organizational behavior a critical thinking approach

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Organizational Behavior: A Critical-Thinking Approach Hardcover – Jan. 22 2016

There is a newer edition of this item:.

• ISBN-10 1506314406
• ISBN-13 978-1506314402
• Publisher Sage Publications
• Publication date Jan. 22 2016
• Language English
• Dimensions 22.23 x 2.54 x 27.31 cm
• Print length 523 pages
• See all details

Product details

• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Sage Publications (Jan. 22 2016)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Hardcover ‏ : ‎ 523 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 1506314406
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-1506314402
• Item weight ‏ : ‎ 1.43 kg
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 22.23 x 2.54 x 27.31 cm

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Organizational Behavior: A Critical-Thinking Approach 1st Edition, Kindle Edition

Organizational Behavior: A Critical-Thinking Perspective , by Christopher P. Neck, Jeffery D. Houghton, and Emma L. Murray, provides insight into OB concepts and processes through a first-of-its kind active learning experience. Thinking Critically challenge questions tied to Bloom’s taxonomy appear throughout each chapter, challenging students to apply, analyze, and create. Unique, engaging case narratives that span several chapters along with experiential exercises, self-assessments, and interviews with business professionals foster students’ abilities to think critically and creatively, highlight real-world applications, and bring OB concepts to life.

• ISBN-13 978-1506314402
• Edition 1st
• Publisher SAGE Publications, Inc
• Publication date 8 December 2015
• Language English
• File size 14288 KB
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Product description

About the author, product details.

• ASIN ‏ : ‎ B01ALZI9WY
• Publisher ‏ : ‎ SAGE Publications, Inc; 1st edition (8 December 2015)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• File size ‏ : ‎ 14288 KB
• Text-to-Speech ‏ : ‎ Enabled
• Screen Reader ‏ : ‎ Supported
• Enhanced typesetting ‏ : ‎ Enabled
• X-Ray ‏ : ‎ Not Enabled
• Word Wise ‏ : ‎ Enabled
• Print length ‏ : ‎ 556 pages
• Page numbers source ISBN ‏ : ‎ 1506314430

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Organizational Behavior: A Critical-Thinking Approach

Student resources, learning objectives.

LO 1-1 Explain the basic concept of organizational behavior and its value in organizations.

Organizational behavior studies how and why individual employ­ees and groups of employees behave the way they do within an organizational setting. The three main reasons for studying orga­nizational behavior in your organization are to be able to explain it, predict it, and influence it.

LO 1-2 Describe the key role of managing human capital in creating a sustainable competitive advantage for organizations.

Human capital is essential for gaining competitive advantage , the edge that gives organizations a more beneficial position than their competitors and allows them to generate more profits and retain more customers. Three main aspects of human capital enhance true competitive advantage: value, rareness, and inimitability.

LO 1-3 Identify the major behavioral science disciplines that contribute to OB.

Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind that seeks to measure and explain behavioral characteristics. Sociology is the study of the behavior of groups and how they relate to each other in a social setting. Social psychology blends concepts from sociology and psychology and focuses on how people influence each other in a social setting. Political science stud­ies the behavior of individuals and groups within a political envi­ronment. Anthropology is the study of people and their activities in relation to societal, environmental, and cultural influences.

LO 1-4 Demonstrate the value of critical thinking in the context of organizational behavior.

Critical thinking is the ability to use intelligence, knowledge, and skills to question and carefully explore situations and arrive at thoughtful conclusions based on evidence and reason. The critical-thinking approach is a powerful analytical method that helps managers consider intended and unintended consequences of behaviors on their teams, organizations, and communities.

LO 1-5 Identify the major challenges and opportunities in the field of OB.

The process of globalization has had a huge influence on OB. The economy has had a significant effect on OB. Organizations are continually strategizing to overcome economic stumbling blocks by hiring talent and focusing on the skill sets of their workforce to find new, innovative ways to differentiate them­selves from the competition. Workforce diversity develops when organizations foster working environments that do not discrim­inate against others regardless of gender, race, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, and disability. Organizations are creating customer-responsive cultures to meet the increasing needs and changing demands of their customer base. Managers and employees must have excellent people skills to use on the job to work harmoniously with their fellow colleagues. Organizations need to simulate innovation and change by becoming faster and more agile than the competition. There is a growing commitment to fostering an ethical culture and improving ethical behavior in the workplace . Many organizations are striving to build a more sustainable and responsible global marketplace by taking envi­ronmental factors into consideration during decision-making and goal-setting practices.

LO 1-6 Describe the importance of ethical behavior in global organizations.

Ethics are moral principles that guide our behavior. Ethical scandals in recent years have made many people more aware and less tolerant of perceived unethical behavior. An organiza­tion is unethical if it violates the basic rights of its employees and ignores health, safety, and environmental standards. In many organizations, employees attend training programs, work­shops, and seminars that present ethical dilemmas and how to overcome them. In most workplaces there is a growing intol­erance for unethical behavior and an expectation that employ­ees will align their work practices with the organization’s code of ethics.

LO 1-7 Differentiate the three basic levels of analysis at which OB may be examined.

There are three main levels of analysis within the OB model: indi­viduals, teams, and organizations. Individuals are the foundation of organizations: the way they work and behave either makes or breaks a business. The role of managers is to integrate indi­viduals into the organization, nurture their skills and attributes, and balance their needs and expectations accordingly. Teams or groups exist in all organizations, large or small, and have a sig­nificant influence on the behavior of individual team members. Managers who understand the dynamics of a team and how it is structured gain more knowledge about the underlying behav­iors of individuals within the group. Individuals and groups work within the formal structure of organizations. Organizations pro­vide employees with the tools and systems to achieve objectives and goals. The attitudes and behavior of employees are influ­enced by the way organizations are structured.

LO 1-8 Outline the benefits of positive organizational behavior and high-involvement management.

Positive organizational behavior focuses on the strengths, vir­tues, vitality, and resilience of individuals and organizations. High-involvement management occurs when managers empower employees to make decisions, provide them with extensive training and the opportunities to increase their knowledge base, share important information, and provide incentive compensa­tion. This type of approach works only when the right employees are selected to work in an organization. When high-involvement management is effective it helps to build strong relationships between individuals and teams, fosters trust, and increases job satisfaction and productivity.

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Organizational Behavior: A Critical-Thinking Approach 1st Edition

Organizational Behavior: A Critical-Thinking Perspective , by Christopher P. Neck, Jeffery D. Houghton, and Emma L. Murray, provides insight into OB concepts and processes through a first-of-its kind active learning experience. Thinking Critically challenge questions tied to Bloom’s taxonomy appear throughout each chapter, challenging students to apply, analyze, and create. Unique, engaging case narratives that span several chapters along with experiential exercises, self-assessments, and interviews with business professionals foster students’ abilities to think critically and creatively, highlight real-world applications, and bring OB concepts to life. 

• ISBN-10 1506314406
• ISBN-13 978-1506314402
• Edition 1st
• Publisher SAGE Publications, Inc
• Publication date January 22, 2016
• Language English
• Dimensions 8.75 x 1 x 10.75 inches
• Print length 560 pages
• See all details

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Editorial Reviews

About the author.

Dr. Christopher P. Neck is currently a Professor of Management at Arizona State University, where he held the title “University Master Teacher.” From 1994 to 2009, he was part of the Pamplin College of Business faculty at Virginia Tech. He received his Ph.D. in Management from Arizona State University and his M.B.A. from Louisiana State University. Neck is author and/or coauthor of thirty books including Self-Leadership: The Definitive Guide to Personal Excellence (1 st Edition, 2017, Sage Publishers; 2 nd Edition, 2019); Get a Kick Out of Life: Expect the Best of Your Body, Mind, and Soul at Any Age (2017, Clovercroft Publishing); Fit To Lead : The Proven 8-week Solution for Shaping Up Your Body, Your Mind, and Your Career (2004, St. Martin′s Press; 2012, Carpenter’s Sons Publishing); Mastering Self-Leadership: Empowering Yourself for Personal Excellence, 6 th edition (2013, Pearson); The Wisdom of Solomon at Work (2001, Berrett-Koehler); For Team Members Only: Making Your Workplace Team Productive and Hassle-Free (1997, Amacom Books); and Medicine for the Mind: Healing Words to Help You Soar, 4 th Edition (Wiley, 2012).  Neck is also the coauthor of the principles of management textbook, Management: A Balanced Approach to the 21 st Century (Wiley: 2013, Wiley: 2017-2 nd Edition, Sage: 2021-3 rd Edition); an introductory to entrepreneurship textbook, Entrepreneurship, (Sage, 2017; 2 nd edition, 2020; 3 rd edition, 2023); an introductory to organizational behavior textbook, Organizational Behavior (1 st Edition-Sage, 2017; 2 nd Edition-Sage, 2019; 3 rd Edition-Sage, 2023), and an Introduction to Business textbook ( Introduction to Business , Sage, 2022).  In total, his textbooks have been adopted by 800 colleges/universities and used by over 120,000 students.

Dr. Neck’s research specialties include employee/executive fitness, self-leadership, leadership, group decision-making processes, and self-managing teams. He has over 150 publications in the form of books, chapters, and articles in various journals. Some of the outlets in which Neck’s work has appeared include The Journal of Applied Psychology , Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, The Journal of Organizational Behavior, The Academy of Management Executive, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, The Journal of Managerial Psychology, Executive Excellence, Human Relations, Human Resource Development Quarterly, Journal of Leadership Studies, Educational Leadership , and The Commercial Law Journal.

Dr. Neck is the Deputy Editor of the journal, the Journal of Leadership and Management . Due to Neck’s expertise in management, he has been cited in numerous national publications including The Washington Post, The Wall Street Journal, The Los Angeles Times, The Houston Chronicle, and the Chicago Tribune.

Dr. Neck was recently voted as a semi-finalist (out of 140 nominations) for the prestigious international 2020 Baylor University Cherry Award for Great Teaching.   He finished in the top six of all nominations.  Neck was also the recipient of the 2007 Business Week Favorite Professor Award”. He is featured on www.businessweek.com as one of the approximately twenty professors from across the world receiving this award. 

Dr. Jeffery D. Houghton completed his PhD in management at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech) and is currently a professor of management at West Virginia University. Dr. Houghton has taught college-level business courses at Virginia Tech, Abilene Christian University (TX), Lipscomb University (TN), The International University (Vienna, Austria), and the U.S. Justice Department Federal Bureau of Prisons. Prior to pursuing a full-time career in academics, he worked in the banking industry as a loan officer and branch manager.

A member of the Honor Society of Phi Kappa Phi, Dr. Houghton’s research specialties include human behavior, motivation, personality, leadership, and self-leadership. Dr. Houghton has published more than 80 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and books, and his work has been cited more than 9,000 times in academic journals. He currently teaches undergraduate, masters, and doctoral level courses in management, OB, and leadership. Dr. Houghton was named the 2013 Beta Gamma Sigma Professor of the Year for the John Chambers College of Business and Economics, awarded annually to one faculty member within the college as selected by a vote of the student members of Beta Gamma Sigma, and he received the 2008 Outstanding Teaching Award for the John Chambers College of Business and Economics, awarded annually to one faculty member for outstanding teaching.

Emma L. Murray completed a bachelor of arts degree in English and Spanish at University College Dublin (UCD) in County Dublin, Ireland. This was followed by a higher diploma (Hdip) in business studies and information technology at the Michael Smurfit Graduate School of Business in County Dublin, Ireland. Following her studies, she spent nearly a decade in investment banking before becoming a full-time writer and author.

As a writer, she has worked on numerous texts, including business and economics, self-help, and psychology. Within the field of higher education, she worked with Dr. Christopher P. Neck and Dr. Jeffery D. Houghton on Management (Wiley: 2013, Wiley: 2017-2nd Edition, Sage: 2021-3rd Edition); an introductory to entrepreneurship textbook, Entrepreneurship, (Sage, 2017; 2nd edition, 2020; 3rd edition, 2023); an introductory to organizational behavior textbook, Organizational Behavior (1st Edition-Sage, 2017; 2nd Edition-Sage, 2019; 3rd Edition-Sage, 2023), and an Introduction to Business textbook (Introduction to Business, Sage, 2022). 

Product details

• Publisher ‏ : ‎ SAGE Publications, Inc; 1st edition (January 22, 2016)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Hardcover ‏ : ‎ 560 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 1506314406
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-1506314402
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 3.15 pounds
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 8.75 x 1 x 10.75 inches
• #5,902 in Business & Finance
• #10,701 in Business Processes & Infrastructure
• #49,508 in Unknown

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Organizational Behavior

(18 reviews)

Copyright Year: 2017

ISBN 13: 9781946135155

Publisher: University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing

Language: English

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Reviewed by Jalal Maqableh, Instructor - Ph.D. Candidate, James Madison University on 11/29/21

This book is comprehensive in two ways: (1) The organizational behavior topics it covers. The most important topics that new employees (fresh graduates) would need to know are included in this book. (2) The learning methodology includes the... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This book is comprehensive in two ways: (1) The organizational behavior topics it covers. The most important topics that new employees (fresh graduates) would need to know are included in this book. (2) The learning methodology includes the topics' content, discussion questions, key takeaways, and exercises.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

This book is accurate and provides relevant content. In general, no key mistakes were identified.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The book is relatively new (2019). It talks about current practices in today's organizations. Some topics in organizational behavior are stable while others are changing very fast. Therefore, it will be important to look to the places where there will be a need for updates.

Clarity rating: 5

The book is clear and helps the reader to move through sections smoothly.

Consistency rating: 5

The structure of the chapters is very consistent. This facilitates the learning process.

Modularity rating: 5

Although the size of the book is large and not logical to be used all in one semester. The design of the book separates the learning topics into small learning packages that can be selected based on the need.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The flow of the book makes it logical to build each chapter based on the previous one. This is good for educational purposes because it helps the instructor during the transition from one topic to another.

Interface rating: 5

Easy to use and to move through different parts.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

No grammar issues were found.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The book clearly highlights cultural diversity within the organizational context.

This is a very well-written book for university students. It gives the opportunity for readers to comprehend organizational behavior in an interesting way.

Reviewed by Brittni Heiden, Senior Director of Graduate Programs, Trine University on 4/16/21

The text, Organizational Behavior provides a comprehensive overview of several topics, including: motivation, communication, managing groups and teams, conflict resolution, power and politics, making decisions, etc. Within each chapter, the author... read more

The text, Organizational Behavior provides a comprehensive overview of several topics, including: motivation, communication, managing groups and teams, conflict resolution, power and politics, making decisions, etc. Within each chapter, the author provides key takeaways and exercises that allow the students to apply their knowledge of the topic.

Each topic is presented in an accurate manner, supported by current practices, and relevant examples.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

For the most part, the content with the book is supported by current practices and many relevant examples. However, some of the examples, particularly those within the case studies can be outdated. Being that the book was written in 2019, it is likely missing vital examples and case studies from 2020 and 2021.

The book flows well and is written in a manner that is easily understood by undergraduate students.

Each chapter is set up in a similar fashion, making it easy for the reader to navigate the material. Along with this, each chapter has appropriate examples and exercises that correspond with the covered material.

Modularity rating: 4

The book is extensive, but each chapter is easily navigated by students. It would be very doable for instructors to piece together important information, or prioritize chapters without disrupting the students. The textbook is very lengthy, as are many Organizational Behavior texts, so it may be difficult for each chapter to be covered during a semester. However, due to the fact that each chapter is easily and readily divisible into smaller sections, or subsections, instructors can prioritize the information they would like to cover.

The organization of the textbook is clear and logical. There are proper transitions so the students are aware regarding what they should expect next.

Navigation is very easy for students to use. There are very few, if any, distractions throughout the text.

No grammatical errors were found throughout the text.

Great examples are used throughout the text to highlight cultural diversity within the workplace.

Overall, this is a great text for undergraduate Organizational Behavior courses. It is well written, offers many opportunities for students to apply their knowledge, and also covers a diverse range of topics.

Reviewed by Amanda Hinojosa, Assistant Professor, Howard University on 4/13/21

This book covers all of the topics one might expect from an Organizational Behavior course. Where it seems to differ from other Organizational Behavior books is the level of attention devoted to topics (some might for example focus less on... read more

This book covers all of the topics one might expect from an Organizational Behavior course. Where it seems to differ from other Organizational Behavior books is the level of attention devoted to topics (some might for example focus less on negotiation, while this book has a chapter on it; other books might have a chapter devoted just to individual differences, while this one focuses on individual differences and perception within one chapter).

The book contains accurate discussion of concepts, theories, and application.

The book has several case studies (usually one at the beginning and end of each chapter). These are great, but over time they may be a bit dated, for example if they reference a CEO of a company who is no longer the CEO of that company. However, users could create their own follow-up questions that account for what has happened since the case was written. Alternatively. if any future updates were made to this content, readers could benefit from a standard set of questions to add to the end of each case that would encourage the instructor and students to find out more to see if the implications of that case still apply based on the newer information on the company/CEO/manager described. For example, they use the case of Indra Nooyi as CEO of Pepsi and talk about her as though she is currently the CEO, but her tenure as CEO ended in 2018.

The book is easy to read and all terms are appropriately explained and defined.

There is not much of an underlying framework that requires terms to be used from one chapter to the next (e.g. there are not many cases where something is defined early on and then revisited later in the book). In other words, the chapter numbers don't imply sequence so there is enough consistency across chapters to allow for users to skip around the book and still have the relevant information within that chapter without having to consult other sections to understand. There is consistency in the way each chapter is presented and the supplementary points in each. I describe more about this consistency in organization in the modularity and organization sections.

The content is very modular and can easily be referred to in larger or smaller parts. The chapters are each broken into sub-sections, which can be linked directly (e.g. https://open.lib.umn.edu/organizationalbehavior/chapter/3-2-the-interactionist-perspective-the-role-of-fit/) or the chapter as a whole could be linked https://open.lib.umn.edu/organizationalbehavior/part/chapter-3-understanding-people-at-work-individual-differences-and-perception/) Each page is dedicated to a sub-section, and the links are embedded to the sidebar table of contents which would allow users to further click through to the area that they are looking for if they know the number and/or title of the sub-section they are interested in.

The topics are presented clearly and in a logical fashion. The book does not require much sequential introduction of content, so users could easily find only chapters they want to teach in the order they wish to teach them and assign them in a way that differs from the numerical sequence in the book.

Images are displayed clearly. Content navigation is easy with the clickable sub-section links, but users might also be able to use the pdf version if they are unable to access the internet. Users of the pdf version would need information on section titles, as there are no page numbers in the web-based interface for the version. However, if they have the information for chapter and/or sub-section number and title, they would be able to sufficiently navigate the pdf to find the content needed.

I have not found any grammatical errors in my use of this book.

The book designates a chapter to demographic diversity and cultural diversity and includes one sub-section at the end of each chapter that briefly describes cultural differences in relation to the content from that chapter. It could be more comprehensive in its discussion of cultural diversity, but I have not found evidence to suggest that it is insensitive or offensive in its coverage of topics.

I have used this book in my course for three years now, and overall I really like it. The links are really easy to integrate into my LMS (BlackBoard) to guide discussions and assign specific parts of the reading. There are some places where the book makes reference to "your instructor has this information" as though there are accompanying Instructor Resources but I am unaware of how to access those if they do exist. It tends to be on active learning possibilities (e.g. the negotiation chapter references roles that the instructor would distribute). It doesn't affect the use too much, it just means that I end up choosing a different activity that doesn't reference other resources which I don't have access to.

Reviewed by Jim Hickel, Adjunct Instructor, American University on 3/15/21

The book covers all the relevant topics for organizational behavior. No index or glossary, but the search function is effective for that purpose. read more

The book covers all the relevant topics for organizational behavior. No index or glossary, but the search function is effective for that purpose.

No errors or biases were uncovered in my use of this book.

The book was current as of its 2017 publication date, which is about as high as most expectations would go for a free online textbook. Instructors will have to provide class updates, particularly in the rapidly-changing field of diversity. For example: I didn't find any reference to "inclusion" in the diversity chapter (or anywhere else in the book, if the search function was accurate), which is an important concept and should be stressed by the instructor.

The text is very clear, and written to be understood at the undergraduate level.

No inconsistences were uncovered in my use of the book.

Each chapter works effectively as a stand-alone discussion of the topic. They can readily be realigned.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The book is generally well organized. The organization could be enhanced if there were an up-front "umbrella" model for organizational behavior that tied together all the subjects covered in the textbook. The Organization-Group-Individual model introduced in Chapter 1 doesn't easily relate to the concepts discussed in each chapter. An instructor may find it useful to present a different OB model (for example, Inputs-Processes-Outputs) that to show how all the chapter topics fit together into one overall concept, so students can track where they are in the model.

The interface worked out very well for my class. I was able to set up links to each chapter in the relevant sections of the learning management system (in this case, Blackboard). Students appreciated the ability to have direct links to the relevant textbook readings for each class -- and also appreciated that it was available at no additional cost to them.

No grammatical or language errors were uncovered in my reading and use of the book.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

Generally sensitive to cultural issues. Instructors may want to point out to their class that the "Masculinity-Femininity" dimension of Hofstede's Cultural Framework (Section 2.3 of the book), which draws upon stereotypes that were used in Hofstede's time, has largely evolved into the "Aggressive-Nurturing" dimension.

Very useful book, as good as any fundamental Organizational Behavior textbook I've ever read from any publisher. However, because of its age and the rapid evolution of organizational behavior, instructors will have to be careful to provide in-class updates.

Reviewed by Laura Boehme, Chief Information/Human Resources Officer; Faculty, Central Oregon Community College on 1/12/21

This book is extremely comprehensive and covers a the broad variety of organizational behavior topics. Each chapter is clearly titled, provides an outline, key terms, and summary of learning outcomes. Additionally, it includes critical thinking... read more

This book is extremely comprehensive and covers a the broad variety of organizational behavior topics. Each chapter is clearly titled, provides an outline, key terms, and summary of learning outcomes. Additionally, it includes critical thinking cases and assessments to expand and practice learning concepts. One additional feature is a link to a collaborative group area to further engage in the topics.

The book content are accurate and rooted in current organizational practices. The topics are also relevant to existing issues in organizations such as cultural awareness, diversity, ethics, stress/well-being, and power and politics. No significant errors or bias were found in the contents. The book also includes numerous authors with a variety of expertise, further enhancing the accuracy and relevance of topics.

The book was written in 2019 and includes current and relevant topics facing organizations. Each chapter is comprised of concepts, strategies, questions, and practical applications, allowing the learner to gain an in-depth exposure to the organizational behavior content. The text is written in a way that will allow easy updates in the future and the content has staying power.

The textbook and chapters are clearly outlined with key terms, learning outcomes, and high levels of structure and consistency. The text is written in understandable terms, with appropriate introductions for the learner, relevant examples to demonstrate concepts, and opportunities to practice to further gain clarity.

The structure of the book is internally consistent for each chapter, giving the learner an opportunity to understand the layout and approach of the book and its chapters. This structure enhances the learner's ability to absorb and practice the materials, cases, and assessments.

The text is very modular and could be assigned and/or used as structured or can be utilized out of order. Chapter 1 appears to be a foundational chapter so it would be best to start there as it gives a nice overview of organizational behavior. The lower rating on this aspect of the textbook is primarily because there are so many chapters (19 total), that it might be challenging to cover all of the content in a typical term or semester. So the instructor and student would need to prioritize the most important concepts.

The organization, structure, and flow of the textbook, the chapters, and the information within the chapters is highly structured. It is consistent for both the learner and the instructor, offering predictability and ease of planning. The table of contents is well-organized with clear chapter titles, sub-sections, and additional resources. The flow of topics makes sense, but also allows for modularity and flexibility.

The interface is user-friendly, easy to find information, and intuitive. Navigation is straight-forward and there are helpful guides and prompts to ensure the reader knows how to progress through the content. The images and data within the chapters is laid out and organized in a professional manner. This is a very mature-looking OER textbook.

No obvious grammatical or spelling errors were found in the text. It appears to have been well-edited and prepared for use. There are multiple author contributors which helps ensure content validity and accuracy.

The textbook appears to be culturally aware. There are multiple chapters on diversity, inclusion, and cultural awareness. The pictures include people of color and also address diversity of approaches and perspectives in organizational behavior.

This OER textbook book is ready to go for both the instructor and student. The topic is interesting and relevant. The content is well-organized. There are additional chapter resources to enhance learning and teaching. Overall I highly recommend this textbook. The instructor would have a relatively easy time developing a syllabus and course activities that are based on the identified learning outcomes.

Reviewed by Tracey Sigler, Associate Professor, The Citadel on 11/30/20

Covers all the traditional topics read more

Covers all the traditional topics

High quality

The book is a few years old but it is easy to supplement with new concepts and current examples.

the online format makes it easy to read find and small sections of the chapters.

Well organized - make sense to the reaer

high quality

appropriate

I have used this book for a couple of years for an MBA OB class. It provides good coverage of the basic concepts and some cases and activities that have been useful. I supplement the class with my own links to videos and articles. I am thinking of using this in my undergrad class as well. The author is disguised but is well-known and respected in the field. Students appreciate being to use an open resource.

Reviewed by Ken Grunes, Assistant Professor, Framingham State University on 5/27/20

The layout of the textbook follows a logical progression which is both complete and the proper depth. read more

The layout of the textbook follows a logical progression which is both complete and the proper depth.

The authors have allowed multiple perspectives and theories are supported by empirical evidence.

The most relatable topics are covered proportional to students' interest levels.

Clarity rating: 4

Most of the material could be enhanced by a terminology glossary at the beginning of each chapter.

Terms and concepts carry the same explanation and context from one chapter to the next.

Chapters and subject matter are clearly delineated and can be appreciated as a stand alone module.

The text is presented in a logical progression from "Individual", "Groups", and finally "Organizations".

Interface rating: 4

Information is presented in a straight forward manner with few distraction.

the text appears to be free from grammatical errors.

Good sensitivity to multi-cultural class composition.

The textbook appears to be complete.

Reviewed by Leslie Bleskachek, Adjunct professor, Minnesota State College Southeast, Minnesota State University System on 3/7/20

The textbook includes some valuable topics that are often not discussed in other texts, namely the study of power and politics. The first chapter also includes an introduction of why this study is important, which is an interesting inclusion. At... read more

The textbook includes some valuable topics that are often not discussed in other texts, namely the study of power and politics. The first chapter also includes an introduction of why this study is important, which is an interesting inclusion. At the start of each section, the learning objectives are listed. The toolbox and exercises are great additions that allow students to quickly apply new learning in their environment. This is a sort of embedded workbook that assists instructors in developing activities related to the text. This work is more than a narrative or relevant facts; there are a lot of activities and case studies included to aid student understanding.

The work is accurate. There are in text citations as well as bibliographies to provide opportunities for further research.

Much of the research and information included is very recent and citations are included if readers wish to read the original work. Section 1.5 on Trends and Changes could easily be updated as needed, allowing the work to remain up to date in future iterations.

The language is clear, has little jargon, and is easy to read and interpret. The key takeaways aid student understanding and ensure the main objective is understood for each section.

There is consistency throughout the document with similar formatting in each section to aid navigation and understanding.

With the learning objectives clearly outlined, it would be easy to break this work into smaller modules or recombine sections into lessons. Also, with exercises, case studies and other tools provided, this work could easily be utilized in various ways.

It was an unusual choice to include the learning style inventory in this text and unclear why it was placed after the introduction to this specific material. It might be more appropriately placed in a preface. While the information was organized clearly within sections and was well labeled, it is not clear why the authors decided to start with specifics first rather than an overview of organizational behavior first and then following with specifics. It might be more logical to begin with the content that is in sections 14 and 15.

The exercises, key takeaways, etc. are well organized and help focus learning. The use of graphics and visual representation of data was well deployed throughout to help break up long sections of text. The inclusion of case studies in each section was a great way to aid understanding and demonstrate the concepts on real world situations. The interface worked smoothly and consistently with no difficulties noted. The organization was easy to navigate for the end user.

There were no grammatical errors identified

The work uses appropriate language and displays cultural sensitivity. Although it is also addressed in other sections, there is a section that specifically addresses various concerns related to multiculturalism and the diverse nature of organizations today.

This is a comprehensive work that includes engaging, current organizational situations to illustrate concepts. This is more than just a narrative or literature review of the subject. The textbook also includes numerous current case studies, exercises, ways to apply the learning and challenge thinking. Combined with the learning objectives outlined at the start of each section, this work provides a great deal of easy to understand content and is user friendly for both students and teachers alike.

Reviewed by Yefim Khaydatov, Lecturer, LAGCC on 12/5/18, updated 12/12/18

Textbook covers the appropriate range of topics in the course. read more

Textbook covers the appropriate range of topics in the course.

Organizational Behavior - 2017 accurately

The content is up-to-date, consists of recent research and literature. The textbook reflects the most recent information and arranged in a manner that makes necessary updates easy to implement.

The textbook is written in a clear, appropriate and accessible language.

The text is consistent in terminology and framework within and throughout the chapters.

The textbook has easily divided sections to quickly navigate through the various chapters and sections of the textbook.

The textbook follows the sequence of topics as expected in the industry when compared with other textbooks written on the same subject of organizational behavior.

No issues have been encountered and use of the online version is user friendly.

No grammatical errors were noted.

The text reflects appropriate and inclusive language.

The textbook provides a wonderful resource in each chapter for discussion through the case scenarios, short vignettes, questions, group activities and a wide range of exercises. A rich selection of video clips to complement the Ethical Dilemma exercises in the chapters would be a wonderful addition to see added in the next publication or version of the textbook. Thank you.

Reviewed by Rose Helens-Hart, Assistant Professor, Fort Hays State University on 11/28/18

Text covers the major topics one would expect to see in a 200-300 level OB course. Would have liked to see more on vocational/workplace socialization. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

Text covers the major topics one would expect to see in a 200-300 level OB course. Would have liked to see more on vocational/workplace socialization.

Did not notice errors.

Uses relevant business cases, which will need to be updated in a few years.

Very readable but still sounds like a textbook. Formatting of bold words and summary/break out boxes makes the book conventional but also easy to access.

Terminology seemed to be used consistently.

Chapters are divided into short subsections making it easy to assign only portions of chapter reading.

Logical progression. I like that the chapter on managing demographic and cultural diversity is at the beginning. If you are following the order of information in the text, your class would begin with these important concepts.

Clear table of contents. Easy to navigate.

No grammatical errors noticed.

Text discusses "The Role of Ethics and National Culture" in each chapter, which is nice. More elements of diversity and intersectionality, however, could be considered in examples. "Managing" diversity is a very traditional way to look at difference.

Using sections of it for a professional business communication class. Many topics covered such as managing conflict and teams, are relevant to professional, business, and organizational communication classes.

Reviewed by Justin Greenleaf, Associate Professor, Fort Hays State University on 11/1/18

This book does an excellent job of providing an overview of the major topics associated with organizational behavior. Given the comprehensive nature of the book, it could potentially be a relevant resource in a variety of classes/topics related to... read more

This book does an excellent job of providing an overview of the major topics associated with organizational behavior. Given the comprehensive nature of the book, it could potentially be a relevant resource in a variety of classes/topics related to communication, group dynamics, organizational leadership, and others.

The content included in this book is both accurate and well supported. It does a good job of connecting important theories and concepts with helpful practical examples.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

Many of the theories and concepts in this book are up-to-date and will not be obsolete anytime soon. However, many of the examples will fail to be relevant in the near future. The book could be improved by providing permanent links to some of the external resources.

The text is easy to read and flows in a way that is engaging. The presentation of the content is free from technical jargon.

The text is consistent in the way the chapters are presented. As the reader moves from section to section, it is clear that the chapters have a unifying theme and format throughout.

The text is chunked into logical and easily readable sections. The various chapters are accompanied by tools and resources to help the reader think critically about the content in the chapter.

I was impressed with the way the book was organized. When thinking about the topic of Organizational Behavior, it can be challenging to decide where to start and how to organize the content. This book does a nice job organizing the various topics by themes and providing appropriate sub-headings to help the reader make sense of the overarching concepts of the book.

The website interface seems to be the easiest to use and navigate. When I downloaded the pdf, there were some issues with the formatting of the content. Some of the pictures were not there anymore and some of the formatting was a little off. I feel like the impact these issues had on the usefulness of the book was minimal, but they were noticeable.

I did not notice any grammatical errors, which was nice.

There was nothing in this book that I found to be culturally insensitive or offensive. If anything the book content provided insights into how to be more culturally competent.

I appreciate the time and effort that was put into creating this resource. One of the challenges of using open educational resources is finding a one that is high-quality, and I believe the content in this book to be high-quality.

Reviewed by Stephanie McWilliams, ClinicInstructor, West Virginia University on 5/21/18

This book includes many topics that others in this area do not, such as interpersonal interaction tactics and diversity considerations. Segments that are boxed that include applied ideas are especially pertinent for my internship students. read more

This book includes many topics that others in this area do not, such as interpersonal interaction tactics and diversity considerations. Segments that are boxed that include applied ideas are especially pertinent for my internship students.

The text is relatively error free that appears to be all-inclusive from my perspective.

In the area of professionalism, the dynamics are always changing, especially with the influence of technology. As a result, I imagine that this book may need updates every 5 years or so to stay relevant.

This text is easy to read and follow. Terms are used correctly, and defined if not commonly understood.

There is a definite framework to this text. Information interlaces with cases and applied examples will allow students to connect ideas to real-life scenarios.

With just 15 chapters, each is well divided in a predictable fashion. This also aligns well with a typical semester of 16 weeks.

The flow of this text makes it easy to follow and to break up into what may be presented in a lecture format and what students can work through on their own.

The flow of topics builds in a logical manner for students learning about working in a professional setting.

There do not appear to be any major distortions what would cause confusion. The clarity of some of the graphics or photos are a bit grainy, but not so much so that it is difficult to read or see.

The grammar appears correct throughout.

With a large section devoted to multicultural diversity, I would rate this text highly for cultural relevance.

It is a challenge to find a text for an internship course, but this text fits the bill nicely. I will likely supplement with a chapter or two from other text or some articles, but plan to use this book in the very near future.

Reviewed by Meredith Burnett, Professorial Lecturer, American University on 2/1/18

The text covers all areas and Ideas of organizational behavior including aspects of both demographic and cultural diversity, individual differences and perception, individual attitudes and behaviors, and theories of motivation. This text also... read more

The text covers all areas and Ideas of organizational behavior including aspects of both demographic and cultural diversity, individual differences and perception, individual attitudes and behaviors, and theories of motivation. This text also includes a table of contents.

The content includes accurate, error-free, and unbiased information. For instance, the section on diversity refers to the Age Discrimination Act of 1975, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act and other laws prohibiting discrimination.

The content is up-to-date and can be easily updated with more recent information. There is a photo of Ursula Burns, who became president of Xerox Corporation in 2007. Her photo can be replaced, for instance, by a photo of another black female who becomes president of a corporation.

In general, the text is free from jargon and US colloquialisms. However, the text defines and expatriate as as someone who is temporarily assigned to a position in a foreign country. Some readers may be sensitive to the use of the term "foreign" to describe a country.

The text is consistent is in terms of terminology and framework. The terms culture and society are used interchangeably to describe national culture and some readers may be confused by the use of both terms.

The text is easy to read and divided into sections with headings and subheadings to make it easier for readers to navigate the text.

The topics in the text are presented in a logical, clear fashion. However, organizational culture and organizational structure are near the end of the text and student might benefit from learning about those topics before being asked to understand the design of work environments and individual attitudes and behaviors.

The text is free of interface issues.

There are no obvious grammatical errors in the text.

The text includes examples of successful individuals from a variety of ethnic backgrounds including Guy Kawasaki.

The book includes exercises following each chapter. However, may of the exercises such as those in Section 2.4 are, in fact, discussion questions rather than exercises.

Reviewed by Stacey Young, Associate Professor, Northern Virginia Community College on 6/20/17

This book does a good job in covering relevant topics related to organizational behavior. The format is user friendly, along with providing discussion questions, case studies, exercises, and takeaways. There are appropriate graphics/pictures... read more

This book does a good job in covering relevant topics related to organizational behavior. The format is user friendly, along with providing discussion questions, case studies, exercises, and takeaways. There are appropriate graphics/pictures that quickly support and reinforce key concepts. Moreover, I love that there are ongoing references to the importance of ethics with an activity related to an ethical dilemma.

The book overall is accurate. There weren't any major issues identified.

The content is relevant and covers normal organizational behavior topics address in any text.

The writing in this book is rather clear. However, there are opportunities to improve the grammar and sentence structure.

This text is consistent with other text's terminology, structure, and data to support he position offered.

This text is ready to be separated into unique, standalone learning packages.

I like the book's flow. It's logically organized in a way that each chapter builds on the previous one.

No interface issues identified.

There aren't any noticeable grammar issues, but the sentence structure should be reviewed for better clarity

Cultural Relevance rating: 1

There are opportunities to select pictures that are reflective of a diverse population.

This is the first open textbook I've reviewed. Previously, I had considerations that open source material might not be that good; however, with this book, I was amazingly surprised. I will seriously consider using this text for my organizational behavior class.

Reviewed by Atul Mitra, Professor, University of Northern Iowa on 2/15/17

This OB textbook covers all major as well as supporting topics related the OB field. The last two chapters are devoted to macro topics (Chapter 14: Organizational Structure and Change and Chapter 15: Organizational Culture); thus, implying... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

This OB textbook covers all major as well as supporting topics related the OB field. The last two chapters are devoted to macro topics (Chapter 14: Organizational Structure and Change and Chapter 15: Organizational Culture); thus, implying authors’ intent to provide comprehensive coverage. The textbook, though, is dated both in terms of scholarly references and the case studies used to inform the reader about the relevance of OB topics. Also, the textbook is more reliant on applied sources to support concepts. The pdf version of the textbook does not have a list of scholarly references. The HTML version does have these references, but they are included in within the text and, thus, negatively impact the flow and readability. I could not find a subject index or “glossary of terms” at the end of the textbook. Finally, the book lacks instructor’s resource material.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

The book reads well and provides good examples to clarify basic concepts. The authors provide unbiased and thoughtful insights from scholarly sources in a very relatable fashion.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 1

This is one of the significant weakness of this textbook. The scholarly sources are dated. Case studies are also old, though still useful. Some of the in-text online links do not work. In short, this textbook is due for a major revision and would require the authors to revise all aspects of the textbook considerably. This revision would be a major undertaking and a challenge for the authors.

Clarity rating: 3

Each chapter is divided into several sub-sections. Each sub-section covers a major OB topic. The authors have done an excellent job of providing a logical and clear description of topics within each chapter. However, there is no overall framework that can easily connect topics across all 15 chapters. This may explain a somewhat random sequence of topics of 15 chapters. For example, “emotions,” “communication” or “decision-making” topics are useful in the understanding of concepts of motivation and teamwork. However, these topics are not covered prior to the coverage of motivation.

Consistency rating: 3

The coverage of each topic within a chapter by the authors is consistent. The formatting and style are also highly consistent throughout the textbook. An addition of an overall framework and an integrative case study would help provide consistency of topics across chapters.

The textbook is very modular. Specifically, the HTML format of this textbook allows each sub-section to act as a module. Any instructor, interested in adopting this textbook should look into HTML format based modules (sub-sections) as a way to customize the textbook. This may be this textbook’s significant strength.

Organization/structure of this textbook is clear within a chapter. As I have stated in my review in another section, the textbook can be improved by connecting topics across chapters using a broad framework as well as by incorporating an integrated case study.

Interface rating: 2

The pdf version of the textbook is difficult to navigate. Even though I found the HTML version to be more user-friendly, this format did have some weaknesses as well. The scholarly references in the HTML version are included within the text and negatively impact readability. I could not find a subject-index or “glossary of terms” at the end of the textbook. Many online links do not work anymore. Since the textbook does not include a subject index or glossary of key terms, it would make it difficult for students to find definitions easily. Overall, the textbook can significantly benefit from a much-improved interface.

The textbook is free of any grammatical errors.

Chapter 2 of the textbook offers a comprehensive coverage about the relevance and importance of demographic and cultural diversity. In addition, each chapter contains a sub-section “The Role of Ethics and National Culture” to ensure that students understand cultural relevance of OB concepts. This issue is clearly a strength of this textbook.

Overall, this textbook is a good option for those instructors that already have a good portfolio of instructional resources. The textbook does not appear to provide PowerPoint slides or a Test Bank. However, if an instructor is looking for a good OB textbook for an introductory OB course; s/he might wish to take a look at this textbook as a possible option because it is well-written and provides a comprehensive coverage of major OB topics. It also provides students with several useful applied examples, though these examples are somewhat dated. This textbook may not work for those instructors that wish to use an OB textbook based on current examples or an OB textbook that cites current scholarly references. To conclude, with significant interface improvements and a major revision, this could become an excellent option for both students and instructors.

Reviewed by Christopher Reina, Assistant Professor, Virginia Commonwealth University on 2/8/17

The major areas of OB are covered comprehensively. The textbook goes into an appropriate amount of depth for each of the expected topics. It discusses each of the topics through both an ethics and national culture lens at the end of each chapter... read more

The major areas of OB are covered comprehensively. The textbook goes into an appropriate amount of depth for each of the expected topics. It discusses each of the topics through both an ethics and national culture lens at the end of each chapter which represents a major strength of the textbook. The PDF version did not include a table of contents, index, or glossary which would further add to the comprehensiveness of the textbook.

The content was accurate and unbiased. The information was presented in a straight-forward way and cited published work from a wide variety of sources.

The topics covered are relevant and timely-- however, many of the citations are a bit dated. The case studies still are largely relevant even though there may exist better, more recent examples to discuss. I really appreciate the extent to which the authors integrate real-life examples of companies/leaders but the downside of this is that it limits the time the textbook can remain highly relevant without being updated. Additionally, there were several broken weblinks that need to be updated.

The writing is clear, easy to understand, and flows well. The authors do a good job of making concepts and ideas accessible for students. Authors avoided use of jargon without first defining it well and establishing the context.

The structure is easy to follow, straight-forward, and consistent.

The textbook does a good job of re-introducing ideas later in the text hat may have been covered earlier in the text which adds to the modularity of the textbook. I would not hesitate to assign specific chapters and/or assign chapters out of order for this reason.

The topic order makes logical sense and the topics build well off of each other. In the first chapter, the authors discuss levels of analysis (individual, team, and organizational) and they could perhaps return to this framework more frequently in order to guide the reader.

Interface rating: 3

For the most part, the figures and tables are clear and easy to understand. There are some figures that appear a bit distorted and/or difficult to read due to color choices. Bolding concepts or words that are defined in the text and adding a definition of the word in the margin would aid students in studying and easily identifying new concepts/concepts to study. In the PDF, there were several instances in which chapters did not start on a new page (and instead started mid-page) which was distracting.

Grammar was strong throughout the text.

This text's chapter on diversity as well as the reference to diversity issues throughout the text is a major strength. Ending each chapter with a discussion of how national culture and ethics is relevant to the topic was a powerful way to discuss diversity and continually challenge students to consider the topics from diverse perspectives.

This textbook is well-written, comprehensive, and is an excellent resource for students and faculty. The material is presented in an effective, accessible way and the integration of the "OB Toolbox" is especially useful for students to understand how to practically apply the concepts they are learning. I especially appreciated the attention to detail and comprehensiveness of the diversity chapter as well as the discussion of diversity topics throughout each chapter. The questions at the end of each chapter for reflection could push students a bit further in engaging with the material, and I would like to see some updates to the textbook when it comes to topics that should be covered (such as mindfulness and presenteeism) as well as case studies and examples from the last 3-5 years. A glossary, works cited, table of contents, and index would all be useful additions to the PDF version of the textbook, and it would be helpful if concept words defined in the text were also defined in the margins of the text in order to facilitate student recognition of topics they need understand and be able to define. Overall, this textbook is solid and I would not hesitate to use it for an undergraduate class in Organizational Behavior (although I would supplement it with readings and material from other sources as I would with any other textbook).

Reviewed by Rae Casey, Associate Professor , George Fox University on 2/8/17

The text was comprehensive, covering areas that are important when teaching organizational behavior. Some of the topic areas, such as diversity and ethics, are more comprehensive than others, but all topics are covered well enough for entry-level... read more

The text was comprehensive, covering areas that are important when teaching organizational behavior. Some of the topic areas, such as diversity and ethics, are more comprehensive than others, but all topics are covered well enough for entry-level students. The text included a comprehensive table of contents, but no index or glossary.

The textbook was accurate and covered a number of important topics in an interesting manner. I thought the advertised experiential approach was evident and well done.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 2

The concepts described in the text can survive over time, but the cases quickly date the contents. Since the concepts in the cases are integrated into the text, updating could be time consuming. I tried the text in both the .pdf and online formats, and found difficulties with the links in both. I had the best luck with the online format, although many of the links were no longer valid. When I copied and pasted the links from the .pdf version, I got many errors, some indicating I needed login information to access the site.

I liked this text. The information was presented in way that made it easy to understand and apply. Jargon and terms were well explained.

This text was well written and consistent throughout.

This text is well organized. The subheadings in the chapters create appropriate modules to support teachers as they create assignments, and students as they complete them.

The text is well organized and structured. The content flow is great, but, as previously mentioned, there are a number of links, some of which no longer lead anywhere.

Navigating the text by using the online Table of Contents was straightforward, although I did want to simply scroll to the next page instead of having to use a "next section" link, but that was minor. The .pdf format of the text was convenient if one wants to print the pages, but navigation of the .pdf format online required scrolling through the text. It would have been helpful to have a "bookmark" or similar feature to easily highlight important concepts or see where I stopped reading.

I noted no errors.

I especially appreciated the way this text discussed sensitive topics associated with gender, race, ethnicity, perception, etc.

I liked this textbook. I thought the exercises were generally good, as were the "Key Takeaway" and "OB Toolbox" sections. The text was dated, which tends to be noted by students and can lead to lost credibility. I appreciate the work that went into writing this text and could use portions of it, but would need to check the links before each course, or provide others for my students. Overall, this is a great text, but I recommend checking the details before adoption.

Reviews prior to 2017 are for a previous edition.

Reviewed by Marcia Hagen, Associate Professor, Metropolitan State on 8/21/16

Has chapters on the major themes such as diversity, decision making, motivation, ethics, and leadership to name a few; goes over the major theories. It does not go particularly deeply into any one area, but provides a solid look at a wide variety... read more

Has chapters on the major themes such as diversity, decision making, motivation, ethics, and leadership to name a few; goes over the major theories. It does not go particularly deeply into any one area, but provides a solid look at a wide variety of topics, concepts, and theories.

In terms of editing and proofing, this book does quite well. Writing is unbiased and reports materials that are accurate.

This is an area in which the text needs improvement. Few if any examples are from 2009 or later. The book is a good one, but cases need updating. Updating may be difficult for instructors to implemenet, due to the imbedding of cases into so many areas of the text. In addition, nearly half of the links provided in the text no longer work.

Text is very clear. I am impressed with the writing. In particular they did a good job of describing relatively complex theories with simple and understandable language.

The books is highly consistent in terms of formatting and style--as soon as Chapter 1 is complete, students should have a clear vision of what to expect for upcoming chapters.

This text is highly modular. In particular, the use of objectives for each section of each chapter allows for picking and choosing by instructors.

This book is well-organized and clear. Because OB is generally a set of very inter-related concepts, organization/flow is not perfect, but this book is as good as others I have seen in this area.

This is an area of improvement for this text. In particular links to outside web sites are out of date and many link to dead web sites. In addition, of the few images that are included in the text, several flow over 2 pages making them difficult to read.

Good grammar used throughout the text--few issues detected.

This text includes a good deal of discussion related to diversity, ethnicity, gender, and other issues culture in this text. I found the discussion in these areas to be both relevant and thoughtful.

There are several things about this text that I like. In particular, I think this would be a great book to use within an introductory OB course; it is well-written and thorough in terms of the breadth and depth of topics covered. The "OB Toolbox" sections give students many tips on getting, keeping, and succeeding their first professional job--that is great. However, there are a few areas of concern, as well. In particular, many links do not work and the cases are somewhat out of date (which poses a particular challenge due to the major economic changes that have taken place for several companies referred to in the text and cases). Before implementing this text, I would take time to review any potential overlap with other courses. But overall, this is a solid intro OB text.

Table of Contents

• Chapter 1: Organizational Behavior
• Chapter 2: Managing Demographic and Cultural Diversity
• Chapter 3: Understanding People at Work: Individual Differences and Perception
• Chapter 4: Individual Attitudes and Behaviors
• Chapter 5: Theories of Motivation
• Chapter 6: Designing a Motivating Work Environment
• Chapter 7: Managing Stress and Emotions
• Chapter 8: Communication
• Chapter 9: Managing Groups and Teams
• Chapter 10: Conflict and Negotiations
• Chapter 11: Making Decisions
• Chapter 12: Leading People Within Organizations
• Chapter 13: Power and Politics
• Chapter 14: Organizational Structure and Change
• Chapter 15: Organizational Culture

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Organizational Behavior bridges the gap between theory and practice with a distinct "experiential" approach.

On average, a worker in the USA will change jobs 10 times in 20 years. In order to succeed in this type of career situation, individuals need to be armed with the tools necessary to be life-long learners. To that end, this book is not be about giving students all the answers to every situation they may encounter when they start their first job or as they continue up the career ladder. Instead, this book gives students the vocabulary, framework, and critical thinking skills necessary to diagnose situations, ask tough questions, evaluate the answers received, and to act in an effective and ethical manner regardless of situational characteristics.

Often, students taking OB either do not understand how important knowledge of OB can be to their professional careers, or they DO understand and they want to put that knowledge into practice. Organizational Behavior takes a more experiential angle to the material to meet both of those needs. The experiential approach can be incorporated in the classroom primarily through the "OB Toolbox." This feature brings life to the concepts and allows students to not only see how the OB theories unfold, but to practice them, as well.

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Organizational Behavior: A Critical-Thinking Approach Paperback – 14 Mar. 2016

Organizational Behavior: A Critical-Thinking Perspective , by Christopher P. Neck, Jeffery D. Houghton, and Emma L. Murray, provides insight into OB concepts and processes through a first-of-its kind active learning experience. Thinking Critically challenge questions tied to Bloom’s taxonomy appear throughout each chapter, challenging students to apply, analyze, and create. Unique, engaging case narratives that span several chapters along with experiential exercises, self-assessments, and interviews with business professionals foster students’ abilities to think critically and creatively, highlight real-world applications, and bring OB concepts to life.

• ISBN-10 9781506314433
• ISBN-13 978-1506314433
• Publisher SAGE Publications (USA)
• Publication date 14 Mar. 2016
• Language English
• Dimensions 20.96 x 2.54 x 27.31 cm
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• ASIN ‏ : ‎ 1506314430
• Publisher ‏ : ‎ SAGE Publications (USA) (14 Mar. 2016)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 560 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 9781506314433
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-1506314433
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 20.96 x 2.54 x 27.31 cm

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Article contents

Organizational behavior.

• Neal M. Ashkanasy Neal M. Ashkanasy University of Queensland
•  and  Alana D. Dorris Alana D. Dorris University of Queensland
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.23
• Published online: 29 March 2017

Organizational behavior (OB) is a discipline that includes principles from psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Its focus is on understanding how people behave in organizational work environments. Broadly speaking, OB covers three main levels of analysis: micro (individuals), meso (groups), and macro (the organization). Topics at the micro level include managing the diverse workforce; effects of individual differences in attitudes; job satisfaction and engagement, including their implications for performance and management; personality, including the effects of different cultures; perception and its effects on decision-making; employee values; emotions, including emotional intelligence, emotional labor, and the effects of positive and negative affect on decision-making and creativity (including common biases and errors in decision-making); and motivation, including the effects of rewards and goal-setting and implications for management. Topics at the meso level of analysis include group decision-making; managing work teams for optimum performance (including maximizing team performance and communication); managing team conflict (including the effects of task and relationship conflict on team effectiveness); team climate and group emotional tone; power, organizational politics, and ethical decision-making; and leadership, including leadership development and leadership effectiveness. At the organizational level, topics include organizational design and its effect on organizational performance; affective events theory and the physical environment; organizational culture and climate; and organizational change.

• organizational psychology
• organizational sociology
• organizational anthropology

Introduction

Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of how people behave in organizational work environments. More specifically, Robbins, Judge, Millett, and Boyle ( 2014 , p. 8) describe it as “[a] field of study that investigates the impact that individual groups and structure have on behavior within organizations, for the purposes of applying such knowledge towards improving an organization’s effectiveness.” The OB field looks at the specific context of the work environment in terms of human attitudes, cognition, and behavior, and it embodies contributions from psychology, social psychology, sociology, and anthropology. The field is also rapidly evolving because of the demands of today’s fast-paced world, where technology has given rise to work-from-home employees, globalization, and an ageing workforce. Thus, while managers and OB researchers seek to help employees find a work-life balance, improve ethical behavior (Ardichivili, Mitchell, & Jondle, 2009 ), customer service, and people skills (see, e.g., Brady & Cronin, 2001 ), they must simultaneously deal with issues such as workforce diversity, work-life balance, and cultural differences.

The most widely accepted model of OB consists of three interrelated levels: (1) micro (the individual level), (2) meso (the group level), and (3) macro (the organizational level). The behavioral sciences that make up the OB field contribute an element to each of these levels. In particular, OB deals with the interactions that take place among the three levels and, in turn, addresses how to improve performance of the organization as a whole.

In order to study OB and apply it to the workplace, it is first necessary to understand its end goal. In particular, if the goal is organizational effectiveness, then these questions arise: What can be done to make an organization more effective? And what determines organizational effectiveness? To answer these questions, dependent variables that include attitudes and behaviors such as productivity, job satisfaction, job performance, turnover intentions, withdrawal, motivation, and workplace deviance are introduced. Moreover, each level—micro, meso, and macro—has implications for guiding managers in their efforts to create a healthier work climate to enable increased organizational performance that includes higher sales, profits, and return on investment (ROE).

The Micro (Individual) Level of Analysis

The micro or individual level of analysis has its roots in social and organizational psychology. In this article, six central topics are identified and discussed: (1) diversity; (2) attitudes and job satisfaction; (3) personality and values; (4) emotions and moods; (5) perception and individual decision-making; and (6) motivation.

An obvious but oft-forgotten element at the individual level of OB is the diverse workforce. It is easy to recognize how different each employee is in terms of personal characteristics like age, skin color, nationality, ethnicity, and gender. Other, less biological characteristics include tenure, religion, sexual orientation, and gender identity. In the Australian context, while the Commonwealth Disability Discrimination Act of 1992 helped to increase participation of people with disabilities working in organizations, discrimination and exclusion still continue to inhibit equality (Feather & Boeckmann, 2007 ). In Western societies like Australia and the United States, however, antidiscrimination legislation is now addressing issues associated with an ageing workforce.

In terms of gender, there continues to be significant discrimination against female employees. Males have traditionally had much higher participation in the workforce, with only a significant increase in the female workforce beginning in the mid-1980s. Additionally, according to Ostroff and Atwater’s ( 2003 ) study of engineering managers, female managers earn a significantly lower salary than their male counterparts, especially when they are supervising mostly other females.

Job Satisfaction and Job Engagement

Job satisfaction is an attitudinal variable that comes about when an employee evaluates all the components of her or his job, which include affective, cognitive, and behavioral aspects (Weiss, 2002 ). Increased job satisfaction is associated with increased job performance, organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs), and reduced turnover intentions (Wilkin, 2012 ). Moreover, traditional workers nowadays are frequently replaced by contingent workers in order to reduce costs and work in a nonsystematic manner. According to Wilkin’s ( 2012 ) findings, however, contingent workers as a group are less satisfied with their jobs than permanent employees are.

Job engagement concerns the degree of involvement that an employee experiences on the job (Kahn, 1990 ). It describes the degree to which an employee identifies with their job and considers their performance in that job important; it also determines that employee’s level of participation within their workplace. Britt, Dickinson, Greene-Shortridge, and McKibbin ( 2007 ) describe the two extremes of job satisfaction and employee engagement: a feeling of responsibility and commitment to superior job performance versus a feeling of disengagement leading to the employee wanting to withdraw or disconnect from work. The first scenario is also related to organizational commitment, the level of identification an employee has with an organization and its goals. Employees with high organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and employee engagement tend to perceive that their organization values their contribution and contributes to their wellbeing.

Personality represents a person’s enduring traits. The key here is the concept of enduring . The most widely adopted model of personality is the so-called Big Five (Costa & McCrae, 1992 ): extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness. Employees high in conscientiousness tend to have higher levels of job knowledge, probably because they invest more into learning about their role. Those higher in emotional stability tend to have higher levels of job satisfaction and lower levels of stress, most likely because of their positive and opportunistic outlooks. Agreeableness, similarly, is associated with being better liked and may lead to higher employee performance and decreased levels of deviant behavior.

Although the personality traits in the Big Five have been shown to relate to organizational behavior, organizational performance, career success (Judge, Higgins, Thoresen, & Barrick, 2006 ), and other personality traits are also relevant to the field. Examples include positive self-evaluation, self-monitoring (the degree to which an individual is aware of comparisons with others), Machiavellianism (the degree to which a person is practical, maintains emotional distance, and believes the end will justify the means), narcissism (having a grandiose sense of self-importance and entitlement), risk-taking, proactive personality, and type A personality. In particular, those who like themselves and are grounded in their belief that they are capable human beings are more likely to perform better because they have fewer self-doubts that may impede goal achievements. Individuals high in Machiavellianism may need a certain environment in order to succeed, such as a job that requires negotiation skills and offers significant rewards, although their inclination to engage in political behavior can sometimes limit their potential. Employees who are high on narcissism may wreak organizational havoc by manipulating subordinates and harming the overall business because of their over-inflated perceptions of self. Higher levels of self-monitoring often lead to better performance but they may cause lower commitment to the organization. Risk-taking can be positive or negative; it may be great for someone who thrives on rapid decision-making, but it may prove stressful for someone who likes to weigh pros and cons carefully before making decisions. Type A individuals may achieve high performance but may risk doing so in a way that causes stress and conflict. Proactive personality, on the other hand, is usually associated with positive organizational performance.

Employee Values

Personal value systems are behind each employee’s attitudes and personality. Each employee enters an organization with an already established set of beliefs about what should be and what should not be. Today, researchers realize that personality and values are linked to organizations and organizational behavior. Years ago, only personality’s relation to organizations was of concern, but now managers are more interested in an employee’s flexibility to adapt to organizational change and to remain high in organizational commitment. Holland’s ( 1973 ) theory of personality-job fit describes six personality types (realistic, investigative, social, conventional, enterprising, and artistic) and theorizes that job satisfaction and turnover are determined by how well a person matches her or his personality to a job. In addition to person-job (P-J) fit, researchers have also argued for person-organization (P-O) fit, whereby employees desire to be a part of and are selected by an organization that matches their values. The Big Five would suggest, for example, that extraverted employees would desire to be in team environments; agreeable people would align well with supportive organizational cultures rather than more aggressive ones; and people high on openness would fit better in organizations that emphasize creativity and innovation (Anderson, Spataro, & Flynn, 2008 ).

Individual Differences, Affect, and Emotion

Personality predisposes people to have certain moods (feelings that tend to be less intense but longer lasting than emotions) and emotions (intense feelings directed at someone or something). In particular, personalities with extraversion and emotional stability partially determine an individual predisposition to experience emotion more or less intensely.

Affect is also related as describing the positive and negative feelings that people experience (Ashkanasy, 2003 ). Moreover, emotions, mood, and affect interrelate; a bad mood, for instance, can lead individuals to experience a negative emotion. Emotions are action-oriented while moods tend to be more cognitive. This is because emotions are caused by a specific event that might only last a few seconds, while moods are general and can last for hours or even days. One of the sources of emotions is personality. Dispositional or trait affects correlate, on the one hand, with personality and are what make an individual more likely to respond to a situation in a predictable way (Watson & Tellegen, 1985 ). Moreover, like personality, affective traits have proven to be stable over time and across settings (Diener, Larsen, Levine, & Emmons, 1985 ; Watson, 1988 ; Watson & Tellegen, 1985 ; Watson & Walker, 1996 ). State affect, on the other hand, is similar to mood and represents how an individual feels in the moment.

The Role of Affect in Organizational Behavior

For many years, affect and emotions were ignored in the field of OB despite being fundamental factors underlying employee behavior (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1995 ). OB researchers traditionally focused on solely decreasing the effects of strong negative emotions that were seen to impede individual, group, and organizational level productivity. More recent theories of OB focus, however, on affect, which is seen to have positive, as well as negative, effects on behavior, described by Barsade, Brief, and Spataro ( 2003 , p. 3) as the “affective revolution.” In particular, scholars now understand that emotions can be measured objectively and be observed through nonverbal displays such as facial expression and gestures, verbal displays, fMRI, and hormone levels (Ashkanasy, 2003 ; Rashotte, 2002 ).

Fritz, Sonnentag, Spector, and McInroe ( 2010 ) focus on the importance of stress recovery in affective experiences. In fact, an individual employee’s affective state is critical to OB, and today more attention is being focused on discrete affective states. Emotions like fear and sadness may be related to counterproductive work behaviors (Judge et al., 2006 ). Stress recovery is another factor that is essential for more positive moods leading to positive organizational outcomes. In a study, Fritz et al. ( 2010 ) looked at levels of psychological detachment of employees on weekends away from the workplace and how it was associated with higher wellbeing and affect.

Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Labor

Ashkanasy and Daus ( 2002 ) suggest that emotional intelligence is distinct but positively related to other types of intelligence like IQ. It is defined by Mayer and Salovey ( 1997 ) as the ability to perceive, assimilate, understand, and manage emotion in the self and others. As such, it is an individual difference and develops over a lifetime, but it can be improved with training. Boyatzis and McKee ( 2005 ) describe emotional intelligence further as a form of adaptive resilience, insofar as employees high in emotional intelligence tend to engage in positive coping mechanisms and take a generally positive outlook toward challenging work situations.

Emotional labor occurs when an employee expresses her or his emotions in a way that is consistent with an organization’s display rules, and usually means that the employee engages in either surface or deep acting (Hochschild, 1983 ). This is because the emotions an employee is expressing as part of their role at work may be different from the emotions they are actually feeling (Ozcelik, 2013 ). Emotional labor has implications for an employee’s mental and physical health and wellbeing. Moreover, because of the discrepancy between felt emotions (how an employee actually feels) and displayed emotions or surface acting (what the organization requires the employee to emotionally display), surface acting has been linked to negative organizational outcomes such as heightened emotional exhaustion and reduced commitment (Erickson & Wharton, 1997 ; Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002 ; Grandey, 2003 ; Groth, Hennig-Thurau, & Walsh, 2009 ).

Affect and Organizational Decision-Making

Ashkanasy and Ashton-James ( 2008 ) make the case that the moods and emotions managers experience in response to positive or negative workplace situations affect outcomes and behavior not only at the individual level, but also in terms of strategic decision-making processes at the organizational level. These authors focus on affective events theory (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996 ), which holds that organizational events trigger affective responses in organizational members, which in turn affect organizational attitudes, cognition, and behavior.

Perceptions and Behavior

Like personality, emotions, moods, and attitudes, perceptions also influence employees’ behaviors in the workplace. Perception is the way in which people organize and interpret sensory cues in order to give meaning to their surroundings. It can be influenced by time, work setting, social setting, other contextual factors such as time of day, time of year, temperature, a target’s clothing or appearance, as well as personal trait dispositions, attitudes, and value systems. In fact, a person’s behavior is based on her or his perception of reality—not necessarily the same as actual reality. Perception greatly influences individual decision-making because individuals base their behaviors on their perceptions of reality. In this regard, attribution theory (Martinko, 1995 ) outlines how individuals judge others and is our attempt to conclude whether a person’s behavior is internally or externally caused.

Decision-Making and the Role of Perception

Decision-making occurs as a reaction to a problem when the individual perceives there to be discrepancy between the current state of affairs and the state s/he desires. As such, decisions are the choices individuals make from a set of alternative courses of action. Each individual interprets information in her or his own way and decides which information is relevant to weigh pros and cons of each decision and its alternatives to come to her or his perception of the best outcome. In other words, each of our unique perceptual processes influences the final outcome (Janis & Mann, 1977 ).

Common Biases in Decision-Making

Although there is no perfect model for approaching decision-making, there are nonetheless many biases that individuals can make themselves aware of in order to maximize their outcomes. First, overconfidence bias is an inclination to overestimate the correctness of a decision. Those most likely to commit this error tend to be people with weak intellectual and interpersonal abilities. Anchoring bias occurs when individuals focus on the first information they receive, failing to adjust for information received subsequently. Marketers tend to use anchors in order to make impressions on clients quickly and project their brand names. Confirmation bias occurs when individuals only use facts that support their decisions while discounting all contrary views. Lastly, availability bias occurs when individuals base their judgments on information readily available. For example, a manager might rate an employee on a performance appraisal based on behavior in the past few days, rather than the past six months or year.

Errors in Decision-Making

Other errors in decision-making include hindsight bias and escalation of commitment . Hindsight bias is a tendency to believe, incorrectly, after an outcome of an event has already happened, that the decision-maker would have accurately predicted that same outcome. Furthermore, this bias, despite its prevalence, is especially insidious because it inhibits the ability to learn from the past and take responsibility for mistakes. Escalation of commitment is an inclination to continue with a chosen course of action instead of listening to negative feedback regarding that choice. When individuals feel responsible for their actions and those consequences, they escalate commitment probably because they have invested so much into making that particular decision. One solution to escalating commitment is to seek a source of clear, less distorted feedback (Staw, 1981 ).

The last but certainly not least important individual level topic is motivation. Like each of the topics discussed so far, a worker’s motivation is also influenced by individual differences and situational context. Motivation can be defined as the processes that explain a person’s intensity, direction, and persistence toward reaching a goal. Work motivation has often been viewed as the set of energetic forces that determine the form, direction, intensity, and duration of behavior (Latham & Pinder, 2005 ). Motivation can be further described as the persistence toward a goal. In fact many non-academics would probably describe it as the extent to which a person wants and tries to do well at a particular task (Mitchell, 1982 ).

Early theories of motivation began with Maslow’s ( 1943 ) hierarchy of needs theory, which holds that each person has five needs in hierarchical order: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization. These constitute the “lower-order” needs, while social and esteem needs are “higher-order” needs. Self-esteem for instance underlies motivation from the time of childhood. Another early theory is McGregor’s ( 1960 ) X-Y theory of motivation: Theory X is the concept whereby individuals must be pushed to work; and theory Y is positive, embodying the assumption that employees naturally like work and responsibility and can exercise self-direction.

Herzberg subsequently proposed the “two-factor theory” that attitude toward work can determine whether an employee succeeds or fails. Herzberg ( 1966 ) relates intrinsic factors, like advancement in a job, recognition, praise, and responsibility to increased job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors like the organizational climate, relationship with supervisor, and salary relate to job dissatisfaction. In other words, the hygiene factors are associated with the work context while the motivators are associated with the intrinsic factors associated with job motivation.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

Although traditional theories of motivation still appear in OB textbooks, there is unfortunately little empirical data to support their validity. More contemporary theories of motivation, with more acceptable research validity, include self-determination theory , which holds that people prefer to have control over their actions. If a task an individual enjoyed now feels like a chore, then this will undermine motivation. Higher self-determined motivation (or intrinsically determined motivation) is correlated with increased wellbeing, job satisfaction, commitment, and decreased burnout and turnover intent. In this regard, Fernet, Gagne, and Austin ( 2010 ) found that work motivation relates to reactions to interpersonal relationships at work and organizational burnout. Thus, by supporting work self-determination, managers can help facilitate adaptive employee organizational behaviors while decreasing turnover intention (Richer, Blanchard, & Vallerand, 2002 ).

Core self-evaluation (CSE) theory is a relatively new concept that relates to self-confidence in general, such that people with higher CSE tend to be more committed to goals (Bono & Colbert, 2005 ). These core self-evaluations also extend to interpersonal relationships, as well as employee creativity. Employees with higher CSE are more likely to trust coworkers, which may also contribute to increased motivation for goal attainment (Johnson, Kristof-Brown, van Vianen, de Pater, & Klein, 2003 ). In general, employees with positive CSE tend to be more intrinsically motivated, thus additionally playing a role in increasing employee creativity (Judge, Bono, Erez, & Locke, 2005 ). Finally, according to research by Amabile ( 1996 ), intrinsic motivation or self-determined goal attainment is critical in facilitating employee creativity.

Goal-Setting and Conservation of Resources

While self-determination theory and CSE focus on the reward system behind motivation and employee work behaviors, Locke and Latham’s ( 1990 ) goal-setting theory specifically addresses the impact that goal specificity, challenge, and feedback has on motivation and performance. These authors posit that our performance is increased when specific and difficult goals are set, rather than ambiguous and general goals. Goal-setting seems to be an important motivational tool, but it is important that the employee has had a chance to take part in the goal-setting process so they are more likely to attain their goals and perform highly.

Related to goal-setting is Hobfoll’s ( 1989 ) conservation of resources (COR) theory, which holds that people have a basic motivation to obtain, maintain, and protect what they value (i.e., their resources). Additionally there is a global application of goal-setting theory for each of the motivation theories. Not enough research has been conducted regarding the value of goal-setting in global contexts, however, and because of this, goal-setting is not recommended without consideration of cultural and work-related differences (Konopaske & Ivancevich, 2004 ).

Self-Efficacy and Motivation

Other motivational theories include self-efficacy theory, and reinforcement, equity, and expectancy theories. Self-efficacy or social cognitive or learning theory is an individual’s belief that s/he can perform a task (Bandura, 1977 ). This theory complements goal-setting theory in that self-efficacy is higher when a manager assigns a difficult task because employees attribute the manager’s behavior to him or her thinking that the employee is capable; the employee in turn feels more confident and capable.

Reinforcement theory (Skinner, 1938 ) counters goal-setting theory insofar as it is a behaviorist approach rather than cognitive and is based in the notion that reinforcement conditions behavior, or in other words focuses on external causes rather than the value an individual attributes to goals. Furthermore, this theory instead emphasizes the behavior itself rather than what precedes the behavior. Additionally, managers may use operant conditioning, a part of behaviorism, to reinforce people to act in a desired way.

Social-learning theory (Bandura, 1977 ) extends operant conditioning and also acknowledges the influence of observational learning and perception, and the fact that people can learn and retain information by paying attention, observing, and modeling the desired behavior.

Equity theory (Adams, 1963 ) looks at how employees compare themselves to others and how that affects their motivation and in turn their organizational behaviors. Employees who perceive inequity for instance, will either change how much effort they are putting in (their inputs), change or distort their perceptions (either of self or others in relation to work), change their outcomes, turnover, or choose a different referent (acknowledge performance in relation to another employee but find someone else they can be better than).

Last but not least, Vroom’s ( 1964 ) expectancy theory holds that individuals are motivated by the extent to which they can see that their effort is likely to result in valued outcomes. This theory has received strong support in empirical research (see Van Erde & Thierry, 1996 , for meta-analytic results). Like each of the preceding theories, expectancy theory has important implications that managers should consider. For instance, managers should communicate with employees to determine their preferences to know what rewards to offer subordinates to elicit motivation. Managers can also make sure to identify and communicate clearly the level of performance they desire from an employee, as well as to establish attainable goals with the employee and to be very clear and precise about how and when performance will be rewarded (Konopaske & Ivancevich, 2004 ).

The Meso (Group) Level of Analysis

The second level of OB research also emerges from social and organizational psychology and relates to groups or teams. Topics covered so far include individual differences: diversity, personality and emotions, values and attitudes, motivation, and decision-making. Thus, in this section, attention turns to how individuals come together to form groups and teams, and begins laying the foundation for understanding the dynamics of group and team behavior. Topics at this level also include communication, leadership, power and politics, and conflict.

A group consists of two or more individuals who come together to achieve a similar goal. Groups can be formal or informal. A formal group on the one hand is assigned by the organization’s management and is a component of the organization’s structure. An informal group on the other hand is not determined by the organization and often forms in response to a need for social contact. Teams are formal groups that come together to meet a specific group goal.

Although groups are thought to go through five stages of development (Tuckman, 1965 : forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning) and to transition to effectiveness at the halfway mark (Gersick, 1988 ), group effectiveness is in fact far more complex. For example, two types of conformity to group norms are possible: compliance (just going along with the group’s norms but not accepting them) and personal acceptance (when group members’ individual beliefs match group norms). Behavior in groups then falls into required behavior usually defined by the formal group and emergent behavior that grows out of interactions among group members (Champoux, 2011 ).

Group Decision-Making

Although many of the decisions made in organizations occur in groups and teams, such decisions are not necessarily optimal. Groups may have more complex knowledge and increased perspectives than individuals but may suffer from conformity pressures or domination by one or two members. Group decision-making has the potential to be affected by groupthink or group shift. In groupthink , group pressures to conform to the group norms deter the group from thinking of alternative courses of action (Janis & Mann, 1977 ). In the past, researchers attempted to explain the effects of group discussion on decision-making through the following approaches: group decision rules, interpersonal comparisons, and informational influence. Myers and Lamm ( 1976 ), however, present a conceptual schema comprised of interpersonal comparisons and informational influence approaches that focus on attitude development in a more social context. They found that their research is consistent with the group polarization hypothesis: The initial majority predicts the consensus outcome 90% of the time. The term group polarization was founded in Serge Moscovici and his colleagues’ literature (e.g., Moscovici & Zavalloni, 1969 ). Polarization refers to an increase in the extremity of the average response of the subject population.

In other words, the Myer and Lamm ( 1976 ) schema is based on the idea that four elements feed into one another: social motivation, cognitive foundation, attitude change, and action commitment. Social motivation (comparing self with others in order to be perceived favorably) feeds into cognitive foundation , which in turn feeds into attitude change and action commitment . Managers of organizations can help reduce the negative phenomena and increase the likelihood of functional groups by encouraging brainstorming or openly looking at alternatives in the process of decision-making such as the nominal group technique (which involves restricting interpersonal communication in order to encourage free thinking and proceeding to a decision in a formal and systematic fashion such as voting).

Elements of Team Performance

OB researchers typically focus on team performance and especially the factors that make teams most effective. Researchers (e.g., see De Dreu & Van Vianen, 2001 ) have organized the critical components of effective teams into three main categories: context, composition, and process. Context refers to the team’s physical and psychological environment, and in particular the factors that enable a climate of trust. Composition refers to the means whereby the abilities of each individual member can best be most effectively marshaled. Process is maximized when members have a common goal or are able to reflect and adjust the team plan (for reflexivity, see West, 1996 ).

Communication

In order to build high-performing work teams, communication is critical, especially if team conflict is to be minimized. Communication serves four main functions: control, motivation, emotional expression, and information (Scott & Mitchell, 1976 ). The communication process involves the transfer of meaning from a sender to a receiver through formal channels established by an organization and informal channels, created spontaneously and emerging out of individual choice. Communication can flow downward from managers to subordinates, upward from subordinates to managers, or between members of the same group. Meaning can be transferred from one person to another orally, through writing, or nonverbally through facial expressions and body movement. In fact, body movement and body language may complicate verbal communication and add ambiguity to the situation as does physical distance between team members.

High-performance teams tend to have some of the following characteristics: interpersonal trust, psychological and physical safety, openness to challenges and ideas, an ability to listen to other points of view, and an ability to share knowledge readily to reduce task ambiguity (Castka, Bamber, Sharp, & Belohoubek, 2001 ). Although the development of communication competence is essential for a work team to become high-performing, that communication competence is also influenced by gender, personality, ability, and emotional intelligence of the members. Ironically, it is the self-reliant team members who are often able to develop this communication competence. Although capable of working autonomously, self-reliant team members know when to ask for support from others and act interdependently.

Emotions also play a part in communicating a message or attitude to other team members. Emotional contagion, for instance, is a fascinating effect of emotions on nonverbal communication, and it is the subconscious process of sharing another person’s emotions by mimicking that team member’s nonverbal behavior (Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1993 ). Importantly, positive communication, expressions, and support of team members distinguished high-performing teams from low-performing ones (Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008 ).

Team Conflict

Because of member interdependence, teams are inclined to more conflict than individual workers. In particular, diversity in individual differences leads to conflict (Thomas, 1992 ; Wall & Callister, 1995 ; see also Cohen & Bailey, 1997 ). Jehn ( 1997 ) identifies three types of conflict: task, relationship, and process. Process conflict concerns how task accomplishment should proceed and who is responsible for what; task conflict focuses on the actual content and goals of the work (Robbins et al., 2014 ); and relationship conflict is based on differences in interpersonal relationships. While conflict, and especially task conflict, does have some positive benefits such as greater innovation (Tjosvold, 1997 ), it can also lead to lowered team performance and decreased job satisfaction, or even turnover. De Dreu and Van Vianen ( 2001 ) found that team conflict can result in one of three responses: (1) collaborating with others to find an acceptable solution; (2) contending and pushing one member’s perspective on others; or (3) avoiding and ignoring the problem.

Team Effectiveness and Relationship Conflict

Team effectiveness can suffer in particular from relationship conflict, which may threaten team members’ personal identities and self-esteem (Pelled, 1995 ). In this regard, Murnighan and Conlon ( 1991 ) studied members of British string quartets and found that the most successful teams avoided relationship conflict while collaborating to resolve task conflicts. This may be because relationship conflict distracts team members from the task, reducing team performance and functioning. As noted earlier, positive affect is associated with collaboration, cooperation, and problem resolution, while negative affect tends to be associated with competitive behaviors, especially during conflict (Rhoades, Arnold, & Jay, 2001 ).

Team Climate and Emotionality

Emotional climate is now recognized as important to team processes (Ashkanasy & Härtel, 2014 ), and team climate in general has important implications for how individuals behave individually and collectively to effect organizational outcomes. This idea is consistent with Druskat and Wolff’s ( 2001 ) notion that team emotional-intelligence climate can help a team manage both types of conflict (task and relationship). In Jehn’s ( 1997 ) study, she found that emotion was most often negative during team conflict, and this had a negative effect on performance and satisfaction regardless of the type of conflict team members were experiencing. High emotionality, as Jehn calls it, causes team members to lose sight of the work task and focus instead on the negative affect. Jehn noted, however, that absence of group conflict might also may block innovative ideas and stifle creativity (Jehn, 1997 ).

Power and Politics

Power and organizational politics can trigger employee conflict, thus affecting employee wellbeing, job satisfaction, and performance, in turn affecting team and organizational productivity (Vigoda, 2000 ). Because power is a function of dependency, it can often lead to unethical behavior and thus become a source of conflict. Types of power include formal and personal power. Formal power embodies coercive, reward, and legitimate power. Coercive power depends on fear. Reward power is the opposite and occurs when an individual complies because s/he receives positive benefits from acting in accordance with the person in power. In formal groups and organizations, the most easily accessed form of power is legitimate because this form comes to be from one’s position in the organizational hierarchy (Raven, 1993 ). Power tactics represent the means by which those in a position of power translate their power base (formal or personal) into specific actions.

The nine influence tactics that managers use according to Yukl and Tracey ( 1992 ) are (1) rational persuasion, (2) inspirational appeal, (3) consultation, (4) ingratiation, (5) exchange, (6) personal appeal, (7) coalition, (8) legitimating, and (9) pressure. Of these tactics, inspirational appeal, consultation, and rational persuasion were among the strategies most effective in influencing task commitment. In this study, there was also a correlation found between a manager’s rational persuasion and a subordinate rating her effectively. Perhaps this is because persuasion requires some level of expertise, although more research is needed to verify which methods are most successful. Moreover, resource dependence theory dominates much theorizing about power and organizational politics. In fact, it is one of the central themes of Pfeffer and Salancik’s ( 1973 ) treatise on the external control of organizations. First, the theory emphasizes the importance of the organizational environment in understanding the context of how decisions of power are made (see also Pfeffer & Leblebici, 1973 ). Resource dependence theory is based on the premise that some organizations have more power than others, occasioned by specifics regarding their interdependence. Pfeffer and Salancik further propose that external interdependence and internal organizational processes are related and that this relationship is mediated by power.

Organizational Politics

Political skill is the ability to use power tactics to influence others to enhance an individual’s personal objectives. In addition, a politically skilled person is able to influence another person without being detected (one reason why he or she is effective). Persons exerting political skill leave a sense of trust and sincerity with the people they interact with. An individual possessing a high level of political skill must understand the organizational culture they are exerting influence within in order to make an impression on his or her target. While some researchers suggest political behavior is a critical way to understand behavior that occurs in organizations, others simply see it as a necessary evil of work life (Champoux, 2011 ). Political behavior focuses on using power to reach a result and can be viewed as unofficial and unsanctioned behavior (Mintzberg, 1985 ). Unlike other organizational processes, political behavior involves both power and influence (Mayes & Allen, 1977 ). Moreover, because political behavior involves the use of power to influence others, it can often result in conflict.

Organizational Politics, Power, and Ethics

In concluding this section on power and politics, it is also appropriate to address the dark side, where organizational members who are persuasive and powerful enough might become prone to abuse standards of equity and justice and thereby engage in unethical behavior. An employee who takes advantage of her position of power may use deception, lying, or intimidation to advance her own interests (Champoux, 2011 ). When exploring interpersonal injustice, it is important to consider the intent of the perpetrator, as well as the effect of the perpetrator’s treatment from the victim’s point of view. Umphress, Simmons, Folger, Ren, and Bobocel ( 2013 ) found in this regard that not only does injustice perceived by the self or coworkers influence attitudes and behavior within organizations, but injustice also influences observer reactions both inside and outside of the organization.

Leadership plays an integrative part in understanding group behavior, because the leader is engaged in directing individuals toward attitudes and behaviors, hopefully also in the direction of those group members’ goals. Although there is no set of universal leadership traits, extraversion from the Big Five personality framework has been shown in meta-analytic studies to be positively correlated with transformational, while neuroticism appears to be negatively correlated (Bono & Judge, 2004 ). There are also various perspectives to leadership, including the competency perspective, which addresses the personality traits of leaders; the behavioral perspective, which addresses leader behaviors, specifically task versus people-oriented leadership; and the contingency perspective, which is based on the idea that leadership involves an interaction of personal traits and situational factors. Fiedler’s ( 1967 ) contingency, for example, suggests that leader effectiveness depends on the person’s natural fit to the situation and the leader’s score on a “least preferred coworker” scale.

More recently identified styles of leadership include transformational leadership (Bass, Avolio, & Atwater, 1996 ), charismatic leadership (Conger & Kanungo, 1988 ), and authentic leadership (Luthans & Avolio, 2003 ). In a nutshell, transformational leaders inspire followers to act based on the good of the organization; charismatic leaders project a vision and convey a new set of values; and authentic leaders convey trust and genuine sentiment.

Leader-member exchange theory (LMX; see Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995 ) assumes that leadership emerges from exchange relationships between a leader and her or his followers. More recently, Tse, Troth, and Ashkanasy ( 2015 ) expanded on LMX to include social processes (e.g., emotional intelligence, emotional labor, and discrete emotions), arguing that affect plays a large part in the leader-member relationship.

Leadership Development

An emerging new topic in leadership concerns leadership development, which embodies the readiness of leadership aspirants to change (Hannah & Avolio, 2010 ). In this regard, the learning literature suggests that intrinsic motivation is necessary in order to engage in development (see Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000 ), but also that the individual needs to be goal-oriented and have developmental efficacy or self-confidence that s/he can successfully perform in leadership contexts.

Ashkanasy, Dasborough, and Ascough ( 2009 ) argue further that developing the affective side of leaders is important. In this case, because emotions are so pervasive within organizations, it is important that leaders learn how to manage them in order to improve team performance and interactions with employees that affect attitudes and behavior at almost every organizational level.

Abusive Leadership

Leaders, or those in positions of power, are particularly more likely to run into ethical issues, and only more recently have organizational behavior researchers considered the ethical implications of leadership. As Gallagher, Mazur, and Ashkanasy ( 2015 ) describe, since 2009 , organizations have been under increasing pressure to cut costs or “do more with less,” and this sometimes can lead to abusive supervision, whereby employee job demands exceed employee resources, and supervisors engage in bullying, undermining, victimization, or personal attacks on subordinates (Tepper, 2000 ).

Supervisors who are very high or low in emotional intelligence may be more likely to experience stress associated with a very demanding high-performance organizational culture. These supervisors may be more likely to try to meet the high demands and pressures through manipulative behaviors (Kilduff, Chiaburu, & Menges, 2010 ). This has serious implications for employee wellbeing and the organization as a whole. Abusive supervision detracts from the ability for those under attack to perform effectively, and targets often come to doubt their own ability to perform (Tepper, 2000 ).

The Macro (Organizational) Level of Analysis

The final level of OB derives from research traditions across three disciplines: organizational psychology, organizational sociology, and organizational anthropology. Moreover, just as teams and groups are more than the sum of their individual team members, organizations are also more than the sum of the teams or groups residing within them. As such, structure, climate, and culture play key roles in shaping and being shaped by employee attitudes and behaviors, and they ultimately determine organizational performance and productivity.

Organizational Structure

Organizational structure is a sociological phenomenon that determines the way tasks are formally divided and coordinated within an organization. In this regard, jobs are often grouped by the similarity of functions performed, the product or service produced, or the geographical location. Often, the number of forms of departmentalization will depend on the size of the organization, with larger organizations having more forms of departmentalization than others. Organizations are also organized by the chain of command or the hierarchy of authority that determines the span of control, or how many employees a manager can efficiently and effectively lead. With efforts to reduce costs since the global financial crisis of 2009 , organizations have tended to adopt a wider, flatter span of control, where more employees report to one supervisor.

Organizational structure also concerns the level of centralization or decentralization, the degree to which decision-making is focused at a single point within an organization. Formalization is also the degree to which jobs are organized in an organization. These levels are determined by the organization and also vary greatly across the world. For example, Finnish organizations tend to be more decentralized than their Australian counterparts and, as a consequence, are more innovative (Leiponen & Helfat, 2011 ).

Mintzberg ( 1979 ) was the first to set out a taxonomy of organizational structure. Within his model, the most common organizational design is the simple structure characterized by a low level of departmentalization, a wide span of control, and centralized authority. Other organizational types emerge in larger organizations, which tend to be bureaucratic and more routinized. Rules are formalized, tasks are grouped into departments, authority is centralized, and the chain of command involves narrow spans of control and decision-making. An alternative is the matrix structure, often found in hospitals, universities, and government agencies. This form of organization combines functional and product departmentalization where employees answer to two bosses: functional department managers and product managers.

New design options include the virtual organization and the boundaryless organization , an organization that has no chain of command and limitless spans of control. Structures differ based on whether the organization seeks to use an innovation strategy, imitation strategy, or cost-minimization strategy (Galunic & Eisenhardt, 1994 ). Organizational structure can have a significant effect on employee attitudes and behavior. Evidence generally shows that work specialization leads to higher employee productivity but also lower job satisfaction (Porter & Lawler, 1965 ). Gagné and Deci emphasize that autonomous work motivation (i.e., intrinsic motivation and integrated extrinsic motivation) is promoted in work climates that are interesting, challenging, and allow choice. Parker, Wall, and Jackson ( 1997 ) specifically relate job enlargement to autonomous motivation. Job enlargement was first discussed by management theorists like Lawler and Hall ( 1970 ), who believed that jobs should be enlarged to improve the intrinsic motivation of workers. Today, most of the job-design literature is built around the issue of work specialization (job enlargement and enrichment). In Parker, Wall, and Jackson’s study, they observed that horizontally enlarging jobs through team-based assembly cells led to greater understanding and acceptance of the company’s vision and more engagement in new work roles. (In sum, by structuring work to allow more autonomy among employees and identification among individual work groups, employees stand to gain more internal autonomous motivation leading to improved work outcomes (van Knippenberg & van Schie, 2000 ).

The Physical Environment of Work

Ashkanasy, Ayoko, and Jehn ( 2014 ) extend the topic of organizational structure to discuss, from a psychological perspective, how the physical work environment shapes employee attitudes, behaviors, and organizational outcomes. Elsbach ( 2003 ) pointed out that the space within which employees conduct their work is critical to employees’ levels of performance and productivity. In their study, Ashkanasy and his colleagues looked at the underlying processes influencing how the physical environment determines employee attitudes and behaviors, in turn affecting productivity levels. They base their model on affective events theory (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996 ), which holds that particular “affective” events in the work environment are likely to be the immediate cause of employee behavior and performance in organizations (see also Ashkanasy & Humphrey, 2011 ). Specifically, Ashkanasy and colleagues ( 2014 ) looked at how this theory holds in extremely crowded open-plan office designs and how employees in these offices are more likely to experience negative affect, conflict, and territoriality, negatively impacting attitudes, behaviors, and work performance.

• Organizational Climate and Culture

Although organizational structure and the physical environment are important determinants of employee attitudes and behaviors, organizational culture and climate lie at the heart of organizational interactions (Ashkanasy & Jackson, 2001 ). Organizational culture derives from an anthropological research tradition, while organizational climate is based on organizational psychology.

A central presumption of culture is that, as Smircich ( 1983 ) noted, organizational behavior is not a function of what goes on inside individual employees’ heads, but between employees, as evidenced in daily organizational communication and language. As such, organizational culture allows one organization to distinguish itself from another, while conveying a sense of identity for its members.

Organizational Climate and its Relation to Organizational Culture

Organizational culture creates organizational climate or employees’ shared perceptions about their organization and work environment. Organizational climate has been found to facilitate and/or inhibit displays of certain behaviors in one study (Smith-Crowe, Burke, & Landis, 2003 ), and overall, organizational climate is often viewed as a surface-level indicator of the functioning of the employee/organizational environment relationship (Ryan, Horvath, Ployhart, Schmitt, & Slade, 2000 ). For instance, a more restrictive climate may inhibit individual decision-making in contrast to a more supportive climate in which the organization may intervene at the individual level and in which the ability/job performance relationship is supported (James, Demaree, Mulaik, & Ladd, 1992 ). In a study focused on safety climate, Smith-Crowe and colleagues found that organizational climate is essential in determining whether training will transfer to employee performance, and this is most likely because organizational climate moderates the knowledge/performance relationship. Gibbs and Cooper ( 2010 ) also found that a supportive organizational climate is positively related to employee performance. They specifically looked at PsyCap, the higher-order construct of psychological capital first proposed by Luthans and Youssef ( 2004 ).

Organizational Change

The final topic covered in this article is organizational change. Organizational culture and climate can both be negatively impacted by organizational change and, in turn, negatively affect employee wellbeing, attitudes, and performance, reflecting onto organizational performance. Often, there is great resistance to change, and the success rate of organizational change initiatives averages at less than 30% (Al-Haddad & Kotnour, 2015 ). In order to overcome this resistance, it is important that managers plan ahead for changes and emphasize education and communication about them. As organizations becoming increasingly globalized, change has become the norm, and this will continue into the future.

Additionally, as organizations become increasingly globalized, organizational changes often involve mergers that have important organizational implications. In this regard, Kavanagh and Ashkanasy ( 2006 ) found that, for a merger to be successful, there needs to be alignment between the individual values and organizational cultures of merging partners. Managers during a merger situation need to be especially cognizant of how this organizational change affects the company’s original organizational culture.

Organizational development (OD), a collection of planned change interventions, may be the way to improve organizational performance and increase employee wellbeing. OD focuses on employees respecting one another, trust and support, equal power, confrontation of problems, and participation of everyone affected by the organizational change (Lines, 2004 ). Moreover, when an organization already has an established climate and culture that support change and innovation, an organization may have less trouble adapting to the change.

Organizational change research encompasses almost all aspects of organizational behavior. Individuals and employees are motivated to achieve success and be perceived as successful. In this regard, each of the individual differences—personality, affect, past experiences, values, and perceptions—plays into whether individuals can transcend obstacles and deal with the barriers encountered along the journey toward achievement. Teams are similarly motivated to be successful in a collective sense and to prove that they contribute to the organization as a whole. In addition to individual differences, team members deal with bringing all those individual differences together, which can wreak havoc on team communication and cause further obstacles in terms of power differences and conflicts in regard to decision-making processes. Last, at the organizational level of organizational behavior, it is important to account for all of these micro- and meso-level differences, and to address the complexity of economic pressures, increasing globalization, and global and transnational organizations to the mix. This is at the top level of sophistication because, as emphasized before, just as groups equal much more than the sum of individual members, organizations are much more than the sum of their teams. The organizational structure, the formal organization, the organizational culture, and climate and organizational rules all impact whether an organization can perform effectively. Organizational behavior, through its complex study of human behavior at its very conception, offers much-needed practical implications for managers in understanding people at work.

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1.2 Understanding Organizational Behavior

Learning objectives.

• Learn about the layout of this book.
• Understand what organizational behavior is.
• Understand why organizational behavior matters.
• Learn about OB Toolboxes in this book.

About This Book

The people make the place.

Benjamin Schneider, Fellow of the Academy of Management

This book is all about people, especially people at work. As evidenced in the opening case, we will share many examples of people making their workplaces work. People can make work an exciting, fun, and productive place to be, or they can make it a routine, boring, and ineffective place where everyone dreads to go. Steve Jobs, cofounder, chairman, and CEO of Apple Inc. attributes the innovations at Apple, which include the iPod, MacBook, and iPhone, to people, noting, “Innovation has nothing to do with how many R&D dollars you have.…It’s not about money. It’s about the people you have, how you’re led, and how much you get it” (Kirkpatrick, 1998). This became a sore point with investors in early 2009 when Jobs took a medical leave of absence. Many wonder if Apple will be as successful without him at the helm, and Apple stock plunged upon worries about his health (Parloff, 2008).

Steve Jobs is known for developing innovative products by hiring the right people for the job and fostering a culture of hard work and creativity.

Wikimedia Commons – CC BY 3.0.

Mary Kay Ash, founder of Mary Kay Inc., a billion-dollar cosmetics company, makes a similar point, saying, “People are definitely a company’s greatest asset. It doesn’t make any difference whether the product is cars or cosmetics. A company is only as good as the people it keeps” [1]

Just like people, organizations come in many shapes and sizes. We understand that the career path you will take may include a variety of different organizations. In addition, we know that each student reading this book has a unique set of personal and work-related experiences, capabilities, and career goals. On average, a person working in the United States will change jobs 10 times in 20 years (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2005). In order to succeed in this type of career situation, individuals need to be armed with the tools necessary to be lifelong learners. So, this book will not be about giving you all the answers to every situation you may encounter when you start your first job or as you continue up the career ladder. Instead, this book will give you the vocabulary, framework, and critical thinking skills necessary for you to diagnose situations, ask tough questions, evaluate the answers you receive, and act in an effective and ethical manner regardless of situational characteristics.

Throughout this book, when we refer to organizations, we will include examples that may apply to diverse organizations such as publicly held, for-profit organizations like Google and American Airlines, privately owned businesses such as S. C. Johnson & Son Inc. (makers of Windex glass cleaner) and Mars Inc. (makers of Snickers and M&Ms), and not-for-profit organizations such as the Sierra Club or Mercy Corps, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) such as Doctors Without Borders and the International Red Cross. We will also refer to both small and large corporations. You will see examples from Fortune 500 organizations such as Intel Corporation or Home Depot Inc., as well as small start-up organizations. Keep in mind that some of the small organizations of today may become large organizations in the future. For example, in 1998, eBay Inc. had only 29 employees and $47.4 million in income, but by 2008 they had grown to 11,000 employees and over $7 billion in revenue (Gibson, 2008). Regardless of the size or type of organization you may work for, people are the common denominator of how work is accomplished within organizations.

Together, we will examine people at work both as individuals and within work groups and how they impact and are impacted by the organizations where they work. Before we can understand these three levels of organizational behavior, we need to agree on a definition of organizational behavior.

What Is Organizational Behavior?

Organizational behavior (OB) is defined as the systematic study and application of knowledge about how individuals and groups act within the organizations where they work. As you will see throughout this book, definitions are important. They are important because they tell us what something is as well as what it is not. For example, we will not be addressing childhood development in this course—that concept is often covered in psychology—but we might draw on research about twins raised apart to understand whether job attitudes are affected by genetics.

OB draws from other disciplines to create a unique field. As you read this book, you will most likely recognize OB’s roots in other disciplines. For example, when we review topics such as personality and motivation, we will again review studies from the field of psychology. The topic of team processes relies heavily on the field of sociology. In the chapter relating to decision making, you will come across the influence of economics. When we study power and influence in organizations, we borrow heavily from political sciences. Even medical science contributes to the field of organizational behavior, particularly to the study of stress and its effects on individuals.

OB spans topics related from the individual to the organization.

Those who study organizational behavior—which now includes you—are interested in several outcomes such as work attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction and organizational commitment) as well as job performance (e.g., customer service and counterproductive work behaviors). A distinction is made in OB regarding which level of the organization is being studied at any given time. There are three key levels of analysis in OB. They are examining the individual, the group, and the organization. For example, if I want to understand my boss’s personality, I would be examining the individual level of analysis. If we want to know about how my manager’s personality affects my team, I am examining things at the team level. But, if I want to understand how my organization’s culture affects my boss’s behavior, I would be interested in the organizational level of analysis.

Why Organizational Behavior Matters

OB matters at three critical levels. It matters because it is all about things you care about. OB can help you become a more engaged organizational member. Getting along with others, getting a great job, lowering your stress level, making more effective decisions, and working effectively within a team…these are all great things, and OB addresses them!

It matters because employers care about OB. A recent survey by the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) asked employers which skills are the most important for them when evaluating job candidates, and OB topics topped the list (NACE 2007 Job Outlook Survey, 2008).

The following were the top five personal qualities/skills:

• Communication skills (verbal and written)
• Honesty/integrity
• Interpersonal skills (relates well to others)
• Motivation/initiative
• Strong work ethic

These are all things we will cover in OB.

Finally, it matters because organizations care about OB. The best companies in the world understand that the people make the place. How do we know this? Well, we know that organizations that value their employees are more profitable than those that do not (Huselid, 1995; Pfeffer, 1998; Pfeffer & Veiga, 1999; Welbourne & Andrews, 1996). Research shows that successful organizations have a number of things in common, such as providing employment security, engaging in selective hiring, utilizing self-managed teams, being decentralized, paying well, training employees, reducing status differences, and sharing information (Pfeffer & Veiga, 1999). For example, every Whole Foods store has an open compensation policy in which salaries (including bonuses) are listed for all employees. There is also a salary cap that limits the maximum cash compensation paid to anyone in the organization, such as a CEO, in a given year to 19 times the companywide annual average salary of all full-time employees. What this means is that if the average employee makes $30,000 per year, the highest potential pay for their CEO would be $570,000, which is a lot of money but pales in comparison to salaries such as Steve Jobs of Apple at $14.6 million or the highest paid CEO in 2007, Larry Ellison of Oracle, at $192.9 million (Elmer-DeWitt, 2008). Research shows that organizations that are considered healthier and more effective have strong OB characteristics throughout them such as role clarity, information sharing, and performance feedback. Unfortunately, research shows that most organizations are unhealthy, with 50% of respondents saying that their organizations do not engage in effective OB practices (Aguirre et al., 2005).

In the rest of this chapter, we will build on how you can use this book by adding tools to your OB Toolbox in each section of the book as well as assessing your own learning style. In addition, it is important to understand the research methods used to define OB, so we will also review those. Finally, you will see what challenges and opportunities businesses are facing and how OB can help overcome these challenges.

Adding to Your OB Toolbox

Your ob toolbox.

OB Toolboxes appear throughout this book. They indicate a tool that you can try out today to help you develop your OB skills.

Throughout the book, you will see many OB Toolbox features. Our goal in writing this book is to create something useful for you to use now and as you progress through your career. Sometimes we will focus on tools you can use today. Other times we will focus on things you may want to think about that may help you later. As you progress, you may discover some OB tools that are particularly relevant to you while others are not as appropriate at the moment. That’s great—keep those that have value to you. You can always go back and pick up tools later on if they don’t seem applicable right now.

The important thing to keep in mind is that the more tools and skills you have, the higher the quality of your interactions with others will be and the more valuable you will become to organizations that compete for top talent (Michaels, Handfield-Jones, & Axelrod, 2001). It is not surprising that, on average, the greater the level of education you have, the more money you will make. In 2006, those who had a college degree made 62% more money than those who had a high school degree (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics). Organizations value and pay for skills as the next figure shows.

Education and training have financial payoffs as illustrated by these unemployment and earnings for workers 25 and older.

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, http://www.bls.gov .

Tom Peters is a management expert who talks about the concept of individuals thinking of themselves as a brand to be managed. Further, he recommends that individuals manage themselves like free agents (Peters, 1997; Peters, 2004). The following OB Toolbox includes several ideas for being effective in keeping up your skill set.

Your OB Toolbox: Skill Survival Kit

• Keep your skills fresh . Consider revolutionizing your portfolio of skills at least every 6 years.
• Master something . Competence in many skills is important, but excelling at something will set you apart.
• Embrace ambiguity . Many people fear the unknown. They like things to be predictable. Unfortunately, the only certainty in life is that things will change. Instead of running from this truth, embrace the situation as a great opportunity.
• Network . The term has been overused to the point of sounding like a cliché, but networking works. This doesn’t mean that having 200 connections on MySpace, LinkedIn, or Facebook makes you more effective than someone who has 50, but it does mean that getting to know people is a good thing in ways you can’t even imagine now.
• Appreciate new technology . This doesn’t mean you should get and use every new gadget that comes out on the market, but it does mean you need to keep up on what the new technologies are and how they may affect you and the business you are in.

Source: Adapted from ideas in Peters, T. (2007). Brand you survival kit. Fast Company . Retrieved July 1, 2008, from http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/83/playbook.html .

A key step in building your OB skills and filling your toolbox is to learn the language of OB. Once you understand a concept, you are better able to recognize it. Once you recognize these concepts in real-world events and understand that you have choices in how you will react, you can better manage yourself and others. An effective tool you can start today is journaling , which helps you chart your progress as you learn new skills. For more on this, see the OB Toolbox below.

OB Toolbox: Journaling as a Developmental Tool

• What exactly is journaling ? Journaling refers to the process of writing out thoughts and emotions on a regular basis.
• Why is journaling a good idea ? Journaling is an effective way to record how you are feeling from day to day. It can be a more objective way to view trends in your thoughts and emotions so you are not simply relying on your memory of past events, which can be inaccurate. Simply getting your thoughts and ideas down has been shown to have health benefits as well such as lowering the writer’s blood pressure, heart rate, and decreasing stress levels.
• How do I get started ? The first step is to get a journal or create a computer file where you can add new entries on a regular basis. Set a goal for how many minutes per day you want to write and stick to it. Experts say at least 10 minutes a day is needed to see benefits, with 20 minutes being ideal. The quality of what you write is also important. Write your thoughts down clearly and specifically while also conveying your emotions in your writing. After you have been writing for at least a week, go back and examine what you have written. Do you see patterns in your interactions with others? Do you see things you like and things you’d like to change about yourself? If so, great! These are the things you can work on and reflect on. Over time, you will also be able to track changes in yourself, which can be motivating as well.

Sources: Created based on ideas and information in Bromley, K. (1993). Journaling: Engagements in reading, writing, and thinking . New York: Scholastic; Caruso, D., & Salovey, P. (2004). The emotionally intelligent manager: How to develop and use the four key emotional skills of leadership . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; Scott, E. (2008). The benefits of journaling for stress management. Retrieved January 27, 2008, from About.com: http://stress.about.com/od/generaltechniques/p/profilejournal.htm .

Isn’t OB Just Common Sense?

As teachers we have heard this question many times. The answer, as you might have guessed, is no—OB is not just common sense . As we noted earlier, OB is the systematic study and application of knowledge about how individuals and groups act within the organizations where they work. Systematic is an important word in this definition. It is easy to think we understand something if it makes sense, but research on decision making shows that this can easily lead to faulty conclusions because our memories fail us. We tend to notice certain things and ignore others, and the specific manner in which information is framed can affect the choices we make. Therefore, it is important to rule out alternative explanations one by one rather than to assume we know about human behavior just because we are humans! Go ahead and take the following quiz and see how many of the 10 questions you get right. If you miss a few, you will see that OB isn’t just common sense. If you get them all right, you are way ahead of the game!

Putting Common Sense to the Test

Please answer the following 10 questions by noting whether you believe the sentence is true or false .

• Brainstorming in a group is more effective than brainstorming alone. _____
• The first 5 minutes of a negotiation are just a warm-up to the actual negotiation and don’t matter much. _____
• The best way to help someone reach their goals is to tell them to do their best. _____
• If you pay someone to do a task they routinely enjoy, they’ll do it even more often in the future. _____
• Pay is a major determinant of how hard someone will work. _____
• If a person fails the first time, they try harder the next time. _____
• People perform better if goals are easier. _____
• Most people within organizations make effective decisions. _____
• Positive people are more likely to withdraw from their jobs when they are dissatisfied. _____
• Teams with one smart person outperform teams in which everyone is average in intelligence. ______

You may check your answers with your instructor.

Key Takeaway

This book is about people at work. Organizations come in many shapes and sizes. Organizational behavior is the systematic study and application of knowledge about how individuals and groups act within the organizations where they work. OB matters for your career, and successful companies tend to employ effective OB practices. The OB Toolboxes throughout this book are useful in increasing your OB skills now and in the future.

• Which type of organizations did you have the most experience with? How did that affect your understanding of the issues in this chapter?
• Which skills do you think are the most important ones for being an effective employee?
• What are the three key levels of analysis for OB?
• Have you ever used journaling before? If so, were your experiences positive? Do you think you will use journaling as a tool in the future?
• How do you plan on using the OB Toolboxes in this book? Creating a plan now can help to make you more effective throughout the term.

Aguirre, D. M., Howell, L. W., Kletter, D. B., & Neilson, G. L. (2005). A global check-up: Diagnosing the health of today’s organizations (online report). Retrieved July 25, 2008, from the Booz & Company Web site: http://www.orgdna.com/downloads/GlobalCheckUp-OrgHealthNov2005.pdf .

Elmer-DeWitt, P. (2008, May 2). Top-paid CEOs: Steve Jobs drops from no. 1 to no. 120. Fortune . Retrieved July 26, 2008, from CNNMoney.com: http://apple20.blogs.fortune.cnn.com/2008/05/02/top-paid-ceos- steve-jobs-drops-from-no-1-to-no-120/ .

Gibson, E. (2008, March). Meg Whitman’s 10th anniversary as CEO of eBay. Fast Company , 25.

Huselid, M. A. (1995). The impact of human resource management practices on turnover, productivity, and corporate financial performance. Academy of Management Journal , 38 , 635-672.

Kirkpatrick, D. (1998). The second coming of Apple. Fortune , 138 , 90.

Michaels, E., Handfield-Jones, H., & Axelrod, B. (2001). The war for talent . Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.

NACE 2007 Job Outlook Survey. Retrieved July 26, 2008, from the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) Web site: http://www.naceweb.org/press/quick.htm#qualities .

Parloff, R. (2008, January 22). Why the SEC is probing Steve Jobs. Money . Retrieved January 28, 2009, from http://money.cnn.com/2009/01/22/technology/stevejobs_disclosure.fortune/?postversion=2009012216 .

Peters, T. (1997). The brand called you. Fast Company . Retrieved July 1, 2008, from http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/10/brandyou.html .

Peters, T. (2004). Brand you survival kit. Fast Company . Retrieved July 1, 2008, from http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/83/playbook.html .

Pfeffer, J. (1998). The human equation: Building profits by putting people first . Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

Pfeffer, J., & Veiga, J. F. (1999). Putting people first for organizational success. Academy of Management Executive , 13 , 37–48.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2005). Retrieved December 8, 2005, from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Web site: http://www.bls.gov/nls/nlsfaqs.htm#anch5 .

Welbourne, T., & Andrews, A. (1996). Predicting performance of Initial Public Offering firms: Should HRM be in the equation? Academy of Management Journal , 39 , 910–911.

• Retrieved June 4, 2008, from http://www.litera.co.uk/t/NDk1MDA/ . ↵

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What Is Organizational Behavior?

Updated: Jun 21, 2024, 10:55am

Table of Contents

Definition of organizational behavior, 4 elements of organizational behavior, examples of organizational behavior, 6 tips for improving organizational behavior, bottom line, frequently asked questions (faqs).

Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of how individuals, groups, and organizations interact and influence one another. Though it is largely used within the field of business management as means to understand–and more effectively manage–groups of people. The reason businesses look to OB is because it can help organizations increase employee performance, while also creating a positive working environment.

Organizational behavior is the study of how individuals and groups interact within an organization and how these interactions affect an organization’s performance toward its goal or goals. The field examines the impact of various factors on behavior within an organization.

The focus of organizational behavior tends to center around employee productivity. For example, organizational behavior studies have shown that employees who feel valued and appreciated tend to be more motivated and productive, leading to increased profits for the organization. However, organizational behavior can also focus on the ways in which organizations can better manage, change and improve behavior in order to achieve desired outcomes (i.e., productivity, employee well-being, or workplace satisfaction).

Organizational Behavior vs. Organizational Culture

Organizational culture refers to qualities of the workplace itself that influence its employees, whereas organizational behavior refers to the resulting behavior of the people within it.

Organizational culture includes factors such as the company’s mission statement, core values and expectations of the company’s employees. It defines the company’s identity and how it wants to be perceived. For example, if a company has a mission statement focused on providing the highest quality of customer service, then the company’s core values may be centered around customer satisfaction, communication and professionalism. This will shape the expectations of the employees, such as expecting them to be courteous and willing to go the extra mile to serve the customer.

Organizational behavior is the resulting behavior of the people within the organization based on the culture they’re immersed in. If the company culture is one that promotes customer service, then the employees are likely to display behaviors such as friendliness and helpfulness when dealing with customers.

The opposite may be true if the company’s culture revolves around a competitive environment and employees are expected to go above and beyond to be the most successful. In this case, employees may display behavior such as aggressiveness and competitiveness in order to achieve the highest results.

Organizational culture serves as the foundation for the behavior the employees exhibit, and the two are closely intertwined. If a company wants to create a positive working environment, it is important to establish an organizational culture that promotes healthy behavior among its employees.

Benefits of Understanding Organizational Behavior

Understanding organizational behavior can help companies and businesses create and cultivate a positive culture and work environment that will ultimately improve the organization as a whole.

Benefits of organizational behavior have been shown to include:

• Increased employee satisfaction
• Increased customer satisfaction
• Increased innovation
• Increased productivity and performance
• Increased trust between employees and the company/management
• Better communication within the organization
• Bringing out leadership qualities of employees
• Employees are more likely to behave ethically
• Reduction in employee burnout
• Reduction in worker attrition and turnover

Human behavior is a complex and multifaceted area of research that’s constantly evolving and changing with the times. In the realm of organizational behavior, the research thus far has shown that four key elements contribute to human behavior within a workplace:

• People: Everyone brings their own personality, values and communication style to a workplace environment. The interaction of employees with work and with one another is perhaps the most important element in a work environment.
• Structure: Refers to the relationships and roles of employees to one another and within the company. Includes elements such as hierarchies, job descriptions, departmentation and compensation system.
• Technology: The machines, tools and resources provided to employees to perform their job duties, work with customers and otherwise function within a role and as a part of the organization.
• External environments: Both internal and external environments included. This refers both to physical environments (lighting, space, furniture, etc.) and broader conditions (economy, customers, politics, etc.)

Critical to understanding organizational behavior is grasping that all four of these components make up the culture of a company and the way in which the employees behave within it. Company leaders can create change within their organization by pinpointing areas of weakness and adjusting accordingly.

There are four key elements that contribute to organizational behavior. So let’s take a look at examples of these at play to better understand what organizational behavior is, how it works, and what it looks like across various organizations.

People are the most important element of organizational behavior. Their attitudes and beliefs shape how the workplace operates, and how work is completed. For example, someone who is highly motivated and enthusiastic about their work may inspire others to do the same.

Some employees may value timeliness over perfection and prioritize meeting deadlines over taking care of themselves. Others might value both equally, while still others might prioritize self-care over the other two. It’s important to create a team of individuals who can work together effectively and efficiently, and who possess the values and personalities that are well-suited to the job at hand. This will help ensure that the boundaries between work and personal life are maintained, and that goals are met in a timely manner.

The structure of an organization can influence how work is carried out. A hierarchical system with clear roles and responsibilities, for example, may encourage people to work together in a structured, efficient manner.

Some organizations maintain strict hierarchies and role definitions, while others choose to adopt a less rigid, more collaborative approach. A chosen structure and its proper (or improper) management can provide workers with clarity or lead to chaos and confusion. These structural elements can dictate how effectively and comfortably employees are able to suggest changes, ask for help and escalate problems. If your organization seems to struggle with these issues and it is reflected in the behavior of the staff, it may be time to take a look at the structures in place.

Technology can have a huge impact on organizational behavior. Automated systems can streamline processes, making it easier for people to do their jobs. Likewise, poorly-designed systems can easily grind production to a halt.

Have you ever been to a hospital that seems to be constantly out of essential supplies? Or a retail establishment where the point-of-sale system reboots every 10 minutes? These operational failures of supply chain systems can have a massive impact on both customer and employee satisfaction. Ensuring that your employees have the tools necessary to perform well in their roles is critical to the overall success of the company.

External Environments

The external environment can also have a significant impact on an organization. Economic conditions, for example, can affect the availability of resources, while changes in the law can create new challenges. Companies must be aware of their external environment in order to adapt and remain competitive.

Imagine for a moment a large and highly profitable company paying a CEO and top executives large year-end bonuses, but claiming there’s no “room in the budget” to hire desperately needed staff or replace broken essential equipment. Employees receive the blame and are assigned impersonal remediation modules on how to improve performance when quotas are not met, are assaulted by customers while on the job or experience disciplinary action after admitting to mistakes made while overworked due to staffing shortages. Meanwhile, the economy is trash, most of the company’s employees aren’t paid a living wage and the benefits provided by the company are sparse or nonexistent. Sound like a place you’d want to work?

An organization fosters increased opportunity for success with an efficient and effective team in a comfortable, safe environment. We’ve put together some tips that can help you and your team thrive.

1. Hire Great Candidates

Choosing exceptional candidates during the hiring process will help your business thrive. Paying said candidates what they’re worth can help with this. Creating a job listing that accurately reflects the role you’re hiring for as well as the company’s “vibe” will go a long way in attracting the right kind of people for the job. It is also a good idea to hire for personality and values rather than pre existing skills. Skills can be taught fairly easily, but the same cannot often be said for personal qualities.

2. Build Leadership

A good leader can bring out the best in a staff and promote innovation, collaboration and trust. Poor leaders will invariably hold teams back or break them apart, and it remains critical that chosen leaders know how to and do so effectively.

3. Define Expectations and Goals Clearly

A clear set of rules, guidelines and goals builds the foundation upon which employees operate. Rules and expectations should be clear with explicitly noted consequences, and they should apply to everyone (yes, even management). Goals should be “SMART”: Specific, Measurable, Achievable (or Actionable), Relevant (or Realistic) and Time-Bound.

4. Utilize Functional Technology

It’s only a half-truth that the poor workman blames his tools—you can’t effectively wash dishes with a hammer. A team cannot operate to its greatest capacity without efficient systems, adequate resources and functional equipment. Ensuring your team is provided with what they need in a timely manner will make a world of difference.

5. Motivate Your Team

Great motivation is internal, not created by barking orders or making demands. Employees will feel motivated to do well when they know that they are valued as a person and not just a worker, they feel as though their work matters and they fully understand the why and how of what they’re being asked to do.

Most importantly—and if I have to read another LinkedIn post taking my words out of context, I’ll be naming and shaming in the next article I write—your employees will not be adequately valued until paid an adequate wage, awarded proper raises and treated with the respect they deserve for sacrificing their incredibly valuable time to help a business profit. Do not pay workers a wage below the standard of living and expect to create an acceptable workplace—underpaid employees and a healthy workplace cannot coexist.

6. Create a Positive Work Culture

Creating a work environment where employees feel safe, valued and respected can help every organization improve. Investing in meaningful rewards, a relaxed atmosphere, providing adequate and appropriate training and compensating staff appropriately go a long way in promoting the happiness and well-being of employees, customers and a business overall.

Understanding organizational behavior and implementing strategies in line with its concepts can help businesses increase the satisfaction and productivity of the workforce. Ultimately, companies repairing less-than-ideal practices by studying and implementing changes based on the principles of organizational behavior can become more successful and more profitable.

What are the goals of understanding organizational behavior?

Organizational behavior can help provide a framework for understanding how people behave in certain workplace conditions, why they do so, how we can predict behavior in the future and what we can do to influence this behavior.

What are some models of organizational behavior?

There are five models of organizational behavior: custodial, supportive, collegial, autocracy and system models. A thorough evaluation of the resources, needs and goals of the organization should be performed before adopting a model.

What are some limitations to employing organizational behavior principles?

There are a few factors that can limit the effectiveness of implementing a system based on organizational behavior principles. Limitations include behavioral bias, unethical practices, manipulation and diminishing returns.

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Chauncey grew up on a farm in rural northern California. At 18 he ran away and saw the world with a backpack and a credit card, discovering that the true value of any point or mile is the experience it facilitates. He remains most at home on a tractor, but has learned that opportunity is where he finds it and discomfort is more interesting than complacency.

12.5 Behavioral Approaches to Leadership

• What are the behavioral perspectives on leadership?

The nearly four decades of research that focused on identifying the personal traits associated with the emergence of leaders and leader effectiveness resulted in two observations. First, leader traits are important—people who are endowed with the “right stuff” (drive, self-confidence, honesty, and integrity) are more likely to emerge as leaders and to be effective leaders than individuals who do not possess these characteristics. Second, traits are only a part of the story. Traits only account for part of why someone becomes a leader and why they are (or are not) effective leaders.

Still under the influence of the great man theory of leadership, researchers continued to focus on the leader in an effort to understand leadership—who emerges and what constitutes effective leadership. Researchers then began to reason that maybe the rest of the story could be understood by looking at what it is that leaders do . Thus, we now turn our attention to leader behaviors and the behavioral approaches to leadership.

It is now common to think of effective leadership in terms of what leaders do. CEOs and management consultants agree that effective leaders display trust in their employees, develop a vision, keep their cool, encourage risk, bring expertise into the work setting, invite dissent, and focus everyone’s attention on that which is important. 59 William Arruda, in a Fortune article, noted that “organizations with strong coaching cultures report their revenue to be above average, compared to their peer group.” Sixty-five percent of employees “from strong coaching cultures rated themselves as highly engaged,” compared to 13 percent of employees worldwide.” 60 Jonathan Anthony calls himself an intrapreneur and corporate disorganizer, because same-old, same-old comms practices are dying in front of our eyes. 61 Apple founder Steve Jobs believed that the best leaders are coaches and team cheerleaders. Similar views have been frequently echoed by management consultant Tom Peters.

During the late 1940s, two major research programs—The Ohio State University and the University of Michigan leadership studies—were launched to explore leadership from a behavioral perspective.

The Ohio State University Studies

A group of Ohio State University researchers, under the direction of Ralph Stogdill, began an extensive and systematic series of studies to identify leader behaviors associated with effective group performance. Their results identified two major sets of leader behaviors: consideration and initiating structure.

Consideration is the “relationship-oriented” behavior of a leader. It is instrumental in creating and maintaining good relationships (that is, addressing the group’s maintenance needs) with organizational members. Consideration behaviors include being supportive and friendly, representing people’s interests, communicating openly with group members, recognizing them, respecting their ideas, and sharing concern for their feelings.

Initiating structure involves “task-oriented” leader behaviors. It is instrumental in the efficient use of resources to attain organizational goals, thereby addressing the group’s task needs. Initiating structure behaviors include scheduling work, deciding what is to be done (and how and when to do it), providing direction to organizational members, planning, coordinating, problem-solving, maintaining standards of performance, and encouraging the use of uniform procedures.

After consideration and initiating structure behaviors were first identified, many leaders believed that they had to behave one way or the other. If they initiated structure, they could not be considerate, and vice versa. It did not take long, however, to recognize that leaders can simultaneously display any combination of both behaviors.

The Ohio State studies are important because they identified two critical categories of behavior that distinguish one leader from another. Both consideration and initiating structure behavior can significantly impact work attitudes and behaviors. Unfortunately, the effects of consideration and initiating structure are not consistent from situation to situation. 62 In some of the organizations studied, for example, high levels of initiating structure increased performance. In other organizations, the amount of initiating structure seemed to make little difference. Although most organizational members reported greater satisfaction when leaders acted considerately, consideration behavior appeared to have no clear effect on performance.

Initially, these mixed findings were disappointing to researchers and managers alike. It had been hoped that a profile of the most effective leader behaviors could be identified so that leaders could be trained in the best ways to behave. Research made clear, however, that there is no one best style of leader behavior for all situations.

The University of Michigan Studies

At about the same time that the Ohio State studies were underway, researchers at the University of Michigan also began to investigate leader behaviors. As at Ohio State, the Michigan researchers attempted to identify behavioral elements that differentiated effective from ineffective leaders. 63

The two types of leader behavior that stand out in these studies are job centered and organizational member centered. Job-centered behaviors are devoted to supervisory functions, such as planning, scheduling, coordinating work activities, and providing the resources needed for task performance. Employee-member-centered behaviors include consideration and support for organizational members. These dimensions of behavior, of course, correspond closely to the dimensions of initiating structure and consideration identified at Ohio State. The similarity of the findings from two independent groups of researchers added to their credibility. As the Ohio State researchers had done, the Michigan researchers also found that any combination of the two behaviors was possible.

The studies at Michigan are significant because they reinforce the importance of leader behavior. They also provide the basis for later theories that identify specific, effective matches of work situations and leader behaviors. Subsequent research at Michigan and elsewhere has found additional behaviors associated with effective leadership: support, work facilitation, goal emphasis, and interaction facilitation. 64

These four behaviors are important to the successful functioning of the group in that support and interaction facilitation contribute to the group’s maintenance needs, and goal emphasis and work facilitation contribute to the group’s task needs. The Michigan researchers also found that these four behaviors do not need to be brought to the group by the leader. In essence, the leader’s real job is to set the tone and create the climate that ensure these critical behaviors are present. 65

The Leadership Grid ®

Much of the credit for disseminating knowledge about important leader behaviors must go to Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton, who developed a method for classifying styles of leadership compatible with many of the ideas from the Ohio State and Michigan studies. 66 In their classification scheme, concern for results (production) emphasizes output, cost effectiveness, and (in for-profit organizations) a concern for profits. Concern for people involves promoting working relationships and paying attention to issues of importance to group members. As shown in Exhibit 12.9 , the Leadership Grid ® demonstrates that any combination of these two leader concerns is possible, and five styles of leadership are highlighted here.

Blake and Mouton contend that the sound (contribute and commit) leader (a high concern for results and people, or 9,9) style is universally the most effective. 67 While the Leadership Grid ® is appealing and well structured, research to date suggests that there is no universally effective style of leadership (9,9 or otherwise). 68 There are, however, well-identified situations in which a 9,9 style is unlikely to be effective. Organizational members of high-involvement organizations who have mastered their job duties require little production-oriented leader behavior. Likewise, there is little time for people-oriented behavior during an emergency. Finally, evidence suggests that the “high-high” style may be effective when the situation calls for high levels of initiating structure. Under these conditions, the initiation of structure is more acceptable, favorably affecting follower satisfaction and performance, when the leader is also experienced as warm, supportive, and considerate. 69

Concept Check

• What are the behavioral approaches to defining leadership?
• What roles do gender and the popular perceptions of gender roles have on views of leadership traits?

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• Authors: J. Stewart Black, David S. Bright
• Publisher/website: OpenStax
• Book title: Organizational Behavior
• Publication date: Jun 5, 2019
• Location: Houston, Texas
• Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/organizational-behavior/pages/1-introduction
• Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/organizational-behavior/pages/12-5-behavioral-approaches-to-leadership

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