mt etna 2002 case study

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Volcano case study - Mount Etna (2002-2003), Italy

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Can you describe the location of Mount Etna? Could you draw a sketch map to locate Mount Etna?

Case study task

Use the resources and links that can be found on this page to produce a detailed case study of the 2002-2003 eruption of Mount Etna. You should use the 'Five W's" subheadings to give your case study structure.

What happened?

The Guardian - Sicilian city blanketed in ash [28 October 2002]

When did it happen?

Immediately before midnight on 26 October 2002 (local time=GMT+1), a new flank eruption began on Mount Etna. The eruption ended after three months and two days, on 28 January 2003.

Where did it happen?

The eruption occurred from fissures on two sides of the volcano: at about 2750 m on the southern flank and at elevations between 2500 and 1850 m on the northeastern flank.

Why did it happen?

Mount Etna is a volcano. The reasons why Mount Etna is located where it is are complex. Here are some of the theories:

• One theory envisages a hot spot or mantle-plume origin for this volcano, like those that produce the volcanoes in Hawaii.
• Another theory involves the subduction of the African plate under the Eurasian plate.
• Another group of scientists believes that rifting along the eastern coast of Sicily allows the uprise of magma.

Who was affected by it happening?

• The Italian Government declared a state of emergency in parts of Sicily, after a series of earthquakes accompanying the eruption of forced about 1,000 people flee their homes.
• A ship equipped with a medical clinic aboard was positioned off Catania - to the south of the volcano - to be ready in case of emergency.
• Emergency workers dug channels in the earth in an attempt to divert the northern flow away from the town of Linguaglossa.
• Schools in the town have been shut down, although the church has remained open for people to pray.
• Villagers also continued their tradition of parading their patron saint through the streets to the railway station, to try to ward off the lava flow.
• Civil protection officials in Catania, Sicily's second-biggest city, which sits in the shadow of Etna, surveyed the mountain by helicopter and were ready to send water-carrying planes into the skies to fight the fires.
• The tourist complex and skiing areas of Piano Provenzana were nearly completely devastated by the lava flows that issued from the NE Rift vents on the first day of the eruption.
• Heavy tephra falls caused by the activity on the southern flank occurred mostly in areas to the south of the volcano and nearly paralyzed public life in Catania and nearby towns.
• For more than two weeks the International Airport of Catania, Fontanarossa, had to be closed due to ash on the runways.
• Strong seismicity and ground deformation accompanied the eruption; a particularly strong shock (magnitude 4.4) on 29 October destroyed and damaged numerous buildings on the lower southeastern flank, in the area of Santa Venerina.
• Lava flows from the southern flank vents seriously threatened the tourist facilities around the Rifugio Sapienza between 23 and 25 November, and a few days later destroyed a section of forest on the southwestern flank.
• The eruption brought a heightened awareness of volcanic and seismic hazards to the Sicilian public, especially because it occurred only one year and three months after the previous eruption that was strongly featured in the information media.

Look at this video clip from an eruption on Mount Etna in November 2007.  What sort of eruption is it?

There is no commentary on the video - could you add your own explaining what is happening and why?

You should be able to use the knowledge and understanding you have gained about 2002-2003 eruption of Mount Etna to answer the following exam-style question:

In many parts of the world, the natural environment presents hazards to people. Choose an example of one of the following: a volcanic eruption, an earthquake, or a drought. For a named area, describe the causes of the example which you have chosen and its impacts on the people living there. [7 marks]

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A multi-disciplinary study of the 2002-03 Etna eruption: insights into a complex plumbing system

Research output : Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

• multi-disciplinary study
• 2002-03 eruption
• eccentric eruptions
• flank activity
• etna feeding system
• volcanic processes
• pernicana fault

This output contributes to the following UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Access to Document

• 10.1007/s00445-004-0372-8
• http://download.springer.com/static/pdf/9/art%253A10.1007%252Fs00445-004-0372-8.pdf?originUrl=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs00445-004-0372-8&token2=exp=1440429750~acl=%2Fstatic%2Fpdf%2F9%2Fart%25253A10.1007%25252Fs00445-004-0372-8.pdf%3ForiginUrl%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Flink.springer.com%252Farticle%252F10.1007%252Fs00445-004-0372-8*~hmac=1f8108d7e5c19089f8bcdfae7dce3e3ca4e498e63d754cf52dd2d8f1a213d6e1

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• Magma Earth and Planetary Sciences 100%
• Lava Flow Earth and Planetary Sciences 60%
• Eccentrics Earth and Planetary Sciences 20%
• Field Survey Earth and Planetary Sciences 20%
• Pressure Reduction Earth and Planetary Sciences 20%
• Petrography Earth and Planetary Sciences 20%
• Thermal Mapping Earth and Planetary Sciences 20%

T1 - A multi-disciplinary study of the 2002-03 Etna eruption: insights into a complex plumbing system

AU - Andronico, D

AU - Branca, S

AU - Calvari, S

AU - Burton, M

AU - Caltabiano, T

AU - Corsaro, R A

AU - Del Carlo, P

AU - Garfi, G

AU - Lodato, L

AU - Miraglia, L

AU - Mure, F

AU - Neri, M

AU - Pecora, E

AU - Pompilio, M

AU - Salerno, G

AU - Spampinato, L

N1 - 914kk Times Cited:171 Cited References Count:54

N2 - The 2002 - 03 Mt Etna flank eruption began on 26 October 2002 and finished on 28 January 2003, after three months of continuous explosive activity and discontinuous lava flow output. The eruption involved the opening of eruptive fissures on the NE and S flanks of the volcano, with lava flow output and fire fountaining until 5 November. After this date, the eruption continued exclusively on the S flank, with continuous explosive activity and lava flows active between 13 November and 28 January 2003. Multi-disciplinary data collected during the eruption ( petrology, analyses of ash components, gas geochemistry, field surveys, thermal mapping and structural surveys) allowed us to analyse the dynamics of the eruption. The eruption was triggered either by (i) accumulation and eventual ascent of magma from depth or (ii) depressurisation of the edifice due to spreading of the eastern flank of the volcano. The extraordinary explosivity makes the 2002 - 03 eruption a unique event in the last 300 years, comparable only with La Montagnola 1763 and the 2001 Lower Vents eruptions. A notable feature of the eruption was also the simultaneous effusion of lavas with different composition and emplacement features. Magma erupted from the NE fissure represented the partially degassed magma fraction normally residing within the central conduits and the shallow plumbing system. The magma that erupted from the S fissure was the relatively undegassed, volatile-rich, buoyant fraction which drained the deep feeding system, bypassing the central conduits. This is typical of most Etnean eccentric eruptions. We believe that there is a high probability that Mount Etna has entered a new eruptive phase, with magma being supplied to a deep reservoir independent from the central conduit, that could periodically produce sufficient overpressure to propagate a dyke to the surface and generate further flank eruptions.

AB - The 2002 - 03 Mt Etna flank eruption began on 26 October 2002 and finished on 28 January 2003, after three months of continuous explosive activity and discontinuous lava flow output. The eruption involved the opening of eruptive fissures on the NE and S flanks of the volcano, with lava flow output and fire fountaining until 5 November. After this date, the eruption continued exclusively on the S flank, with continuous explosive activity and lava flows active between 13 November and 28 January 2003. Multi-disciplinary data collected during the eruption ( petrology, analyses of ash components, gas geochemistry, field surveys, thermal mapping and structural surveys) allowed us to analyse the dynamics of the eruption. The eruption was triggered either by (i) accumulation and eventual ascent of magma from depth or (ii) depressurisation of the edifice due to spreading of the eastern flank of the volcano. The extraordinary explosivity makes the 2002 - 03 eruption a unique event in the last 300 years, comparable only with La Montagnola 1763 and the 2001 Lower Vents eruptions. A notable feature of the eruption was also the simultaneous effusion of lavas with different composition and emplacement features. Magma erupted from the NE fissure represented the partially degassed magma fraction normally residing within the central conduits and the shallow plumbing system. The magma that erupted from the S fissure was the relatively undegassed, volatile-rich, buoyant fraction which drained the deep feeding system, bypassing the central conduits. This is typical of most Etnean eccentric eruptions. We believe that there is a high probability that Mount Etna has entered a new eruptive phase, with magma being supplied to a deep reservoir independent from the central conduit, that could periodically produce sufficient overpressure to propagate a dyke to the surface and generate further flank eruptions.

KW - multi-disciplinary study

KW - mount etna

KW - 2002-03 eruption

KW - eccentric eruptions

KW - flank activity

KW - etna feeding system

KW - volcanic processes

KW - mount-etna

KW - mt.-etna

KW - pernicana fault

KW - mechanisms

KW - ascent

U2 - 10.1007/s00445-004-0372-8

DO - 10.1007/s00445-004-0372-8

M3 - Article

SN - 1432-0819

JO - Bulletin of Volcanology

JF - Bulletin of Volcanology

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Report on Etna (Italy) — August 2021

Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network, vol. 46, no. 8 (August 2021) Managing Editor: Edward Venzke. Edited by Kadie L. Bennis. Etna (Italy) Strombolian explosions, ash plumes, lava fountaining, and flows during April-July 2021

Please cite this report as: Global Volcanism Program, 2021. Report on Etna (Italy) (Bennis, K.L., and Venzke, E., eds.). Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network , 46:8. Smithsonian Institution. https://doi.org/10.5479/si.GVP.BGVN202108-211060

37.748°N, 14.999°E; summit elev. 3357 m

All times are local (unless otherwise noted).

Etna, located on the island of Sicily, Italy, has documented records of historical eruptions dating back to 1500 BCE. Activity has frequently originated from its summit areas, which include the Northeast Crater (NEC), the Voragine-Bocca Nuova (or Central) complex (VOR-BN), the Southeast Crater (SEC, formed in 1978), and the New Southeast Crater (NSEC, formed in 2011). Another crater, referred to as the "cono della sella" (saddle cone), developed during early 2017 between SEC and NSEC. Its most recent eruptive period began in September 2013 and more recently has been characterized by Strombolian explosions, ash plumes, lava fountaining, and flows (BGVN 46:04). This report updates activity from April through July 2021, covering similar eruptive events, based on weekly and special reports by the Osservatorio Etneo (OE), part of the Catania Branch of Italy's Istituo Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologica (INGV) and satellite data.

Summary of activity during April-July 2021. Volcanism was relatively low at Etna during April and mid-May, primarily characterized by Strombolian explosions and white gas-and-steam emissions. Beginning on 19 May 2021, activity intensified and remained high through July. Intra-crater Strombolian explosions varied in intensity and frequency dominantly in the Southeast Crater (SEC), accompanied by ash plumes that rose to a maximum altitude of 10 km, resulting in ashfall in nearby communities, lava flows primarily on the SW flank, and lava fountains that rose up to 1 km above the summit. Occasional isolated ash emissions were observed above the Northeast Crater (NEC) while degassing primarily characterized the Bocca Nuova Crater (BN) and the Voragine Crater (VOR).

MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) analysis of MODIS satellite data shows strong and frequent thermal anomalies during a majority of the reporting period; during April through mid-May there was a notable decline in the intensity of the anomalies, which was followed by a significant strong pulse, representing the lava flows in June and July (figure 340). This stronger thermal activity was also reflected in data from the MODVOLC thermal algorithm, a total of 183 alerts were detected in the summit crater during April through July; thermal anomalies were reported for four days in April, nine days in May, sixteen days in June, and twelve days in July. Additionally, the lava flows were clearly visible in Sentinel-2 infrared satellite imagery during June and July descending the SW and SE flanks from SEC (figure 341). Frequent Strombolian activity contributed to distinct sulfur dioxide plumes that exceeded two Dobson Units (DUs) that drifted generally S and E (figure 342).

Activity during April 2021. During April, INGV reported intra-crater Strombolian explosions in NEC, BN, and SEC. On 1 April around 0100 the SEC explosions transitioned into lava fountaining, generating an ash plume at 0940 that rose to 9 km altitude and drifted SSW. At 0200 a lava flow was reported in the eastern edge of SEC, moving toward the upper part of the VOR-BN complex (Valle del Bove) over the older flows that appeared during March 2021. By 1000 the fountaining had stopped, though explosions continued, producing ash plumes that rose to 5.5-9 km altitude and drifted S and SSW. As a result, ashfall was reported in Milia, Nicolosi, and Catania, and lapilli up to 1 cm was reported in Rifugio Sapienza. A second lava flow appeared at 1040, originating from the same eastern vent and migrating toward VOR-BN. Explosivity gradually declined around 1320 in SEC; by 2300 the lava flows had begun to cool and explosions were no longer observed in the summit crater. During the rest of the month volcanism was relatively low, though intra-crater Strombolian explosions continued in NEC and BN; degassing was prominent in SEC, VOR-BN, and NEC craters. Explosions would eject material tens of meters above the crater rim in NEC, accompanied by some ash emissions. At VOR-BN, an overflight on 13 April noted that activity was focused in the western vents, ejecting reddish ash emissions. An explosion in the eastern vent in SEC at 0030 on 25 April ejected incandescent material 350 m above the crater rim; an ash plume was visible drifting S.

Activity during May 2021. Activity during the first half of May remained similar to the previous month, with degassing at the summit craters and weak, intermittent Strombolian explosions occurring at the eastern vents in SEC, accompanied by ash emissions (figure 343). During the second week of May, INGV reported isolated ash emissions from NEC. On 19 May at 0221 the Strombolian activity in SEC intensified, accompanied by ash emissions, which evolved into lava fountaining by 0234 (figure 344). At the same time, a lava flow was observed traveling down the SW flank, reaching an elevation of 2.8 km. This event lasted three and a half hours, after which the fountains and explosions stopped abruptly. The lava flow was 1.8 km long, 1.5 m thick, and had a volume of 450,000 m 3 . On 22 May at 0134 Strombolian explosions continued in SEC, generating ash plumes that drifted SE. By 0302 the explosions evolved into lava fountains that ejected material to the NE. A second lava flow developed on the SW flank, overlapping the one from the 19th, advancing to 3 km elevation. It was 1 km long, 1.5 m thick, and had a volume of 150,000 m 3 . A third lava flow was observed on the E flank was 0.5 km long, 1.5 m thick, and a volume of 70,000 m 3 . At 0454 the lava fountain and explosive activity had stopped abruptly.

On 24 May explosions were accompanied by a lava flow on the SW flank that descended to 900 m elevation, was 1.5 m thick, and had an erupted volume of 150,000 m 3 . The most intense phase of the explosions occurred during 2235 and 2345; activity ended around 0010. On 25 May an ash plume rose to 4 km altitude and drifted ENE at 1020; by 1820 explosive activity resumed. Two eruptive episodes on 26 May with peaks at 0350 and 1300 resulted in fine ashfall in Milo (10 km E). The next day, explosions intensified in SEC at 1450 while tephra fell in Giarre (17 km ESE), Milo, and Fornazzo (10 km ESE), though inclement weather prevents visual observations. On 28 May three explosive events were detected beginning at 0830, reaching a maximum intensity at 0900, and ending at 0930. As a result, ashfall was reported in Giarre. A second explosive episode occurred during 1740 and 1815 and a third, more intense explosive episode occurred during 2115-2350. On 30 May explosions beginning at 0545 lasted for two hours and resulted in fine ashfall in Petrulli (12 km SE).

Activity during June 2021. Variable Strombolian activity persisted during June, mainly in SEC; minor and diffuse ash emissions occurred at BN and ash emissions were reported on 4 June in NEC. Degassing was reported in BN and VOR. Weak Strombolian activity in SEC began at 0850 on 2 June, producing minor and diffuse ash plumes, which intensified around 1000 and transitioned to lava fountains that lasted more than two hours (figure 345). The lava fountains generated ash plumes that rose to 5-6 km altitude and drifted E, resulting in ashfall N of Zafferana, near Petrulli and Santa Venerina (figure 345). A lava flow was observed on the S flank of SEC that traveled SW. Fountains stopped at 1245. During the night and early morning of 3-4 June weak intra-crater explosions continued. On 4 June activity increased at 1530 and was characterized by discontinuous ash emissions and a lava flow descending the S flank of SEC. Lava fountains began at 1820 and generated an ash plume that rose to 6.5 km altitude and drifted SE. Ejecta was deposited in Aci Castello, Aciterzza, San Giovanni, La Punta, Tremestieri, Catania, Viagrande, and between Pedara, Fleri, and Siracusa. By 1930 the fountaining had stopped; webcam images showed that by 2300 the lava flow remained active at an elevation of 2.8 km and was a thickness of 2 m.

On 9 June at 0110 intra-crater Strombolian activity was reported in the saddle cone, accompanied by discontinuous ash emissions, which continued through 11 June. Coarse material was ejected tens of meters from the edge of SEC, falling back into the crater. The lava flow descending the SW flank on 12 June reached an elevation of 2.7 km and was 1.7 km long, 1.5 m thick, and had a volume of 700,000 m 3 . At 2130 explosions transitioned into lava fountains that rose 400-500 m above the crater and produced an ash plume that rose to 5.5 km altitude and drifted SSE. Ashfall was reported in Sapienza, Refuge, Nicolosi, Tremestieri, Belpasso, and Catania. The fountains ended at 2350, alongside a cooling flow on the SW flank, though Strombolian explosions continued in SEC.

Several lava fountaining episodes were reported during 1332-1450 on 16 June, 2220 on 18 June to 0210 on 19 June, 2040-2215 on 19 June, 1131 on 20 June to 0214 on 21 June, overnight during 21-22 June, and during the early hours of 22 and 23 June. Each episode began with Strombolian explosions, followed by fountaining and crater overflows descending the SW and SE flanks toward the Valle del Bove (S) on 16 June while those on 21 June traveled 1 km SW toward Monte Frumento Supino, stopping at 2.9 km elevation (figure 341). Ash plumes rose as high as 8 km altitude, causing ashfall the S and SSE. INGV reported nine lava fountain episodes at SEC occurred during 21-27 June; explosive activity was concentrated in the W part of SEC at three of the four saddle vents, though some weak, isolated explosions were detected in the E vents (figure 346). The episodes generated ash plumes rising 5-10 km altitude while lava flows descended the SW and SE flanks (figure 346). An effusive vent was detected on the SE flank of SEC on 23 June. The lava fountaining events have caused SEC cone to grow significantly.

Activity during July 2021. Strombolian activity, lava fountains, and ash plumes from SEC continued in July, in addition to occasional gas-and-ash emissions in NEC and BN. Three episodes of lava fountains generated ash plumes that rose 5-10 km altitude, resulting in ashfall to the E and SE. The first episode occurred at SEC at 0040 on 2 July, beginning with Strombolian explosions. Resulting ash plumes drifted ESE and within an hour, lava fountains were visible, accompanied by lava flows moving SW; fountaining had stopped at 0250. The second episode began at 1656 on 4 July, producing fountains at 1725 and ash plumes, ending by 1900 (figure 347). Lava flows traveled SW and ENE while the ash plumes drifted ESE. The last episode occurred at 2330 on 6 July; ash plumes rose to 5 km altitude and drifted SE; ash deposits were observed on the S flank. Explosions intensified at 0000 on 7 July with fountaining occurring thirty minutes later, rising as high as 1 km. A small lava flow originated from the S side of the cone and traveled SW, reaching an elevation of 2.8 km.

During fieldwork on 7 July scientists observed bombs up to 1 m in diameter on the N side of Mount Barbagallo, while smaller bombs were observed farther away. Lapilli was reported in the S part of Tremestieri, and ash was deposited in Nicolosi, as well as other communities downwind. This episode lasted about two hours. A second episode that began at 2100 on 8 July consisted of Strombolian activity and lava fountains. Ash plumes rose to 3.4 km altitude and drifted SE, resulting in ashfall and the front of the lava flow reached 2.4 km elevation. On 14 July explosions generated an ash plume that rose to 9 km altitude and drifted NE, which resulted in 1-cm-thick lapilli and ash deposits in the Rocca Campana district, as well as in the Rifugio, Citelli, and Presa, with ashfall in Taormina and the S part of Calabria. Another lava flow on the S flank of SEC was moving SW and had begun to cool by 15 July.

On 20 July at 0150 explosions in SEC generated ash emissions that drifted SSE; at 0650 the intensity of these explosions increased and eventually evolved into lava fountains at 0920. At the same time, a lava flow along the side of the SW flank of SEC was reported, as well as deposits of material on the S and E flanks of the volcano. Two lava flows moving SW were detected on the N flank of SEC, stopping at an elevation of 2.9 km. An ash plume drifted E and resulted in ashfall on the E flank and in Zafferana, Milo, and Fornazzo. On 26 July INGV reported continuous ash emissions at NEC that rose to 6 km altitude and drifted N. Strombolian activity intensified again at 0925 on 28 July in SEC, generating discontinuous ash emissions (figure 348); this episode stopped by 2318. Explosions in SEC began again at 1915 on 31 July, producing ash plumes that rose to 5 km altitude and drifted SE, resulting in ashfall in Fornazzo and Milo. At 2115 a lava flow down the SW flank reached 2.8 km elevation.

Geological Summary. Mount Etna, towering above Catania on the island of Sicily, has one of the world's longest documented records of volcanism, dating back to 1500 BCE. Historical lava flows of basaltic composition cover much of the surface of this massive volcano, whose edifice is the highest and most voluminous in Italy. The Mongibello stratovolcano, truncated by several small calderas, was constructed during the late Pleistocene and Holocene over an older shield volcano. The most prominent morphological feature of Etna is the Valle del Bove, a 5 x 10 km caldera open to the east. Two styles of eruptive activity typically occur, sometimes simultaneously. Persistent explosive eruptions, sometimes with minor lava emissions, take place from one or more summit craters. Flank vents, typically with higher effusion rates, are less frequently active and originate from fissures that open progressively downward from near the summit (usually accompanied by Strombolian eruptions at the upper end). Cinder cones are commonly constructed over the vents of lower-flank lava flows. Lava flows extend to the foot of the volcano on all sides and have reached the sea over a broad area on the SE flank.

Information Contacts: Sezione di Catania - Osservatorio Etneo, Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV) , Sezione di Catania, Piazza Roma 2, 95123 Catania, Italy (URL: http://www.ct.ingv.it/it/ ); MIROVA (Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity) , a collaborative project between the Universities of Turin and Florence (Italy) supported by the Centre for Volcanic Risk of the Italian Civil Protection Department (URL: http://www.mirovaweb.it/); Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) - MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System , School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/); NASA Global Sulfur Dioxide Monitoring Page , Atmospheric Chemistry and Dynamics Laboratory, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA/GSFC), 8800 Greenbelt Road, Goddard, Maryland, USA (URL: https://so2.gsfc.nasa.gov/); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

Monitoring Seismo-volcanic and Infrasonic Signals at Volcanoes: Mt. Etna Case Study

• Published: 22 December 2012
• Volume 170 , pages 1751–1771, ( 2013 )

Cite this article

• Andrea Cannata 1 ,
• Giuseppe Di Grazia 1 ,
• Marco Aliotta 1 ,
• Carmelo Cassisi 2 ,
• Placido Montalto 1 &
• Domenico Patanè 1  

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Volcanoes generate a broad range of seismo-volcanic and infrasonic signals, whose features and variations are often closely related to volcanic activity. The study of these signals is hence very useful in the monitoring and investigation of volcano dynamics. The analysis of seismo-volcanic and infrasonic signals requires specifically developed techniques due to their unique characteristics, which are generally quite distinct compared with tectonic and volcano-tectonic earthquakes. In this work, we describe analysis methods used to detect and locate seismo-volcanic and infrasonic signals at Mt. Etna. Volcanic tremor sources are located using a method based on spatial seismic amplitude distribution, assuming propagation in a homogeneous medium. The tremor source is found by calculating the goodness of the linear regression fit ( R 2 ) of the log-linearized equation of the seismic amplitude decay with distance. The location method for long-period events is based on the joint computation of semblance and R 2 values, and the location method of very long-period events is based on the application of radial semblance. Infrasonic events and tremor are located by semblance–brightness- and semblance-based methods, respectively. The techniques described here can also be applied to other volcanoes and do not require particular network geometries (such as arrays) but rather simple sparse networks. Using the source locations of all the considered signals, we were able to reconstruct the shallow plumbing system (above sea level) during 2011.

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We are grateful to Phil Dawson and an anonymous reviewer for their useful suggestions that greatly improved the paper.

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Andrea Cannata, Giuseppe Di Grazia, Marco Aliotta, Placido Montalto & Domenico Patanè

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Cannata, A., Di Grazia, G., Aliotta, M. et al. Monitoring Seismo-volcanic and Infrasonic Signals at Volcanoes: Mt. Etna Case Study. Pure Appl. Geophys. 170 , 1751–1771 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-012-0634-x

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-012-0634-x

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Mount Etna 2002 case study

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Europe’s most active volcano , Mount Etna, has been hitting the headlines recently after a series of spectacular eruptions. In Etna’s first eruption of 2021, explosive lava fountains reached over 1500 m in one of the most amazing eruptions in decades.

Mount Etna, located on the island of Sicily, has been largely dormant for the past two years. The stratovolcano (composite) dominates the skyline of the Italian island, where it sits on the eastern coast.

Located between the cities of Messina and Catania, it is the highest active volcano in Europe outside the Caucasus – a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea – and the highest peak in Italy south of the Alps.

The recent activity is typical of a strombolian eruption among the normal activities of the more than 3,300-metre-high volcano. The recent eruption is the strongest explosion in the southern crater since it was discovered in 1971.

On Monday 22nd February 2021, at around 11 pm, the lava fountains, surrounded by gigantic clouds of smoke, exceeded 1,500 metres (4,900ft) in height, while thousands of rock fragments, some the size of fridges, were thrown from the crater into the sky for several kilometres.

Etna is a hyperactive volcano with over 3,500 years of historically documented eruptions. The volcano has been erupting on and off since September 2013. Since September 2019, it’s been erupting from its various summit craters virtually continuously. In December 2020, Etna’s explosive activity and lava output began to spike, and in February 2021, it has been launching fluid lava skywards.

Etna is an unusual volcano in that it can produce explosive eruptions of runny lava and release slower flowing, thick lava flows. Scientists are still trying to work out why this is the case.

The magma from the latest eruption appears to be coming up from deep within the mantle . Extremely hot, fluid magma is rapidly rising through the network of conduits within and below the volcano. However, there is another factor that is contributing to the current explosive eruptions.

There are high quantities of water vapour in Etna’s magma, which makes it explosive. The water does not cool the magma. As the molten magma approaches the surface, the pressure drops, and the bubble of water vapour expands violently, leading to lava being ejected out of the volcano.

Following each explosive lava fountain , less gassy magma lingers just below the vent. This is then cleared when a new volley of gassy magma rises from below. These explosive eruptions are known as volcanic paroxysms.

Authorities have reported no danger to the nearby towns, however, local airports have been temporarily closed, as has the airspace around the volcano. Etna’s last major eruption was in 1992. Despite the explosive nature of the recent eruption, there is no risk to the population, other than from the ash that covers buildings and smoke that can, after a few hours, cause breathing problems. In March 2017 vulcanologists, tourists and a BBC film crew were injured during an eruption when a flow of lava ran into snow, producing superheated steam that sent fragments of rock flying in all directions.

Further reading For a Volcanologist Living on Mount Etna, the Latest Eruption Is a Delight  – Advisory – this article contains expletives (swear words).

In Pictures: Mount Etna eruption lights up Sicily’s night sky

Mount Etna: BBC crew caught up in volcano blast

Mount Etna illuminates night sky with 1,500-metre lava fountain

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A-LEVEL GEOGRAPHY VOLCANO CASE STUDIES

Subject: Geography

Age range: 14-16

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24 May 2018

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Mount Etna Case Study

• Natural hazards
• Created by: portialeoniee
• Created on: 11-02-20 15:40
• Home to approx. one million people.
• Lava destroyed springs and water supply was disrupted.
• Schools closed
• Buildings destroyed by lava
• Lava destroyed tourist station at Piano Provenzana
• Catania airport closed due to ash
• Lava took out power cables
• Agricultural yields affected
• Millions of insurance claims for property damage
• The Italian Army's heavy equipment was brought in to block and divert lava flows
• The Italian government pledged immediate financial assistance of more than $8 million.
• Orange groves, vineyards, chestnuts and hazel groves destroyed
• Ash deposited material as far away as Libya, 600km
• Land swelling and gas emissions
• Development of evacuation plans and emergency supplies.
• Dams of soil and volcanic rock were put up to protect the tourist base and helped to divert lava flow.
• Evacuation of people from Nicolosi
• Buildings strengthened to reduce risk of collapse from weight of ash
• Mount Etna used for tourism to generate local income.
• Management plans
• Italy, 2002

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