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Addressing Ethical, Social, and Cultural Issues in Global Health Research

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations Ethical, Social and Cultural Program for Global Health, Centre for Research on Inner City Health and Centre for Global Health Research, Keenan Research Centre in the Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute of St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Dalla Lana School of Public Health and Joint Centre for Bioethics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Affiliations Dalla Lana School of Public Health and Joint Centre for Bioethics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Ethical, Social and Cultural Program for Global Health, Sandra Rotman Centre, University Health Network & University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Affiliation Ethical, Social and Cultural Program for Global Health, Sandra Rotman Centre, University Health Network & University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Affiliation Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, Washington, United States of America

Affiliations Dalla Lana School of Public Health and Joint Centre for Bioethics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Ethical, Social and Cultural Program for Global Health, Sandra Rotman Centre, University Health Network & University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA), Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, Nelson R Mandela School of Medicine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Congella, Durban, South Africa

Affiliations Dalla Lana School of Public Health and Joint Centre for Bioethics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Ethical, Social and Cultural Program for Global Health, Sandra Rotman Centre, University Health Network & University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

• James V. Lavery, 
• Shane K. Green, 
• Sunita V. S. Bandewar, 
• Anant Bhan, 
• Abdallah Daar, 
• Claudia I. Emerson, 
• Hassan Masum, 
• Filippo M. Randazzo, 
• Jerome A. Singh, 

Published: August 8, 2013

• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002227
• Reader Comments

Citation: Lavery JV, Green SK, Bandewar SVS, Bhan A, Daar A, Emerson CI, et al. (2013) Addressing Ethical, Social, and Cultural Issues in Global Health Research. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 7(8): e2227. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002227

Editor: David Joseph Diemert, The George Washington University Medical Center, United States of America

Copyright: © 2013 Lavery et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: JVL, SKG, AB, AD, CIE, JAS, REGU, and PAS performed this work as members of and/or consultants to the Ethical, Social and Cultural (ESC) Program for Global Health, which receives funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. FMR is an employee of the foundation. Other than FMR's contributions as an author, the funder had no role in the preparation or revision of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The purpose of this paper is to encourage reflection among the global health research community and the research ethics community about how a wide range of ethical, social, and cultural (ESC) influences on the conduct, success, and impact of global health research can best be addressed by consultation services in research ethics (CSRE). We draw on lessons we have learned during our experiences with the ESC Program of the Grand Challenges in Global Health initiative to propose key features of CSRE that may prove useful for those designing or implementing similar programs.

Introduction

The past decade has seen unparalleled investment in large-scale global health science initiatives and international research consortia, such as the International HapMap Project, Grand Challenges in Global Health program, and International AIDS Vaccine Initiative. These initiatives have resulted in promising advances, such as candidate vaccines for malaria and HIV, nutritionally enhanced staple crops, novel vector control strategies, and an advanced understanding of human genetic diversity. They have also reflected the growing emphasis on innovation in global health and on the urgent need to test innovations in real-world settings, especially resource-constrained ones, to determine their potential effectiveness and value. Alongside—and necessitated by—these shifts in global health research, there has also been a broadening in the conversation about the ethical aspects of that research, from an almost singular focus on standard of care issues [1] to a more holistic consideration of a wide range of ethical, social, and cultural (ESC) influences on the conduct, success, and impact of biomedical science on underlying public health problems.

This broadening, in turn, has helped to fuel a growing interest within the health research community in consultation services in research ethics (CSRE). These are teams of experts in research ethics, typically based at academic bioethics centres, that provide advice and guidance to researchers and institutions about ethical issues that arise in the design and conduct of research. Since first proposed [2] , there has been some attention to the evolution of CSREs in the literature [3] , [4] , with much of the focus on how to achieve an appropriate balance between the advisory/consulting role of the emerging CSREs and the review, monitoring, and oversight responsibilities of their counterpart institutional review boards (IRBs) [5] . Most recently, an article published in Science Translational Medicine from the Stanford University CSRE has provided important insights into circumstances that the authors argue should “trigger" investigators to seek consultations with the service [4] . Although the authors point to “research in developing nations" as one such trigger, there continues to be a gap in the literature about why and how CSREs might play an important role in proactively considering and helping to address the unique ESC challenges posed by global health research—in particular, research in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) that is funded and conducted, in whole or in part, by organizations and investigators from high-income countries—and thereby provide a valuable complement to customary institutional research ethics review for this type of research.

The purpose of this paper is to encourage reflection among the global health research community, including funders, researchers, research institutions, and administrators of large-scale global health research initiatives, about how ESC issues can best be addressed within these initiatives. We draw on lessons we have learned during our experiences with the Ethical, Social and Cultural Program (ESC Program) of the Grand Challenges in Global Health (GCGH) initiative, funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation between 2005–2011 [6] , to propose key features of a focused CSRE, which may prove useful for those designing or implementing similar programs.

Key Features of an ESC Program for Global Health Research

1. integrate esc consultation with the planning and performance of the research.

Integrating science and ethics is fundamentally about acknowledging that values permeate not only trials and applications of new technologies, but all aspects along the “critical path" of the scientific process—from discovery science through development of novel products and technologies to their effective delivery to end users, e.g., patients, consumers, communities, public health authorities—and identifying where lack of sufficient attention to ESC issues can undermine the ethics, social value, quality, feasibility, or sustainability of the science and its outputs. Effective integration enables proactive, deeply informed, interdisciplinary thinking, as well as mutual learning and otherwise unattainable insights. Previous ethics programs for large-scale science initiatives, such as the Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) Program of the Human Genome Project, have been criticized for failing to integrate the ELSI work effectively with the science [7] . Others, like the US National Nanotechnology Initiative [8] and Genome Canada's GE 3 LS Program [9] , have made attempts to improve integration through the mandated formation of multidisciplinary research teams, but the extent to which these mandates have led to meaningful integration of ESC considerations remains unclear.

In designing the ESC Program for the GCGH, our goal was to prevent ESC challenges from becoming problems, where possible, by identifying them much further upstream than when research proposals are typically submitted to IRBs for prospective review, and where prevention was not possible, to help solve them. Working closely with foundation staff responsible for R&D program strategy and funding, in addition to individual scientists funded through the GCGH initiative, was a critical element of this design. Rather than viewing ESC issues simply as interesting by-products of complex science, such upstream integration enabled us to better understand how ESC issues present as specific challenges at numerous points along the projects' critical paths, and how they may be amenable to ethical analysis and various ESC solutions or management strategies.

Establishing the necessary working relationships with researchers and foundation staff took time and effort. And we occasionally had to counter two common misconceptions about our work: first, that ESC issues are primarily theoretical and therefore of limited relevance to the day-to-day work of successfully conducting research; and second, that our role was simply to facilitate the science by clearing ESC “bottlenecks" for the researchers. We addressed these concerns by focusing more of our attention on how R&D program staff experienced ESC challenges and their ability to facilitate ESC solutions. We were initially concerned that our increasing interactions with R&D program staff would compromise our objectivity or contribute to this impression. In fact, this has rarely been an issue, because we have been consistent in articulating the importance and value of our independent perspective, and also because the “upstream" ESC problems tend to be poorly characterized and therefore less polarized than some other more well-worn ESC issues. As well, R&D staff turnover has, in some situations, required us to “reset" these interactions and is one of the challenges that can limit the rate of penetration of the ESC program model.

But despite these challenges, we believe that intensifying our interactions with the R&D program staff in particular was helpful in four main ways: 1. It enabled identification of ESC issues early in the critical path of a particular research initiative; 2. It contributed to a normalizing of the idea of shared “ESC thinking," a process we have tried to engender by regularly engaging program staff in dialogue about emerging challenges and what might count as effective “solutions"; 3. It nurtured a sophisticated expert forum for “pressure-testing" our proposed solutions to ESC challenges to help ensure they were feasible, practical, and viable in the contexts in question; and 4. It helped to ensure that potentially viable solutions could be applied to any subsequent research project within the GCGH program, and beyond, in addition to the immediate value for the particular project involved in the initial consultation.

2. Privilege Southern Perspectives

Integration of science and ethics gives prominence to the perspectives of R&D program staff and researchers—scientists, social scientists, and humanists alike—in large-scale research endeavors. In global health research, there are particularly complex ethical, social, and cultural dimensions to challenges that arise in host communities that are beyond the knowledge and experience of strictly foreign ESC teams. To address these challenges adequately and appropriately it is necessary not only to incorporate the perspectives of local ESC experts, but to privilege them. Therefore, it is important that an ESC program seek meaningful contributions from these essential yet often under- or unrepresented perspectives, thereby ensuring that investigators and program staff have a sufficient depth of understanding and appreciation of the social, economic, and political contexts within which the proposed research will be conducted [10] . For an ESC program in global health research, this translates into privileging perspectives from the “global South."

Despite a great deal of rhetoric to the contrary, funding programs and individual research programs and projects aimed at addressing key health problems of LMICs continue to arise disproportionately from elite northern institutions. Although this state of affairs reflects real and relevant economic and institutional differences between high- and LMICs, too little attention is paid to how LMIC perspectives can be more successfully brought to bear in the shaping of the agendas and practices of global health research. It has also been argued that the conditions required to support an effective research ethics “system"—to which we would add more meaningful integration of science and ethics—are themselves intimately tied to countries' level of development [11] .

Nonetheless, strong representation of Southern perspectives and expertise in the process of identifying and addressing ESC challenges in global health research is critical for: providing cultural guidance, particularly in situations in which differences in the meaning of various research activities can lead to ethically problematic misunderstandings [12] ; leveraging lived experiences to enhance interpretation of issues related to relevant LMIC guidelines and regulations; and more readily and knowledgeably providing navigation through complex social and institutional and regulatory structures in the South as science moves closer to various forms of field testing. With this in mind, we recommend that ESC programs focused on global health engage bioethicists from LMICs as co-investigators, staff members, and post-doctoral fellows.

This is not without its challenges, however. In our experience, which relies heavily on each team member to provide substantive input on specific cases and to contribute to the broader evolution and strategic direction of our program, common challenges related to connecting to team members working in LMICs—i.e., unreliable phone and internet services—have often proved debilitating. Similarly, although the initial design of our program was to base one of our three primary programmatic foci at an institution in the South, those plans were stymied by a number of administrative hurdles that stemmed largely from our Northern institution's limited experience with international partnerships and the lack of readily accessible “off-the-shelf" models to help design and guide the development of these partnerships. The specific challenges faced in meaningfully engaging essential yet underrepresented perspectives in other large-scale research initiatives will depend, of course, on the particulars of the initiatives. Nonetheless, we suggest that due consideration be given to who might/should bring those perspectives, followed by planning and feasibility testing of strategies for engagement prior to implementation.

3. Build on Specific Cases to Identify and Propose Solutions to Cross-Cutting Issues

Our experience has taught us to not only focus on discrete ESC issues specific to a particular project or program, but also to look for opportunities to devise potential solutions to challenges that cut across numerous research endeavors. Although such cross-cutting “model solutions" may vary significantly in their impact and ultimate value, they lend themselves well to strategic dissemination and are thus useful for stimulating broader dialogue in the field as well as among leaders and decision makers looking for concrete proposals. One path to identifying cross-cutting issues in need of solutions is to work upstream in the research process, as described above, while another is to start by solving problems at the level of specific project consultations and extrapolate key concepts to facilitate development of broad solutions. Three illustrative examples of this latter approach from our work in global health are described below.

Promote respect through effective and ethical community engagement: There are myriad examples of how superficial, awkward, hurried, or otherwise disrespectful forms of engagement with individuals and communities in LMICs have jeopardized or prematurely ended global health research or delivery initiatives [13] , [14] . And yet, despite the seemingly obvious significance of community engagement (CE), current research ethics guidelines and regulations have an almost exclusive focus on the individual and provide very little guidance about successful interactions with communities or the underlying rationales for what respectful engagement of communities entails [15] . This point has been reinforced most recently in the recommendations of the U.S. Presidential Commission in its aim to “further develop operational guidelines for the protection and ethical treatment of human subjects through the means of community engagement" [16] . From the outset of our program we have prioritized the importance of community engagement (CE), recognizing that the complex human interactions accompanying the introduction of new global health technologies—from new contraceptives to vaccines to TB treatments—can play a critical role in their impact and sustainability.

Our ability to provide effective integrated consultation on CE in specific research projects stems directly from our own empirical research on CE—funded through the ESC Program—which generated insights about how CE can contribute to respectful conduct in research through in-depth case studies in various research contexts. For example, our study of CE at the National Health Research Centre (NHRC) in northern Ghana revealed how incorporating traditional community entry practices into the centre's approach to CE helped to promote respectful conduct by correcting power imbalances between guest researchers and the host community [17] . As well, our study of the CE strategies employed in a long-standing prospective observational cohort study of the genetic epidemiology of HIV among sex workers in Nairobi improved our understanding of the social power of CE practices by demonstrating how research projects can create entirely new communities [18] .

These insights and experiences from our empirical research have helped us to effectively shape a number of cross-cutting solutions related to CE. For example, our consultation to help map out ESC considerations for site selection for a caged field trial of genetically modified mosquitoes (GMM) for the control of dengue virus transmission expanded the scope of site selection criteria to include key regulatory and CE considerations [19] . These expanded criteria have been referenced in draft WHO guidance for GMM trials [20] , and a subsequent framework for CE in GMM trials that arose from the same collaboration [21] has been cited by the U.S. Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues [16] and singled out as a promising general approach in an editorial in Nature [22] .

Fill gaps in regulation, governance, policies and guidelines:.

Many ESC challenges in global health arise from situations in which regulations, governance mechanisms, policies, or guidelines in relevant jurisdictions are either nonexistent or not tailored sufficiently to the nuances of particular scientific endeavors. Still other challenges arise when asymmetries among various countries' regulatory schemes complicate the uniform implementation of research or delivery activities within a region. We've attempted to meet these challenges by focusing our efforts on identifying, critically analyzing, and proposing solutions to fill the regulatory, governance, and policy gaps encountered in specific research domains, and then seeking broader application and impact for those solutions where feasible and appropriate. In some instances, the solutions proposed have remained limited to specific projects (e.g., the development of a project-specific oversight mechanism for a project involving stem cell research at Peking University) [23] , while others have broader implications (e.g., principles for researchers' obligations to participants in observational studies in LMICs, principles for global health data access) [24] , [25] .

Promote and facilitate responsible partnerships with the private sector:.

The private sector has enormous capacities in manufacturing, product development, and supply chain infrastructure that could prove valuable in many global health initiatives. But many private companies have been severely criticized for unethical practices. As a result, there is a widespread distrust of the private sector within many public sector and civil society organizations, which results in missed opportunities to leverage private sector capacities to improve global health R&D and delivery in certain circumstances. Driven by the belief that trust and effective collaboration between public and private sector partners can be achieved with the appropriate oversight, policies, and governance mechanisms, we have developed several model solutions focused explicitly on the goal of improving trust and accountability in public-private partnerships (PPPs) [26] – [28] . Our aim has been to build on experiences with specific PPPs (e.g., in infant nutrition, agricultural development) to reduce a vast and seemingly insurmountable problem into discrete aspects—e.g., identify and/or develop useful mechanisms of accountability, declarations of values, codes of conduct—that can be applied and evaluated in a broad set of real world applications.

A standing challenge for the ESC Program has been balancing our responsiveness to demands for ESC consultation in specific cases with the need to maintain an active program of empirical and conceptual research to help ensure that the insights and lessons learned through our consultations can be applied successfully to improve our understanding of cross-cutting ESC issues. This tension should be anticipated by any new ESC program and addressed as a key aspect of the design and funding structure of the program.

4. Improve the Evaluation of Strategies, Activities, and Outcomes

The evaluation of the impact of research ethics review and consultation is grossly underdeveloped [3] , [4] . As ESC programs achieve greater integration with scientific program development and conduct, and gain more experience with the development and dissemination of model solutions to ESC challenges, it will become increasingly essential to develop the strategies and means to fairly and thoroughly evaluate the extent to which ESC problem-solving can improve the global health research enterprise. As with many complex programs, however, there are few if any natural or obvious measures of impact or effectiveness. Traditional academic metrics like publications and citations are generally poor indicators of the real impact of global health research on, for example, the health of LMIC populations. Further complicating the assessment of ESC programs' attributable impact on global health is the fact that their greatest successes may be in preventing the undesirable—but not inevitable—from occurring.

Through trial and error, we have come to recognize that meaningful and rigorous evaluation of the impact of the ESC Program requires us to look beyond simple evaluation practices to embrace new methods for the evaluation of complex interventions [29] . For example, over the course of the evolution of the ESC Program we have progressively shifted our focus toward improving our “program theory" of how the ESC Program works; that is, what are its essential components and what pathways link them with specific outcomes? This paper is one product of this type of analysis. One specific insight drawn from complex evaluation has been that our interactions with R&D program staff, described above, create an ongoing context for “co-learning" [29] , i.e., opportunities for the ESC Program to gain a better understanding of how ESC challenges arise and how R&D program staff understand and manage them, and opportunities for R&D program staff to contribute to ESC solutions from the outset and scrutinize and critique them during their development. This, in effect, functions as a built-in evaluation mechanism. We continue to develop our evaluation practices and welcome dialogue and collaboration with other groups who are grappling with these same challenges.

Conclusions

Research ethics permeates the entirety of the modern scientific endeavor: institutions and researchers promote and protect scientific integrity, IRBs protect and promote the interests of human research subjects, and CSREs are increasingly called upon to address ethical issues that can present perplexing obstacles along the critical paths to the responsible realization of scientific and technological advances. In no domain are scientific advances more needed than in global health. We hope, therefore, that in sharing these lessons above we can help ESC programs focused on global health to evolve, improve their practices, and gain prominence. Moreover, the importance of integration, of looking for broad applications of narrowly intended solutions, of bringing diverse perspectives to bear on complex ethical challenges, and of rigorous impact evaluation are by no means limited to global health; as such, we hope these lessons may also prove useful for CSREs focused on a wide range of scientific endeavors.

• Integrate ESC consultation with the scientific endeavor.
• Privilege Southern perspectives.
• Promote respect through effective and ethical community engagement.
• Fill gaps in regulation, governance, policies, and guidelines.
• Promote and facilitate responsible partnerships with the private sector.
• Evaluate strategies, activities, and outcomes.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Lauren Leahy and Kelsey Martin for their support and assistance in preparing the manuscript and Jocalyn Clark for helpful comments on earlier drafts.

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• 9. Genome Canada (2012) GE 3 LS: Genomics and Society. Available: http://www.genomecanada.ca/en/ge3ls/ . Accessed 4 September 2012.
• 16. Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues (2011) Moral science: protecting participants in human subjects research. Washington, DC. Available: http://bioethics.gov/node/558 . Accessed 13 July 2013.
• 20. World Health Organization (2012 October 29) Guidance framework for testing of genetically modified mosquitoes. TDR news item. Available: www.who.int/tdr/news/2012/guidance_framework/en/index.html . Accessed 8 July 2013.
• 25. Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (2011) Global health data access principles. Available: http://www.gatesfoundation.org/global-health/Documents/data-access-principles.pdf . Accessed 4 September 2012.

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Introduction

Issue 1: the long history of globalization and cultural interactions, issue 2: the legacy of methodological nationalism, issue 3: the overly complex and easily contested concept of culture, issue 4: values as systems and imprints, issue 5: the triad of identity, memory, and heritage, issue 6: culture and the economy, issue 7: cultural policy and soft power, cultures, values, and identities: what are the issues.

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Helmut K. Anheier; Cultures, Values, and Identities: What Are the Issues?. Global Perspectives 11 May 2020; 1 (1): 11755. doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/001c.11755

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This article reviews the state of the social sciences with respect to the study of culture and cultures. It also examines the closely related concepts of values and identities. It does not attempt to be comprehensive—a task that would be daunting given the diverse and rich literatures that quickly come into focus. Rather, the purpose is to highlight a limited number of issues central to moving an international, comparative, and interdisciplinary agenda forward, in the hope that Global Perspectives will become a recognized and central address for current and future research in this field.

Even limiting oneself to key issues is no easy task, as various disciplines regard culture as their terrain. Anthropology, economics, political science, sociology, history, and the humanities, including cultural studies and the arts themselves, all lay some claim to the topic. Diverse and dispersed literatures complicate matters. Frequently divided by methodology and a split between quantitative and qualitative approaches, disciplines function too much as closely guarded silos, discouraging inter- and transdisciplinary dialogue of the kind that Global Perspectives encourages.

Moreover, there are strikingly contrasting presuppositions within the social sciences toward culture: Too often, culture is treated as a residual once the “hard” economic, political, and sociological factors are considered. Alternatively, it can become the all-encompassing construct that supposedly explains everything. Similarly, culture is seen as something that either prohibits or accelerates progress, or it becomes a politically innocent reference category to paint over increasingly absent shared values and common narratives.

There are also deeply rooted clashes of national cultural interest that have been set in motion as globalization has advanced. Is the world moving toward cultural uniformity or toward tensions and conflicts? Or are there signs of an alternative set of outcomes rooted in a more polycentric system of cultures in terms of meaning and identity, production or consumption? What is the meaning and validity of a Western or an Asian “cultural imperialism” thesis, or a “clash of civilizations” between East and West?

In contemporary society, there is a deepening intersection between the economic and the cultural, as Singh (2011, 2017) demonstrated in his analysis of globalized art markets and North-South trade relations. The media presents one dramatic illustration of this intersection: that is, commercially produced cultural artifacts. At the same time, culture has come to be seen as an instrument of economic development and urban revitalization—a view encapsulated in terms like creative class, creative cities, and the creative economy.

Yet culture is also about the arts. Notions of l’art pour l’art, or “art for art’s sake,” in the sense that culture is first and foremost about creative expression, are challenged by the deepening intersection of culture with economics and politics. Interpretative frames for what counts as art, what can be regarded as cultural innovations, and who “owns” or represents art imply many changes for how works of art are appreciated, collected, presented, bought and sold, and preserved.

The concepts of culture, value, and identity are as intricate and multifaceted as their relationships are to each other. Anheier and Isar (2007, 3) write in their introduction to the five-volume Cultures and Globalization Series “that globalization has a profound impact on culture, and that cultures shape globalization may seem like a truism. Yet the two-way interaction involves some of the most vexed and at the same time taken-for-granted questions of our time.” This interaction challenges previously more stable cultural systems, forms of everyday life, and identities, and it does so in very uneven and diverse ways. The triangle of collective heritage, identity, and memory, long assumed a foundation of societies, has become uncertain and is being transformed (Anheier and Isar 2011) .

Globalization is both a process and an outcome that involves economic supply and distribution chains, financial flows and investments, international law and institutions, and communication and mobility. Castells (1996, 1997) uses the apt imagery of “decentralized concentration” to describe this phenomenon. He argues that a multiplicity of interconnected tasks that take place in different sites results in people and organizations forming a metanetwork at the transnational level. Held (2002) argues that the 1990s globalization spurt reached an extensity and intensity that went beyond previous phases, and with greater impact on different cultures and societies.

Globalization evolved over time and continues to change, as Baldwin (2019) demonstrates. The “old” globalization, driven by the Industrial Revolution, involved two phases: from the early nineteenth century to the start of World War I, and from World War II to the fall of the Soviet Union. The “new” globalization had a first phase, fueled by financial deregulation, transnational supply chains, and information technologies, and lasted until the global financial crisis of 2008–9. It was in this phase that countries outside the northern industrial sphere—namely, China and other Asian countries—joined the globalized core. The second phase, still emerging, is based on digitization and is likely to expand the extensity and intensity of global networks further.

Each globalization phase brought societies into contact with each other, be it through trade, colonization, proselytizing religions, or domination. It was often an unequal contact. Not all cultures survived, as some merged and new ones emerged. The important point is that for centuries, most of the world’s cultures have been in contact in some form or another, and increasingly so over time. They have been in contact ,and continue to be, in a context characterized by mutual understandings and misunderstandings, cooperation and conflict, domination and submission, and affection and aversion. The current globalization phase, given its reach and impact, certainly adds another layer to the complex web of intra- and intercultural relations, bringing about value changes and challenges to collective and individual identities.

Globalization can retreat, as it did after the Great Depression; it can accelerate and slow down, as it did before and after the 2008–9 global financial crisis. To put it another way, since about 1820, the world has known only a few episodes of “non-globalization.” This means that the world’s diverse cultures, peoples’ values, and their identities have been exposed to the “other,” as have collective memory, cultural heritage, and forms of cultural expression. Cultures past and present are the co-production of “domestic” content and developments and exposures to (and interactions with) other societies and their respective cultures.

Therefore, the first issue is to get a better historical understanding of how cultures interacted in the context of globalization phases, what the drivers of cultural flows were, and how values and identities changed over time. Historical perspectives are as important as contemporary analyses.

Envisioning cultures, values, and identities as the product of past exposures and interactions also means that the notion of national cultures and national society is historically highly questionable. Yet the social sciences, which emerged during the end of the “old” globalization phase—when the nation-state was naturalized—engaged in an epistemological framing of cultures, values, and identities close to the notion of the nation-state. This framing was sometimes explicit: an early example is Aaron’s influential book on German sociology (1935); much later examples include Lipset’s American Exceptionalism (1996) or Huntington’s Who Are We? (2004). But mostly the framing was implicit, almost taken for granted in the sense that students of the social sciences in the United States read and studied American society just as the British or the French did theirs. For a long time, anthropology developed along a different path, with its emphasis on the “other”—that is, non-Western, nonstate societies and cultures.

The nation-state framing is still dominant today, referred to as methodological nationalism. This term refers to the intellectual orientation fortified within each social science discipline that treats the nation-state as the primary unit of analysis and the primary reference point, ascribing agency to it as the given container for social processes. For Wimmer and Schiller (2002), methodological nationalism is built on the assumption that the nation-state is the seemingly natural social and political form of the modern world.

The implied reification of nation-states as actors sui generis in a transnational cultural space can be very misleading. For example, the United States does not “act” in a cultural sense, organizations and people do. It is US corporations like Microsoft, Facebook, Google, or the Walt Disney Company, missionary societies, art museums, and the people who work there that act, as do artists, activists, and robots. Of course, the nation-state plays an important role, but when studying culture in a globalizing and changing world, it cannot be the assumed primary unit of analysis (see Anheier 2007, 336). The upshot is that the social sciences have to overcome the twentieth-century legacy of methodological nationalism if we want to get a fuller understanding of culture, cultural flows, and developments.

Most definitions are neither true nor false; they are ultimately judged by their fruitfulness in advancing our understanding of a phenomenon. Following Deutsch (1963), a fruitful definition must be parsimonious and focus on the truly critical characteristics of the phenomenon. It also must have organizing power in the sense that it helps to establish relations with other concepts and adds value overall. Parsimony and added value, however, never seemed to have much currency among students of culture, who proudly point to the many attempts to define what culture is, and they reference Kroeber and Kluckhohn, who identified 281 definitions in their 1952 book  Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Kroeber and Kluckhohn then organized these diverse concepts of culture into eight categories, including topical (the cultural economy), historical (heritage, tradition), behavioral (learned human behavior, a way of life), normative (values, norms), mental (ideas), and structural (symbols).

Yet none of these categorizations, or others that followed, made much progress in bringing greater clarity in terms of parsimony and value added. The classical nineteenth-century definition of culture by anthropologist E. B. Tylor is still being referenced (“that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired” (Tylor 1920, 1). The same is true of UNESCO’s definition of culture in the Preamble to the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity as the “set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual, and emotional features of society or a social group… it encompasses, in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs.”

In the face of such general statements, most analysts define culture in a broad and a narrow sense. Broadly, culture is a system of meaning, its social construction, articulation, and reception, including religion, ideologies, value systems, and collective identity. More narrowly, it refers to the arts—that is, what artists create and what is regarded, preserved, exchanged, and consumed as cultural artifacts. Straddling both notions are concepts such as cultural diversity, cultural expression, and the creative or cultural economy.

So it is no wonder that in his seminal Keywords, Raymond Williams (1976) famously stated that culture is one of the most complex words in the English language. The same statement could be made today. Why are we holding on to an imprecise term, especially as it is being deeply implicated in diverse and contested disciplinary discourses in the social sciences today? Yet the word does hold some meaning. Appadurai (1996) and Crawford (2007), among others, have observed how culture is being mobilized in a politics of recognition and representations. The divisive debates about migration worldwide and fundamentalist reassertions in all major world religions are just two examples that show the instrumentalization of culture. Achieving greater clarity and precision in terms of definition and classifications is a major challenge ahead.

Like culture, the concept of values carries different meanings and is used rather loosely. For individuals, values act as an internal moral compass and are “evaluative beliefs that synthesize affective and cognitive elements to orient people to the world in which they live” (Marini 2000, 2828; see also Hitlin and Piliavin 2004, 360). Values typically form a value system as a relatively consistent orienting framework. Ideologies are relatively constant sets of beliefs that explain the world, usually in terms of cause-and-effect relationships.

Even though values are unobservable directly and often conflated with other phenomena such as norms or attitudes, much progress has been made in recent decades to measure value systems cross-nationally and over time. The most prominent effort to do so is the World Values Survey ( www.worldvaluessurvey.org ). The resulting Inglehart-Welzel Cultural Map plots countries along two major dimensions: traditional versus secular values and survival versus self-expression. Of course, here we encounter the unit-of-analysis problem we confronted above, and innovative approaches are needed to show how and when what values matter, change, and the like.

Yet who has agency in such maps? They offer useful markers and reveal persistent patterns as well as shifts over time. But a larger question looms regarding how the values they present are produced and reproduced. Of course, psychology and sociology have answers, mostly at the micro level, through socialization processes. Emphasizing the link between value systems and ideologies, social institutions and organizations, and groups and individuals, however, could offer one way forward to accommodate agency. We live in societies made up of institutions and organizations, as Perrow (1986) pointed out long ago, and as North et al. (2009) pointed out: institutions are the rules of the game and hence the embodiment of value systems, whereas organizations are the tools of enactment.

In sociology, Stinchcombe (1965) introduced the concept of “imprinting,” whereby the institutional conditions prevalent in the founding environments of organizations continue to have lasting effects on organizational culture and behavior. Following up on this suggestion, Marquis and Tilcsik (2013) use the term “value imprinting” to describe how the values of founders or equivalents implicitly or explicitly shape the organization and its culture. With a focus on organizational culture and values, including professional value systems, one could at least partially circumvent the limitations of methodological nationalism. This focus would link organizational and management studies to the study of cultural values, and the history of business to the history of values and ideologies.

Such an approach could rekindle the kind of macro-meso-micro studies that characterize some of the seminal works on the interplay between value systems, institutions, and organizations and individuals. Max Weber’s ([1904] 2016) The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism is a study of the interaction between religion and economic behavior. In response to Marx, Weber argues that the world of ideas has its own logic, independent of material interests and property relations. In Elias’s (1997) seminal work on the process of civilization, he analyzes behavioral transformation in the sixteenth century as a reaction to demands for greater political and communicative stability as commerce expanded. Bourdieu’s (1979) analysis of the French class structure and the link between culture and habitus is also a particularly illuminating work. We need more such studies.

Sociologically, identity is a person’s learned notion of self, combined with a sense of belonging expressed and experienced through values, ethnicity, language, nationality, locale, and the like, and is closely related to a sense of “we-ness.” There is a striking disconnect in research on identity: empirical studies based on population surveys show that identities are remarkably stable over time, as the European Commission (2012) found when it summarized the results of several large-scale research projects on the relationship between regional, national, and European identities. Hoelscher and Anheier (2011, 364–86) reviewed different facets of identity (geographical, cyber, citizenship, cultural, economic, and religious) and reached a similar conclusion.

This stability contrasts with two other strands of inquiry: the nuanced debate about the relationship between identity, collective memory, and heritage, on the one hand, and the vehemence of the political meaning of the term (in particular regarding identity politics), on the other. As to the first, Isar et al. (2011) suggest that in the process of globalization, the “triangle” of identity, heritage, and memory has become more unstable and, in some parts of the world, even unhinged. Contradictory developments are taking place: there is a trend whereby cultural heritage assumes a “museal sensibility” (Huyssen 1995, 14) , supported by international conventions (Isar 2011, 39--52) and by a cultural heritage industry (Winter 2011) . There are also powerful economic forces that undermine cultural heritage by eliminating entire peasant cultures and traditional crafts and skills.

The “cult of heritage” comes with a certain “memory boom,” as Isar et al. (2011, 5) put it. Collective memory is “remembrance of the past grounded on more durable carriers of external symbols and representations” (Assmann 2008, 55) . It is an archival memory constructed through a discourse that relies heavily on media institutions and communication (Huyssen 1995, 6) . This memory discourse makes it vulnerable to political and cultural entrepreneurs, and Assmann (2008, 54) calls for “critical vigilance and develop[ing] criteria for probing the quality of the memory constructions, distinguishing more ‘malign’ from more ‘benign’ memories—that is, memories that perpetuate resentment, hatred and violence from those that have a therapeutic and ethical value.”

Yet, irrespective of the quality of collective memories, they are implicated in how we think about identity and how identity politics comes about. The cultural responses to globalization open opportunities for groups and individuals to deploy the notions and resources of heritage and memory in certifying identity. It is a way of coping with the uncertainties about the “us versus them” attitude that globalization frequently brings with it (Appadurai 2006, 6).

Next to scholarly attention to the nexus of heritage, memory, and identity, there is a highly contested debate that links identity to the fate of Western civilization. Four books illustrate the depth of the disputes. First, Huntington’s 2004 book “ Who Are We?: America’s Great Debate ” explores the nature of American identity, taking issue with the idea that the United States is a “nation of immigrants.” Instead, Huntington observes that the founders were settlers who brought with them the cultural kernels of what became the American creed, a unique creation of a dissenting Protestant culture based on the principles of liberty, equality, individualism, representative government, and private property. He argues that American identity began to erode beginning in the 1960s, as a result of, among other factors, the rise of globalization, explicit political appeals to specific identity groups, and changing immigration patterns.

Contradicting Huntington, particularly his civilization thesis, Sen’s 2006 Identity and Violence: The Illusion of Destiny argues that the false notion of a unique identity sustains conflict and violence. He criticizes “solitarist” theories that ignore shifting and multiple identities. In his view, identity is changing and multifaceted; there is no fixed identity, and people comprise many identities related to ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, and the like. By better understanding identity, societal rifts can be alleviated, resulting in a more peaceful society and world.

Fukuyama’s 2018 book Identity argues that people have clung to identity as a result of economic and social dislocation—for example, job losses due to globalization, economic crisis, or the relative status decline of white males. This focus on identity results in conflict and political dysfunction. Ultimately, Fukuyama views identity politics as a threat to the foundations of liberal democracy and a distraction from real issues. Focus on identity politics has become a convenient and effective substitute for a more in-depth analysis of how to address the trend toward greater socioeconomic inequality in most liberal democracies.

Appiah’s 2018 The Lies that Bind argues that people and their leaders keep making the same mistakes when it comes to the main Cs of identity: creed (religion as a set of immutable beliefs instead of as mutable practices and communities), country (suggesting a forced choice between globalism and patriotism), color (race is constructed, not biological), class (entitlement and resentment, rather than greater equality of opportunities), and culture. As for the latter, he proposes a greater openness and no longer equating individualism, liberal democracy, tolerance, rationality, and science with Western civilization as such.

Clearly, these and other works make for rich opportunities to debate assumptions; to challenge hypotheses, data, and their analysis; and, above all, to bring better and especially comparative evidence to bear.

The relationship between the economic and the cultural has a long history, from Adam Smith’s moral sentiments, Marx’s dichotomy of structure and superstructure, Thorstein Veblen’s conspicuous consumption, and Baumol and Bowen’s (1966) cost disease theorem to today’s discourse about the creative city and the cultural economy. Cunningham et al. (2008) propose four models for the relationship between the wider and the cultural economy, defined as a system for the production, distribution, and consumption of cultural goods and services through market as well as nonmarket mechanisms, or, in the words of Scott (2008), as all forms of economic activity that produce outputs with significant aesthetic or semiotic content or symbolic outputs.

The negative model assumes that cultural activities are either public or semipublic goods and therefore inherently deficit making. They rely on public subsidies, voluntary contributions, and philanthropy to compensate for lacking revenue. The negative model views the culture economy as a “welfare case.” The competitive model treats it as just “another industry,” yet one with high demand uncertainty and cost disease tendencies. Alternatively, the positive or growth model highlights the capacity of the creative segments of the cultural economy to initiate growth in the aggregate economy. Finally, the emergent or innovation model views culture as an innovation system that infiltrates the entire economy, promoting “creative disruption” to established practices in business and society at large.

These models are propositions well worth exploring, and they provide a frame for Landry’s “creative city” concept (2000, 2012) as well as for Florida’s “creative class” (2005, 2018). For Landry, cultural resources are the raw materials of the city and its value base. He emphasizes both the “hardware” (physical infrastructure) and the “software” (relationships and atmosphere) for designing successful cities. Florida popularized the concept that cities exhibiting a higher level of economic development tend to be those that attract members of the creative class. Florida’s work gained a great degree of attention due to its simple and catchy argumentation and methodology. The “three Ts” (talent, technology, and tolerance) as the key to economic development were supported by especially designed indicators (e.g., a “bohemian index”).

Florida has been criticized (Glaeser 2005; Peck 2005) for elitism by separating the world into “creatives” and “noncreatives.” Methodologically, scholars have challenged Florida’s indices and quantification of causal factors (Glaeser 2005) . The argument that creativity begets growth has been identified as circular. Furthermore, Florida and Landry’s focus on creativity as a path to economic growth has been criticized for operating within “neoliberal” development agendas, framed around interurban competition, gentrification, middle-class consumption, and place marketing (Peck 2005) .

Despite such criticism, there are clearly important insights here, which are also supported by sociologists studying the relationship between innovation and diversity. Globalization creates more diverse networks among people and organizations and generates many more changes for weak-tie configurations to materialize. Exposure to multiple and heterogeneous contacts and circles encourages creativity and opens new opportunities. This is one reason that geographers like Scott (2008) argue that globalization is leading less and less to cultural uniformity. Markedly more polycentric systems of cultural creativity and production are emerging, suggesting that conventional cultural imperialism arguments seem to be losing some of their force. Yet these are propositions in need of further reflections and, especially, empirical tests to find out if the world is indeed becoming more diverse, even eclectic, in its modes of cultural production and consumption.

Central here is the role of the artist as creator. Within the Western canon, the cult of the artist as the “seer,” the genius who is both inside (and understands) and outside (and questions) a given community or society, is still strong, stemming from Enlightenment notions of individual achievements. Yet how does this notion of the artist, which ties creativity to individuality, fit into the globalized opportunity structure? Will the precarious economic position of many artists change? How can it match non-Western constructions (e.g., of art as expressions of communal creativity and imprinting), and how can it relate to the concept of art whose recognition and legitimacy enhances rather than breaks traditions? Do global art markets, and the speculation that increasingly drives them, favor Western notions over others, or play on some sort of speculative arbitrage? Likewise, are major art exhibitions like Documenta, Frieze, or Art Basel mostly about market making or about art appreciation, or perhaps both?

The final issue is that of cultural policy and the role of governments and international organizations like UNESCO, the Council of Europe, and increasingly also the European Union. Traditionally, the main purpose of cultural policy was to support the arts and appreciation thereof, as well as heritage. In recent years, the creative economy has become a new focus, as have the issues of creativity and innovation more generally. These trends are in line with the fourth model that Cunningham et al. (2008) propose.

Yet countries differ widely with respect to how broadly and in what manner they engage with culture and the arts. The United States shows a very limited involvement throughout, and most activities are at the local and state levels. Other efforts are largely left to private philanthropy and nonprofit organizations. By contrast, cultural policy in France is very much a matter of the central government and public budgets, whereas in Germany a decentralized system prevails that mixes public and private funds under a pattern of cooperative cultural federalism. The United Kingdom is somewhere in between, using arm’s-length institutions with a growing focus on the cultural or creative economy.

The outcomes of different policy approaches are also different dynamics and possibilities for artistic potential, creativity, and economic growth in terms of the models Cunningham et al. (2008) have outlined. It remains an open question how emerging market economies and autocratic regimes position themselves in this triad of cultural policy options (a minimal role of government, a pronounced and centralized role, and a devolved one). Most likely, forms of control will be a critical element, putting cultural policy under state tutelage.

Finally, cultural policy is also foreign policy in the context of soft power and cultural diplomacy. Hard power refers to military power and coercive capacity in terms of deterrence and potential for inflicting violence (Nye 2004) . By contrast, soft power is the ability to persuade others to do what a country wants without relying on force or coercion. Soft power is based on attraction, created by a country’s policies and political ideas. Cultural policy as a tool of soft power is becoming more relevant in a geopolitical sense. Language programs, student exchanges, book tours, exhibitions, and media are examples of the ways in which countries use external cultural policy to wield soft power abroad. With the partial retreat of the United States from cultural diplomacy, countries as different as France, China, Russia, Qatar, and Turkey have taken increasingly prominent positions in this field. With substantial investments, they combine cultural and economic—and increasingly also security-related—objectives. Again, this avenue of study is a wide-open field for research.

Author Biography

Helmut K Anheier (PhD Yale) is editor-in-chief of Global Perspectives , professor of sociology at the Hertie School, member of the faculty of the Luskin School of Public Affairs, and visiting professor at LSE Ideas. He has published widely in the social sciences with an emphasis in civil society, organization, and governance, and received several national and international awards for his academic achievements. Previously, he was president of the Hertie School, and professor at the Max-Weber-Institute of Sociology at Heidelberg University, where he directed the Center for Social Investment and Innovation. Before embarking on an academic career, he served the United Nations as a social affairs officer.

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Implications of Socio-Cultural Pressure for a Thin Body Image on Avoidance of Social Interaction and on Corrective, Compensatory or Compulsive Shopping Behaviour

António azevedo.

1 Lab2PT, Landscape, Heritage and Territory Laboratory Research Unit, School of Economics and Management, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal

Ângela Sá Azevedo

2 Faculty of Philosophy and Social Sciences, Centre for Philosophical and Humanistic Studies, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, 4710-297 Braga, Portugal

Associated Data

Not applicable.

This paper aims to discuss the implications of body talk and socio-cultural pressure for the internalisation of a thin body image in purchase decisions, shopping habits and other outcomes of body dissatisfaction, in particular the proneness to avoid human/social interaction in retail contexts and proneness to engage in corrective, compensatory or compulsive shopping behaviour. This paper conducted an online questionnaire that measured the following constructs: body mass index; Socio-cultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-4 (SATAQ-4), Body Appreciation Scale (BAS-2), Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale (ACSS), Compulsive Buying Follow-up Scale (CBFS), proneness to avoid social interaction in retail contexts, and the intention to purchase a list of products and services as a compensation for body dissatisfaction. A structural equations model supported the hypotheses proposing the influence of BAS-2 and SATAQ-4 (the internalisation of thin/athletic body and the social comparison induced by family, peers and media) upon the outcomes of social-interaction avoidance, ACSS and CBFS. Nevertheless, BAS-2 only influences social-interaction avoidance. This paper provides several recommendations to brand managers highlighting the social responsibility role of brand advertising in enhancing positive body appreciation, mitigating the psychological damage caused by socio-cultural pressure and preventing the stigmatisation bias against obese people.

1. Introduction

According to the systematic review of Allen and Robson [ 1 ], body dissatisfaction is common among men and women in developed and developing nations [ 2 ] with prevalence estimates ranging from 11 to 72% among women and 8–61% among men [ 3 ]. Some studies estimate that 25% to 80% of people are dissatisfied with their physical appearance, wherein the population of young people and adolescents is at greatest risk for the development of disorders [ 4 , 5 ]. Obesity and being overweight are often the principal reasons for body dissatisfaction [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ].

Furthermore, positive body image is a broad concept that includes love and respect for the body and allows individuals to appreciate its uniqueness and functionality [ 11 ]. People with a positive body image are more likely to accept their perceived body imperfections or deviations from cultural ideals, have a mindful connection with their body’s needs and interpret incoming information in a body-protective manner. Moreover, Tylka and Wood-Barcalow [ 12 ] defined body appreciation as “accepting, holding favourable opinions toward and respecting the body, while also rejecting media-promoted appearance ideals as the only form of human beauty”.

This paper aims to discuss the implications of body talk and socio-cultural pressure for positive body image on buying decision-making processes, on consumer behaviour preferences and shopping styles and on the potential consequences of body dissatisfaction, in particular the proneness to avoid human/social interaction in retail contexts and the proneness to change the shopping basket and engage in corrective/compensatory/compulsive shopping behaviour.

From a marketing perspective, research has tended to focus on issues such as how advertising and promotions influence consumers’ food consumption [ 13 , 14 ] and the impacts of social marketing interventions on food consumption practices and obesity prevention campaigns [ 15 , 16 , 17 ] and exercise behaviour [ 18 ]. Furthermore, social marketing researchers also have dedicated some attention to body image [ 19 ] and the role of body beauty in advertising endorsement [ 20 ].

This paper proposes an innovative research topic that makes a bridge between two scientific realms and their respective bodies of literature—(clinical) psychology related to obesity and eating disorders and fields of knowledge related to marketing and consumer behaviour. This intersection is a research gap that still requires attention from researchers [ 21 ].

The paper is organized as follows: based on the literature review, the next section proposes a new conceptual model that formulates several research hypotheses about the relationships between the antecedents and consequences of body appreciation/dissatisfaction. The third chapter describes the methodology of a quantitative study that aims to validate the model whose implications are discussed in the fourth chapter. The last chapter provides new insights and recommendations to brand and retail managers about the need to adapt the marketing mix in order to satisfy the needs and concerns of two target groups of consumers: (a) consumers who have positive body image but are still exposed to the socio-cultural pressure from their family, peers and media, which contributes to the internalisation of a thin, lean or muscular body as a social norm; (b) consumers who feel uncomfortable with their bodies or have low levels of self-rated body appreciation and alter their shopping behaviour habits and preferences as a consequence of that body dissatisfaction.

2. Literature Review

2.1. positive body image versus body image dissatisfaction.

Positive body image is a complex concept, defined by Wood-Barcalow et al. [ 22 ]:

“An overarching love and respect for the body that allows individuals to (a) appreciate the unique beauty of their body and the functions that it performs for them; (b) accept and even admire their body, including those aspects that are inconsistent with idealised images; (c) feel beautiful, comfortable, confident and happy with their body, which is often reflected as an outer radiance, or a “glow;” (d) emphasise their body’s assets rather than dwell on their imperfections; and (f) interpret incoming information in a body-protective manner whereby most positive information is internalised and most negative information is rejected or reframed”.

According to Tylka and Wood-Barcalow [ 11 ], a positive body image is a distinct construct from a negative body image and comprises the following aspects: (a) it is multifaceted (including body appreciation, body acceptance and love, adaptive appearance investment, broadly conceptualising beauty, inner positivity that radiates outward and manifests as adaptive behaviour and filtering information in a body-protective manner); (b) it is holistic (in which internal experiences, such as inner positivity and protective filtering, are interwoven with external behaviour, interpersonal relationships, community, media and culture to create attunement); (c) it is stable but adjustable via intervention, likely protective, linked to unconditional body acceptance by others and moulded by individuals’ multiple social identities.

Tylka and Wood-Barcalow [ 11 ] also elucidate that positive body image is not: (a) being highly satisfied with all aspects of appearance; (b) limited to appearance to the exclusion of other body dimensions (e.g., body functionality); (c) expressed as narcissism or vanity; (d) foolproof in its ability to protect against all body-image-related threats, linked to disengagement from selfcare, or aided by frequent appearance-related compliments from others.

Physiological, biological, psychological and sociological aspects are involved in structuring this concept [ 4 , 23 ]. The influence of social relations and the media in the formation of body image has been strongly associated with body dissatisfaction. Body image concerns may be impacted by several factors, such as body mass index (BMI), pubertal status and external influence from parents, peers and the media through appearance comparison and internalisation of the thin ideal [ 24 ].

Several self-report questionnaires have been developed to assess body dissatisfaction, such as the Body Investment Scale of Orbach and Mikulincer [ 25 ], the Body Image Questionnaire, refined by Penelo et al. [ 26 ], the Body Image Avoidance Questionnaire of Rosen et al. [ 27 ] and the Male Body Attitudes Scale (MBAS), developed by Tylka, Bergeron and Schwartz [ 28 ]. On the other hand, the most widely-used measure of body appreciation is the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2), created by Avalos, Tylka and Wood-Barcalow [ 29 ].

In general, women experience greater body dissatisfaction than men [ 30 ], while men face unique muscularity-focused body concerns. The male body ideal includes two dimensions: leanness and muscularity [ 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. Allen and Robson [ 1 ] also investigated the influence of personality traits and found that higher levels of neuroticism and lower levels of extraversion and conscientiousness are associated with a greater risk of body dissatisfaction in men and women, regardless of their actual body weight.

Body dissatisfaction may be related to the development of eating disorders and body dysmorphic disorder [ 35 ], unhealthy practices for weight control [ 36 , 37 , 38 ], impaired sexual function [ 39 ], low self-esteem [ 40 ], interpersonal difficulties, depressed mood, social anxiety [ 41 ], low physical activity, substantial morbidity, stress, substance abuse and obesity [ 42 , 43 ]. Since 2000, the DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000) includes over-concern with weight and shape as a criterion for the diagnosis of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa [ 44 , 45 ].

2.2. Body Talk and Socio-Cultural Attitude towards Physical Appearance: Internalisation of Thin/Athletic Bodies, Family, Peers and Media/Advertising Pressures

Body talk is defined as the way in which individuals engage in mutual disclosure of thoughts, emotions or attitudes about their own body with a conversation partner; this talk may include negative talk (e.g., “My thighs are too fat”) and positive talk (e.g., “I like how my body looks”). Exposure to negative body talk is a key driver of negative body image [ 46 ] resulting from friends’ social network posting [ 47 , 48 , 49 ] or the fear of fat [ 9 ]. Body talk is moderated by gender [ 34 , 49 ] or ethnic–racial identity [ 50 ].

The most frequently used model to explain the influence of socio-cultural pressures on body dissatisfaction is the tripartite model proposed by Thompson et al. [ 51 ]. This model suggests that individuals are pressured to achieve ideals of culturally adopted appearance primarily due to three social influences (family, friends and media). Internalisation refers to the extent to which an individual accepts the ideals of appearance and expresses the desire to achieve them, starting to have thoughts and behaviour that aim to meet this ideal which, in most cases, is unattainable [ 4 ].

In order to measure socio-cultural influences on body dissatisfaction, Schaefer et al. [ 38 , 52 ] developed the Socio-cultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-4 (SATAQ-4) based on 22 items comprising five dimensions: internalisation of thin/low body fat, internalisation of muscular/athletic body, family pressure, peer pressure and media pressure.

Family is one of the most important socialisation agents predicting body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptoms and family communication is a major mechanism of parental influence on the body-image disturbances of adolescent daughters [ 8 , 53 ].

Moreover, the influence of peers and friends has been confirmed by several studies [ 9 ]. For example, Arroyo and Brunner [ 47 ] verified that friends’ fitness posts on social networks (SNS) were positively associated with negative body talk and that this relationship was strongest for individuals who reported a higher tendency to compare themselves to others, even after controlling for body satisfaction, healthy eating, exercise behaviour and frequency of SNS use.

Huang, Peng and Ahn [ 54 ] conducted a meta-analysis in which they examined the relationship between media pressure and a wide range of body-image-related outcomes as well as moderators (e.g., media type, outcome type, age group, gender proportion in the sample and study design). These authors found that both women and men of all age groups across multiple countries could be affected by thin/athletic-ideal media exposure [ 7 ]. Moreover, media with a commercial purpose compared to those with no commercial purpose have been less effective in increasing body image concerns and media exposure has been the most influential factor in provoking eating disorders and the internalisation of the thin ideal.

According to Brown and Tiggemann [ 55 ], exposure to images of thin fashion models contributes to women’s body dissatisfaction. These authors have investigated the impact of attractive celebrities and peer images on women’s body image. Social comparison theory [ 56 ] argues that humans have an innate drive to compare themselves with others in order to make evaluations about their abilities and opinions, especially when objective measures do not exist. When comparing their appearance with that of thin and attractive models, most women will inevitably fall short, resulting in negative feelings about themselves and their bodies. Experimental research has confirmed that the observed negative effect of media exposure on negative mood and body dissatisfaction is at least partly mediated by social comparison processing [ 57 , 58 , 59 ]. In addition, celebrity worship moderates an increased effect of celebrity images on body dissatisfaction [ 55 ]. Slater, Cole and Fardouly [ 60 ] have demonstrated that acute exposure to parody images led to increased body satisfaction and positive mood (happiness) compared to exposure solely to thin-ideal celebrity images. The findings provide preliminary support for the use of humorous, parody images for improving body satisfaction and a positive mood in young women.

The same negative effect occurs with men exposed to advertising, who are increasingly troubled with weight loss, with a strong focus on the development of lean, muscular and generally athletic physiques [ 37 , 61 ]. The internalisation of societal standards of attractiveness is known to play a role in the development of body dissatisfaction and eating disorders.

Swami et al. [ 62 ], Jovic et al. [ 63 ] and Sundgot-Borgen et al. [ 64 ], among others, found a negative correlation between socio-cultural pressure (SATAQ) dimensions and body appreciation. Therefore, this paper proposes the first research hypothesis, represented in the conceptual model in Figure 1 .

Conceptual model of the assessment of shopping behaviour implications resulting from body dissatisfaction (study no. 1).

Socio-cultural Attitudes towards Appearance (measured by SATAQ-4), as a composite of five dimensions (internalisation of thin/low body fat, internalisation of muscular/athletic body, family pressure, peer pressure and media pressure) is negatively correlated with the self-perception of body image (measured with BAS-2).

According to Vartanian and Hopkinson [ 65 ], conformity appears to be a risk factor for internalisation of societal standards of attractiveness and could be targeted in efforts to reduce internalisation, negative body image and disordered eating. Conformity was defined as an “involving characteristic willingness to identify others and emulate them, to give into others to avoid conflict and generally, to be a follower rather than a leader in terms of ideas, values and behaviours” [ 66 ]. On the other hand, Tompkins et al. [ 67 ] experimentally examined how conformity to fat talk, or its seemingly opposite form of dialogue—positive body talk—increases social likeability in female conversations.

2.3. Implications of Socio-Cultural Pressure for Thin Body Image in Consumers’ Information Processing and Purchase Decisions

2.3.1. social visibility’s avoidance and proneness for e-commerce and non-conspicuous consumption.

This paper also aims to discuss the consequences and implications of socio-cultural pressure for positive body image in consumers’ information processing and purchase decisions. People who have a self-ascribed negative image are often concerned about what others think about them, because they are often facing widespread discrimination [ 68 , 69 ].

The first implication is obvious—if an individual has a negative body image he/she will avoid the social visibility associated with shopping in high-street shops or in shopping centres, thereby avoiding all kinds of social exposure inherent to human/social interaction with the shop staff and other shoppers [ 70 , 71 ].

On other hand, conspicuous consumption is a “deliberate engagement in symbolic and visible purchase, possession and usage of products and services imbued with scarce economic and cultural capital with the motivation to communicate a distinctive self-image to others” [ 72 ]. According to Bronner and de Hoog [ 73 ], there are three recent trends in consumer behaviour that have increased the proneness for conspicuous and experiential consumption. Although this type of consumption is more tied to self-development, social visibility continues to be the main driver. This paper therefore assumes that consumers with a negative body image will want to avoid social visibility and consequently the social benefits of conspicuous consumption. Moreover, according to Barauskaite et al. [ 74 ], conspicuous consumption and self-control motivation may positively influence engagement with healthy nutrition habits solely in order impress peers and friends.

On the other hand, according to Neave, Tzemou and Fastoso [ 75 ], for grandiose narcissists, conspicuous consumption will be driven by their need for uniqueness, whilst that of vulnerable narcissists by their need to avoid social disapproval. Grandiose narcissists are extraverted, exhibitionistic, self-assured, aggressive and dominant, whereas vulnerable narcissists show high levels of introversion, anxiety and defensiveness [ 76 ].

Therefore, the conceptual model proposed in this paper ( Figure 1 ) suggests two hypotheses, translating the negative correlation between proneness to avoid social exposure in an offline retail context as a consequence of socio-cultural pressure and body appreciation:

Socio-cultural Attitudes Towards Appearance (SATAQ-4) is positively correlated with consumers’ intention to avoid social interaction with retail salespersons and other consumers in a retail environment (high-street shops or shopping centres).

Body image appreciation (BAS-2) is negatively correlated with consumers’ intention to avoid social interaction with retail salespersons and other consumers in a retail environment (high-street shops or shopping centres).

Consequently, consumers with a negative body image will prefer to shop in the e-commerce channel and benefit from all the advantages resulting from the higher privacy and lower social visibility of the online environment. Moreover, augmented reality (AR)-based virtual try-on product presentations allow consumers to assess how well the displayed products match their actual bodies, unlike traditional web-based product presentations. Yim and Park [ 77 ] reveal that consumers who perceive their body image as unfavourable evaluate AR presentations more favourably than traditional web-based product presentations, while consumers who perceive their body image as favourable record no differences in their responses to the two presentations.

2.3.2. Changes in Products and Services Shopping Basket and “Corrective” Buying Preferences

Individuals with a negative body image may also change their shopping habits in several product categories, besides obvious products/services such as the acquisition of weight-loss products, having good eating habits [ 61 , 78 , 79 ] or the acquisition of gym classes to increase physical activity [ 80 ].

Moreover, some distress and disturbance may occur as a result of socio-cultural pressure. According to Aydin, Eser and Korkmaz [ 6 ], negative consumer emotions, such as guilt and shame, may arise as a consequence of fast food consumption among individuals with restrained food consumption.

For example, women may avoid wearing shorts or miniskirts to help hide their legs, while men choose trousers to disguise their waistline, prefer black-coloured clothing to look thinner or avoid wearing long coats because it may accentuate their shortness [ 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 ].

Studies from around the world have also suggested that between 5 and 15% of patients who undertake cosmetic procedures meet the diagnostic criteria for body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) or heightened body dissatisfaction, focused on a specific feature or with the entire body [ 10 , 85 , 86 ]. According to Henderson-King and Henderson-King (2005), people seek cosmetic surgery motivated by intrapsychic concerns (e.g., wanting to feel better about oneself) and social concerns (e.g., wanting to be less self-conscious around others or to look younger for social or business reasons). Acceptance of cosmetic surgery may be more related to fears about becoming unattractive than hopes of becoming more attractive.

Henderson-King and Henderson-King [ 87 ] developed the Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale (ACSS), with 15 items, which is widely used in recent studies [ 88 ] in combination with the SATAQ-4 and BAS-2 scales [ 63 ]. The first component (Intrapersonal) of the ACSS comprises five items and represents an attitudinal component related to the self-oriented benefits of cosmetic surgery in the form of increased satisfaction with personal appearance. The five items of the second component (Social) assess the social motivations for the decision to have cosmetic surgery. Five additional items loaded on a third component (Consider) are related to straightforward assessments of the likelihood that the respondent would consider having cosmetic surgery or with conditions such as pain or side-effects that could influence such a decision.

Therefore, the conceptual model proposed in this paper ( Figure 1 ) suggests two hypotheses regarding the inclusion of the intention to make cosmetic procedures in the set of consumer behaviour consequences as a result of high socio-cultural pressure and low body appreciation.

Socio-cultural Attitudes towards Appearance (SATAQ-4) is positively correlated with consumers’ intention to engage in some corrective acquisition of products and services, in particular the intention to have cosmetic surgeries (ACSS) due to social, intrapersonal and consider attitudinal components.

Body-image appreciation (BAS-2) is negatively correlated with consumers’ intention to engage in some corrective acquisition of products and services, in particular the intention to undertake cosmetic surgery (ACSS) due to social, intrapersonal and consider attitudinal components.

2.3.3. Compensatory Consumption and Compulsive Buying Disorder

Compensatory consumption refers to “the desire for, acquisition, or use of products to respond to a psychological need or deficit” [ 89 ]. The theoretical root of compensatory consumption is based on the notion of possessions as part of the extended self [ 90 , 91 ]. Building upon social comparison theory and the compensatory consumption literature, Zheng, Baskin and Peng [ 91 ] proposed that inferiority, experienced in threatening non-material social comparison situations, motivates consumers to restore their sense of superiority in the material domain by engaging in conspicuous consumption. However, this depends on whether the comparison target is in a competitive or cooperative relationship with the self and whether consumers have a clear and well-articulated self-concept.

Compensatory consumption can evolve to a borderline personality disorder called compulsive buying disorder (CBD), defined as “maladaptive and repetitive buying behaviour that results in marked personal, social and occupational impairment as well as financial difficulties and distress” [ 92 ].

There is a gap in the literature because there are very few studies relating socio-cultural pressure on physical appearance and positive body image with the proneness to engage in compulsive buying behaviour [ 93 , 94 ]. However, there is some evidence that socio-culture pressure (SATAQ) is a predictor of compulsive exercise [ 95 , 96 ].

The conceptual model proposed in this paper ( Figure 1 ) therefore suggests two hypotheses regarding the inclusion of compulsive buying in the set of consumer behaviour consequences as a result of negative body image:

Socio-cultural Attitudes towards Appearance (SATAQ-4) is positively correlated with consumers’ proneness to engage in compulsive buying behaviour (CBFS scale).

Body-image appreciation (BAS-2) is negatively correlated with consumers’ proneness to engage in compulsive buying behaviour (CBFS scale);

In order to validate the conceptual model of Figure 1 , which was theoretically developed in Section 2 , this paper conducted an online questionnaire that measured the constructs of the independent variables of the model and their outcomes resulting from socio-cultural pressure and perceived body dissatisfaction.

3.1. Measures

The questionnaire comprised the following measures (see also Table 1 and Table 2 ):

• (a) the influence of socio-cultural pressures was measured with 22 items of the Portuguese version of the Socio-cultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-4 (SATAQ-4) developed by Barra et al. [ 4 ] based on the original version of Schaefer et al. [ 38 ] comprising five dimensions: “Internalisation—Thin/low body fat”—items 3, 4, 5, 8, 9; “Internalisation—Muscle/athletic”—items 1, 2, 6, 7, 10; “Family pressure”—items 11, 12, 13, 14; “Peer pressure”—items 15, 16, 17, 18; “Media pressure”—items 19, 20, 21, 22.
• (b) the 10 items of the Portuguese version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) of Tylka and Wood-Barcalow [ 12 ], developed by Lemoine et al. [ 97 ] and validated by several studies [ 98 , 99 ];
• (c) the intention to change each one of ten parts of the body (using the scale 1—nothing to 4—a lot): face, hair loss, upper limbs, breasts and nipples, hips, genitals, lower members, generalised overweight, localised overweight and overall physical appearance.
• (d) the intention to make corrective changes was measured with 15 items of the Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale (ACSS) developed by Henderson-King and Henderson-King [ 87 ];
• (e) in order to measure the Consumer Shopping Avoidance Behaviour (CSAB) due to body dissatisfaction, the authors proposed six items on a five-point Likert scale (1—never to 5—very often): (1) to avoid shopping in physical retail outlets, (2) to prefer e-commerce; (3) to avoid high-street shops; (4) to hide some body parts during shopping; (5) to avoid interaction with retail salespersons; (6) to hurry shopping times (reduce time spent out of home);
• (f) overall satisfaction with his/her body (on a 10-point Likert scale);
• (g) overall perception of physical appearance evaluated by others (on a 10point Likert scale);
• (h) the intention to buy a product/service as way to compensate for body dissatisfaction, with a list of eleven products: cosmetics, diet products, surgeries, hair-loss treatments, hair extensions, luxury products, hair-colour change, beauty treatments, travelling, health and wellness treatments and gymnasium classes;
• (i) the proneness to engage in compulsive buying was measured with the Portuguese version of the Compulsive Buying Follow-up Scale (CBFS) of Mattos et al. [ 92 ], which contains six self-report multiple-choice items assessing different aspects of compulsive buying over the past four weeks.

Means and standard deviations of the items on the SATAQ-4 scale and BAS-2 scale.

Means and standard deviations of the items of the ACSS scale, Consumer’s Shopping Avoidance Behaviour (CSAB) and Compulsive Buying Follow-up Scale (CBFS).

Legend: (*) Four-point Likert Scale.

3.2. Sample

An online questionnaire was shared on social media networks and university mailing lists, using a convenience/snow-ball sampling method. A sample of 134 participants answered the questionnaire, 105 females (78.4%) and 29 males (21.6%). The average age of all sample respondents was 26.99 years old (SD = 10.433) ranging from 18 to 71 years old. In total, 30.5% of respondents had a high school degree, whereas 69.5% had an undergraduate or master’s degree. In terms of disposable monthly income, 61.9% had a household income less than EUR2000 and 38.1% had a higher monthly income. The majority of the respondents lived in the north of Portugal, in cities such as Braga (46.3%), Guimarães (11.2%) and Porto (6%).

The average weight of respondents was w = 64.25 Kg (SD = 13.64) and the average height was h = 1.66 m (SD = 8.82). The body mass index (BMI) was calculated using the formula (BMI = w/h2), so the average BMI was 19.21 (SD = 3.57) and it is positively correlated with age (R2 = 0.293, p < 0.001). The World Health Organisation defined BMI < 25 as the limit for not being overweight while BMI > 30 is the lower limit for obesity. The majority of respondents (94.8%) had a BMI below 25 and only two were considered obese.

Only three participants claimed to have a physical handicap of more than 70%. Regarding the overall satisfaction with their self-body image, 11.2% of respondents stated that they had a self-perception of their body image “below the average”, while 14.9% classified their body image “above the average” and the remaining 73.9% self-ascribed to the group of “average body image”. Moreover, considering the lower half of the scale, (below or equal to 5 on a 1 to 10 Likert scale), 15.7% of respondents rated a negative overall satisfaction with their body image (M = 6.95; SD = 1.774; N = 134) while a higher percentage of 25.4% think that others evaluate their physical appearance negatively (M = 6.42; SD = 1.76; N = 134). These results are aligned with the lower limits of the ranges provided by Barra et al. [ 4 ], Fiske et al. [ 3 ], Karazsia, Murnen and Tylka [ 2 ] and Striegel-Moore et al. [ 5 ]. Mann–Whitney tests did not reveal significant differences in these variables, contradicting the gender differences found by several authors [ 30 , 31 , 33 , 34 ].

4. Results and Discussion

Table 1 presents the means and standard deviations of the 22 items of the five dimensions of the Portuguese version of the Socio-cultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-4 (SATAQ-4) developed by Barra et al. [ 4 ] and the ten items of the BAS-2 scale. The total score of the SATAQ-4 (M = 54.13) was below the average score (66), which means that, in this sample, the socio-cultural pressure is not strong. The BAS-2 total score (M = 36.6) was above the scale midpoint (30), thus revealing a positive body appreciation level.

However, the total score of the Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale (ACSS) (see Table 2 ) was above the scale midpoint (45), which means that the respondents had a favourable attitude towards cosmetic surgeries. When invited to identify the body parts that definitely should be changed, respondents ranked them, in descending order: localised fat (10.4%), hips and buttocks (9.7%), breasts and nipples (9%), lower members (8.2%) and generalised obesity (8.2%). On the other hand, in terms of consumers’ shopping avoidance behaviour (see Table 2 ), the respondents rated a very low score, which in general means that respondents in the future are willing to shop in physical retail outlets and high-street shops, not avoiding human interaction with the salespersons and keeping the shopping rhythm at a normal pace.

Considering that the items of the Compulsive Buying Follow-up Scale (CBFS) of Mattos et al. [ 92 ] are measured on a scale of 1 to 5, where the lowest limit corresponds to higher levels of compulsive buying, we may conclude that this sample shows a low level of CBFS as the total score (M = 26.14) was above the midpoint of scale (17).

Mann–Whitney tests (see Table 3 ) revealed significant gender differences, in that women rated higher values than men in the following dimensions: “internalisation of thin body”, “media pressure”, “consumer shopping avoidance behaviour” (CSAB) and the three sub-dimensions of the ACSS. These differences confirm the previous claims about the prevalence of body dissatisfaction among women made by Frederick, Peplau and Lever [ 30 ] and the media-pressure effect due to body talk [ 34 ] or advertising [ 55 ] but contradicted Huang, Peng and Ahn [ 54 ], who found that the gender proportion in the sample does not significantly moderate the effect size of media pressure.

Mann–Whitney tests for differences in scale dimensions’ mean scores between gender sub-samples and low versus high levels of body appreciation (BAS-2).

In addition, in the right side, Table 3 also presents the results of Mann–Whitney tests between the two sub-samples with high versus low values of BAS-2, after a median split of the sample (median = 3.70).

Although there was no significant difference in the body mass index, as expected, respondents with low values of body appreciation stated higher scores for all dimensions of socio-culture pressure (SATAQ) except for athletic body internalisation. This sub-sample also rated higher values of social-interaction avoidance (CSAB) and lower values of compulsive buying behaviour.

Moreover, for different levels of buying frequency (measured in times per year), Table 4 presents the percentages of respondents that in the past made purchases as a compensation for body dissatisfaction. Considering the product categories, which were used as self-gift compensation more than seven times per year, 26.1% respondents bought cosmetics, 22.4% had beauty treatments, 13.4% bought a luxury product and 11.2% made a hair change. Chi-square tests revealed that there were significant associations between gender and the acquisition of cosmetics (Chi-square = 13.264; p = 0.021), aesthetic surgeries (Chi-square = 6.922; p = 0.009), hair changes (Chi-square = 14.511; p = 0.006) and beauty treatments (Chi-square = 23.871; p < 0.001).

Percentages of respondents that in the past made purchases as a compensation for body image dissatisfaction.

In order to validate the hypotheses of the conceptual model of Figure 1 , this study calculated the Spearman correlation coefficients between all the dimensions (see Table 5 ). Furthermore, the authors calculated a structural equation model with IBM AMOS 27.0.0. using the generalised least squares method, which converged with very good fit indices (CMIN = 63.515; DF = 40; p = 0.01; RMR = 0.199; GFI = 0.912; AGFI = 0.862; PGFI = 0.58; RMSEA = 0.063).

Spearman correlation coefficients between the model constructs.

Legend: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01.

For SATAQ-4 and ACSS, Table 5 shows that between the latent variable and its dimensions, there are significant Spearman correlation coefficients higher than 0.50. Table 6 presents the factor loadings and errors, while Table 7 and Figure 2 present the generalised least squares estimates of the regression weights.

SEM model results: generalized least squares estimates of regression weights.

Factor loadings and errors of constructs.

SEM generalized least squares estimates of regression weights.

Legend: *** p < 0.001.

The average variance extracted (AVE) is the convergent validity test that explains the degree to which items are shared between constructs [ 100 ]. To attain this validity, the value of AVE must be greater than or equal to 0.5 [ 101 ]. In AMOS the average variance extracted (AVE) is calculated manually using the formula (summation of K2)/n, where K = factor loading (see Table 6 ) and n = the number of items. Both values of AVE were near the limit (for SATAQ4, AVE = 0.42 and for ACSS, AVE = 0.48).

If the correlation value between the two constructs is less than the square root of the AVE value, discriminant validity exists [ 102 ]. For SATAQ4, only for two dimensions (media pressure and internalization of thin/low body fat) were the Spearman correlations (see Table 5 ) with the latent variable slightly higher than the square root of AVE (0.64).

The internal consistency was measured with Cronbach alpha coefficients, which must be greater than 0.70. Table 1 and Table 2 show that for SATAQ4 and ACSS, Cronbach alphas were all higher than 0.789. A value of composite reliability CR ≥ 0.7 is required to achieve construct reliability [ 103 ]. Using the data of Table 6 , the calculation of CR obtained values above the required limit (for SATAQ-4, CR = 0.78; for ACSS, CR = 0.74).

The hypothesis H1 was supported by the results, because the socio-cultural pressure influenced body appreciation, with a negative regression weight (−0.546), which means that higher socio-cultural pressures will have a negative impact on the level of body appreciation, as has been claimed in several studies [ 62 , 63 , 64 ], but contradicting the findings of Lunde [ 104 ]. As expected, BMI was positively correlated with family pressure, peer pressure and SATAQ 4 [ 7 ], but not with BAS-2, as found by Góngora et al. [ 105 ] and Sundgot-Borgen et al. [ 64 ].

The impact of socio-cultural pressure on consumers’ avoidance of social/human interaction in a shopping context (CSAB) postulated in hypothesis H2 was supported by the results of the SEM. Respondents exposed to higher socio-cultural pressure rated higher values of the items related to the avoidance to shop in off-line retail outlets and high-street shops. Respondents may want to avoid stigmatisation and shame resulting from the interactions with both retail salespersons and consumers [ 68 , 69 ].

There is also a negative regression weight between body appreciation and CSAB, thus supporting hypothesis H3. As expected, respondents with higher body appreciation levels did not have concerns with the social visibility and interaction with retail salespersons in an off-line retail environment.

The results are also partially aligned with the findings of Jovic et al. [ 63 ], Lunde [ 104 ] and Meskó and Láng [ 88 ], who found a significant positive correlation between the internalisation of thin/low fat body dimension of SATAQ and the intrapersonal dimension of ACSS. Therefore, hypothesis H4 was fully supported by the results, because there were positive correlations between the total score of SATAQ and all the dimensions of ACSS. However, hypothesis H5 was rejected because there was not any influence of body appreciation (BAS-2) on the dimensions of the attitude toward cosmetic surgeries (ACSS), thus contradicting the findings of Meskó and Láng [ 88 ].

Hypothesis H6, claiming an influence of socio-cultural pressure on the proneness to shop compulsively, was supported by the negative regression weight estimated in the SEM results. Although there was a positive correlation between CBFS (which has a reversed scale) and BAS-2 (R2 = 0.24, p < 0.01), confirming that respondents with positive body image are less prone to engage in compulsive shopping, hypothesis H7 was also rejected by the SEM results, because no significant regression weight between the two constructs was found in the tested models.

5. Conclusions

This paper aims to discuss the outcomes of body talk and socio-cultural pressure for positive body image on purchase decision processes, in particular the changes in consumer behaviour preferences and shopping styles, proneness to avoid human/social interaction in a retail context and proneness to change their shopping basket and engage in corrective/compensatory/compulsive shopping behaviour.

In general, the respondents of this sample rated a positive body appreciation, which is aligned with the low levels of BMI and scores of socio-cultural pressures (near the normal scale’s midpoint). In terms of consumer behaviour outcomes, respondents also rated low intentions of social-interaction avoidance and compulsive buying behaviour and a favourable attitude towards cosmetic surgeries. After a median split that divided the sample into two groups (low versus high body appreciation) some significant differences were found that can explain the significant Spearman correlations between the measured constructs.

5.1. Implications for Research

There is a gap in the literature concerning the discussion of consumer behaviour outcomes and marketing mix changes as a consequence of socio-cultural pressure stressing the internalisation of a positive body image/appreciation, which remains unexplored by marketing researchers. The relationship between socio-cultural pressure regarding physical appearance with the proneness to engage in compulsive buying behaviour has been suggested by several studies [ 93 , 94 ] but has never been tested using the scales of SATAQ-4 and BAS-2.

The main contribution of this paper is the development and validation of a conceptual model that has postulated several causal relationships between two independent variables, in particular socio-cultural pressure (from the internalisation of thin/athletic body and the social comparison induced by family, peers and media) and body appreciation and the outcomes of social-interaction avoidance, intention to make corrective surgeries and the proneness to engage in compulsive buying behaviour. Only two hypotheses were not supported by the results of the SEM model, since there was found to be no influence of body appreciation on the acceptance of cosmetic surgeries or on the adoption of compulsive buying behaviour.

5.2. Managerial Implications

This paper also provides new insights and recommendations for marketing and retailing managers. Even consumers with a positive body image are exposed to socio-cultural pressure from family, peers and media pushing the internalisation of thin/low fat body ideals (especially for women) and an athletic body ideal (especially for men). The literature has confirmed a negative effect of media exposure on body dissatisfaction, which is partly mediated by social-comparison processing [ 57 , 58 , 59 ]. The use of thin and attractive models (celebrities) as advertising endorsers is also an important source of media pressure that may increase body dissatisfaction levels.

This paper has confirmed that there is a negative correlation between media pressure and body appreciation (see Table 5 ) which in turn may explain the positive correlations with social-interaction avoidance (CSAB), acceptance of corrective surgery and other borderline behaviour, such as compulsive behaviour. The concept of social-interaction avoidance implies several negative effects for off-line retailers’ sales volume, as consumers reduce the frequency of their purchases, avoid the social visibility of shopping outside the home, in shopping centres or high streets, hiding their body parts that are the source of body dissatisfaction. Moreover, there is a reduction in the average purchase amount, as consumers reduce the time spent inside shops to avoid interaction with retail salespersons and other shoppers. Therefore, brand managers must be aware of these negative effects when they are making decisions about their strategy for advertising copy.

Brands must assume their social responsibility role and mitigate the pressure for internalisation of thin/athletic bodies as a socio-cultural norm. This role is more relevant in the fashion product categories whose products are designed to satisfy the emotional and self-expression needs, which in turn are determined by the perception of the individual’s body image and appreciation. Any distress or disturbance linked to body dissatisfaction will have repercussions on shopping preferences, since consumers will prefer products that hide body-image issues, avoiding other conspicuous products that highlight sources of body dissatisfaction. Moreover, body dissatisfaction may facilitate the development of psychological disorders such as low self-esteem, interpersonal difficulties, depressed mood, social anxiety, low physical activity, substantial morbidity, stress, substance abuse, anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Obesity is also associated with severe stigmatisation by their surroundings, since obese people are often negatively stereotyped as lazy and lacking in self-control [ 68 , 69 ]. Brand managers must therefore pre-test their advertising campaigns in order to control the implicit/explicit negative stereotyping bias in advertising content. Brands must contribute to educating the public opinion, promoting the inclusion of all people and the acceptance of human body differences and enhancing self-conscious emotions in response to obesity-related negative stereotypes and behaviour [ 106 ]. The findings of this paper are aligned with Brown and Tiggemann [ 55 ], who stressed that this concern is more relevant among women who are more exposed to media pressure and also more affected by the internalisation of a thin body as an ideal.

On the other hand, there are several product and services categories whose revenues are fuelled by body dissatisfaction, because they somehow provide corrective or preventive actions that aim to mitigate obesity or other issues related to specific body parts, for example, cosmetic, diet and weight-loss treatments, hair-loss treatments, cosmetic surgeries, hairdressers, beauty treatments, healthy food, health and wellness treatments and gym classes, amongst others.

Brand managers should moderate their marketing aggressiveness and inform consumers of the dangers of the physical and psychological addiction to the consumption of such treatments, sometimes with compensatory purposes, because they can evolve into a compulsive buying behaviour. For example, while dissatisfied consumers may pursue happiness by purchasing luxury products or travelling as a compensatory mechanism to balance their psychological needs, consumers who have high levels of positive body appreciation may also engage in conspicuous, exhibitionist or narcissistic consumption activities.

In conclusion, brand and retail managers must acknowledge the need to adapt all components of the marketing mix to cope with this phenomenon, because consumers make changes in their shopping basket and habits, in terms of their preference for less-conspicuous distribution channels and also their willingness to pay for their products and how they process information and advertising.

5.3. Limitations of the Study and Further Research Directions

The current research has several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the results are based on self-reporting measures collected from a convenience non-representative sample in Portugal. Because of this, our findings cannot be generalised to other populations. Although the anonymity of the answers was assured, respondents tend to incur in a response and non-response bias, underrating items related to the self-assumption of psychological disorders such as compulsive buying behaviour. Further research should also compare the response and behaviour of sub-samples with significant differences in BMI and body appreciation scores and may include some qualitative depth analysis of the psychological effects of societal stigmatisation of obese people. Rather than focus on obesity as the main cause of body dissatisfaction, research should extend the analysis to other body dissatisfaction issues such as ageing, hair loss or skin stretch marks/cellulite. It would be relevant to investigate how consumers deal with these problems. Are they too psychological vulnerable? Why are they willing to buy all sorts of “magical” products, regardless of the price?

Besides the differences in retail habits and product preferences highlighted in this research, it is useful to investigate the role of other components of the marketing mix such as pricing policies and sales promotions, omnichannel advertising, store atmosphere, etc. Therefore, this paper is only one part of a broader research project that also investigated other issues related with the implications of socio-cultural pressure and body image/dissatisfaction. For example, this research has also assessed how consumers process and react to different advertising campaigns that promote physical activity in gyms. The authors aim to discuss the role of self-congruency between consumers and advertising endorsers (obese endorsers versus thin endorsers) through the manipulation of (in)coherence between the final goal of physical activity in gyms and the physical appearance of the endorser.

Funding Statement

This research was funded by the research project UIDB/00683/2020 (Center for Philosophical and Humanistic Studies), funded by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology.

Author Contributions

The individual contributions of the authors were equal. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Cultural Research Paper Topics: Exploring Heritage and Society

Culture is interconnected and ever-changing. It influences how we think, behave, and interact with everything around us. It is also a significant source of variation, as various cultures have varying values, beliefs, and practices.

Understanding different cultures is more important than ever in today’s globalized world. Cultural research can aid in creating a more inclusive and tolerant society by bridging cultural divisions.

Through a range of cultural research paper themes, such as  pop culture essay topics , this article investigates the characteristics of human civilizations and diversity. These issues cover everything from the significance of culture in developing human identity to the influence of cultural variety on disagreements and partnerships.

How to Choose Research Paper Topics about Culture?

Culture is a vast and complex topic, so it can be difficult to choose a research paper topic that is both interesting and manageable.

Listed are a few tips for choosing research paper topics about culture:

• Consider your own interests

What aspects of culture are you most interested in? What do you know a lot about? Choosing a topic you are interested in will make the research process more enjoyable and rewarding.

• Consider your target audience.

Who is going to read your paper? What background in culture do they ask for? Choosing a topic that is intriguing and helpful to your readers will improve the quality of your paper.

• Conduct preliminary research .

Once you’ve developed a few concepts, perform some early research. This will assist you in selecting your topic and figuring out the sources you will use.

• Make it specific .

To what extent do you want the subject to go? A broader topic will allow you to examine more facets of culture, though it will also be more difficult to investigate.  

• Consult with your lecturer.

Talk to your professor if you need help deciding on a cultural research topic. They can assist you in filtering your alternatives and selecting the best topic for you.

List of Interesting Culture Topics to Write About

Culture is a diverse and intriguing subject that may be approached from various perspectives. There are several interesting cultural research topics to write about, ranging from multiple civilizations’ history to culture’s influence on the arts and media.

This list is an excellent place to begin if you’re looking for fascinating cultural research topics to write about.

Cultural Anthropology Research Topics

The study of human societies and their traditions is known as cultural anthropology. Cultural anthropology research subjects might range from the study of distinct civilizations to the study of cross-cultural comparisons. These subjects in anthropological perspectives go into the cultural practices, rites, and norms of multiple cultures across all nations worldwide. They may include studies on kinship systems, gender roles, religious ceremonies, language development, and cultural adaptation.

Some examples of cultural research topics include;

• Cultural Adaptation and Assimilation of Immigrants in Modern Society
• The Impact of Globalization on Indigenous Cultures and Traditional Knowledge Systems
• Cultural Expressions and Identity Formation Among Marginalized Communities
• The Role of Rituals and Ceremonies in Shaping Cultural Beliefs and Practices
• Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Gender Roles and Sexuality
• Cultural Responses to Environmental Change and Sustainability
• The Influence of Technology on Cultural Performance and Communication Process
• Cultural Perspectives on Healthcare Practices and Healing Rituals
• Cultural Preservation and the Role of Museums in Safeguarding Intangible Heritage
• Comparative Study of Cultural Practices Related to Death and Mourning

Cultural Psychology Research Paper Topics

Cultural psychology research paper topics focus on the intersection between culture and human psychology. These subjects explore how cultural factors shape our thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and mental processes.

By examining these topics, researchers aim to unravel the complex interplay between cultural psychology, shedding light on the cultural influences that shape our individual and collective experiences.

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Cultural research topics in this section are:

• Cultural Variations in Cognitive Processes and Perception
• The Influence of Culture on Personality Development and Individual Differences
• Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Emotion Expression and Regulation
• Cultural Factors in the Development and Treatment of Mental Disorders
• Cultural Influences on Parenting Styles and Child Development
• Cultural Variations in Moral Reasoning and Ethical Decision-Making
• The Role of Cultural Narcissism in Shaping Attitudes and Behaviors Towards Authority
• Cultural Differences in Motivation and Achievement
• The Impact of Acculturation and Bicultural Identity on Psychological Well-Being
• Cultural Factors in Intergroup Relations and Prejudice

Socio-Cultural Essay Topics

Socio-cultural topics explore a wide range of issues related to society and culture. The essays in the socio-cultural context examine the relationship between humanity and culture. Research topics in this field can range from the study of social institutions to the norms and values of cultural studies.

Among the possible cultural research topics are:

• The Societal Fabrication of Race and Its Consequences for Identity and Inequality
• Mass Media’s Involvement in Creating Cultural Norms and Values
• Perspectives on Economic Disparity and Hardship From a Socio-Cultural Perspective
• Social Media’s Influence on Interpersonal Relationships and Self-Esteem
• The Impact of Cultural Diversity on Academic Success in Schooling
• Socio-Cultural Variables Influence Health Inequalities and Access to Healthcare
• Religious Beliefs Influence Societal Attitudes and Behaviors
• Migration and Refugee Integration Have Socio-Cultural Elements
• Cultural Phenomena Influence Environmental Views and Sustainable Practices
• Race, Class, and Gender Intersectionality in Human Beings’ Socioeconomic Inequity

Cultural Diversity Research Topics

This area of study may investigate the impact of cultural diversity on healthcare inequalities, the role of cultural characteristics on psychological outcomes, or the efficacy of ethnically customized therapies in enhancing patient care and health results.

To get your cultural research papers crafted to your requirements, Edusson gets the hassle out of writing essays from start to end.

Being aware of various cultural aspects is essential for establishing inclusive and equitable healthcare systems that meet the specific requirements of varied groups.

The following are some cultural research topics to write on:

• The Effect of Cultural Diversity on Workplace Efficiency and Fulfillment
• The Impact of Ethnic Diversity on the Medical Industry and How Patients Respond
• Investigating the Importance of Cultural Phenomenon in Developing the Education System and Practices
• Cultural Diversity’s Impact on Team Dynamics and Collaboration in a Social Organization
• Cultural Diversity and Its Consequences for International Advertising Tactics
• The Link Between Cultural Diversity and Technological Innovation
• Understanding the Upsides and Challenges of Cultural Diversity in a Multicultural Society
• The Influence of Cultural Competence on Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding Initiatives
• Multicultural Diversity’s Impact on National Identity and Social and Emotional Development
• Investigating and Preserving Native Culture Uniqueness

Cross-Cultural Research Paper Topics

Intercultural studies compare and analyze different cultures and their effects on many parts of society. Exploring disparities in healthcare beliefs and practices, investigating the efficacy of cross-cultural perspectives in hospital settings, or researching the influence of globalization on cultural practices and medical behaviors are all possible research subjects.

Cultural studies facilitate competence in healthcare and ensure culturally sensitive and effective care to individuals from a particular culture.

Writing a very good research paper is tedious, so you may need to find the  best research paper topics  to get ideas flowing.

Cultural research paper topics in this category include:

• A Comparative Analysis of Cross-Cultural Business Communication Across World Culture
• Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges and Strategies in International Business Negotiations
• The Impact of Cross-Cultural Interactions on Intercultural Competence Development
• Economic Classes in Parenting Styles and Their Effects on Child Development
• Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Sexually Transmitted Diseases Stigma and Its Implications for Non-verbal Communication
• Exploring Cross-Cultural Fashion Trends Variations and Experiences of Beauty and Body Image
• The Influence of Culture on Attitudes and Behaviors Related to Environmental Sustainability
• Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Aging and Elder Care Practices
• Understanding Cross-Cultural Psychology in Ethical Decision-Making Processes
• The Role of Western Culture History in Shaping Attitudes Towards Gender and Sexuality

Art Culture Research Topics for Assignments

The intersection of art and culture provides a rich landscape for research. Research in this field contributes to our understanding of art’s therapeutic and cultural significance and highlights its potential as a tool for healing, self-expression, and cultural values.

Potential cultural research paper topics are:

• The Influence of Ancient Art on Contemporary Artistic Expressions
• Exploring the Cultural Significance of Street Art and Graffiti in Urban Environments
• Female Culture in Art Throughout Ancient Britain
• Art as a Form of Cultural Resistance and Social Activism
• Analyzing How Traditional Food Reflects the Cultural Heritage
• Cultural Appropriation Versus Cultural Appreciation in Art and Its Ethical Implications
• The Intersection of Art and Technology: Exploring Digital Art and Its Cultural Implications
• The Importance of Museums in Maintaining and Displaying Various Works of Art and Cultural Artifacts
• The Study of How Art Reflects and Affects the Stories of Culture
• Therapeutic Art as a Technique for Boosting Mental Health and Well-Being Across Different Cultures

Good Essay Topics about Culture

Culture is an enthralling and varied part of human society. Cultural essay topics include customs, cultural interchange, cultural identity, cultural appropriation, and cultural preservation. Exploring these themes provides a more in-depth understanding of the values, religious practices, cultural clashes, and conventions that define different cultures.

The following are the best cultural studies selections in this category:

• Globalization’s Influence on Indigenous Cultural Practices
• A Critical Appraisal of Cultural Theft
• The Impact of Cultural Background on Individual Growth
• Language’s Impact on Cultural Norms and Values
• Issues and Benefits of Preserving Cultural Diversity in the Workplace
• A Systematic Examination of Gender Roles and Cultural Expectations
• Protection of Historic Resources in the Face of the Modern World
• Finding an Equilibrium Between Cultural Integration and Maintaining Culture
• Gender Stereotypes and Their Effects on Intercultural Relationships
• The Influence of Pop Culture on Societal Norms and Values

Topics on Globalization

The process of globalization has changed the global culture into an interlinked village. Globalization essay themes can cover a wide range of issues, including its influence on economics, politics, technology, interpersonal relationships, and cultural interaction in modern society.

Evaluating globalization’s good and bad consequences, investigating its place in influencing global politics, and debating the difficulties and possibilities it brings may provide significant insights into the complex dynamics of our increasingly linked world and mitigate cultural ignorance.

Among the more intriguing cultural research topics include:

• The Impact of Economic Globalisation on Developing Countries
• Viral Diseases Spread and Globalization
• Multinational Corporations’ Role in Globalization
• The Impact of Globalisation on Isolated Communities
• Cultural Diversity Versus Globalization in a Modern Society
• Environmental Sustainability and Globalization
• Globalization and Trends of Labor Migration
• Globalization’s Political Implications
• The Age of Technology and Its Impact on Globalization
• The Growth of Global Governing Institutions Is a Result of Globalization

American Culture Research Paper Topics

The richness and diversity of American culture make it an appealing subject for study. American culture research paper topics may include the global impact of American pop culture, the development, and history of American cuisine, the representation of American identity in movies and novels, the impact of immigration on modern United States society, or the part of Christian traditions in defining American and African culture.

Popular cultural research topics include:

• American Political Culture’s Development
• The Influence of Hollywood on American Culture
• The Role of Mass Media in Shaping American Societal Norms
• The Impact of Immigration on American Cultural Diversity
• American Exceptionalism: Myth or Reality?
• American Pop Culture and Its Consequences
• The History and Significance of Jazz Music in African Culture
• The Portrayal of Race and Ethnicity in American Pop Culture
• The Influence of American Literature on National Identity
• The American Dream: Its Changing Meaning and Societal Implications

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• Extensive List of 200+ Dissertation Topics for Strong Research
• Pop Culture Essay Topics: Find Out the Pulse of Modern Society
• Business Research Paper Topics: Management, Commerce, Entrepreneurship, etc

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Ideological divisions over cultural issues are far wider in the U.S. than in the UK, France and Germany

When it comes to key cultural issues, Americans are significantly more divided along ideological lines than people in the United Kingdom, France and Germany, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of surveys conducted in the four countries in fall 2020.

Across 11 questions on cultural subjects ranging from nationalism to political correctness, the gap between the ideological left and right in the United States – or liberals and conservatives, in the common U.S. parlance – is significantly wider than the ideological gaps found in the European countries surveyed. In some cases, this is because America’s conservatives are outliers. In other cases, it’s because America’s liberals are outliers. In still other cases, both the right and left in the U.S. hold more extreme positions than their European counterparts, resulting in ideological gaps that are more than twice the size of those seen in the UK, Germany or France.

Below, we explore these trends in more detail.

This analysis focuses on cultural attitudes in the U.S., UK, France and Germany. In particular, the focus is on the difference between those who on the left (or liberals in the U.S.) and on the right (or conservatives in the U.S.), based on self-placement on an ideological scale.

The report is based on data from nationally representative telephone surveys of 4,069 adults from Nov. 10 to Dec. 23, 2020, in the U.S., France, Germany and the UK.

Here are the questions used for the report, along with responses, and the  survey methodology .

‘What it takes to be one of us’ and immigration

On issues of “belonging” or what it takes to truly be part of a country (e.g., to be “American” or “French”), those on the ideological right in all four countries are more likely than those on the left to say being Christian, speaking the national language, sharing the country’s customs and traditions and being born in the country are “very important.”

Across all four items, though, the ideological gap in the U.S. is larger than in other countries. This is often – but not always – because the views of America’s conservatives stand out. (The U.S. survey was fielded in November and December 2020, after the presidential election but before the inauguration of Joe Biden.)

For example, around a third of U.S. adults who place themselves on the ideological right (32%) say being Christian is very important for being American, but no more than 17% on the right in any other country say the same.

When it comes to the importance of being born in the country, around a third on the U.S. right (32%) think it is very important for being American, compared with no more than 24% of those on the right in any other country. Similarly, those on America’s ideological right (57%) are more likely than their counterparts in France (47%), Germany (39%) and the UK (29%) to say that sharing national customs and traditions is very important to national identity.

The pattern is somewhat different when it comes to speaking the country’s language. While the overall ideological gap is again wider in the U.S. than in the other three countries, America’s liberals are notably less likely than their counterparts in other nations to see speaking English as critical to being American. Only around a quarter of the left in the U.S. (24%) say it’s very important to speak English to be truly American, whereas at least four-in-ten of those on the left in every other country say the same about speaking their national languages.

The ideological left in the U.S. also stands out in its views of whether immigrants want to adopt the country’s customs and way of life. Around eight-in-ten Americans on the left (79%) say this, compared with around two-thirds or fewer in the other countries.

Pride and tradition

In all four countries, those on the ideological right are consistently more likely than those on the left to say their nation will be better off if it sticks to its traditions and ways of life, rather than if it is open to changes. Yet the gap between right and left in the U.S. is more than twice as wide as the gap in other countries. Around two-thirds of those on America’s ideological right (65%) think the U.S. should stick to its traditions, compared with just 6% on the left.

People in the U.S. and the UK are similarly divided along ideological lines when it comes to having pride in the country. A majority of those on the right in both countries say they are proud of their country most of the time, while only around one-in-six on the left in each country say the same. In fact, people on the left in both the U.S. and UK are as likely to describe themselves as ashamed of their country most of the time as they are to say they are proud of their country most of the time. (The remainder describe themselves as being both ashamed and proud.) In France and Germany, on the other hand, pride in the country is not an ideological issue; those on the left and right are about equally likely to describe themselves as proud most of the time.

Political correctness and discrimination

When it comes to “PC culture,” those on the ideological right tend to be more likely than those on the left to say people today are too easily offended. Those on the left, in turn, are often more likely to say people should be more careful what they say.

On this question, too, the ideological gap in the U.S. is more than twice as large as that found in any of the European countries surveyed, with both the American right and left standing out from their counterparts overseas.

On the American right, around three-quarters (76%) say people are too easily offended – significantly higher than the share of those on the right in any of the European countries. Meanwhile, Americans on the left (32%) are somewhat less likely than those on the left in Germany (38%), the UK (41%) and France (46%) to describe people as too easily offended these days.

Americans are also extraordinarily divided when it to comes to perceptions about which is the bigger problem: people seeing discrimination against ethnic and racial minorities where it does not exist, or people not seeing such discrimination where it really does exist. Around six-in-ten on the U.S. right (62%) say the greater problem is people seeing discrimination where it does not exist, while only 9% on the left agree. Elsewhere, the ideological gap on this question is much narrower.

When it comes to religious discrimination, in particular, Americans are far more divided than people in the other countries in their perceptions of whether Christians and Muslims each face bias. The ideological right in the U.S. is substantially more likely than the right in other countries to say Christians face a lot of discrimination – and less likely to say the same about Muslims. Meanwhile, those on the ideological left in the U.S. are more likely than their counterparts on the European left to say Muslims face a lot of discrimination.

There are no significant ideological differences in any of the four countries on the issue of whether Jews face a lot of discrimination or not.

Note: Here are the questions used for the report, along with responses, and the survey methodology .

Laura Silver is an associate director focusing on global attitudes at Pew Research Center

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Trinidad and Tobago Socio Cultural Issues

This essay about Trinidad and Tobago examines the socio-cultural dynamics of the twin islands, highlighting the impact of their historical evolution, ethnic diversity, and integration. It discusses the significant socio-economic challenges, including inequalities and crime, along with environmental issues related to climate change. The essay underscores the need for addressing these complex issues to foster a more inclusive, equitable, and sustainable future for the nation.

How it works

Nestled in the shimmering blue waters of the Caribbean Sea, the twin islands of Trinidad and Tobago present themselves as vibrant centers of cultural diversity, shaped by their rich historical background, varied migrations, and global influences. This essay explores the complex socio-cultural dynamics that define Trinidad and Tobago, highlighting the key issues that influence its society.

A journey through the socio-cultural landscape of Trinidad and Tobago is essentially a deep dive into its historical narrative, characterized by tales of discovery, colonization, and cultural amalgamation.

From the original Arawak and Carib inhabitants to the successive European explorers and settlers, the historical influences are deeply embedded in the nation’s cultural identity.

At the core of Trinidad and Tobago lies a dynamic mix of ethnicities, creating a rich tapestry of traditions, languages, and practices. This blend includes the descendants of African slaves, Indian indentured servants, Chinese migrants, European colonists, and native groups, all contributing to a unified yet complex cultural identity.

However, this vibrant exterior masks the underlying socio-cultural tensions that intersect issues of identity, belonging, and power within the nation’s societal structure.

Despite the economic gains from its oil and gas sectors, Trinidad and Tobago faces significant socio-economic challenges. Wealth distribution remains skewed, perpetuating inequality and hindering the full potential of its diverse populace.

The remnants of colonialism are evident in ongoing structural inequalities, with significant disparities in access to education, jobs, and healthcare, often divided along racial and class lines. Both Afro-Trinidadians and Indo-Trinidadians frequently encounter systemic barriers, facing ongoing discrimination and exclusion.

Trinidad and Tobago also confronts issues of crime and safety, which pose significant threats to its societal cohesion. Urban and rural areas alike deal with the repercussions of crime, driven by factors like poverty, unemployment, and social alienation.

While police efforts are ongoing, the deeper socio-economic reasons behind the high crime rates remain largely unaddressed, continuing the cycle of violence and instability that affects community harmony.

Facing the global crisis of climate change, Trinidad and Tobago is at a crucial juncture. The economic reliance on oil and gas conflicts with environmental conservation, leading to deforestation, pollution, and the destruction of natural habitats.

Coastal erosion poses a serious risk, threatening both the environment and the economic stability of coastal communities. Moving towards sustainable development is critical, requiring a balance between economic needs and environmental preservation.

The socio-cultural fabric of Trinidad and Tobago is a complex mosaic of diversity, disparity, and determination. By addressing the intricate socio-cultural challenges it faces, Trinidad and Tobago can pave the way toward a more inclusive, equitable, and sustainable future, securing a prosperous legacy for future generations.

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Corporate Social Responsibility: Ethical and Legal Issues Research Paper

Introduction, legal responsibilities, ethical responsibilities.

According to the reviews the expansion of the corporate social responsibility (CSR) perception and its four mechanisms: economic, legal, ethical and altruistic duties. Discusses dissimilar perspectives on the good role of trade in society, from profit making to community service supplier. Suggests that much of the bewilderment and disagreement over CSR stem from a failure to distinguish in the midst of ethical, altruistic and planned forms of CSR.

On the basis of a methodical assessment of the arguments for and alongside altruistic CSR, concurs with Milton Friedman that philanthropic CSR is not a lawful role of business. Proposes that ethical CSR, beached in the perception of ethical duties and responsibilities, is obligatory. Concludes that planned CSR is good for trade and society. Advises that advertising take a guide role in planned CSR activities. Notes complexity in CSR practice and offers proposition for marketers in preparation for strategic CSR and for academic researchers in more clarifying the boundaries of tactical CSR.

Legal duties involve observe by means of the law and playing by the rules of the game. Laws regulating trade conduct are passed since society does not always trust trade to do what is right. though, laws have certain inadequacy to make certain responsible behavior: they are of incomplete range (they cannot cover every possible emergency); merely provide a floor or moral minimum for trade conduct; are reactive, telling us what ought not to be done, rather than practical, telling us what ought to be done; and might be followed reluctantly out of fear of sentence rather than willingly out of interior moral confidence.

Ethical duties conquer the boundaries of legal duties. They entail being ethical, doing what is right, just, and fair; regarding peoples” moral rights; and avoiding damage or social damage as well as avert harm caused by others (Smith and Quelch, 1993). Ethical responsibilities those policies, organization, decisions, or practices that are either predictable (positive duties) or forbidden (negative duties) by members of society, though they are not essentially codified into law (Carroll, 2001).

They gain their source of power from religious convictions, ethical traditions, humane main beliefs, and human rights commitments (Novak, 1996). Today, almost all members of the commerce system agree, at least in hypothesis (although, regrettably, often not in practice) with this third set of social responsibilities”. I call moral duties principled CSR.

According to social agreement philosophy, the enterprise’s farm duties ought to be proportionate with its monetary, social and political authority (Bowie,1983; Davis, 1983; Lippke, 1996). A few even say that, since of its size and particular legal status, the modern corporation ought to be considered as a public organization, a individual of the state, rather than a private association, so that it can be held to a advanced legal and moral responsibility than the traditional commerce venture. In any case, social responsibility proponents’ dispute that business must be held to advanced standards of social liability than mere individuals (Miller and Ahrens, 1993).

Ahlseen, M. (2000), Main candidates miss Christian principles”, Threefold Advocate, Vol. 66 No. 9, p. 2.

Anshen, M. (1988), Changing the social contract: a role for business”, in Callahan, J.C. (Ed.), Ethical Issues in Professional Life, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.

Bloom, P.N. and Gundlach, G.T. (2001), Handbook of Marketing and Society, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.

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IvyPanda. (2022, April 29). Corporate Social Responsibility: Ethical and Legal Issues. https://ivypanda.com/essays/ethical-legal-or-socio-cultural-issues/

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170 Engaging Cultural Research Topics To Consider

Table of Contents

Have your instructor asked you to submit a cultural research paper? If yes, then an ideal topic is needed the most to proceed with your cultural research paper writing. In case, you are in a dilemma of what topic to choose for preparing your academic paper, quickly take a glance at this blog post. For your convenience, here, we have presented a list of 170 amazing cultural research topics and ideas to focus on. In addition, we have also explained how to identify the right topic and compose a detailed cultural research paper deserving of an A+ grade. Continue reading this blog to update your knowledge of cultural research paper writing.

Cultural Research Paper Topic Selection

Perhaps, if you want to develop an outstanding cultural research paper, you might need to follow the specified guidelines.

• Firstly, ensure to consult a person who is indigenous to the culture selected for your study. Also, your research paper might appear accurate, if you choose to start your study by speaking to the culture bearers directly.
• Secondly, you might consider studying the source of everything that emerges in the path of studying your selected culture. Possibly, you might want to comprehensively explore every habit, style, or tradition that is a part of your selected culture.
• Lastly, you might want to omit certain cultural aspects from your study, because you don’t like them. However, this is not the right thing to do, as you need to have a proper understanding and avoid biased views.

Cultural Research Paper Writing

Besides, every research paper holds a huge significance, here we have suggested a few strategies for writing an excellent paper.

• Indeed, you need to research the chosen problem, yet you might seek your professor’s advice for suitable sources. Again, you might not depend on blogs or Wikipedia for obtaining research information as it is not always accurate.
• Also, communicate on someone’s behalf from the background, since you need to write on a specific culture.
• Moreover, prepare an outline of your paper, where you might discuss the primary points and identify your paper’s structure. Alternatively, you might look for essay samples online and accordingly organize your work, thereby assessing the significance of your issue.
• Simultaneously, identify relevant evidence for correctness, including graphs, charts, or even tables, and ensure your grammar is correct.

List of the Best Cultural Research Paper Topics

In the list published below, you will find 150+ captivating cultural research ideas. Whenever you run short of ideas, go through the list carefully and from it pick any topic that you feel is convenient for you to research and write about.

Basic & Simple Cultural Research Topics

• Discuss a Greek myth of your choice.
• Ancient Britain and its architecture.
• Roman Empire and its heritage in the modern world.
• Olympic Games and its history.
• Spread of Christianity across Europe.
• Describe a Greek philosopher and his legacy.
• Elaborate on the key Renaissance artists.
• British culture and the emergence of humanism.
• Influence of the Great Plague on Western culture.
• The Renaissance artwork and its legacy.
• African culture and its colonization.
• Impact of Brexit on the British lifestyle.
• The Enlightenment period and its highlight.
• The influence of the American Revolution on the culture.
• French culture and the impact of World War 1.
• Impact of cultural background on interpersonal communication models
• How do art and craft depict the cultural practices of a community?
• Discuss the role of tattoos in modern and ancient cultures
• Discuss how accents and dialects impact the interpersonal cultural communication
• Analyze the impact of classical and modern culture on fashion using examples of international fashion trends

Exclusive Cultural Research Topics

• Elaborate on European fashion during a particular period.
• Influence of technological revolution on the daily life of the Europeans.
• Impact of the 1848 revolution on art.
• The role of women in modern society as opposed to the traditional roles.
• How stigma affects efforts to stop the spread of sexually transmitted diseases
• What are the peculiarities of the Zulu community culture in Southern Africa?
• How is the concept of death viewed in Africa?
• The influence of English as a common language on American culture.
• What is the anthropological perspective on the development of the modern United States of America?
• Identify your favorite novel and explore its cultural aspects.
• The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn- Elaborate on its context.
• A Bronx Tale- Describe the key character’s value.
• Fury by Salman Rushdie- Identify the cultural clashes.
• The Help- Elaborate on the white women’s ideologies.
• Bend it Like Beckham- Explain the significance of gender.

Unique Cultural Research Paper Topics

• Select a painting and analyze its cultural background.
• Far and Away- Consolidating into a new society.
• How did the Slumdog Millionaire movie’s background transform the significance of the lead character?
• Girl with a Pearl Earring- Explain the symbolism.
• Identify a song and explain the culture portrayed in its lyrics.
• Punjabi Ladies Near a Village Well- Describe the context.
• Depiction of Christ from various continents- A comparative analysis.
• Explore cross-cultural fashion trends.
• Choose a celebrity and evaluate his or her fan base.
• The impact of cultural diversity on the whole medical industry
• The influence of cultural diversity on performance and communication process.
• Cultural diversity and psychological counseling.
• The effects of migration on the cultural diversity of Asian land.
• The popularity of sitcoms- Discuss.
• Thanksgiving celebration outside the United States.

Excellent Cultural Research Ideas

• Bandwagon effect and its marketing causes.
• Describe the popularity of any classical movie of your choice.
• TV talent shows and their similarities across different countries.
• Favorite American dishes- Analyze the reasons behind them.
• Analyze the psychological aspects of the cultural phenomenon.
• Explore the conditions that make a musician famous.
• The popularity of Nike products all across the world.
• Role of the bandwagon effect on the Renaissance period.
• Holocaust normalized in a few countries- Explain the reasons.
• Spread of religious beliefs- Is it a cultural phenomenon?
• Athletic community and its relevance.
• Amish standout and the reason behind it.
• The benefit of the cybersport for the United States.
• Subculture as a basis of culture- Review the statement.
• How do marketing strategies make subcultures effective?

Professional Cultural Research Topics

• Do clothes identify the subculture of a person?
• The emergence of social groups.
• Describe the interest group of your family.
• Select a religious organization and elaborate on it.
• Discuss the impact of social media on a person’s lifestyle.
• Influence of the hipsters on the international fashion trend.
• Skater and the conditions governing it.
• Elaborate on the significance of the hairstyles for subcultures.
• Generation z and its popular subculture.
• Discuss the social stigma of single mothers.
• How are Christians persecuted in a few countries?
• Impact of information overload on the current day teens.
• Frequency of cyberbullying occurrence across the world.
• The significance of cultural sensitivity development.
• Elaborate on the different religions in America.

High-Quality Cultural Research Topics

• Racism might not be tolerated- Review the statement.
• Discuss the fundamental principles of cultural respect.
• Second-generation Americans- Discuss their challenges.
• American psychologists and their cultural competence needs.
• The US as a multicultural country- Discuss the benefits.
• American traditions and the place of diversity.
• How to avoid cultural narcissism?
• Explain the heritage of a particular country.
• Ethnic diversity and its advantages.
• How to mitigate cultural ignorance?
• Ethnocentrism- How does it make the Americans guilty?
• Architecture and its role in depicting a country’s history.
• Political divisions in the US- Analyze the causes.
• Bilingual is a common attribute for many countries- Elaborate on the statement.
• Impact of liberalism on the education system.

Intriguing Cultural Research Paper Topics

• Advantages and disadvantages of free healthcare services.
• How do Christian traditions vary from country to country?
• Influence of traditional food on a country’s history.
• Relevance of languages in representing culture worldwide.
• Understanding the impact of refugees in European countries.
• Analyze the Artificial Technologies in Japan.
• The national pride of the Americans- Why is it so powerful?
• Healthy Swiss households- Identify the reasons.
• Time perception in tropical countries.
• The self-esteem of the citizens and the economy of the country.
• Impact of the two-child policy on the Chinese lifestyle.
• Extinction of local cultures and globalization.
• Cultures and language- Elaborate on the concepts.
• Mass media and pop culture.
• Morals, ethics, and cultures- Explain the concepts.

Exciting Cultural Research Ideas

• Integrating people into the international culture.
• Global culture and its perspectives.
• How attitude towards sex varies from culture to culture.
• Perception of death in different cultures.
• How does a multicultural community live?
• Culture and advertisement- Explain its relevance.
• The alien culture depicted in movies and literature- Elaborate on the alien concept mentioned here.
• Cultural commonalities and their relevance for all human beings on the earth.
• Attitude and sex as cultural tools- A comparative analysis.
• Isolated communities and conservation of culture.
• List the coping mechanisms in a culturally different society.
• Analyzing the cultural anthropology of our time.
• Impact of specific languages on the culture.
• The influence of cultural anthropology on the missionary.
• Death perception in Africa.

Top Cultural Research Paper Topics

• Explain the influence of Islam on the American culture.
• Analyze how protest reformation affected German culture.
• Explain how multiculturalism affects the African community services.
• Discuss how culture has modified behavior in humans.
• Write about multicultural competence and racial consciousness.
• Analyze the ethical side of pop culture.
• Suggest some best ways to deal with culture shock.
• Examine the influence of Shakespeare on Western culture.
• Write about the TV shows that best reflect the culture of a country.
• Explain how to minimize cultural baggage.

Awesome Cultural Research Questions

• Impact of stopping the transmission of the sexually transmitted disease on the relevant efforts.
• English as a common language in the American culture- Discuss its influence.
• Zulu community culture in Southern America- Discuss the peculiarities.
• The influence of cultural diversity in modern society.
• The impact of cultural diversity on the whole medical industry.
• Analyze the role of cultural diversity in the schools.
• Influence of cultural diversity on performance and communication process.
• Effects of migration on the cultural diversity of Asian land- Discuss the impact on mental health.
• Filial piety and personality of the British citizens.
• Cross-cultural psychology and the factors influencing it.
• Unemployed graduates in the United States- Elaborate on their life experience.
• Cross-cultural business communication and its drivers.
• Socio-linguistic as a mechanism of distinguishing economic classes.
• Cultural promotion and the role of non-verbal communication.

Popular Cultural Research Topics

• The development of the kinds and amount of sexism across the year.
• The Black Lives Matter movement and its impact on racism in the US.
• Native culture and human psychology.
• Relevance of children visiting their grandparents once in a while.
• Evolution of female culture in the closed communities.
• Michael Jackson and the popular world culture- Discuss its impact.
• Impact of the environmental conditions on the character and evolution of culture.
• Impact of religion on culture.
• Delacroix’s Liberty Leading the People- Describe the context.
• Punjabi Ladies Near a Village Well- Explain its context.
• Homer among the Greeks by Gustav Jager- elaborates on the social roles.
• Explore the cross-cultural fashion trends.
• Causes for the increasing demand for Apple products.
• How social media enables a cultural phenomenon.
• Explain the reasons for social group development.

Trending Cultural Research Paper Ideas

• Does My Big Fat Greek Wedding accurately depict Greek-American culture?
• What impression of the main character has the backstory of Slumdog Millionaire changed for you?
• Take note of the cultural elements in Richard C. Morais’ The Hundred-Foot Journey.
• Write about the thinking of the main character in Khaled Hossein’s novel, The Kite Runner.
• Write an essay based on Gustav Jäger’s study of social positions in ancient Greece.
• Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell reveals social transformations.
• The impact of industrialization in The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck.
• Choose a song, then examine the lyrics to see how the culture is represented.
• Why do the phenomena of feminine culture in exclusive societies appear?
• examination of how physical labor affects persons physically over the long run.
• Discuss the impact of the patriarchal  culture of South Africa on the country’s women
• Describe the differences and similarities between nationalism and culture
• Compare and contrast the existing socio-cultural issues in Nigeria and the Philippines
• Analyze how the innovation of information systems impacts traditional cultural practices
• Is there any chance of extinction of local cultures in the era of globalization? If yes, then why?

Wrapping Up

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Sociocultural Issues Case Study

Filed Under: Research papers

In this assignment I will provide a fictional case study of a counselling client with issues relating to fear and sadness and then consider how their individual problems might be located in the social context in which the clients are embedded. The case study will clearly focus on sociocultural issues, such as culture, race, gender, sexuality, etc. It will look at how useful it can be to recognise how important sociocultural issues can be when considering individual distress. The main focus this assignment will be drawing on with regards to sociocultural issues will be, race, culture and sexuality.

The counselling approach being used will be person centred therapy. The Case Study is based on 32 year old woman who is mixed race and gay. She suffers anxiety around men which is the result of an intimidating, dominant father and verbal abuse from men regarding her sexuality. Case Study Alex is a mixed race 32 year old woman from the North-West of England but is currently living in London. She moved to London when she was 19 with her then boyfriend for a job she had been offered.

Alex told me she is from a working class background but when she first came to London she was living a very middle class life style which she always felt uncomfortable with. Alex states that after 6 years of living what she calls “that life” she realised she was gay. This resulted in her relationship ending and leaving her job and life behind to embark on her new life in the gay community. Alex said her parents (Father Jamaican, Mother English) are supportive. Neither she nor her parents are religious. Alex came to us via self-referral for help regarding her anxiety issues.

The Research paper on British Airways- Case Study

The scenario upon which this paper is based relates to the British Airways Swipe Card Debacle case study from the textbook, Managing Organizational Change: A Multiple Perspective Approach (Akin, Dunford, & Palmer, 2009). The purpose of this paper is to analyze and discuss the organizational change associated to the implementation of a new swipe card system that led to strike of over 250 ...

She suffered a controlling, dominant, intimidating father and now suffers verbal and sometimes physical abuse from men, she feels, because she is gay. Her father was intimidating towards everyone in the family especially her mother. As a result of this she adopted the role of her mother’s carer and protector giving her love, reassurance and emotional support that was never returned to her leaving her feeling very scared and vulnerable. Alex states that her fear of men in general is immense and that her true lifestyle which she is now living is increasing that fear as most of the abuse she is subjected to, is from men.

She also states that living in the gay community sometimes makes her feel like a minority within a minority because she is mixed race. She likened it to growing up mixed race and not completely fitting in with whites or blacks and felt rejected by both. Alex made a self-referral to our agency to seek help with her anxiety. The approach used when working with Alex was person centred therapy. Alex actively sought out this approach feeling it is more open minded compared to old traditionalist such as psychoanalytical. Relating sociocultural issues to the client

In society today, there are hierarchies with regard to race, gender (status), sexuality, (dis)ability, age, mental health and class. You are considered “normal” if you are white, male, straight, able bodied, young, mentally healthy and within the middle/upper classes. In light of this, Barker points out that, when we are part of the norm we often don’t even see that aspect of our identity, but when we are in the other group we may be all too aware of it. (Barker, 2010) (Barker, 2010, p. 214) It has been argued by, feminist, multicultural and LGBT af?

rmative therapists that such norms are present in mainstream psychotherapy and counselling. We all know that the main approaches of today all emerged in a western context and were largely founded by straight men. Barker asks: Can counselling theories and practices be usefully applied to people outside these groups, without reinforcing the notion that their members are lesser or problematic in some way? (Barker, 2010) (Barker, 2010, p. 215) In answer to Barkers question, it could be argued that, the psychotherapists and counsellors of today are just that, of today.

Approaching Adulthood Today Is Much Harder

Approaching Adulthood Today Is Much Harder Than It Was Ten Years Ago Drugs, sex and family problems are just three of the many issues that, make approaching adulthood today much harder than it was ten years ago. More than 90% of surveys on drug use say that over 80% of teens between the ages of 13-19 have tried or been offered illegal drugs. Approximately 65% of the teens surveyed admitted to ...

We all live in a modern world and know much off the sociocultural aspects that come with it. When we try to treat a client purely as an individual this can result in the loss of the experience of being different. Barker states that traditional therapeutic approaches have been critiqued by multicultural, feminist and lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans (LGBT) af? rmative therapists for their individualist stances. (Barker, 2010) (Barker, 2010, p. 212) It is said that, they regularly fail to see how important culture, gender and sexuality are.

Barker states that today, the majority of counsellors and psychotherapists are white, middleclass, heterosexual women, and this group also makes up the bulk of clients. Given this, how easy is it for other people to access counselling, or to experience it without power differences between counsellor and client being exacerbated in ways that are unhelpful? (Barker, 2010) (Barker, 2010, p. 215) This statement/question throws earlier claims of male superiority within psychotherapy up in the air and also highlights the changes that have come about in modern times with women now dominating the industry.

This argument again supports the fact that as an industry, we are evolving and moving with the times to keep things relevant for our clients so they don’t deem us unhelpful or exacerbating. On the other hand it could also be argued that counselling that is readily available through agencies and therapy centres still have counsellors who operate in a similar ways to the founders of such approaches. LGBT, feminist and multicultural style therapy has not penetrated the mainstream as such yet which is maybe why minority groups such as feminist, multicultural and LGBT clients do not feel their needs are being met.

This is illustrated when lesbian/gay people are questioned about their sexuality, when a straight person probably never would be or when a white person looks in the mirror, they don’t see their whiteness but for black people, that is all they see because they feel it is what makes them different. However it could be argued that because black people choose to focus on the fact that they are black, they could be in fact choosing to feel different. This would lead us to believe that if they did not focus on their skin colour, it would not be an issue for them.

The Essay on Maintaining Good Client Relations

Establishing and Maintaining Good Client Relations Total Quality Management, customer satisfaction index, zero defects, client service - all are buzzwords of management in the 1990s. Yet what is all this about anyway? After all, lawyers and law firms successfully made it through the '80s without all the commotion about quality and service. Why all the fuss now? Is this just another fad, some ...

Unfortunately for Alex, her skin colour was a point of focus throughout her life but not just from one side, from both making it twice as more hurtful, lonely and scary for her. Barker cites that in Laudat’s (2005) study, she found many links between being mixed race and having depression. The study found that many of the women who participated struggled with exclusion from both black and white cultures. (Barker, 2010) (Barker, 2010, p. 219) It was found that there was little support or guidance for them growing up, which left them feeling not good enough.

It would also be difficult to talk to anybody about their struggles, even their parents couldn’t fully understand as each one would have been of either race and not know what it was like to be mixed race. As Barker indicated, It is vital that counsellors and psychotherapists re? ect upon the assumptions and beliefs we hold about race, culture, gender, sexuality, (dis)ability, age, class and all other sociocultural issues, so that we can approach counselling with an awareness

of what we bring (based on our background and identity) and how we may view and treat people of similar, or different, backgrounds and identities. (Barker, 2010) (Barker, 2010, p. 212) When a client is the minority within our society, it is imperative that we try to have an understanding of how this has an impact on them as it would be related to their experience of fear and sadness. Describing myself as a counsellor If I was a counsellor working with Alex I would try to make her feel as comfortable as possible in the therapy room.

My first point of call would be to build a rapport and gain her trust, whilst being open minded and non-judgmental. I would suggest two maybe three one to one sessions with Alex to get a clear picture of what is distressing her and then (if Alex was willing) introduce her into one of two group settings. The first group would be made up of other females of minorities and the second a group for anyone consisting of men and women with similar and different issues. The choice would be hers. I would also advise that she could split her contracted time between the two groups, spending 18 months in each.

The Essay on Human Disrespect Rights Feel Issue

Disrespect of Human Rights The American community, especially in the wake of the atrocities on September 11 th, has been wholly absorbed by images broadcast on network television. Unfortunately, many issues have been fully discounted. I feel that at least one issue must be addressed to a larger extent on a national level. The violation of human rights abroad should be given more attention, ...

In our first session, I would make her aware of the type of counselling I would be using, which would be person centred therapy. I believe Alex would benefit from person centred therapy as she expressed that she wanted to steer away from the traditional therapy’s and as Dykes expressed, The humanistic approaches to counselling draw upon the values and ideas of ‘humanistic psychology’, also known as the ‘third force’ in psychology because it emerged as a reaction against the mechanistic, reductionist and determinist theories of the two prevailing psychologies in the mid-twentieth century: behaviourism and psychoanalysis.

(Barker, 2010) p. 103 As a counsellor working with Alex, I would be human and transparent which would enable Alex to see that I am open to grow as a result of my experience with her, which in turn would enable me to help Alex not only relieve her distress but transform for the better. Alex presented to us with issues surrounding her father, her being mixed race and now being gay. To gather insight I would ask Alex to start where she felt she should in regard to telling me about these issues.

My thinking would be that whichever came first could be the most troubling for her right now, although I would keep in mind that in fact the opposite could be true and so I would just have to feel it out with her. Alex outlined her being mixed race as a source of distress because it made her feel she was never good enough to fully belong. Dykes stated that, Rogers argued that human beings have a basic need for approval. (Barker, 2010) chapter 5 p. 109 Alex was denied such a basic human need and so the result is she feels isolated, neglected and misunderstood.

Alex has developed a self-concept that defines her very being in the world. Self-concepts are made up of conditions of worth which are created by parents, past and social experiences. Bem’s (1975) classic research found that ‘androgynous’ people (those who showed both culturally ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ traits) were more ? exible and ‘psychologically healthy’ than those who stuck rigidly to gender roles. Cited in (Barker, 2010) p. 224 Alex is confused by her feelings about her gender.

The Term Paper on Biofeedback Therapy Feedback Client Relaxation

Biofeedback therapy is a treatment technique that enables people to use signals emitted from their own body to monitor and improve their health. It is the "use of instrumentation to mirror psychophysiological processes of which the individual is not normally aware and which may be brought under voluntary control (Biofeedback pamphlet).' These processes include heart rate, respiration, skin ...

She knows she is a woman and has no desire to change that, but since being in the gay community she feels an almost opposite pressure to be less attractive and almost “man like”. She states that she is often mistaken as being a man and is not sure how to feel about this. As a counsellor, I would get a sense that although Alex does not want to be a man she in some way likes being seen as one, which would lead me to believe that she almost feels safer and less threatened when these mistaking’s take place. Alex has short hair and she wears man’s clothes. It is important that therapists work with clients’ own gendered experiences.

There is a long history, to this day, of the psychiatric profession pathologising those who are not cisgendered (Clarke, Ellis, Peel and Riggs, 2009).

Cited in (Barker, 2010) p. 224 Conclusion This assignment has produced a fictional cases study of a 32 year old mixed race gay woman and has outlined how those facts have affected her and her life. It was believed that person centred therapy would be best suited because of its lableless approach which for a women who has spent her life being labelled and subjected to negativness because of those labels would be a positive change.

We have looked how sociocultural issues relate to personal issues for people such as Alex and how to be aware of them whilst working with clients that are affected by them. The description of myself as a counsellor showed how I would work with a client like Alex and how being in therapy would aid her. Word Count: 2088 Refrences Barker, M. V. (2010).

Understanding counselling and psychotherapy. Milton Keynes: Sage Publications Ltd. Self Reflection I found this assignment very interesting and enjoyed it.

I think it was because it was a more creative assignment which enabled me to use my own thoughts a lot more. Also I think I may have a better understanding of what is expected of my assignment’s regarding writing style and referencing and hope to be told weather im correct in thinking this or not. The most difficult aspect of it was deciding which approach to use. I wanted it to be the best suited for the clients issues but was worried it would be considered my out and out fav which im not decided on yet, it’s a possibility.

The Essay on The Man Who Hugged Women

In today’s society there is a mold that everyone tries to fit into. You have to grow up, leave your childhood behind, get an education, get married and start your own family, without ever looking back. When following this course, the goal is not happiness; the goal is to live “the good life”. Most people are afraid to accept and admit that they are not necessarily happy, as much as they are ...

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