of the sample and distributions of the outcome variables were initially assessed. Based on these distributions, the categorization of outcome variables was conducted, as mentioned above. For formal analysis, generalized linear regression models (GLMs) 44 were used, adjusting for the survey weights, which allowed for generalization of the findings. As NAPLAN scores of three areas—reading, writing and numeracy—were continuous variables, linear models were fitted to daily average internet time and electronic game play time. The scores were standardized (mean = 0, SD = 1) for model fitness. The binary logistic model was fitted for the dichotomized national standard outcome variable. Separate models were estimated for internet and electronic gaming on weekends and weekdays.

We estimated three different models, where models varied based on covariates used to adjust the GLMs. Model 1 was adjusted for common sociodemographic factors including age and sex of the child, household income, education of primary carer’s and family type 43 . However, the results of this model did not account for some unobserved household characteristics (e.g. taste, preferences) that are unobserved to the researcher and are arguably correlated with potential outcomes. The effects of unobserved characteristics were reduced by using a comprehensive set of observable characteristics 45 , 46 that were available in YMM data. The issue of unobserved characteristics was addressed by estimating two additional models that include variables by including household characteristics such as parental taste, preference and inputs, and child characteristics in the model. In addition to the variables in Model 1, Model 2 included remoteness, primary carer’s mental health status, smoking status and risk of alcoholic related harm by the primary carer. Model 3 further included internet/game addiction of the adolescent in addition to all the covariates in Model 2. Model 3 was expected to account for a child’s level of unobserved characteristics as the children who were addicted to internet/games were different from others. The model will further show how academic performance is affected by internet/game addiction. The correlation among the variables ‘internet/game addiction’ and ‘internet use’ and ‘gaming’ (during weekdays and weekends) were also assessed, and they were less than 0.5. Multicollinearity was assessed using the variance inflation factor (VIF), which was under 5 for all models, suggesting no multicollinearity 47 .

p value below the threshold of 0.05 was considered the threshold of significance. All analysis was conducted in R (version 3.6.1). R-package survey (version 3.37) was used for modelling which is suited for complex survey samples 48 .

Data availability

The authors declare that they do not have permission to share dataset. However, the datasets of Young Minds Matter (YMM) survey data is available at the Australian Data Archive (ADA) Dataverse on request ( https://doi.org/10.4225/87/LCVEU3 ).

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the University of Western Australia, Roy Morgan Research, the Australian Government Department of Health for conducting the survey, and the Australian Data Archive for giving access to the YMM survey dataset. The authors also would like to thank Dr Barbara Harmes for proofreading the manuscript.

This research did not receive any specific Grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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Islam, M.I., Biswas, R.K. & Khanam, R. Effect of internet use and electronic game-play on academic performance of Australian children. Sci Rep 10 , 21727 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-78916-9

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Playing games: advancing research on online and mobile gaming consumption

Internet Research

ISSN : 1066-2243

Article publication date: 9 April 2019

Issue publication date: 9 April 2019

Seo, Y. , Dolan, R. and Buchanan-Oliver, M. (2019), "Playing games: advancing research on online and mobile gaming consumption", Internet Research , Vol. 29 No. 2, pp. 289-292. https://doi.org/10.1108/INTR-04-2019-542

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2019, Emerald Publishing Limited

Introduction

Computer games consistently generate more revenue than the movie and music industries and have become one of the most ubiquitous symbols of popular culture ( Takahashi, 2018 ). Recent technological developments are changing the ways in which consumers are able to engage with computer games as individuals – adult gamers, parents and children ( Christy and Kuncheva, 2018 ) – and as collectives, such as communities, networks and subcultures ( Hamari and Sjöblom, 2017 ; Seo, 2016 ). In particular, with the proliferation of online and mobile technologies, we have witnessed the emergence of newer forms of both computer games themselves (e.g. advertising games (advergames), virtual and augmented reality games and social media games) ( Rauschnabel et al. , 2017 ) and of gaming practices (e.g. serious gaming, hardcore gaming and eSports) ( Seo, 2016 ).

It is, therefore, not surprising that the issues concerning the ways computer games consumption is changing in light of these technological developments have received much attention across diverse disciplines of social sciences, such as marketing (e.g. Seo et al. , 2015 ), information systems (e.g. Liu et al. , 2013 ), media studies (e.g. Giddings, 2016 ) and internet research (e.g. Hamari and Sjöblom, 2017 ). The purpose of this introductory paper to the special issue “Online and mobile gaming” is to chart future research directions that are relevant to a rapidly changing postmodern digital gaming landscape. In this endeavor, this paper first provides an integrative summary of the six articles that comprise this special issue, and then draws the threads together in order to elicit the agenda for future research.

An integrative summary of the special issue

The six articles that were selected for this special issue advance research into online and mobile gaming in several ways. The opening article by Pappas, Mikalef, Giannakos and Kourouthanassis draws attention to the complex ecosystem of mobile applications in which multiple factors influence consumer behavior in mobile games. Pappas and his colleagues shed light on how price value, game content quality, positive and negative emotions, gender, and gameplay time interact with one another to predict the intention to download mobile games. This study offers useful insights by demonstrating how fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis methodology can be applied to advance research into computer games consumption.

The study by Bae, Kim, Kim and Koo addresses the digital virtual consumption that occurs within computer games. This second paper explores the relationship between in-game items and mood management to determine the affective value of purchasing in-game items. The findings reveal that game users manage their levels of arousal and mood valence through the use of in-game purchases, suggesting that stressed users are more likely to purchase decorative items, whereas bored users tend to purchase functional items. This study offers an informative perspective of how mood management and selective exposure theories can be applied to understand the in-game purchases. Continuing this theme, the third study by Bae, Park and Koo investigates the effect of perceived corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives. Park and colleagues extend previous research by identifying important motivational mechanisms, such as self-esteem and compassion, which link CSR initiative perceptions with the intentions to purchase in-game items.

The fourth and fifth studies of this special issue draw our attention to the use of avatars and game characters. Liao, Cheng and Teng use social identity and flow theories to construct a novel model that explains how avatar attractiveness and customization impact loyalty among online game consumers. In the fifth study, Choi explores the importance of game character characteristics being congruent with product types in order to make advergames more persuasive.

The final study by Lee and Ko reviews the predictors of game addiction based on loneliness, motivation and inter-personal competence. The findings of these authors suggest that regulatory focus mediates the effect of loneliness on online game addiction, and that inter-personal competence significantly buffers the indirect effect of loneliness on online game addiction. This study advances our knowledge about online game addiction through an investigation of the important role played by loneliness.

Future directions for research

Taken together, our introductory commentary and the six empirical studies that make up this special issue deepen and broaden the current understanding of how online and mobile technologies augment the consumption of computer games. In this final section of our paper, we outline potential directions for future research.

First, this special issue highlights that computer games consumption is a diverse interdisciplinary phenomenon, where important issues range from establishing the factors that determine the adoption of particular computer games to what consumers do within these games; from whether computer games enhance consumer well-being (e.g. Howes et al. , 2017 ), to whether they engender addiction (e.g. Frölich et al. , 2016 ); and from establishing how computer gaming experiences are influenced by internal psychological mechanisms to querying the effects of broader social aspects of consumer lives on computer games consumption ( Kowert et al. , 2015 ). Informed by these findings, we assert that as computer games consumption becomes more complex and interactive, incorporating more technology brought about by the proliferation of online and mobile gaming, it is important that our theorizing follows by tracking the mutual imbrication of consumers, play, technology, culture, well-being and other salient issues.

Computer games consumption is a phenomenon of global significance, which is reflected by the international interest that we have received for this special issue. This prompts us to consider similarities and differences in the ways that computer games are consumed across cultures ( Elmezeny and Wimmer, 2018 ). Many computer games themselves now foster intercultural, multicultural and transcultural experiences ( Cruz et al. , 2018 ) by enabling consumers from different countries and regions to connect and build relationships within the shared virtual space. How do such experiences shape the consumption of computer games? This gap in the literature has been previously noted ( Seo et al. , 2015 ), but it has not been either sufficiently detailed or theorised. Future studies should explore the role of various transcultural experiences and practices within online and mobile games consumption.

Finally, one increasingly promising area for future research is the rise of virtual reality (VR) applications. Although the earliest references to VR date back to the 1990s (e.g. Gigante, 1993 ), it has been only recently that technological developments have allowed VR to evolve from a niche technology into an everyday phenomenon that is readily available to consumers ( Lamkin, 2017 ; Oleksy and Wnuk, 2017 ). Given that VR is an experientially distinct medium, how will it augment computer games consumption experiences and practices? Will it foster more diverse applications of computer games across various aspects of consumer lives (e.g. Tussyadiah et al. , 2018 ), or will it increase computer games addiction (e.g. Chou and Ting, 2003 )? What are the current and future intersections between VR technology, online and mobile games, and how are they likely to develop and affect consumers? We envision that these and many other questions related to the application and proliferation of VR technology in computer games consumption will be an exceptionally fruitful area for future research.

In summary, we hope that this paper and the special issue, with its emphasis on online and mobile gaming, will offer new insights for researchers and practitioners who are interested in the advancement of research on computer games consumption.

Chou , T.J. and Ting , C.C. ( 2003 ), “ The role of flow experience in cyber-game addiction ”, CyberPsychology and Behavior , Vol. 6 No. 6 , pp. 663 - 675 .

Christy , T. and Kuncheva , L.I. ( 2018 ), “ Technological advancements in affective gaming: a historical survey ”, GSTF Journal on Computing , Vol. 3 No. 4 , pp. 32 - 41 .

Cruz , A.G.B. , Seo , Y. and Buchanan-Oliver , M. ( 2018 ), “ Religion as a field of transcultural practices in multicultural marketplaces ”, Journal of Business Research , Vol. 91 , pp. 317 - 325 .

Elmezeny , A. and Wimmer , J. ( 2018 ), “ Games without frontiers: a framework for analyzing digital game cultures comparatively ”, Media and Communication , Vol. 6 No. 2 , pp. 80 - 89 .

Frölich , J. , Lehmkuhl , G. , Orawa , H. , Bromba , M. , Wolf , K. and Görtz-Dorten , A. ( 2016 ), “ Computer game misuse and addiction of adolescents in a clinically referred study sample ”, Computers in Human Behavior , Vol. 55 , pp. 9 - 15 .

Giddings , S. ( 2016 ), “ Pokémon Go as distributed imagination ”, Mobile Media and Communication , Vol. 5 No. 1 , pp. 59 - 62 .

Gigante , M.A. ( 1993 ), “ Virtual reality: definitions, history and applications ”, in Earnshaw , R.A. (Ed.), Virtual Reality Systems , Academic Press , New York, NY , pp. 3 - 14 .

Hamari , J. and Sjöblom , M. ( 2017 ), “ What is eSports and why do people watch it ”, Internet Research , Vol. 27 No. 2 , pp. 211 - 232 .

Howes , S.C. , Charles , D.K. , Marley , J. , Pedlow , K. and McDonough , S.M. ( 2017 ), “ Gaming for health: systematic review and meta-analysis of the physical and cognitive effects of active computer gaming in older adults ”, Physical Therapy , Vol. 97 No. 12 , pp. 1122 - 1137 .

Kowert , R. , Vogelgesang , J. , Festl , R. and Quandt , T. ( 2015 ), “ Psychosocial causes and consequences of online video game play ”, Computers in Human Behavior , Vol. 45 , pp. 51 - 58 .

Lamkin , P. ( 2017 ), “ Virtual reality headset sales hit 1 million ”, available at: www.forbes.com/sites/paullamkin/2017/11/30/virtual-reality-headset-sales-hit-1-million/#241697c42b61/ (accessed October 4, 2018 ).

Liu , D. , Li , X. and Santhanam , R. ( 2013 ), “ Digital games and beyond: what happens when players compete ”, MIS Quarterly , Vol. 37 No. 1 , pp. 111 - 124 .

Oleksy , T. and Wnuk , A. ( 2017 ), “ Catch them all and increase your place attachment! The role of location-based augmented reality games in changing people–place relations ”, Computers in Human Behavior , Vol. 76 , pp. 3 - 8 .

Rauschnabel , P.A. , Rossmann , A. and tom Dieck , M.C. ( 2017 ), “ An adoption framework for mobile augmented reality games: the case of Pokémon Go ”, Computers in Human Behavior , Vol. 76 , pp. 276 - 286 .

Seo , Y. ( 2016 ), “ Professionalized consumption and identity transformations in the field of eSports ”, Journal of Business Research , Vol. 69 No. 1 , pp. 264 - 272 .

Seo , Y. , Buchanan‐Oliver , M. and Fam , K.S. ( 2015 ), “ Advancing research on computer game consumption: a future research agenda ”, Journal of Consumer Behaviour , Vol. 14 No. 6 , pp. 353 - 356 .

Takahashi , D. ( 2018 ), “ Newzoo: games market expected to hit $180.1 billion in revenues in 2021 ”, available at: https://venturebeat.com/2018/04/30/newzoo-global-games-expected-to-hit-180-1-billion-in-revenues-2021/ (accessed October 4, 2018 ).

Tussyadiah , I.P. , Wang , D. , Jung , T.H. and tom Dieck , M.C. ( 2018 ), “ Virtual reality, presence and attitude change: empirical evidence from tourism ”, Tourism Management , Vol. 66 , pp. 140 - 154 .

Acknowledgements

The guest editors would like to offer special thanks to the Editor of Internet Research , Christy Cheung, for supporting the publication of this special issue. The guest editors would also like to thank all of the authors who contributed to this research for the “Online and mobile gaming” special issue. Finally, the guest editors gratefully acknowledge the contribution of reviewers, who generously spent their time in helping to review submissions: Luke Butcher, Curtin University, Australia; Hsiu-Hua Chang, Feng Chia University, Taiwan; I-Cheng Chang, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan; Chi-Wen Chen, California State University, USA; Zifei Fay Chen, University of San Francisco, USA; Sujeong Choi, Chonnam National University, Korea; Diego Costa Pinto, New University of Lisbon, Portugal; Angela Cruz, Monash University, Australia; Robert Davis, Massey University, New Zealand; Julia Fehrer, University of Auckland, New Zealand; Tony Garry, University of Otago, New Zealand; Tracy Harwood, De Montfort University, UK; Mu Hu, Beihang University, China; Tseng-Lung Huang, Yuan Ze University, Taiwan; Kun-Huang Huang, Feng Chia University, Taiwan; Chelsea Hughes, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA; Euejung Hwang, Otago University, New Zealand; Sang-Uk Jung, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Korea; Kacy Kim, Bryant University, USA; Dong-Mo Koo, Kyungpook National University, Korea; Jun Bum Kwon, University of New South Wales, Australia; Chun-Chia Lee, National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan; Jacob Chaeho Lee, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Korea; Loic Li, University of Auckland, New Zealand; Marcel Martončik, University of Presov, Slovakia; Mike Molesworth, University of Reading, UK; Gavin Northey, University of Auckland, New Zealand; James Richard, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand; Ryan Rogers, University of Pennsylvania, USA; Felix Septianto, University of Auckland, New Zealand; Zhen Shao, Harbin Institute of Technology, China; Kai-Shuan Shen, Fo Guang University, Taiwan; Jungmin Son, Chungnam National University; Korea; Yang Sun, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, China; Eva van Reijmersdal, University of Amsterdam, Netherlands; Ekant Veer, University of Canterbury, New Zealand; John Velez, Indiana University, USA; Wei-Tsong Wang, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan; Ya-Ling Wu, Tamkang University, Taiwan; Sheau-Fen Yap, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand; and Sukki Yoon, Bryant University, USA.

Corresponding author

About the authors.

Yuri Seo is Senior Lecturer at the University of Auckland of Business School, New Zealand. His research interests include digital technology and consumption, cultural branding and multicultural marketplaces.

Rebecca Dolan is Lecturer at the University of Adelaide School of Business, Australia. Her research focuses on understanding, facilitating and optimizing customer relationships, engagement, and online communication strategies. She has a specific interest in the role that digital and social media play in the modern marketing communications environment.

Margo Buchanan-Oliver is Professor in the Department of Marketing and the Co-Director of the Centre of Digital Enterprise (CODE) at the University of Auckland Business School. Her research concerns interdisciplinary consumption discourse and practice, particularly that occurring at the intersection of the digital and physical worlds.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Positive effects of online games on the growth of college students: a qualitative study from china.

• 1 School of Nursing, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
• 2 School of Mental Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China

Objectives: This study aimed to explore the positive effects of online games on college students’ psychological demands and individual growth.

Methods: A qualitative study design was carried out in September 2021. Semi-structured, in-depth, and individual interviews were conducted with a purposive sample of 20 undergraduates who played the online game “Glory of Kings” from six universities. Thematic analysis was employed to explore the positive features caused by “Glory of Kings”.

Results: College students reported three positive effects of online games, namely, satisfying the need for personal growth, meeting the requirement of social life and promoting academic performance.

Conclusion: College educators and families should take advantage of the positive effect of online games to guide college students to use online games reasonably.

1. Introduction

According to the survey data of the China Internet Network Information Center (CNNIC), by the end of December 2021, the number of netizens in China reached 1.032 billion, of which the number of online game users reached 554 million ( CNNIC, 2022 ). The number of game apps reached 709,000, accounting for 28.2% of all apps ( CNNIC, 2022 ). Online games include massive, multiplayer, online role-playing games (MMORPGs), first-person shooter (FPS), real-time strategy (RTS) games, and other games ( Park et al., 2016 ). MOBA (Multiplayer Online Battle Arena) game, a subgenre of RTS games where two teams of five players usually play against each other ( Mora-Cantallops and Sicilia, 2018b ), is one of the most popular online games in China because of its competitive, interactive, and simple operating characteristics. Specifically, “Glory of Kings,” as a MOBA game, is listed at the top of the Chinese mobile game charts for contemporary college students ( Huang, 2021 ).

Online games are criticized by educators because many students invest a lot of time, money, and energy into games, which seriously affects their academic studies, social interaction, and physical and mental health, and ultimately leads to the tragedy of online game addiction ( Freeman, 2008 ; Kuss and Griffiths, 2012 ; Blinka and Mikuška, 2014 ; Xu et al., 2017 ). Online game addiction, as one of the most serious behavioral addictions ( Lopez-Fernandez, 2018 ), could cause a series of physical and mental problems, such as poor sleep, depression, anxiety, or even death ( Ferguson et al., 2011 ; Kuss and Griffiths, 2012 ; Wei et al., 2012 ). Meanwhile, parents’ opposition to online games can also be observed in family education. Studies have shown that the more addicted adolescents are to online games, the worse their parents’ attitude toward online games ( Jeong and Kim, 2011 ). Many adolescents who love playing online games face restrictions or prohibitions from their parents over the time spent on the Internet or other ways. For example, in a study of 2,021 adolescents, parental restrictions were 1.9 times higher among adolescents who were overly addicted to online games than among other adolescents ( Wu et al., 2016 ). Parents who do not show enough attention to their children promptly can lead to children using online games to divert negative family-related emotions ( Xu et al., 2021 ).

However, it is worth noting that the majority of studies focus on the negative effects of online games ( Lo et al., 2005 ; Ng and Wiemer-Hastings, 2005 ; Yc, 2006 ; Smyth, 2007 ; Li and Wang, 2013 ), while positive effects are neglected. In fact, playing online games at a moderate level could be beneficial to players’ personal psychological growth and interpersonal relationships ( Ko et al., 2005 ; Yee, 2006b ; Granic et al., 2014 ). In terms of emotional experience, existing research on the emotional impact of online games suggests that they have the potential to reduce depression, stress and obtain happiness ( Wu and Liu, 2007 ; Ari et al., 2020 ; Pine et al., 2020 ). In the process of psychological development, college students’ cognitive, memory, and other mental skills are proved to be enhanced by online games ( Boot et al., 2008 ; Glass et al., 2013 ; Oei and Patterson, 2013 ). There is evidence that games have the potential to provoke thought about the player’s personal development and ideals and increase the sense of self-realization if the players have strong ability in online games ( Nuangjumnong, 2014 ; Bopp et al., 2016 ; Mora-Cantallops and Sicilia, 2018a ). In social life, online games also establish the value of social connectedness and enhance the sense of interaction ( McClelland et al., 2011 ; Snodgrass et al., 2011 ; Oliver et al., 2016 ). Sublette and Mullan (2010 , p. 20) argue that through online games “socialization may just shift in focus: while real-world relationships eroded for some players.” It is further proposed that intimacy in games will also extend to offline real life, and shared game experience will reinforce offline communication ( Kim and Kim, 2017 ; Lai and Fung, 2019 ). MOBA games focus on personality development and teamwork in battle ( Yang et al., 2014 ; Mora-Cantallops and Sicilia, 2018b ). In other words, electronic space expands social communication to the virtual field ( Yee, 2006a ) and increases the team cooperation consciousness, leading to diverse communication ways. Besides, in terms of learning, online games are proven to help students engage in learning activities ( Iaremenko, 2017 ; Schenk et al., 2017 ; Calvo-Ferrer and Belda-Medina, 2021 ).

Existing research confirms that the academic performance and satisfaction of Chinese college students positively impact on the continued use of the “Glory of Kings” and promote the reconstruction of the player’s social image ( Chen and Chang, 2020 ). As mentioned above, previous studies have examined various positive aspects of online games, but the studies are based on foreign cultural contexts. Research subjects from different cultural backgrounds may have different perceptions and influences on online games, so it is culturally significant to study the positive influence of online games on Chinese college students. In other words, whether they can apply to the Chinese culture and environment or whether similar conclusions can be drawn among the Chinese college gamer population, has not been verified. Moreover, although “Glory of Kings” is widely concerned and popular among college students, few scholars in China try to evaluate the positive impact of “Glory of Kings” on college students. The design and development of “Glory of Kings” have distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, therefore, the choice of “Glory of Kings” as a carrier for the study has cultural significance. Secondly, the widespread usage of “Glory of Kings” among college students provides universality for the study. Third, since most of the existing studies are quantitative, qualitative research can enrich the existing research results, explore new experiences, and make relevant suggestions for higher education and family education. In conclusion, given the current popularity and influence of “Glory of Kings” in China, an in-depth study of Chinese college student players was conducted using it as a medium for qualitative research.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. participants.

A purposive sampling method was adopted to select college students who were “Glory of Kings” players from six universities or colleges in Zhejiang Province. Inclusion criteria: (1) college students; (2) playing the “Glory of Kings” game for more than 1 year; (3) have participated in the “Glory of Kings” game in the ranking tournament; and (4) informed consent and voluntary participation. Exclusion criteria: (1) college students suspended from school due to physical problems; (2) students who have a medical history of mental illness or psychiatric disorders and who were screened as having mental problems in the students’ general psychological test. The sample size was determined based on the principle of theoretical saturation. Interviews were conducted until reached theoretical saturation—that is, when the 18th participants did not provide new insights, and two more interviews were conducted to verify if new information would emerge. In the end, no new ideas were found to emerge making the sample size appropriate for this study. Among 23 students who were invited to participate, one student refused to participate due to lack of interest, and two persons were unable to participate due to time conflicts. Eventually, 20 college students (13 males and 7 females) were interviewed. Their ages ranged from 18 to 21 years, and their experience in playing the “Glory of Kings” game ranged from 2 to 6 years. The detailed information of participants is shown in Table 1 .

Table 1. The basic information of the “Glory of Kings” player interviewees.

2.2. Data collection

Participants were recruited in September 2021 with the assistance of the university’s gaming societies. The gaming societies presented the study recruitment information to members via social media. Participation was voluntary, and no incentive was offered for participation. The demographic information was collected before the interview, and the GPA information was collected at the beginning and end of the semester. The pilot-tested, semi-structured interviews were conducted using pre-determined, open-ended questions. The interviewers were conducted by two senior undergraduate students who had acquired knowledge of psychology, interpersonal communication, and qualitative research through relevant training prior to conducting this study. When conducting the interviews, they would follow a unified syllabus and agree on the follow-up questions. The interviews were conducted in a combination of online and offline formats. For participants located in Wenzhou City, interviews were conducted face-to-face in a meeting room at Wenzhou Medical University, where the environment was quiet and undisturbed. For participants located outside of Wenzhou City, online video interviews were conducted using social media. In addition to questions on demographic information, the interview syllabus was as follows:

1. Why do you play games?

2. How do you feel about being a player in the game of “Glory of Kings?”

3. What do you expect to gain from playing the game of “Glory of Kings?” And what do you actually gain from the game?

4. What is your experience with playing the game? And what experiences do you find enjoyable?

5. What are the best and worst things you think happen in the game?

6. What personal changes do you think have occurred after playing the game?

7. Is there anything else you would like to talk about on this topic?

All interviews were conducted at the time most convenient to the participants, and the interview schedule was determined 1 day in advance. Before the interview, participants were told about the procedures, such as how long the interview would last, the topics to be discussed, and permission to record the interview. Each interviewee lasted for approximately 30–40 min. All interviews were audiotaped and transcribed within 24 h after the interview. Two researchers independently completed and checked transcription to reduce personal biases.

2.3. Data analysis

Inductive thematic analysis was used to analyze the data ( Braun and Clarke, 2006 ) and data were analyzed using qualitative analysis software NVivo 10. The steps were as follows: (1) transcript reading, preliminary coding, and note-taking; (2) developing final codes by reading and rereading the transcripts to identify patterns and themes; (3) developing a thematic mind map; (4) defining and naming themes and sub-themes, and (5) preparing the final report with an analysis of the selected fragments. Data were analyzed by two researchers to ensure reliability, when other researchers examined and validated the data, codes, and analyses by holding regular research team meetings. Textual information was discussed by the researchers several times until a consensus was reached. In addition, the results of the preliminary analysis were shared with the participants for their reviews and comments. The analysis was done in Chinese and the quotes were then translated into English and checked by a native translator who was not involved with the data collection (see Table 2 for an example of the process).

Table 2. Thematic analysis of transcribed data from interviews with 20 people with the online game “Glory of Kings”.

2.4. Ethical considerations

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Wenzhou Medical University (2022-028). This study complies with the Helsinki Declaration’s guidelines. After obtaining both verbal and written information about the study, the participants signed informed consent. Written informed consent was obtained from the individuals for the participation in this study and the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article, and the data was password-protected and encrypted. Each participant was assigned a coding reference, which referred to the participant’s number and gender (i.e., M3 refers to respondent 3, Male gender). During the interviews, the researchers treated the participants with respect, listened intently, and responded to their questions.

Three themes were identified from the data material, namely, meeting the college student’s personal growth, satisfying the social needs of college students, and promoting academic performance.

3.1. Meeting the need for personal growth

3.1.1. relieve stress and achieve happiness.

Online games, because of the characteristics of confrontation, entertainment and challenge, make it a way for college students to vent their emotions. Most interviewees believe that the fast pace of university brings them great study pressure. Also, college students of different grades report different sources of stress, such as pressure from parents, peers, academics, etc. However, no matter what kind of stress leads to negative emotions, they can be relieved through entertainment games. Following are typical quotes from gamers who said that the game can relieve negative emotions and bring positive feelings.

Game is not a necessity, but I would occasionally indulge in it. I like to live happily in virtual games (M5, 20-year-old).

When encounter troubles, I choose to play a few rounds of games. Although the pleasure brought by the game is temporary, it could fade away the troubles (M1, 20-year-old).

I went through a particularly bad period last semester… Later, I fell in love with “Glory of Kings,” and sometimes I even stayed up late to play games… However, when I was addicted to games temporarily, my pressure was released, which provides enough energy and enthusiasm to face difficulties (F7, 19-year-old).

3.1.2. Overcome the shortcomings and gain self-awareness

Due to the nature of “Glory of Kings,” it provides a platform for college students to fully enhance their consciousness. The characteristics of the five different roles in this game can also further prompt players to recognize their shortcomings and provide a reference for players to understand themselves. Players whose self-awareness is not clear enough get a clearer understanding through the game, and players whose self-perception is vague or even sometimes wrong get a chance to correct it. Following are typical quotes from gamers who have better self-awareness.

Gradually, I started to think about the reason, until I realized that I lacked a sense of the big picture and cooperation. Since then, I’ve made a conscious effort to work with my team on offense, which provides me with a better chance of victory. In life, I also recognized similar shortcomings and corrected them (F1, 19-year-old).

I prefer to play the role as an assassin, but I’m always not good at it. Later, my teammates suggested that I should be bolder and more adventurous. Under the guidance and practice, I gradually became proficient (M12, 18-year-old).

I am an untalkative person in life, but through playing games, I try to actively communicate with my teammates and gradually become more cheerful and good at communication (F4, 19-year-old).

3.1.3. Gain achievement and self-realization

Contrary to the harsh real society, the virtual game world demonstrates a new relatively equal social environment in its unique way and rich content. College students can explore multiple identities by experiencing multiple avatars or changing the appearance of avatars, thereby creating a virtual self-image that is sometimes compensatory and even restorative. Following are typical quotes from gamers who said that the game can bring them positive feelings.

I may be an ordinary person in life, but being a core character in games brings confidence (M1, 20-year-old).

In the virtual world of online games, college students can present themselves without the constraints of the single evaluation system of academic performance in real life. It provides the best arena for college students to gain achievement and fulfill their needs.

Sometimes I feel inferior because of my poor academic performance, and my classmates often treat me with colored glasses… Ranking as a king in the game, many players are willing to team up with me, which gives me a sense of accomplishment and brings back the confidence I lost in real life.

3.2. Satisfying the need for social life

3.2.1. broaden the social network.

College students can make friends around the world with common interests in the virtual world. The game’s forum provides the means to initiate a chat or team invitations to skilled players, as well as the option to team up with players in the same city. Through this avenue, strangers can converse with each other across geographical distances and blur cultural boundaries. Following are typical quotes from gamers who widened the breadth of interpersonal communication.

I spend most of my time playing games with my real friends, sometimes accepting game invitations from strangers and meeting skilled friends (F4, 19-year-old).

Because of the game, I met people of different ages and professions who taught me about game operations (M6, 19-year-old).

3.2.2. Increase social interaction

Online games offer everyone a convenient way to socialize and reduce social costs. The majority of participants reported that they would choose “Glory of Kings” as a common hobby to better integrate into the surrounding circle of friends. And some students will consciously take some compensatory actions against their friends who do not play games to maintain their friendship. Following are typical quotes from gamers who widened the breadth of interpersonal communication.

Playing games with unfamiliar individuals could quickly promote mutual understanding (F7, 19-year-old; M4, 21-year-old).

Playing games together can promote communication between roommates and increase common language (F2, 19-year-old).

I have a friend who does not play games and I tried to teach her to play but she refused. So I would study or eat with her after finishing the game time, and our relationship has always been tight (F5, 19-year-old).

3.2.3. Value teamwork

In the game “Glory of Kings,” college students work as a team to promote friendship and learn from each other’s strengths. Cooperation is necessary for the progress of this game, and there is also a respondent who says he has transformed from a solitary player to a competent collaborator. Every interviewee agreed that they preferred to work with the team and were willing to do their best to cooperate with their teammates when playing the game and even sacrifice for teammates when necessary. Following are typical quotes from gamers who enjoyed teamwork.

Sometimes I could not figure it out on my own, but a team could succeed (M1, 20-year-old).

I used to fight alone when I think that just be happy with myself. But gradually I fell in love with playing in team battles and was happy to cooperate with the team. Meanwhile, if I do not focus on team cooperation, there will be no communication in the game, and the road to promotion will be bumpy (M3, 19-year-old).

3.3. Promoting academic performance

3.3.1. improve learning ability.

The topic of academics was constantly mentioned and excavated in the interviews. The interviewees mentioned that online games helped them to master some transferable skills, such as problem-solving ability, quick thinking ability, etc. These abilities are usually trained unconsciously in games, and the player is able to experience the corresponding ability improvements in the real world when the match is over. Following are typical quotes from gamers who improved their ability to learn.

By studying the characters’ skill matching and line-ups in the game, my mind seemed to be more flexible and my problem-solving efficiency improved (M8, 18-year-old).

In order to improve my game skills, I watched the live video of the game host and learned their skills. As time passed, I found it easier to follow the teacher’s explanation in class while I could not keep up with the teacher’s quick thinking before (F2, 19-year-old).

3.3.2. Increase interest in learning

The combination of abstract and complex knowledge with online games can change the current passive input education model and make students more interested and effective in learning. Following are typical quotes from gamers who said that they could accept the teaching content more effectively in the process of playing games.

The teacher introduced the historical relationships between different characters using the heroic characters from “Glory of Kings,” which suddenly made a sleepy history lesson come to life (F2, 19-year-old).

Some interviewees also proposed that combining the virtual currency obtained in the game with the correct rate of answering questions in the virtual classroom of college students can improve students’ classroom performance. Following are typical quotes from gamers who proposed that the mechanics of the game can be realized in the real world.

Using this way of learning can motivate me to arrange my online game time rationally, reduce my dependence on online games and enjoy studying more (F6, 20-year-old).

4. Discussion

This study examines whether “Glory of Kings” has a positive impact on college students. The qualitative nature of this study allows players to fully articulate specific aspects of their perspectives and allows researchers to analyze their views and attitudes in depth.

4.1. The impact on personal growth

Most participants in our study believe that the pressure in their university life can be relieved through online games which are consistent with the findings of Ari et al. (2020) . The pressure from various aspects, such as academics, family, and social lives, as well as the confusion about the future, bring contemporary college students under more psychological pressure. Online games make it a way for college students to escape from reality and vent their suppressed emotions, and some students also accompany the relief method of verbal catharsis in the process. These findings are similar to those of Pine et al. (2020) that college students enjoy the happiness that accompanies the release of stress when gaming.

College students are in an important period of strengthening their self-consciousness system. As a medium, “Glory of Kings” provides players with a competitive platform whose ultimate goal is victory. In order to continue to win, players need to constantly reflect and summarize ( Kow, 2017 ). Larsen (2020) proposed seven aspects of the skill theory framework to guide players to improve their skill level in the game. Therefore, players can correspond to the theoretical framework and reflect on their shortcomings and deficiencies. By having the opportunity to overcome shortcomings and reflect on themselves in the game world, ultimately a clearer self-awareness can be projected and benefit the player in the real world.

According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, the ultimate human need is self-actualization. Likewise, college students need to be respected and expect to gain achievement ( Zhong and Yao, 2013 ). Liao et al. (2017) proposed that people will form virtual personalities on the Internet through self-remodeling, while virtual personalities are often different from the real world. In real life, the differences in economic conditions, living areas, material conditions, status, and the increasingly fierce competition environment often limit college students’ achievement experience. In online games, the boundary between physical reality and virtual reality will be blurred by more personalized and immersive environments ( Young, 2009 ; Soutter and Hitchens, 2016 ; Kuo et al., 2017 ), resulting in a convenient way for college students to get achievements. Like the ordinary student M8, he was appreciated by others for his superb gaming skills. In conclusion, achieving self-worth and reaching potential are the goals to meet the need for self-actualization ( Liao et al., 2017 ).

4.2. The impact on interpersonal communication

In the case of “Glory of Kings,” which is a confrontation that unfolds by grouping, the system offers both the opportunity to form teams on one’s own and the option of random matching. Online games try to expand player interactivity and social friendships in the setting of game rules to attract more players, which coincides with the needs of college students to interact with people ( Ducheneaut and Moore, 2004 ). Linked to the trait of awakened autonomy among college students, they will establish emotional communication with like-minded friends they meet in “Glory of Kings,” and will also subjectively choose whom to team up with, which may be teammates they meet through the game or friends in the real world. The game provides a more comfortable communication platform for strangers in real life, thus widening the breadth of interpersonal communication.

Most of the participants in this research also tend to play “Glory of Kings” with their friends. According to the study by Croes and Antheunis (2021) , people’s intimacy is directly proportional to the frequency of interaction. Consistent with the conclusion of Lai and Fung (2019) , college students will not alienate their friends and feel lonely because of excessive investment in playing games. On the contrary, the emotions and experiences shared in the virtual game world can strengthen the bond between them ( Granic et al., 2014 ). College students can fight side by side with their friends in the gaming world, and discuss gaming skills together offline. The game does not destroy or isolate their relationships. On the contrary, the tacit cooperation and communication between players in the game make the relationship closer.

Most of our participants recognize that they liked the teamwork model of “Glory of Kings.” Consist to the study by Chen and Chang (2020) , a MOBA mobile game, it simulates a real-world situation in which temporary teams of strangers complete complex tasks in a short period. It can provide players with a unique platform for teamwork in such scenarios where social relationships need to be established quickly. It is further suggested in the study of Ewoldsen et al. (2012) that this can increase pro-social behaviors outside of the game environment, such as social and civic activities. It follows that teams derive satisfaction from existence, which is part of the meaning of collective effort. Choosing the group and cooperating to reach the same goals is precisely what is essential in real life as well.

4.3. The impact on academic performance

Contrary to conventional beliefs that playing games is intellectually lazy and sedating, playing games is shown to promote a wide range of cognitive skills ( Granic et al., 2014 ). Compared with non-gamers, gamers show faster and more accurate attention allocation, and higher spatial resolution enhanced mental rotation in visual processing, these skills are transferred to other spatial tasks outside the game context ( Green and Bavelier, 2012 ). In addition, scholars speculate that problem-solving skills can also be developed. On the whole, there are many good principles of learning built into good online games ( Adachi and Willoughby, 2013 ), which could be applied to school learning tomorrow.

For this generation that grows up with the Internet, online games are an integral medium of communication and learning and have great potential for schools and workplaces to increase engagement, creativity and lifelong learning skills ( Gee, 2003 ; Turkay and Adinolf, 2012 ; Granic et al., 2014 ). From the existing overall analysis results, the condition of the online games has more positive learning effect than traditional teaching condition. In addition to improving learning and memory ( Sitzmann, 2011 ; Wouters et al., 2013 ), online gameplay has the potential to motivate individuals to participate in educational settings to improve students’ interest in learning ( Clark et al., 2016 ).

4.4. Suggestions for parents and college management

By considering both the negative effects and potential benefits of the existence of games, many scholars proposed some balanced perspectives on the use of games for real-world personal growth with the intervention and supervision of a third party. The influence of the family is a pivotal factor, as it contributes significantly to the socialization of adolescents ( Liu et al., 2015 ). Parental regulation through restrictive mediation or conversational mediation in adolescents’ gaming is one important factor that may limit adolescents’ gaming behavior ( Colasante et al., 2022 ).

On the other hand, it is unscientific for parents to blindly prohibit their children from online games ( Chen et al., 2020 ). More and more parents accept the Internet and games as valuable learning tools ( Willoughby, 2008 ). Those parents help children become consumers to judge the advantages of games, plan a variety of leisure activities, mediate violent temptation games, and help children find the meaning of online games through positive communication ( Chiu et al., 2004 ). Indeed, co-playing games with parents are associated with heightened prosocial behavior for girls ( Coyne et al., 2011 ). In addition, researchers suggest that adolescents who receive the correct family education for the online game may learn ways to meet basic needs and self-control ( Griffiths and Meredith, 2009 ; Liu et al., 2015 ; Chen et al., 2020 ). Parents should create a harmonious family atmosphere by continuously improving their parenting skills and building close relationships with their children, which is in line with the suggestions of Chiu et al. (2004) . Meanwhile, parents should keep in touch with teachers to understand their children’s confusion as well as their use of the Internet at school to actively cooperate with the school’s policies.

Schools are digital education providers and prevention centers. Our results suggested that educators can take advantage of game-based education to facilitate problem-solving ability and to increase the study interests of college students ( Whitton and MacLure, 2017 ). Moreover, universities or colleges can use online games as a potentially useful and beneficial educational tool to promote students’ positive emotions. For example, a school in Seoul, South Korea, set up an online game course that covers the humanities of games, game terminology, game manipulation, Q&A with professional players, and game science to positively impact students at different grades and schools in public education sites ( Choi and Bang, 2021 ).

Many colleges and universities in China nowadays create electronic competitive social organizations and used network games in their daily teaching, not only to enrich students’ extracurricular life, but also to provide a platform for college students to find like-minded friends to play online games reasonably. Furthermore, some universities or colleges combine health education of online games with ideological and political work and try to establish college students’ mental profiles to understand their overall psychological conditions when they are playing online games. More strategies are needed to maximize the positive impact of online games on college students and help them grow healthily.

5. Implication

Despite the negative perception of online games in the Chinese cultural context, our study re-examines the impact of online games from the gamer’s perspective. To a certain extent, online games meet the personalized requirements of college students’ personal growth in Chinese collectivist culture, realize the need for the social interaction satisfaction, and enhance creativity in learning ( Chen and Chang, 2020 ). The higher education nowadays should more scientifically guide teachers and parents to change their attitudes toward online games and recognize the benefits of online games ( Whitton and MacLure, 2017 ). Meanwhile, the advantages of online games can be exploited to benefit more students by promoting their problem-solving ability through game-based education, contributing to more productive physical and mental health and learning ( Granic et al., 2014 ).

6. Limitation

Although this study shows that “Glory of Kings” has a positive impact on contemporary college students, it should be noted that the data are cross-sectional and longitudinal studies are still needed to confirm the long-term impact of “Glory of Kings” on college students. Secondly, the data is only derived from the feedback that respondents actively self-reported, which means that there may be some hidden part of the self-reflection content of respondents. Thirdly, relevant quantitative studies can be carried out to further verify and analyze the results of this study.

7. Conclusion

In this study, it is found that meeting the need for personal growth, satisfying the need for social life and promoting academic performance are the main positive effects of playing online games. Some suggestions that enhance the supportive role of online games are structured for family and college education.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Ethics statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Wenzhou Medical University (2022-028). Written informed consent was obtained from the individual for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

Author contributions

FL and DZ contributed to the conceptualization and writing—original draft. SW was in charge of the data collection and analysis. RZ assisted in data collation and analysis as well as literature search. CD and JZ contributed to the writing, reviewing, and editing. All authors contributed to manuscript revision, read, and approved the submitted version.

This research was supported by the Wenzhou Science and Technology Bureau Project (R20220086) and Zhejiang Province Curriculum Ideological and Political Education Research Project.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express gratitude to the colleagues who offered constructive and illuminating feedback, and to Guohua Zhang and Bingling Xia, who helped shape earlier versions of this article with their comments.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Zhong, Z.-J., and Yao, M. Z. (2013). Gaming motivations, avatar-self identification and symptoms of online game addiction. Asian J. Commun. 23, 555–573. doi: 10.1080/01292986.2012.748814

Keywords : college students, online games, Glory of Kings, personal growth, social life, academic performance, qualitative study

Citation: Li F, Zhang D, Wu S, Zhou R, Dong C and Zhang J (2023) Positive effects of online games on the growth of college students: A qualitative study from China. Front. Psychol. 14:1008211. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1008211

Received: 31 July 2022; Accepted: 13 February 2023; Published: 24 February 2023.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2023 Li, Zhang, Wu, Zhou, Dong and Zhang. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

† These authors have contributed equally to this work and share first authorship

‡ These authors have contributed equally to this work and share last authorship

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Internet gaming addiction: current perspectives

Daria j kuss.

Psychology Research and Behavior Management, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK

In the 2000s, online games became popular, while studies of Internet gaming addiction emerged, outlining the negative consequences of excessive gaming, its prevalence, and associated risk factors. The establishment of specialized treatment centers in South-East Asia, the US, and Europe reflects the growing need for professional help. It is argued that only by understanding the appeal of Internet gaming, its context, and neurobiologic correlates can the phenomenon of Internet gaming addiction be understood comprehensively. The aim of this review is to provide an insight into current perspectives on Internet gaming addiction using a holistic approach, taking into consideration the mass appeal of online games, the context of Internet gaming addiction, and associated neuroimaging findings, as well as the current diagnostic framework adopted by the American Psychiatric Association. The cited research indicates that the individual’s context is a significant factor that marks the dividing line between excessive gaming and gaming addiction, and the game context can gain particular importance for players, depending on their life situation and gaming preferences. Moreover, the cultural context is significant because it embeds the gamer in a community with shared beliefs and practices, endowing their gaming with particular meaning. The cited neuroimaging studies indicate that Internet gaming addiction shares similarities with other addictions, including substance dependence, at the molecular, neurocircuitry, and behavioral levels. The findings provide support for the current perspective of understanding Internet gaming addiction from a disease framework. The benefits of an Internet gaming addiction diagnosis include reliability across research, destigmatization of individuals, development of efficacious treatments, and the creation of an incentive for public health care and insurance providers. The holistic approach adopted here not only highlights empirical research that evidences neurobiologic correlates of Internet gaming addiction and the establishment of a preliminary diagnosis, but also emphasizes the necessity of an indepth understanding of the meaning, context, and practices associated with gaming.

Introduction: the mass appeal of Internet gaming

Internet gaming is a booming market. In 2012, more than one billion individuals played computer games, which fuelled the 8% growth of the computer gaming industry in the same year. 1 A recent report by the market research company Niko Partners has estimated the People’s Republic of China’s online gaming market at $12 billion in 2013. 2 Massively Multiplayer Online games (MMOs) offer the possibility to play together with many other players and can be differentiated based on game content and player experience. A latent profile analysis of survey data from 4,374 Hungarian online gamers (91% male, mean age 21±6 years) indicated that the most prominent MMOs were role-playing games, first-person shooters, real-time strategy, and other games. 3 First-person MMO shooter games are based on skill because they require good reaction time and attention, and competition is a key aspect of these games. In real-time MMO strategy games, players organize teams, develop their skills, and play for status in the game. 4

Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs), on the other hand, appear of particular interest to players because they offer a variety of incentives for play relative to other game genres. Of all online gamers, 46% play MMORPGs, 3 confirming their position as the most popular online games. MMORPGs are game universes inhabited by thousands of players at the same time (massively multiplayer) with no spatial or temporal boundaries because they are played online, and they allow players to adopt various virtual personas vis-à-vis their avatars (role playing). 5 Today’s most popular MMORPG is “World of Warcraft”, the latest game in Blizzard’s Warcraft series, situated in the fantasy world of Azeroth that is populated by members of the opposing factions of the Alliance and the Horde. 6 According to a recent report published by the Entertainment Software Association, 7 World of Warcraft’s extension “Cataclysm” was among the top five selling computer games in 2011. In 2013, eight million players immersed themselves in the world of Azeroth, 8 clearly demonstrating the game’s mass appeal. The game tailors to most age groups, both sexes, and various player interests and preferences, 6 making it an MMORPG success story par excellence.

Online games such as World of Warcraft satisfy various gaming motivations. The analysis by Yee 9 of 3,000 MMORPG players’ gaming motivations revealed that MMORPGs allow players to achieve game goals, be social, and immerse in the game. Each of these factors is composed of a number of subcomponents as particularized by the gamers. First, achievement includes advancing in the game, namely progressing via leveling up, acquiring status and power in the game, the game’s mechanics, including the possibilities for optimizing game play, and competition, including challenging and dominating others. 9 Reputation and admiration from the gaming community for gaming achievements are further key factors motivating players to keep playing. 6 The game mechanics or structural characteristics have been claimed to reinforce the potentially addictive qualities of games because they contribute to initiation, development, and maintenance of gaming. 10

Second, the social factor is composed of socializing, including chatting and making new friends in the game, forming new relationships, and working in a team. 9 Research 11 suggests that the social element in MMORPGs is particularly important for gamers because it is an integral component of the enjoyment of playing. Moreover, it denotes a complex interaction between real and virtual social networks, further blurring the boundaries between these networks, making MMORPGs inherently social spaces. 12

Third, immersion in the game is denoted by discovery, ie, exploring the game and “hidden” game content, role-playing via one’s avatar, customization of one’s online character (such as sex, race, profession, appearance), and escapism, ie, playing in order to avoid real life. 9 Escapism is an aspect of mood modification whereby individuals suffering from addictions induce a subjective shift in their mood by way of engaging in an addictive behavior, making the latter a coping strategy to deal with everyday problems. 13

The variety of gaming motivations satisfied by MMOR-PGs indicates that these types of games are particularly versatile because they can be tailored to individual players with different game preferences. Consequently, one could assume that there are many ways that might lead some individuals to get hooked on MMORPGs. In a sample of 696 MMORPG players (93% male, mean age 26±7.4 years), achievement, socializing, and escapism motivations were found to be predictive of addictive play, together with sex accounting for 19% of variance in the MMORPG addiction score. 14 Similarly, in a sample of 175 primarily Dutch MMORPG players (87% male, mean age 21±6.5 years), escapism and game mechanics predicted excessive gaming over and above the contribution of the time spent gaming, together explaining 46% of the variance in problematic gaming. 5 In a nutshell, the mass appeal of MMORPGs rests on their versatility because they are tailored to gamers young and old, male and female, who have different game preferences. MMORPGs are particularly good at meeting various players’ different needs. This mass appeal may have contributed to findings from research which indicate that online games, and specifically MMORPGs, are more addictive than any other types of both offline and online games 15 because they reward players on partial reinforcement schedules, leading to maintenance of play. 16

Internet gaming addiction

In recent years, research about Internet gaming addiction has increased both in quantity as well as in quality. Research on gaming addiction dates back to 1983, when the first report emerged suggesting that video gaming addiction is a problem for students. 17 Shortly thereafter, the first empirical study on gaming addiction was published by Shotton, 18 based on self-reports of young male players who claimed they were “hooked” on their games. The early studies suffered from a lack of standardized psychometric instruments used for assessing gaming addiction. 19 However, research 20 indicates that self-reports correlate with standardized measures. Following on from that, further studies were carried out in the 1990s, initially assessing gaming addiction based on the criteria for pathologic gambling as stipulated in the third and fourth editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM). 21 Although similar, pathological gambling and excessive gaming do not present with the same clinical picture, and some have argued that using the diagnostic criteria for pathological gambling in order to diagnose pathological gaming only taps into obsessive use and preoccupation rather than actual psychopathology. 22 In the 2000s, online games became popular, while studies of Internet gaming addiction emerged. 23 , 24

The studies on Internet gaming addiction in the new millennium reported prevalence estimates which vary significantly and range from 0.2% in Germany 25 , 26 to 50% of Korean teenagers. 27 This discrepancy in estimates is due to various conceptualizations, diverse measurement instruments, as well as the different cutoff points used. Further, dissimilar constructs (“Internet gaming addiction”, “dependence”, “problematic”, and “excessive play”) are measured in various samples (children, adolescents, gamers) and cultures. In most studies, self-reports have been used, which puts the reliability and validity of the potential diagnosis in question. 28 However, research 20 indicates that self-diagnosis correlates with standardized measures of addiction, suggesting that the individual’s perception of problems can be relatively accurate.

In South-East Asian countries, the negative impacts of Internet gaming addiction have led governments and health care providers to take the problem seriously and to develop a series of initiatives to curb and alleviate the problem. In South Korea, Internet gaming addiction is viewed as a significant concern for public health, 29 and up to 24% of children who have been diagnosed with Internet addiction are hospitalized. 30 In Japan, the government has recognized the problem following a study by the Ministry of Education, which has led to the development of “fasting camps” where individuals suffering from Internet and gaming addiction are helped by being cut off from technology completely. 31 It has been stated that the higher the Internet penetration and social acceptance of gaming, the higher the prevalence of gaming problems, 32 partially explaining the higher prevalence rates reported in South-East Asian countries. In addition to this, there is good reason to think that the lower acceptance of excessive gaming in a culture, the more distress (not less) gamers experience in engaging in the activity, potentially fuelling problem perception. Therefore, a lack of acceptance of excessive gaming and thus stigmatization of the behavior might contribute to higher rates of addiction and problematic play in some way. Following growing concern, specialized treatment centers and programs have been established in Europe (including the outpatient clinic for behavioral addictions in Mainz, Germany, and the Capio Nightingale Hospital in London, UK) and the US (including the inpatient centers RESTART Internet Addiction Recovery Program in Seattle and the recently opened digital detoxification and recovery center in Pennsylvania), reflecting the growing need for professional help.

The concerns appear to be grounded as a growing number of studies indicate that Internet gaming addiction is associated with various negative consequences. 15 The psychological consequences include the following: sacrificing real-life relationships, other pastime activities, sleep, work, education, socializing, and relationships, 33 – 40 obsession with gaming and a lack of real-life relationships, 41 lack of attention, 33 , 42 aggression and hostility, 42 , 43 stress, 33 dysfunctional coping, 33 , 44 , 45 worse academic achievement, 38 , 46 problems with verbal memory, 47 and low well-being and high loneliness. 48 Moreover, psychosomatic consequences have been found in a number of studies. These included problems with sleeping, 41 , 47 seizures, 49 and psychosomatic challenges. 33 This long list indicates that Internet gaming problems must be taken seriously as they can affect the individual negatively in a variety of ways.

Internet gaming addiction is a behavioral problem that has been classified and explained in numerous ways. According to Griffiths, 13 biopsychosocial processes lead to the development of addictions, such as Internet gaming addiction, which include the following components. First, the behavior is salient (the individual is preoccupied with gaming). Second, the individual uses the behavior in order to modify their mood (ie, gaming is used to escape reality or create the feeling of euphoria). Third, tolerance develops (the individual needs increasingly more time to feel the same effect). Fourth, withdrawal symptoms occur upon discontinuation of the behavior (the individual feels anxious, depressed, and irritable if they are prevented from playing). Fifth, interpersonal and intra-personal conflict develops as a consequence of the behavior (the individual has problems with their relationship, job, and hobbies, and lack of success in abstinence). Finally, upon discontinuation of the behavior, the individual experiences relapse (they reinitiate gaming). 13

Although the core criteria appear to be established, the etiology of Internet gaming addiction has yet to be studied in detail. Research 15 indicates that a number of risk factors are associated with Internet gaming addiction. These risk factors include certain personality traits, gaming motivations, and structural game characteristics. The personality traits most commonly associated with Internet addiction include neuroticism, 37 , 50 aggression and hostility, 43 , 50 – 52 and sensation-seeking. 43 , 50 Factors that appear to protect frequent online gamers from developing problems with their gaming were found to be conscientiousness and extraversion, 53 suggesting that for different individuals the same behavior can have different psychological repercussions.

In addition to this, the following gaming motivations were found to be most commonly associated with gaming addiction: coping with daily stressors and escapism, 5 , 16 , 44 , 54 – 57 online relationships, 16 , 51 , 57 – 59 and mastery, control, recognition, completion, excitement, and challenge. 34 , 56 , 60 This indicates that the reasons for game play may be an important indicator of potential risk for Internet gaming addiction. Specifically, in comparison with non-MMORPG players, MMORPG players preferred their online friends over their real-life friends. 16 Similarly, significantly more dependent gamers were found to prefer spending time with their online friends than their offline friends relative to nondependent gamers and felt their social needs were met better online than offline. 44 Moreover, while online games provide nonaddicted players with satisfaction, addicted players play to avoid dissatisfaction, 55 which can be an indication of withdrawal symptoms they want to overcome by engaging in gaming compulsively. The motivational differences to play games between dependent and nondependent as well as MMORPG and other gamers appear to be useful clinical information because these motivations can be specifically targeted in treatment sessions. For instance, elements of exposure therapy may be used for the socially fearful in order to decrease discomfort and reintroduce clients to real-life social environments. Also, alternative pastime activities that are perceived as satisfying can be encouraged specifically in group therapy sessions. Encouraging engagement in group sports might satisfy both the need to engage in competitive and satisfying activities and the need to interact with peers in real life.

Moreover, a number of structural game characteristics have been found to increase the risk for developing Internet gaming addiction, namely online relative to offline gaming, 61 positive reinforcement, 62 the enjoyment of particular game features, such as adult content, finding rare in-game items, and watching game cut scenes, 63 and viewing one’s virtual persona as better than oneself. 64 These characteristics indicate that particular games can be more addictive than others, 15 which appears important for game developers and public prevention campaigns that focus on decreasing risk and raising awareness of potential problems. Prevention campaigns could target school-aged children, teachers, and parents in education settings. They could be based on the principles of providing information and a discussion platform concerning Internet and gaming use and possible negative consequences via psychoeducation, with the ultimate goal of encouraging healthy media use. Success could be determined over the long term using triangulation of data and reports obtained from the targeted populations.

Most reviews to date have primarily focused on specific aspects of Internet gaming addiction, including methods used to assess gaming addiction, 65 , 66 structural characteristics, 60 and treatment. 67 – 69 In light of this, the aim of this review is to provide an insight into current perspectives on Internet gaming addiction using a holistic approach, taking into consideration the mass appeal of online gaming, the context of Internet gaming addiction, and associated neuroimaging findings, as well as the current diagnostic framework adopted by the American Psychiatric Association. 70 It is argued that only by understanding the appeal of Internet gaming, its context, and neurobiologic correlates can the phenomenon of Internet gaming addiction be understood comprehensively. An evaluation of the findings will be presented in the overall discussion.

Gaming addiction: context

Research on gaming addiction has paid little attention to the context of online gaming. However, a few studies have now shed some light on the embedding of Internet gaming addiction in the context of the individual, 71 the game and gaming environment, 6 , 72 and the broader framework of culture. 73 Each of these will be addressed in turn.

Griffiths 71 provided case study evidence of two young men who spent an average of 14 hours a day playing MMORPGs in order to emphasize that the context of the individual’s life is an important factor demarcating gaming excess from gaming addiction. Aged 21 years, unemployed and single, “Dave” reported that gaming had a positive influence on his life because his social life revolved almost exclusively around the game, and playing boosted his self-esteem and gave structure to his everyday life. Dave did not perceive that his excessive gaming impacted upon his life negatively at all. For Dave, his extensive gaming did not lead to significant distress or have a negative impact in his daily life, and therefore his behavior cannot be classified as a condition that would fulfill the requirements of a mental disorder classification as outlined in the DSM-5. 74 Upon starting a new job and entering into a relationship with a woman he met in-game, his excessive gaming decreased significantly.

The second case reported was that of “Jeremy”, a 38-year old financial accountant who was married with two children and experienced detrimental consequences due to his “severe gaming addiction”, namely a relationship breakdown, lack of time for family activities, and loss of his job. Moreover, his playing time, craving for the game, and feelings of low mood and anxiety had increased dramatically. He used gaming to escape from his real-life problems and tried to quit on several occasions, but was unsuccessful in staying abstinent. This led to a number of relapse episodes. 71 The examples of Dave and Jeremy make a compelling case for how the same behavior (namely regular online gaming for excessive periods of time) can have almost diametrically opposed consequences due to different individual contexts, with one experiencing gaming as pleasurable and ultimately beneficial, whereas the other’s entire life was negatively affected by his excessive gaming.

In addition to the individual context, the context of the game appears important in determining the extent to which excessive gaming can truly be an addiction. 6 , 72 Karlsen 72 conducted 12 interviews with online gamers (75% male, mean age 23±2.4 years) who play World of Warcraft and used virtual ethnography 75 in order to assess the consequences of their excessive gaming. The results indicated that some of the players experienced behavioral addiction symptoms as specified by Griffiths, 13 namely salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, and relapse, with the latter two demarcating excessive from potentially addictive play. However, rather than advocating current diagnostic frameworks for “pathologizing” gaming, Karlsen 72 advocates to view gaming excess from the vantage point of game structure and gaming context, including the social practice and cultural meaning of games as well as the individual’s connection to the game from the perspective of game and media studies. This understanding entails a move away from the overly simplistic approach of focusing on the psychological rewards that reinforce gaming to include an indepth exploration of gaming motivations, gaming structure and mechanics, as well as the meaning of gaming for the individual. 72

Kuss 6 analyzed online gaming and potential gaming excess by interviewing eleven World of Warcraft players (72% male, mean age 27±7.3 years) and used virtual ethnography 75 as well as ludology principles 76 to understand how playing this particular game mirrors participation in popular media culture. In this context, media culture is understood as a flexible and evolving area of engagement that requires active participation. Potential gaming addiction was found to be associated with escapist motivations and in this context gaming was understood as fulfilling a “narcotic” function. The game context gained particular significance in one participant’s life because of two features of the game. First, he was able to enact heroic tales through his avatar and faction membership. As a member of the Horde, he fought the opposing faction, the Alliance, and was involved in killing their king, an episode “he would not forget until the end of his life”. Second, he was enabled to return to a familiar cultural context by means of his guild which consisted of fellow countrymen, after he had physically migrated to a foreign country. In this way, the provisions of the game (namely participation in the game’s narrative, 77 community, and belonging) 78 were utilized to a problematic extent, leaving the participant feeling “addicted to wow [World of Warcraft]”. Eventually, the analysis revealed that the meaning that is attached to the game can lead to excessive play which may cause a retreat from real life. 6

Snodgrass et al 73 surveyed 252 respondents (78% male, mean age 27±9.0 years) using Yee’s 9 motivational factors achievement, social and immersion to assess problematic MMORPG play in World of Warcraft from the perspective of culture under the supposition that gaming allows for formation of communities and cultures. 12 , 79 , 80 The cultural context situates the individual and his potentially addictive game play (assessed using Young’s Internet Addiction Test) 81 within the framework of commonly shared beliefs and practices. 82 Snodgrass et al 73 used an anthropological approach focusing on meaning, practice, and experience, mirrored in their understanding of gaming motivations and problematic play. They found that achievement motivation may lead to problematic play if players are less successful in real life (ie, less “culturally consonant”) and use game success to compensate, 73 causing stress and negative health outcomes. 83 In terms of social motivation, the extent to which online relationships gain significance over offline relationships was analyzed 73 because research indicates that lack of cultural consonance regarding social networks impacts negatively upon health. 84 Regarding immersion, the amalgamation of online and offline life and identities was assessed, 73 because association of the self with the game and the avatar could lead to dissociation. 85 , 86 The results indicated that game play in World of Warcraft mirrors cultural models of success regarding objectives and responsibilities, indicating that the game world can in some ways substitute the real world. Moreover, the culturally sensitive motivations achievement, social and immersion significantly predicted problematic MMORPG play if they were incongruent with real life, that is, if the game was used to compensate for lack of success and relationships in real life, and to dissociate from real life. 73

Taken together, the individual, game, and cultural contexts appear to have a significant impact upon the extent to which problems occur as a consequence of excessive gaming in terms of how Internet gaming addiction is conceptualized. In this way, the cultural context can be seen as a lens through which individuals and others around them perceive and give meanings to behaviors and their consequences. It is critical to understand gaming problems not only by means of the observable symptoms, but to situate them within the broader context of the game, the individual, and culture.

Gaming addiction: neuroscience

In the last decade, psychiatry has increasingly made use of neuroscientific evidence to understand and conceptualize mental disorders. 87 The major funding body for mental health research, the National Institute of Mental Health, has recently introduced research domain criteria to reclassify mental disorders as based on neuroscience and shared underlying pathophysiology rather than the more subjective approach of phenomenology and clinical presentation that has been utilized previously. 88 The ultimate aim is to improve the reliability and validity of clinical diagnosis and accordingly to deliver optimal treatment. 89 In accordance with this approach, research on Internet gaming addiction is now increasingly making use of neuroimaging techniques to allow for analysis of neurobiological changes due to excessive gaming and neurochemical correlates of addiction. 90

Some studies have shown that changes in brain activity and structure related to addiction are relevant for brain regions involved in reward, motivation, and memory, as well as cognitive control. 91 It has been hypothesized that initially the prefrontal cortex and ventral striatum are involved in the decision to initiate the addictive behavior. Over time, the individual habituates to the behavior and develops a compulsion to engage in it, which is accompanied by alterations of activity in the dorsal striatum as it becomes activated through dopaminergic innervation. There is some evidence for the idea that dopamine is released. 92 The longer the engagement continues, the more permanent the changes in the dopaminergic pathways become. It has been suggested that activity in the anterior cingulate, orbitofrontal cortex, and nucleus accumbens is modified in such a way that natural rewards are experienced as less pleasurable, further reducing control over the behavior. 93 , 94 Research suggests that over time, synaptic activity is reduced, leading to long-term depression and neuroadaptation, 95 as well as behavioral sensitization. The synapses in the ventral tegmental area become stronger, glutamate in the nucleus accumbens is reduced, and activity in the amygdala and hippocampus (related to memory) is increased, which can in turn result in craving 91 , 96 and increased response to the availability and particular context of the addictive behavior. 93 , 97 Some studies have shown that the addictive behavior becomes associated with these cues through activity in the nucleus accumbens, which reinforces the effects of the behavior. 98 With time, tolerance to the addictive behavior develops and natural rewards are depreciated, resulting in a reward system deficiency and activation of the antireward system. 99 The consequent lack of dopamine in mesocortical brain regions can lead to withdrawal symptoms, and in order to overcome these, renewed engagement in the addictive behavior ensues, and may ultimately impact upon the functions of the orbitofrontal cortex and cingulate gyrus. 91 , 100 , 101

Over the last decade, a number of neuroimaging techniques have been applied to Internet gaming research, allowing for an analysis of addiction correlates regarding both brain function as well as brain structure. Electroencephalograms measure brain activity via changes in voltage in the cerebral cortex via electrodes, 102 and were used in six studies of Internet and gaming addiction. 103 – 108 Positron emission tomography measures neuronal metabolism through photons from positron emissions via positively charged electrons. 109 Two studies 110 , 111 made use of positron emission tomography to measure Internet and gaming addiction. Like positron emission tomography, single photon emission computed tomography measures metabolic activity in the brain at the level of individual photons, 112 and was applied in one study of Internet addiction. 113 Eight studies 114 – 121 used functional magnetic resonance imaging to measure changes in blood oxygen levels in order to indicate brain activity in individuals with Internet and gaming addiction. 122 Finally, structural magnetic resonance imaging uses methods such as voxel-based morphometry 123 and diffusion-tensor imaging 124 to image brain morphometry, 125 and was used in two studies 126 , 127 in order to assess Internet addiction.

A systematic review of all Internet and gaming addiction studies using neuroimaging methods until 2012 90 revealed that Internet gaming addiction appears similar to other addictions, including substance-related addictions, at the molecular, neurocircuitry, and behavioral levels. From a molecular perspective, gaming results in the release of striatal dopamine. 111 On the other hand, it has been suggested that, in small samples, Internet and gaming addiction is associated with a reward deficiency whereby dopaminergic transporters in the brain are reduced. 110 , 113 In order to reinstate a biochemical equilibrium, 99 individuals whose reward system is deficient seek substances and activities which result in the release of dopamine. Under normal circumstances, pleasure drives (including eating and reproduction) are natural rewards that are craved, whereas unnatural rewards include psychoactive substances and addictive behaviors. 128 Over time, the individual habituates to the hedonic feelings produced by Internet gaming and develops abstinence symptoms, tolerance, and withdrawal. 129 Internet gaming addiction is initiated and maintained. 90 The decreased dopaminergic transporters in Internet gaming addiction may explain its frequent co-occurrence with depression, 130 bipolar disorder, 131 and borderline personality disorder and dissociative symptoms. 132

With regards to neural circuitry, when gaming, brain areas associated with addictions are frequently utilized and therefore the activity in regions such as the orbitofrontal cortex and cingulate gyrus is high, which over time can lead to significant alterations in neuronal connectivity 114 , 116 , 118 , 119 and brain structure. 115 , 126 , 127 Internet gaming becomes increasingly salient and individuals lose control over their gaming. 90 The individual is immanently motivated to play online games as they have learned the behavior, eventuating in continuous engagement. 133

In terms of behavior, excessive Internet gaming can result in problems with impulse control, behavioral inhibition, executive functioning, attention, and general cognitive functioning. 103 , 104 , 107 , 115 , 126 , 127 However, there are plus sides as well, in that the frequent gamer develops and improves a number of other capabilities, namely the integration of perceptual information into the brain and hand-eye coordination. 118 , 120

Taken together, research on Internet gaming addiction has made use of various neuroimaging techniques in order to shed light upon the neurochemical and neuroanatomic correlates of addiction. Although in most studies the direction of the relationship has not been investigated (ie, it is unclear whether Internet gaming addiction causes changes in brain structure and activity or vice versa), the current evidence suggests a relationship between brain alterations and Internet gaming addiction. Neuroimaging studies of Internet gaming addiction contribute to the current understanding of addiction as based on a disease framework. 128 , 134 This indicates that, similar to cardiovascular diseases, lifestyle (ie, excessive gaming) can result in changes to underlying neurobiology. Moreover, the utilization of sophisticated imaging methods in Internet gaming addiction research is in line with research domain criteria, 88 which makes a significant contribution to our understanding of Internet gaming addiction as a chronic neurobiological disease requiring professional care and adequate treatment. 135

Gaming addiction: clinical diagnosis

Following nearly two decades of research, the American Psychiatric Association has now officially recognized Internet Gaming Disorder as a condition that requires consideration by clinicians and researchers. In June 2013, Internet gaming disorder appeared in the appendix of the updated version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-5) for the first time. 70 It stands alongside the only other behavioral addiction, ie, pathological gambling, situating it clearly within the diagnostic category of Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders. Internet gaming disorder has pulled ahead of other behaviors that can become addictive, such as exercise, 136 , 137 work, 138 and shopping. 139

Up until now, researchers have understood Internet addiction or Internet gaming addiction as similar to either impulse control disorders in general or pathological gambling specifically, 140 – 142 substance dependence, 33 , 38 or a combination of the two. 143 , 144 This has led to the development of multiple psychometric instruments, each measuring different aspects associated with Internet gaming problems and addiction. 144 – 153 The multiplicity of conceptualizations used for Internet gaming addiction have led to a diagnostic conundrum leading some researchers to question its existence, 29 and have called for commonly agreed upon criteria which increase reliability across studies and advocate adequate and efficacious treatment. 15

Under the new DSM-5 framework, Internet gaming disorder refers to the “persistent and recurrent use of the Internet to engage in games, often with other players, leading to clinically significant impairment or distress as indicated by five (or more) [criteria] in a 12-month period”. 70 The diagnostic criteria are a preoccupation with gaming, withdrawal symptoms, tolerance (ie, spending more time gaming), lack of control, loss of other interests, use despite negative consequences, deception, mood modification, and losing a relationship, job, and similarly important aspects of life. 70 From a public health perspective, an official diagnosis of Internet gaming addiction is necessary for a number of reasons. First, it will encourage individuals who suffer from associated symptoms to ask for professional help, decreasing morbidity rates, hospitalizations, and potential legal and medical problems. 30 Second, the diagnosis may decrease barriers to care and stigmata with regards to public perception of problematic Internet and gaming use. Third, the diagnosis will support research efforts. 134 Fourth, a diagnostic category will provide the necessary incentive for health care and insurance providers to develop, test, and finance adequate treatment. Ultimately, individuals who require professional care because of substantial distress, suffering, and individual impairment must be helped in an appropriate way. 74 Accordingly, an official diagnosis of Internet gaming addiction is critical for a number of reasons, further emphasizing the need to fully acknowledge and utilize it.

The aim of this review was to provide an insight into current perspectives on Internet gaming addiction using a holistic approach encompassing gaming appeal, context, neuroimaging research, and the diagnostic framework adopted for Internet gaming addiction. It has been shown that Internet gaming has gained increasing popularity since the new millennium, and has led to a substantial growth of the gaming industry and the player fan base. MMORPGs have further been highlighted as offering a wide variety of incentives for players to initiate and maintain playing because they satisfy a variety of needs and tailor to various gaming motives relative to alternative online game genres. Some of these motives, especially escapism, the game’s mechanics, achievement and socializing have been found to be indicative of gaming addiction, 5 suggesting that MMORPGs are more addictive than other offline and online games. 15

This review further shows that until now few studies have investigated the gaming context. Therefore, the context of the individual, the game and gaming environment, and the broader framework of culture are specifically addressed. It has been shown that the individual’s context is a significant factor that marks the dividing line between excessive gaming and gaming addiction. 71 Moreover, it has been emphasized that gaming cannot simply be medicalized if done in excess, but it must be understood from within the context of gaming and the meanings the individual attaches to it. 72 The game context can gain particular importance for players, depending on their life situation and gaming preferences, including the enactment of heroic tales as well as the re-embedding in a (virtual) cultural context that differs from the players’ real-life context. Ultimately, this may lead to a retreat from real life for some individuals. 6 In addition to this, the cultural context is significant because it embeds the gamer in a community with shared beliefs and practices, endowing their gaming with particular meaning. If gaming is used to compensate for lack of success and relationships in real life and to dissociate from real life, Internet gaming addiction can be the consequence. 73 In this context, the “disease” model of addiction can be viewed from the perspective of diseases other than those based on Mendelian genetic mutations or other simple biologically determined pathways. Cardiovascular diseases or adult onset diabetes appear as better models/prototypes for Internet gaming addiction, because these are medical conditions where lifestyles and experiences systematically reshape the body and thus “get under the skin”. That is, the cultural context can become the disease (here addiction) through repeated experiences. Alternatively, cultural norms related to how acceptable game-play is might structure the appeal of the game, which in turn promotes addictive play patterns, which would not be the case in places without such norms.

The cited neuroimaging studies of Internet gaming addiction and associated changes in brain structure and function furthermore correspond with the research domain criteria developed by the National Institute of Mental Health 88 because they emphasize a move away from phenomenology to focus on pathophysiology for clinical diagnosis. Internet gaming addiction was found to share similarities with other addictions, including substance dependence, at the molecular, neurocircuitry, and behavioral levels. These similarities include altered dopaminergic and neuronal activity and brain morphometry, as well as deficient impulse control, behavioral inhibition, and general cognitive functioning. However, there are no known biomarkers of Internet addiction at this point in time. Indeed, there are no known biomarkers of any mental disorder. Ever since Kraepelin, 154 and thus for a century, psychiatrists have been searching to understand mental disorders as underlying physiological diseases, providing an additional incentive to continue research on the neurobiological underpinnings of mental health problems, including Internet gaming addiction.

The findings provide support for the current perspective of understanding Internet gaming addiction from a disease framework. 128 , 134 The dependence classification adopted in previous classification systems 74 , 155 is stigmatizing to patients who require medication because dependence refers to a normal physiological response to the use of a substance (including medication) which, when discontinued, can lead to withdrawal symptoms. 74 The term addiction, on the other hand, denotes a chronic neurobiological disease, 135 which is less stigmatizing because it does not suggest that patients who require medication become “addicted” to their required psychopharmacological treatment. 156 Addiction, unlike dependence, leads to compulsively pursuing rewarding behaviors irrespective of associated biological, psychological, and social problems. 135 Ultimately, the current research base on Internet gaming addiction has led the American Psychiatric Association 70 to include Internet gaming disorder in the appendix of the DSM-5 as the second behavioral addiction alongside pathological gambling, suggesting that the problem is taken seriously. The benefits of such a diagnosis include comparability across research, destigmatization of individuals, development of efficacious treatment, and creation of an incentive for public health care and insurance providers. Once the behavioral problem has an official code, it is worthy of being taken seriously and treated adequately.

However, research concerning the natural course of Internet gaming addiction, the most appropriate interventions, and large-scale epidemiology is scarce, 157 suggesting that more work needs to be done to understand this behavioral problem more fully. King and Delfabbro 158 further question the blurring of the boundaries between Internet addiction and video gaming addiction, as this may “promote further confusion”. Instead, they advocate a conceptualization of Internet addiction which incorporates various subtypes of online behavior, and establishing a diagnostic category of “video gaming disorder” which applies to both online and offline gaming addiction. Ultimately, however, King and Delfabbro 158 concede that the research diagnosis has sparked discussion regarding the nature of behavioral addictions, which testifies to a move away from acknowledging substances only as potentially addictive, and to broaden our understanding of addiction in general.

Moreover, there appear to be problems with regards to the criteria for Internet gaming disorder adopted by the DSM-5 taskforce. Starcevic 29 points out that there exists a debate of whether tolerance is a valid criterion as researchers have validated scales on problematic video game use 159 and compulsive Internet use 160 that do not contain tolerance as a symptom, and some question whether tolerance is a factor involved in gaming. 44 This exemplifies the intricacy of measuring Internet gaming addiction, particularly in light of the reliability of studies as well as the equivalence of findings across studies. Based on these issues, Starcevic 29 recommends the following research approaches: understand when online gaming can be considered a mental disorder; study risk factors and comorbidities, and its position as primary or secondary condition; test a continuum of video gaming problems and video gaming disorder; and revisit its classification as “addiction” rather than an impulse control disorder. 161 Moreover, Pies 134 specifies further that only if the following criteria are satisfied, the condition would qualify to be understood as disease: identify a pattern of genetic transmission; understand its etiology, pathophysiology and/or pathological anatomy; and its course, prognosis, stability, and response to treatment. The current review indicates that research on Internet gaming addiction is on its way to fulfilling these requirements. In terms of understanding the context of Internet gaming addiction, more research is necessary.

Limitations, implications, and suggestions for future research

This review has shown that research on Internet gaming addiction has increased in quality and quantity, particularly over the last decade. Future research is required to overcome the limitations of current research, including closer scrutiny of gaming context (including the individual, game, and culture) and the direction of the relationship between Internet gaming addiction, as well as neuroanatomical and neurochemical changes. Specifically, the following research question requires further exploration: How do individual, game-related, and cultural factors contribute to the etiology, phenomenological experience, and treatment approaches of Internet gaming addiction? Furthermore, the causality of the relationship between neurobiological alterations and neurostructural abnormalities and Internet gaming addiction symptoms should be explored. The further exploration of these issues will enhance our understanding of this potential mental health concern. Moreover, a solid and unequivocal research base will enable the American Psychiatric Association and the World Health Organization to include Internet gaming addiction as an actual diagnosis in their diagnostic systems, which will in turn facilitate future research endeavors as well as clinical parlance.

The context appears crucial to the meaning of the game for the player, and is influenced by individual characteristics, the gaming culture, and the broader society that gamers are situated in. Ultimately, this will allow for developing treatment approaches which can be tailored to different individuals and meet idiosyncratic needs most effectively. The reviewed literature can inform procedures for improving the current treatment of Internet gaming addiction because it puts an emphasis on exploring the life and cultural context of the individual. In terms of neuroimaging studies, the reviewed empirical research has revealed associations between excessive online gaming and alterations in brain structure and function associated with substance addictions. However, understanding the direction of this relationship is crucial because it will provide invaluable insights into the etiology of Internet gaming addiction as well as its status as a primary or secondary disorder. In terms of treatment, establishing the treatment seeker’s most pressing present problem will allow an efficient and efficacious treatment plan to be developed and structuring of treatment sessions. Overall, this literature review suggests that targeting pathogenic neurobiological mechanisms and associated neurological and neurochemical alterations only does not suffice when the clinician’s goal is to alleviate the individual’s idiosyncratic problems. It indicates that Internet gaming addiction must be viewed from a holistic perspective, integrating the neurobiological, individual, game-related, and cultural factors contributing to pathogenesis and symptom experience.

The present review of current perspectives on Internet gaming addiction has shown that research has progressed significantly over the last decade, leading to a larger evidence base which includes important findings from neuroimaging research. Further, it indicates that contextual factors play an important part in our understanding of Internet gaming addiction as a holistic phenomenon. It is suggested that an official diagnosis of Internet gaming addiction must regard embedding of the problematic behavior within the context of the individual, the game, and gaming practices, as well as the broader sociocultural environment as the meaning of the gaming behavior derives from its context. The holistic approach adopted here not only highlights empirical research that confirms neurobiological correlates of Internet gaming addiction and establishment of a preliminary diagnosis, but also emphasizes the need for an indepth understanding of meaning, context, and practices associated with gaming. Ultimately, a holistic understanding will benefit individuals who seek professional help for problematic online gaming as treatment approaches become more targeted and consequently more efficacious.

The author reports no conflicts of interest in this work.

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Partisan divides over K-12 education in 8 charts

K-12 education is shaping up to be a key issue in the 2024 election cycle. Several prominent Republican leaders, including GOP presidential candidates, have sought to limit discussion of gender identity and race in schools , while the Biden administration has called for expanded protections for transgender students . The coronavirus pandemic also brought out partisan divides on many issues related to K-12 schools .

Today, the public is sharply divided along partisan lines on topics ranging from what should be taught in schools to how much influence parents should have over the curriculum. Here are eight charts that highlight partisan differences over K-12 education, based on recent surveys by Pew Research Center and external data.

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to provide a snapshot of partisan divides in K-12 education in the run-up to the 2024 election. The analysis is based on data from various Center surveys and analyses conducted from 2021 to 2023, as well as survey data from Education Next, a research journal about education policy. Links to the methodology and questions for each survey or analysis can be found in the text of this analysis.

Most Democrats say K-12 schools are having a positive effect on the country , but a majority of Republicans say schools are having a negative effect, according to a Pew Research Center survey from October 2022. About seven-in-ten Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents (72%) said K-12 public schools were having a positive effect on the way things were going in the United States. About six-in-ten Republicans and GOP leaners (61%) said K-12 schools were having a negative effect.

About six-in-ten Democrats (62%) have a favorable opinion of the U.S. Department of Education , while a similar share of Republicans (65%) see it negatively, according to a March 2023 survey by the Center. Democrats and Republicans were more divided over the Department of Education than most of the other 15 federal departments and agencies the Center asked about.

In May 2023, after the survey was conducted, Republican lawmakers scrutinized the Department of Education’s priorities during a House Committee on Education and the Workforce hearing. The lawmakers pressed U.S. Secretary of Education Miguel Cardona on topics including transgender students’ participation in sports and how race-related concepts are taught in schools, while Democratic lawmakers focused on school shootings.

Partisan opinions of K-12 principals have become more divided. In a December 2021 Center survey, about three-quarters of Democrats (76%) expressed a great deal or fair amount of confidence in K-12 principals to act in the best interests of the public. A much smaller share of Republicans (52%) said the same. And nearly half of Republicans (47%) had not too much or no confidence at all in principals, compared with about a quarter of Democrats (24%).

This divide grew between April 2020 and December 2021. While confidence in K-12 principals declined significantly among people in both parties during that span, it fell by 27 percentage points among Republicans, compared with an 11-point decline among Democrats.

Democrats are much more likely than Republicans to say teachers’ unions are having a positive effect on schools. In a May 2022 survey by Education Next , 60% of Democrats said this, compared with 22% of Republicans. Meanwhile, 53% of Republicans and 17% of Democrats said that teachers’ unions were having a negative effect on schools. (In this survey, too, Democrats and Republicans include independents who lean toward each party.)

The 38-point difference between Democrats and Republicans on this question was the widest since Education Next first asked it in 2013. However, the gap has exceeded 30 points in four of the last five years for which data is available.

Republican and Democratic parents differ over how much influence they think governments, school boards and others should have on what K-12 schools teach. About half of Republican parents of K-12 students (52%) said in a fall 2022 Center survey that the federal government has too much influence on what their local public schools are teaching, compared with two-in-ten Democratic parents. Republican K-12 parents were also significantly more likely than their Democratic counterparts to say their state government (41% vs. 28%) and their local school board (30% vs. 17%) have too much influence.

On the other hand, more than four-in-ten Republican parents (44%) said parents themselves don’t have enough influence on what their local K-12 schools teach, compared with roughly a quarter of Democratic parents (23%). A larger share of Democratic parents – about a third (35%) – said teachers don’t have enough influence on what their local schools teach, compared with a quarter of Republican parents who held this view.

Republican and Democratic parents don’t agree on what their children should learn in school about certain topics. Take slavery, for example: While about nine-in-ten parents of K-12 students overall agreed in the fall 2022 survey that their children should learn about it in school, they differed by party over the specifics. About two-thirds of Republican K-12 parents said they would prefer that their children learn that slavery is part of American history but does not affect the position of Black people in American society today. On the other hand, 70% of Democratic parents said they would prefer for their children to learn that the legacy of slavery still affects the position of Black people in American society today.

Parents are also divided along partisan lines on the topics of gender identity, sex education and America’s position relative to other countries. Notably, 46% of Republican K-12 parents said their children should not learn about gender identity at all in school, compared with 28% of Democratic parents. Those shares were much larger than the shares of Republican and Democratic parents who said that their children should not learn about the other two topics in school.

Many Republican parents see a place for religion in public schools , whereas a majority of Democratic parents do not. About six-in-ten Republican parents of K-12 students (59%) said in the same survey that public school teachers should be allowed to lead students in Christian prayers, including 29% who said this should be the case even if prayers from other religions are not offered. In contrast, 63% of Democratic parents said that public school teachers should not be allowed to lead students in any type of prayers.

In June 2022, before the Center conducted the survey, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of a football coach at a public high school who had prayed with players at midfield after games. More recently, Texas lawmakers introduced several bills in the 2023 legislative session that would expand the role of religion in K-12 public schools in the state. Those proposals included a bill that would require the Ten Commandments to be displayed in every classroom, a bill that would allow schools to replace guidance counselors with chaplains, and a bill that would allow districts to mandate time during the school day for staff and students to pray and study religious materials.

Mentions of diversity, social-emotional learning and related topics in school mission statements are more common in Democratic areas than in Republican areas. K-12 mission statements from public schools in areas where the majority of residents voted Democratic in the 2020 general election are at least twice as likely as those in Republican-voting areas to include the words “diversity,” “equity” or “inclusion,” according to an April 2023 Pew Research Center analysis .

Also, about a third of mission statements in Democratic-voting areas (34%) use the word “social,” compared with a quarter of those in Republican-voting areas, and a similar gap exists for the word “emotional.” Like diversity, equity and inclusion, social-emotional learning is a contentious issue between Democrats and Republicans, even though most K-12 parents think it’s important for their children’s schools to teach these skills . Supporters argue that social-emotional learning helps address mental health needs and student well-being, but some critics consider it emotional manipulation and want it banned.

In contrast, there are broad similarities in school mission statements outside of these hot-button topics. Similar shares of mission statements in Democratic and Republican areas mention students’ future readiness, parent and community involvement, and providing a safe and healthy educational environment for students.

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About 1 in 4 U.S. teachers say their school went into a gun-related lockdown in the last school year

About half of americans say public k-12 education is going in the wrong direction, what public k-12 teachers want americans to know about teaching, what’s it like to be a teacher in america today, race and lgbtq issues in k-12 schools, most popular.

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