forest are the best case study for economic excellence

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Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence – UPSC CSE PYQ 2022

Essay Previous Year Paper 2022- Click Here

Forests are intricate ecosystems that have evolved over millions of years, thriving on principles that enable their growth, adaptation, and delivery of benefits to the environment and society.

These virtues can serve as a valuable guide for economic systems to flourish, thrive, and yield positive outcomes. This essay explores how economic systems can embody and operate on the virtues that forests possess, along with a few case studies that demonstrate the excellence an economy can achieve by emulating forests

Firstly, forests are characterized by their resilience—the ability to recover and bounce back from challenging situations . For example, forests can withstand catastrophic events such as forest fires, droughts, and floods. Similarly, in the economy, we need to diversify supply chains to increase resilience to supply shocks caused by political shifts or natural disasters. The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of robust and resilient programs that play a critical role in economic adaptation and survival during crises and beyond.

Secondly, diversity is another crucial characteristic of forests, encompassing genetic and species diversity . Forests consist of numerous species that interact with each other in complex ways, creating a dynamic ecosystem capable of withstanding external pressures. Higher diversity fosters a healthier natural ecosystem, making forests more productive, stable, and sustainable . Similarly, in the economy, diversity is essential. In rural areas, the focus should shift beyond agriculture to allied areas like fishery, agroforestry, and apiculture.

In urban and suburban areas, emphasis should be placed on small and medium enterprises in addition to heavy industries. Thus, a well-rounded economy should encompass a balanced mix of primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors to ensure sustainability, stability, and productivity .

Another principle of forests is mutual symbiosis , where all organisms in an ecosystem depend on each other directly or indirectly. For instance, bees depend on nectar from flowers, while flowers rely on bees for pollination, benefiting the entire system. Similarly, creating symbiosis in the economy can be advantageous.

For example, establishing agro-processing industries in agricultural areas benefits both farmers by increasing productivity and profit, while sectors gain access to raw materials at a lower cost. Connecting ancillary micro, small, and medium enterprises with larger units is also beneficial. MSMEs require high demand for survivability, while large units acquire the necessary raw materials from them.

Forests demonstrate the principle of adoption , where species adapt to changing temperatures and rainfall patterns. Similarly, in the economy, agricultural methods should adapt to climate change by employing techniques such as micro-irrigation or dryland farming in regions with low rainfall. Manufacturing industries should also upgrade to modern technologies like artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things to address changing demands and better align with needs.

Self-regulation is another important principle of forests. Forest ecosystems possess built-in mechanisms that maintain balance and stability. Predators, for example, help control prey populations, preventing overgrazing and ecological damage. Similarly, economic systems can learn from this principle by developing self-regulating mechanisms that prevent excesses and imbalances . The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) serves as an example of such a mechanism. The RBI regulates the Indian banking system, ensuring banks operate within ethical and financial standards. Its monetary policy framework aims to maintain price stability while supporting economic growth, and preventing harm to society and the economy.

Forests exhibit a long-term perspective, taking decades or even centuries to grow and adapt to changing conditions.

Economic systems can adopt a similar perspective by considering the needs of future generations. Norway’s sovereign wealth fund serves as an example of economic excellence achieved through a long-term perspective. Designed to withstand fluctuations in global financial markets, the fund has provided stable revenue for the country’s social welfare programs, allowing Norway to weather financial crises successfully.

Several case studies illustrate the importance of aligning economic models with local ecosystems. Just as a species cannot be forced to live in different types of forests, an economic model cannot be applied uniformly across all regions. Instead, localized approaches, such as promoting locally grown or unique crops, ensure sustainability and a stable economy.

Furthermore, invasive species can adversely affect domestic forests, just as unregulated foreign companies can impact domestic economies. Recognizing complementary niches is crucial, as species with identical niches cannot coexist. Similarly, businesses must identify their strengths and weaknesses to develop niche strategies effectively.

Mangroves, acting as buffer zones, protect territorial landmasses from disasters like cyclones. Similarly, countries like India, in the face of a changing global scenario and widespread globalization, need buffers to sustain their markets and navigate unforeseen events such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Lastly, it is essential to avoid exploiting forests and natural resources beyond their regenerative capacities, as it can lead to the collapse of the forest ecosystem or the economy in the long run . In essence, sustainable development promotes economic growth with justice and environmental conservation, which is urgently needed on both national and global scales. Forests and economies are interconnected, and their elements coexist and maintain balance. The goal is to maintain an economically viable and ecologically sustainable society by embracing the virtues of forests, ultimately achieving the highest forms of economic excellence.

Table of Contents

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Question: how can forests serve as case studies for economic excellence.

Answer: Forests contribute significantly to economic excellence through various avenues such as timber production, non-timber forest products, ecotourism, and carbon sequestration. Sustainable forest management practices can ensure long-term economic benefits while preserving ecological balance.

Question: What role do forests play in supporting rural economies and livelihoods?

Answer: Forests play a crucial role in supporting rural economies by providing employment opportunities in activities like forestry, agroforestry, and non-timber forest product collection. Additionally, forests contribute to the livelihoods of local communities through ecosystem services like water regulation, soil fertility, and climate regulation.

Question: How can the conservation of forests contribute to economic sustainability?

Answer: Forest conservation is essential for maintaining biodiversity, regulating climate, and ensuring sustainable resource use. Preserving forests helps safeguard ecosystem services that have direct economic implications, such as clean water supply, pollination of crops, and mitigating climate change impacts. Long-term economic sustainability is linked to the responsible management and conservation of forests.

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Forests are the Best-Case Studies for Economic Excellence | 21 Sep 2022

The ecosystem of India's forests has a lot to teach the nation's economy. An ecosystem includes both the economy and the forest. While the economy is a man-made system with the flow of money, supply chain, and distribution, the forest is a natural ecosystem with fundamental functions like energy flow and food web.

Necessity of Resilience and Flow

The ecology must have energy flow in order to survive. The economy is built on the flow of money. Both in the forest ecosystem and economy one element is related to other elements. The economy as a whole suffers when one sector flounders. As the flow of money in the economy climbs, inflation rises as well. An ecosystem's main quality is resilience. The more resilient an ecosystem is, the further it will grow. The capacity of an ecosystem to survive in an ecological disturbance while preserving its fundamental cycles of food and energy is the resilience of the ecosystem. The more diverse the economy and forest, the more stable it will be.

Economic resilience expands to include three key characteristics in the context of economic development: the capacity to swiftly bounce back from shocks, to absorb shocks, and to completely avoid shocks. A supply chain in an economy is a network of companies and individuals involved in the production and distribution of goods and services. Producers, vendors, warehouses, shipping firms, distribution hubs, and merchants are all included. Product creation, marketing, operations, distribution, financing, and customer support are some of its core responsibilities. In ecology, productivity refers to the speed at which an ecosystem produces biomass. It is often referred to as the energy that plants store during photosynthesis. By subtracting the energy lost via respiration from gross primary production, net primary productivity is calculated. The economy's Net Domestic Production (NDP) is derived by subtracting depreciation from its Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

Diversity in Economy

A more diverse ecosystem is a more stable ecosystem because a more diverse ecosystem provides availability of more food chains which culminates into the food web. A food web provides more stability to an ecosystem. A diversified economy has several options to sustain its supply chain and demand. Diversification of the economy is a critical aspect in economic growth, and it encompasses broadening a country's production and trading infrastructure. The world's poorest nations have the most concentrated economic structures, owing to the fact that many of them are small or geographically isolated, landlocked, and/or primarily reliant on primary agriculture or resources. This raises concerns about sensitivity to sector-specific shocks, such as weather-related disasters in agriculture or rapid price shocks in minerals. The Indian economy is highly diversified by the virtue of its different economic sectors. The manufacturing sector is regarded as the backbone of economic progress. Industrial growth is a prerequisite for eliminating unemployment and poverty in our country. It also attempted to reduce regional inequities by building enterprises in tribal and underserved regions. The services sector accounts for more than half of India's GDP. In India, the services sector has received most of the FDI. The largest, fastest growing, and most productive sector in India is the service sector. It continued to rank among the top ten trading nations for commercial services in 2019. Agriculture is critical to the Indian economy. Agriculture supports more than 70% of rural households. Agriculture is a significant sector of the Indian economy, accounting for around 17% of total GDP. About 58% of the population is employed in the agricultural sector. Tribal economy is a key element for classifying Scheduled Tribes in India. The dominant economic activity of the tribes is hunting, fishing, food gathering, shifting cultivation, Sedentary cultivation and animal husbandry.

Mutual Symbiosis

In a biological ecosystem, symbiosis fosters reciprocal dependence of one species of flora or fauna on other species of flora and fauna. Both species coexist in harmony with one another and in accordance with the needs of others. Industrial symbiosis is the economic process through which the byproducts or wastes of one industry or industrial process are utilized as raw materials for another. This concept fosters the development of a circular economy and allows for the more sustainable usage of materials. The objective of industrial symbiosis is to create a network of linked systems that function similarly to biological ecosystems in that materials and energy are continually recycled without waste.

A forest ecosystem has two basic components which are known as biotic and abiotic components. Interaction of the biotic and abiotic components of the forest is a main feature of the forest ecosystem for its survival. Macroeconomy and Microeconomy are the two fundamental parts of an economy. Both parts of the economy used to interact with each other and support the economy to survive and proliferate.

Invasion by Other Economies

When items are sold overseas at a lower price than they would be sold domestically, after deducting variances for shipping costs, tariffs, and other cost considerations, this practice is known as "dumping". This practice of dumping by foreign nations impacted the domestic industries negatively. Low price products are dumped in foreign nations just to get an edge over the foreign nations market. This practice negatively impacted the domestic economy as in biological ecosystems invasive or alien species of flora or fauna impacted negatively to the endemic species. An invasive species is secreting such chemicals which can destroy the entire population of the pre-existing species. Invasive species are acting like predators in an ecosystem. Dumping of low-price products is also acting like a predator for the native economy. Predatory pricing is the practice of a company purposely lowering prices to drive away rivals. By removing the rivals, the business is getting one step closer to a monopoly, a privileged position of market domination.

The traditional role of chemistry in converting resources into products that, in many cases, created waste and harmed the environment is giving way to a new role in developing new methods for resource recovery and recycling processes for the efficient use of resources and utilization of waste materials as green resources. The solution to issues with the economic system or the forest ecology is technology. Without technological advancement, it is difficult to predict how quickly the economy will grow. Without technical development, we would not be able to maintain our forests or control pollution. With the help of high-quality seed varieties brought about by technological innovation, India saw a "green revolution" that finally sparked economic growth and allowed the country to become self-sufficient in terms of agricultural production.

The methods used to protect the economy and the forest should be equal. In essence, sustainable development promotes justice in economic growth and environmental conservation, and it is urgently needed on both a national and global scale. The preservation of natural resources and the control of economic woes are crucial for the existence of the human species. The continual flow of energy and money supply is a vital necessity. The solution to issues relating to both the economy and the ecosystem is technology. Both the economy and the forest are necessary for human life. Forest and economy both elements complement one another, and numerous of their elements coexist and are kept in balance with one another.

[Essay Topic- 1 Mains 2022] Forests are the best-case studies for economic excellence.

Introduction, forests, covering about 31% of the world’s land area, are more than just vast stretches of trees; they are intricate ecosystems, home to countless species and a vital source of life and resources for humanity. while often celebrated for their ecological and environmental significance, the economic dimension of forests is equally compelling, serving as exemplary subjects for economic study and understanding..

Thesis Statement

Forests stand as best-case studies for economic excellence due to their sustainable resource generation, intrinsic valuation, and the multifaceted economic opportunities they provide to local and global economies.

Crux/Meaning of the Essay

At its core, this essay aims to explore the economic dimensions of forests, understanding how they present a sustainable model of production, consumption, and regeneration. Unlike many traditional industries, forests offer a blend of renewable resources, symbiotic relationships, and indigenous knowledge, all culminating in an economic system that stands the test of time and depletion.

Different perspectives, sustainable resource generation: unlike exhaustible resources such as fossil fuels, forests can regenerate and offer a continuous supply of goods like timber, fruits, and medicinal plants. this renewable nature fosters economic resilience and long-term planning. biodiversity and ecotourism: forests are biodiversity hotspots. the appeal of rich flora and fauna draws millions of tourists worldwide, promoting ecotourism. countries like costa rica have turned their rainforests into economic powerhouses through ecotourism, creating jobs, and supporting local businesses. indigenous economies and knowledge: indigenous communities, often residing in forests for generations, possess invaluable knowledge about forest resources. this knowledge is an untapped economic potential, giving rise to sustainable businesses, pharmaceutical innovations, and cultural experiences. carbon credits and the green economy: in the age of climate change, forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing more carbon dioxide than they emit. countries and corporations invest in forests to earn carbon credits, leading to a booming green economy and sustainable investments., different dimensions, resource optimization: forests are reservoirs of timber, fruits, nuts, and medicinal plants, showcasing how resources can be harnessed without depletion when managed sustainably. ecosystem services: beyond tangible resources, forests offer invaluable services like water purification, soil conservation, and carbon sequestration, which have significant economic implications. community and indigenous involvement: the symbiotic relationship between indigenous communities and forests exemplifies community-driven economic models., significance in current context, today, as the world grapples with climate change, economic instability, and inequality, forests present a beacon of hope. they offer lessons in sustainable economics, emphasizing balance, regeneration, and respect for nature. their potential as economic engines – be it through direct resource extraction, ecotourism, or the green economy – positions forests as crucial players in our future economic landscapes. embracing forest-centric economic models can pave the way for a more resilient, equitable, and sustainable global economy., forests are not just the lungs of our planet but also its economic heart. they embody the principles of sustainable growth, offering a blend of resources, opportunities, and lessons that few other sectors can. as we chart our course towards a sustainable economic future, turning to forests as our guideposts can offer the insights and models we so desperately need. in essence, forests are not just case studies, but the epitome of economic excellence., related posts:.

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FORESTS ARE THE BEST-CASE STUDIES FOR ECONOMIC EXCELLENCE

A common thread runs between the Indus Valley Civilization, the Rig Vedic age, the Chipko Movement and the Padma awardee Jamuna Tudu.

Yes, that’s right! It is their love and respect for trees and forests. The people of the Indus Valley Civilization and the hymns of the Rig Veda revered forests and wildlife. The participants of the Chipko Movement realised the importance of forests and hugged them to prevent their felling. More recently Jamuna Tudu achieved a similar feat and saved around ten thousand trees from the timber mafia.

Thus, since time immemorial, our civilization has had respect and admiration our environment. This is reflected in our vernacular saying, ‘Van hi jeevan hai’, i.e., forests themselves are our life. These forests provide us with materials to sustain life like oxygen, food, water and shelter. But more importantly we can learn several lessons from them that can make our life more pleasant and meaningful.

Forests and economic excellence

Forests are the best-case studies for economic excellence in several ways. Firstly, they use the resources available to them in the most efficient manner. For instance, we have never heard of a case where a plant took more sunlight or oxygen than it needed. However, that is not the case with humans. Our government gives higher subsidy on urea compared to other fertilisers. This has led to our farmers only providing urea to the crops irrespective of which nutrients the soil is lacking.

Secondly all the products of a tree have multiple uses. The bark can be used to build furniture or extract items like rubber, the leaves of some are edible like mahua, or give fruits like mangoes. We can learn from this and manufacture goods with multiple uses. This would ensure innovative manufacturing which can help boost employment and lower costs to consumer.

Thirdly Balance is another lesson we can imbibe from forests. Various species of trees grow together in a forest. There is no domination of one over the other and they exist in sustainable cohabitation. Similarly, our economy should be a balanced one. One sector should not dominate over the other, like it happens in our country where 54% of the population works in agriculture.

Fourthly there is also diversity and variety in forests. Various kinds of forests are found all around the world - Tropical evergreen in Mexico, deciduous in India, coniferous in Canada etc. Each has its own utility and such diversity is enriching. The economy of a nation should also be diverse in its production, consumption and export. It should not be just an oil economy, like Kuwait or a labour-exporting economy, like Vietnam. Such dependence proves very harmful when crisis like the COVID-19 pandemic knocks on our doors. Economist Raghuram Rajan has thus aptly observed that ‘diversity is the foundation of a strong economy.

But perhaps the most important lesson that forests can teach us is that of adaptability and resilience. Forests are always adapting to the changing weather, climate and even disasters like cyclones. The trees shed their leaves during winters and close their stomata to control evaporation during summer. The world economy has to imitate this example, especially in today’s time when some or the other crisis is always around the corner.

Relevance today - A stitch in time saves nine

The world is facing a poly-crisis today. Economically, the pandemic took away several jobs. Nations are now becoming ‘fortress economies’, not letting in firms of other nations. Economic borders are contracting, not only for goods and services, but also for human resources. Add to that the Russia-Ukraine war, which has wreaked havoc by disrupting global supply chains.

Environmentally, climate change is the greatest peril for the entire human race. As per the UN Environment Programme, it would hamper food security, worker productivity and the extreme disasters would destroy infrastructure and take lives. We saw this play out in the Pakistan floods of 2022 and more recently, when Cyclone Biparjoy made its landfall in Gujarat.

Socially, we see inequality persisting in the society. As per the Oxfam Report, top 3% in India own more than 50% of the nation’s wealth. The falling ranks in the Global Hunger Index also shows the grim effect of such inequality and poverty.

In such a gloomy situation, the teachings from forests would be our glimmer of hope. All of the learnings mentioned before, if learnt, would ensure the best use of our scarce resources and enable us to tide over such hiccups. A balanced, diversified economy would raise the standard of living of the people by taking them out of the disguised employment of agriculture. It would also manoeuvre the economy of India out of services or the software exports, into other domains like handicrafts, textiles, infrastructure etc. Imbibing these lessons is thus the need of the hour

Learning from the best

We are now aware of the teachings that we need to emulate. But how should we emulate them? Our government has already taken some steps to achieve economic excellence at par with the forests.

For adapting to crisis, the PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana was rolled out, so that the vulnerable have a safety net during the lockdown. An amount of Rs. 500 was also given, for three months, to women Jan Dhan account holders. Moreover, the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code was paused to save businesses from vanquishing.

The share of employment of people in manufacturing is being improved through schemes like Start Up India, Stand Up India and MUDRA. With this, India will see a number of sectors contributing to the GDP, not just the agriculture.

For diversity, like in forests, the PLI scheme and the One District, One Product has been launched. Finally, to tie all of them up together and ensure efficient utilisation of resources, the Gati Shakti masterplan has been rolled out by the Ministry of Finance.

In a nutshell

Forest indeed is the best-case studies for economic excellence. We only used to consider them as providers of food, air and shelter, but now we know we can learn so much more from them - in life and in economy. The Indus Valley and the Rig Vedic people had knowledge about this and therefore, worshipped them. Let us take a cue out of their books and try to put to use the various values that forests teach us. That would help us lead a fruitful life and also stay true to our ancient wisdom -

“Vruksho Rakshati Rakshitah”

(The trees would save you if you save them.)

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Green Gold: Forests as Blueprints for Economic Brilliance | Essay Writing for UPSC by Vikash Ranjan Sir | Triumph ias

Table of Contents

Green Gold: Forests as Blueprints for Economic Brilliance

(relevant for essay writing for upsc civil services examination).

forests, economic excellence, sustainable resource management, tourism, biodiversity conservation, ecosystem services, responsible forest management, sustainability

Introduction:

The statement “Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence” unveils a fascinating perspective that transcends the serene beauty of forests. It underscores how these verdant landscapes are not just nature’s treasures but also exemplars of sustainable economic prosperity. In this blog, we journey through the economic and ecological dimensions of forests as case studies for excellence.

Forests: Economic Marvels in Nature: The heart of the statement lies in forests’ potential as economic case studies:

Sustainable Resource Management: Forests provide renewable resources such as timber, medicinal plants, and non-timber forest products. When managed sustainably, these resources can generate consistent economic returns without compromising the environment’s integrity.
Tourism and Recreation: The allure of forests for tourism is undeniable. Their natural beauty, outdoor activities, and wildlife encounters draw tourists, thereby bolstering local economies, creating jobs, and contributing to the economic vitality of regions.
Climate Benefits: Forests emerge as climate champions by sequestering carbon dioxide, playing a pivotal role in climate change mitigation. In an era where climate action carries profound economic implications, forests’ carbon storage adds to their economic value.

Navigating the Economic-Ecological Tightrope: The statement also alludes to the delicate balance required for responsible forest management:

Preserving Biodiversity: While forests can yield economic prosperity, they are also sanctuaries of biodiversity. Sustainable practices ensure that economic gains do not come at the expense of biodiversity loss, fostering ecological harmony.
Ecosystem Services: Forests are not merely financial assets; they provide crucial ecosystem services like air purification, water filtration, and flood prevention. These services possess economic significance, influencing industries and public well-being.
Long-Term Vision: Treating forests as economic assets necessitates long-term thinking. Sustainable management guarantees that the benefits reaped are sustainable, catering to the present and future generations.

Extending the Paradigm Beyond Forests: The notion of “Forests as the best case studies for economic excellence” radiates relevance beyond the forest realm:

Sustainability as a Guiding Principle: The balanced approach that forests embody—integrating economic prosperity and ecological integrity—can serve as a model for other industries striving for sustainability.
Holistic Economic Perspectives: The forests’ intricate web of economic value, from tangible gains to intangible services, emphasizes the significance of holistic economic analysis, considering both monetary and environmental dimensions.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, the proclamation that “Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence” invites us to recognize forests as vibrant economic engines grounded in sustainable practices. Their multifaceted value—from resources to tourism to climate resilience—urges us to adopt an economic ethos that harmonizes prosperity with the conservation of nature. This philosophy transcends forests, beckoning us to envision economic growth through a prism of equilibrium, where nature’s bounty and human prosperity coalesce for a resilient and thriving future.

forests, economic excellence, sustainable resource management, tourism, biodiversity conservation, ecosystem services, responsible forest management, sustainability, forests, economic excellence, sustainable resource management, tourism, biodiversity conservation, ecosystem services, responsible forest management, sustainability

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Forest Management as Economic Resilience

Southeastern illinois regional planning and development commission.

Though wildfires and natural disasters have been making headlines on the West Coast of the United States in recent years, interior forest lands are also at risk of disastrous wildfire incidents that can quickly spiral out of control. Threats to these national forest lands present a clear ecological, as well as economic, risk to communities that derive extensive economic activity and benefits from their local connections to these forest lands.

A Regional Voice and Convener

Southeastern Illinois Regional Planning and Development Commission (SIRPDC) works with five rural counties along the Ohio River to advance economic and community development opportunities in its communities. The region, intertwined with the Shawnee National Forest , is known for its dense forested areas and has become a local and statewide travel destination for outdoor recreation tourism in past years as well as a key site for regional timber production and mineral extraction (see the SIRPDC 2021-2026 CEDS for a regional economic breakdown). The 2017 U.S. Forest Service report Shawnee National Forest Benefits to People notes that total spending related to tourism in the national forest accounts for $16.8 million in annual spending. Along with sales tax revenue that is generated for local governments from this spending, this outside spending brought in from other regions and states significantly supports local businesses.

Due to the volatile and broad impact of wildfires, regional organizations are well-suited to coordinate emergency response planning, address risks across multiple county and municipal jurisdictions, and support efforts to promote regional and local resiliency. More rural and under resourced areas can be weak points in a regions’ wildfire defense and response strategy. Geographically farther away from emergency management personnel bases with smaller, unpaved roads, and under-resourced and underequipped rural volunteer fire districts, rural areas can be at a higher risk of wildfires spreading out of control.

In partnership with the Illinois Emergency Management Agency which provided planning funds, the local Shawnee National Forest Supervisors Office and SWCA Environmental Consultants which provided technical expertise, SIRPDC staff aimed to address issues challenging their rural fire districts and developed Community Wildfire Protection Plans for two of its most rural counties: Hardin and Pope. The Shawnee National Forest is a major presence in the region with 24% of Hardin County and 35% of Pope County comprised of federally protected forest land.

Outcomes from the Planning Process

These protection plans came together by synthesizing the strengths, needs, and challenges of the region sourced from local stakeholder input meetings, data analyses of the regions’ geographic and topographic features, and analyses of the local capacity to prevent and respond to wildfire risks. SIRPDC was well-suited for this role due to staff experience conducting the CEDS and other regional planning opportunities. Outlining strategies for hazardous fuel reduction, proactive forest management, and prescribed fires, the plans provide SIRPDC and its partners with a framework for improving and protecting one of the region’s most valuable economic and natural resources. SIRPDC staff and SWCA consultants identified specific community resources related to the outdoor recreation economy in the Shawnee National Forest that were at an outsized risk in the event of a wildfire. These resources included specific campgrounds, cabins, trails, signage, and roads throughout the national forest, all of which would be costly to replace in the event of a wildfire and are vital existing resources to the outdoor recreation economy.

Out of these discussions and deep dives into the data, the region learned that the existing fire districts that cover much of the rural counties were severely lacking in equipment and staff capacity to effectively respond to wildfire risks. As many of these local jurisdictions border federally protected land, a wildfire risk in communities is a wildfire risk to the federal land and to the region as a whole. Building these local capacities, including providing expanded equipment purchasing opportunities and training local fire districts volunteers in wildfire prevention and education, creates regional resiliency from the local level up. Identifying this equipment and training need has started conversations in the region about expanding collaboration and coordination between the U.S. Forestry Service and local fire districts.

Additionally, the process identified that stepping up fire safety education and public advertisements to tourists in the region can play a large role in ensuring that small-scale fires do not quickly escalate to a regional threat. With a high volume of outdoor recreation tourism, the risk of a stray campfire or a tipped-over grill is a seemingly minor, but real threat to the region. After this planning process, expanding these fire safety and wildfire risk education opportunities for visitors and tourists has become a fruitful collaboration opportunity for the U.S. Forest Service staff, SIRPDC staff, and local county and municipal partners through roadside billboards with fire safety and prevention tips as well as reading material, signage, and other highly visible advertisements provided at local municipal, county, and U.S. Forest Service offices.

CEDS and Hazard Mitigation Integration

SIRPDC staff learned through this process that the CEDS and local regional hazard mitigation planning can go hand-in-hand. Protecting natural assets like the Shawnee National Forest is vital to the economic success of the region and economic development planning should also include extensive analysis of the economic risks associated with certain region-specific likely hazards. In the SIRPDC region planners aimed to ask: How would the local tourism economy react to shocks like a widespread outbreak of wildfires? Could it sustain itself without relying on the national forest lands?

In areas with certain natural economic resources and assets, hazard mitigation planning, economic resiliency planning, natural resource preservation and conservation, and land-use studies can all contribute to a region’s economic success. This plan coordination becomes even more vital as inland regions that have not traditionally experienced effects from climate change are now seeing more disruptive climate and weather patterns. Improving a region’s climate resilience is dependent on starting planning conversations before climate patterns are too disruptive and hazardous to local economies.

Now that these rural areas have their Community Wildfire Protection Plans finalized and in place, the real work must begin to implement the recommendations. While resource constraints have prevented large-scale implementation of some of the recommendations, SIRPDC staff are confident in the ability of the rural communities’ leaders to begin working collectively to pool resources and begin searching for outside grant funding for projects. SIRPDC has served in this leading role, unifying the local governments around a common issue area, cataloging assets and challenges, and facilitating conversations with the federal and state partners in the region to identify where resources can best be allocated. SIRPDC will continue to serve as the regional voice in representing its most rural communities and ensure that these previously underserved areas have the resources they need to contribute to regional fire safety and broader regional economic resilience.

Key Takeaways

SIRPDC staff made the case for further regional collaboration and ‘outside-the-box’ economic development planning by displaying the economic value of the Shawnee National Forest for two of its rural member counties. EDDs have to take a broader approach to economic development planning that incorporates hazard mitigation and economic resilience to be truly responsive to the changing economic and social landscape in much of rural America.
SIRPDC staff were able to coordinate federal resources through a strong relationship with the local U.S. Forest Service office to help identify key weaknesses in rural communities related to rural fire department capacities. These identified needs can now be addressed through partnerships with federal, state, and local stakeholders. Stakeholder identification at the onset of a project or planning process can ensure that all interested parties have a seat at the table, including potential funding agencies or decision-makers.
Every EDD in the country has certain counties or communities in their region that are smaller, under resourced, and have fewer scalable economic development projects. This example around wildfire protection shows how even the smallest, rural communities in a region can contribute to larger regional goals like fire safety, economic resilience, and hazard mitigation. Many of these communities in the SIRPDC region are perfectly suited to collaborate and coordinate with neighboring communities to provide regional benefits for all.
Community Wildfire Protection Plan – Hardin County
Community Wildfire Protection Plan – Pope County
FEMA/EDA – CEDS and HMP Alignment Guide
EDA – Disaster Recovery
EDA – Economic Recovery & Resilience Resources
CEDS Content Guidelines – Climate Resilience
USFS Shawnee National Forest – Benefits to People Story Map

This case study was written by Andrew Coker, NADO RF Regional Development Researcher

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Regional Development Researcher Andrew Coker joined the NADO team in March of 2023 after spending two and a half years as the Regional Economic Resiliency Coordinator at West Central Arkansas Planning and Development District. Andrew holds a bachelor’s degree from Hendrix College and a master’s degree from the University of Arkansas Clinton School of Public Service.

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Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence

By rush guha.

Almost every standard eight text-book talks about this ancient nation. It is at the heart of an enormous landmass, between two monumental water-bodies, which provides the base for one of the fastest-growing major economies of the world. It is home to more than 40,000 species of flora and about 500 species of fauna. It has a pluralistic coexistence of diverse cultures, projecting principles of cooperation and diversity. The name that probably comes to your mind is India. But, if one reveals that this nation was born about 380 million years ago, even before humans existed on the planet, it forces one to think deeper. The description illustrated above is that of the nation of the Amazon, the Lungs of the Planet.

The immediate question that comes to one’s mind is how it is to draw a comparison between a nation and a forest. And the subsequent question that unfolds is how forests can act as the ‘best’ case studies, not for economic growth, progress, or development, but for economic excellence. The answer to the first question is quite simple. Just as a nation-state has four components: population, territory, sovereignty, and government, similarly a forest consists of all. The flora and fauna is its population, its geographical extent is its territory, and its ability to self-sustain itself without any foreign amendments adds to its sovereignty and the homeostatic principle underneath it is its government. The answer to the second question though is not quite simple as the first one, it is rather multifaceted.

For any economy to sustain itself, the basic need, as Karl Marx claims, is its economic base which in turn supports the social superstructure. For forests, this economic base is its timber produce along with other collateral products such as honey, important herbs, and fruits among others. The economic base allows its labour force to reap the raw materials from such forests, which produce for the world markets, the best quality furniture, medicines, clothes, and for some even their home. But unlike factories which are greased with oil and loaded with machines, these ‘green factories’, the forests have an exponential growth curve. The forest economy unlike the man-made economy is boundary less. Thus, it is free from problems of inflation, recession, and phenomena like globalization and protectionism do not belong to its lexicon.

Forests teach us that in order to reach the echelon of economic excellence, cooperation rather than competition is the road to be chosen. For this, the aphorism is quite simple but needs to be performed quite adroitly. To realise such a dream, firstly an economy needs to come out of the parochial mindset of not sharing resources with its neighbours. This can only be done by filling the cultural gap between the two with mutual respect, only then can the two economies dovetail with each other.

Forests reap their full potential by advocating the principle of laissez-faire. This is done by challenging the biological dogmas. The shunted trees (smaller economies) cannot climb high enough to fetch one of the most basic raw materials for their own growth and development, sunlight. This serious challenge is overcome by a process of intense dialogue and diplomacy with the bigger trees (the bigger economies) which act like a canopy. The two finally come to an agreement where the chemical resources like the micronutrients from the soil are utilised by the shunted trees, while the taller ones protect them from intense rainfall. This is how the developed economies should help the developing ones.

Forests are an excellent alibi for solutions to the deplorable consequences realized due to economic sanctions and trade barriers. A simple totka (solution) to such problems, as forests advocate, is by minding one’s own business and by not being arrogant. A simple anecdote of such a green nation’s humility can be cited by the fact that forests were neither annoyed nor did its growth numbers dip when it came to know that their homosapien friend, Dr. Jagadish Chandra Bose discovered (that too after 200,000 years of human existence) that their green friends can breathe, smell and live a life just like humans. The only difference between the two is that no action performed by the forests gives humans a casus belli, which dampens their economy, the opposite of which does not hold true.

The scientific man’s tentacles slowly crept to the door of the tribes living in forests, thereafter which the tribes were tortured, and butchered leading to the destruction of their indigenous forest economy. Innovation was like a two-way sword. The advancement of technology coupled with rapid population expansion led to the carnage of the forest population. This led to an imbalance of the earth’s carbon dioxide and oxygen levels, shooting up the earth’s thermostat readings. It was too late when humans realised their mistakes and started mending the forest economy by signing subsequent agreements at Rio de Janeiro, Paris, and Glasgow. By then, Mother Nature had already shown her annoyance in the form of severe droughts in the Horn of Africa, Europe experiencing its hottest summer in 500 years, and one-third of our neighbour, Pakistan drowning in floods.

Just as the buttress roots of the equatorial forests utilise groundwater, but only at a pace till the next monsoon cycle replenishes it, humans realised that economies could only be sustained if sources of energy are diversified, only then can their economies sustain. Thanks to our honourable Prime Minister’s global movement, Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment) which sensitises humans to have respect for the ecology and the environment.

Among all the other lessons learned from forests, the one which completely stands out is the philosophy of impartiality. A forest provides shelter to both the lion (men) and the lioness (women). In an era, where patriarchy is still the norm of society, forests teach us that in order to reap the full potential of an economy, it is important to have an equal male and female labour force participation rate. The Sisyphean torture of domestic work reduces women to merely a reserve army of labour. Elephants, one of the major animals of the forests advocate the same, as they are a matriarchal society. Thus, forests teach us that gender equality should be a precondition for economic excellence.

In forests, fungi and bacteria play a key role. They decompose the micronutrients, which are further used by the plants to prepare their own food, but their contributions often go unnoticed. Similarly, the potential possessed by persons with disabilities and LGBTQ+ often goes unnoticed. Economic excellence can only be achieved by harnessing the potential of such ignored sections of society.

A major problem with Indians is that in the name of inspiration and technology transfers, we have rung the bell of almost all major economies of the world, including England, Scotland, and Finland, but not our Motherland. Forests tell us that the path to economic excellence can be achieved through deeper introspection and recognising the potential of the domestic economy. This can be achieved by bridging the gap between markets and human capital hidden behind our Micro Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) and startups. Initiatives by the government of India, such as the One District One Product try to address such issues with great might.

In a world that is rapidly changing amidst black swan events, where every economy is trying to achieve economic excellence, one needs to realise that the future is not in exposed batholiths or in shale gas explorations. Renewable energy technologies like green hydrogen are the ‘new oil’ which will be driving the engines of economic growth and development. The important principle of the 4Rs: reduce, reuse, recycle, and recover is the password to economic excellence. Cooperation and not competition, diversity, and not homogeneity are the need of the hour. Otherwise, the clash of economies sooner or later would result in a situation similar to what happened to our ‘ancient nation’, Amazon a few years back, where the lungs of the planet were burning and humanity could barely do something about it. Time is of utmost importance, and must not be wasted in currency wars which only lead to the development of underdevelopment.

(The writer is currently working at the United Nations. She is a postgraduate student at the University of Delhi)

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Economic Contributions from Conserved Forests: Four Case Studies of the USDA Forest Service Forest Legacy Program

September 2021
Forest Science 67(2–3)
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Modeling forest restoration economic contributions, supplementary materials, acknowledgments, conflict of interest, literature cited, modeling regional economic contributions of forest restoration: a case study of the four forest restoration initiative.

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Evan Hjerpe, Anne Mottek Lucas, Henry Eichman, Modeling Regional Economic Contributions of Forest Restoration: A Case Study of the Four Forest Restoration Initiative, Journal of Forestry , Volume 119, Issue 5, September 2021, Pages 439–453, https://doi.org/10.1093/jofore/fvab019

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Forest restoration positively affects rural economies by facilitating employment and income generation with logging, wood utilization, and other restoration activities. To investigate economic effects and modeling of forest restoration, a regional contribution analysis of the Four Forest Restoration Initiative (4FRI) in Arizona was conducted. With over 12,000 acres mechanically thinned in 2017, 4FRI treatments led to the processing of 400,000 green tons of sawlogs and biomass. Restoration activities spurred more than 900 full-time equivalent jobs in the region, $50 million in regional labor income, and affected over 140 different industry sectors in the region. When compared to the US Forest Service Treatments for Restoration Economic Analysis Tool model estimates for 4FRI economic contributions, we found that using primary data from 4FRI contractors provided more conservative results. Primary considerations for modeling forest restoration contributions include contractor surveys, appropriate investigation of the regional context, methodological transparency in bridging restoration expenditures to input-output models, and consideration of how to enhance restoration contributions.

A leading wildfire management strategy is restoring forests by thinning trees and conducting prescribed burns, especially in wildland-urban interfaces, to allow fire to play its more natural role and to lessen wildfire severity. Although forest restoration provides substantial economic impacts to adjacent communities and stimulates logging and sawmilling industry sectors, the economics of forest restoration are quite different from the economics of traditional timber production and thus require novel and greater understanding among forest managers. Regional economic contribution analysis of forest-restoration projects provides forest managers and stakeholders with key economic information about woody byproduct utilization and small diameter wood markets, and illuminates how comprehensive restoration spurs widespread economic activity across more industrial sectors as compared to traditional timber production. Incorporating high-resolution primary data for restoration contribution analysis and providing for methodological transparency can facilitate modeling refinements and can also offer critical insight into strategies for enhancing regional contributions and increasing sources of restoration funding.

Large-scale forest restoration in fire-adapted forests of the American West is being conducted to help communities and landscapes adapt to more natural wildfire regimes. Tree thinning and controlled burns are the primary techniques being used to help restore arid Western forests ( Covington et al. 1997 ), although comprehensive forest restoration includes many other on-the-ground labor activities including culvert placements, road decommissioning, reintroducing native plants, and removing exotics ( Ellison et al. 2010 ). With millions of acres potentially in need of restoration, thinning and restoration activities require large investments in workforce and wood utilization to realize major accomplishments. Restoration activities have tremendous effects on community economics by generating regional employment, income, and other economic impacts, often in places that have experienced widespread reductions in logging and milling infrastructure over the last three decades ( Hibbard and Karle 2002 ). Restoration also yields community benefits in terms of reducing catastrophic wildfire risk, protecting local water supplies, and enhancing a broad set of ecosystem services ( Dubay et al. 2013 ).

Despite the importance of forest restoration for rural economies, there is little monitoring of detailed economic contributions experienced by at-risk forested communities ( Daniels et al. 2018 ). Best practices for modeling the economic impacts and contributions of forest restoration are also limited because of the newness of restoration programs and the stark economic differences between forest restoration and traditional timber production. Forest restoration is differentiated from traditional timber production based on its overarching objective of recreating more natural overstory and understory conditions that can help reintroduce fire into fire-adapted forests. Traditional timber production, on the other hand, has been focused on maximizing timber revenues and regulating forests. Thinned trees under a restoration approach are primarily small diameter, creating an economic disadvantage for wood-products businesses due to increased costs of handling logs and substandard physical characteristics ( Hjerpe et al. 2009 ).

To provide for greater economic monitoring and modeling of forest restoration impacts, we investigated the economic contributions from a large-scale restoration program in northern Arizona, the Four Forest Restoration Initiative (4FRI). The 4FRI is the largest forest restoration effort in the US and a showcase project of the US Forest Service (USFS) Collaborative Forest Landscape Restoration Program (CFLRP). Given the prominence and federal support for the 4FRI, there is a need to understand its regional economic contributions and to generalize methods used to help model forest restoration contributions in other regions.

At the beginning of the 21 st century, the USFS began to transition to ecosystem management, forest restoration, and wildfire fuels reduction after decades of sustained-yield timber production and fire suppression (e.g., Davis et al. 2018 ). The evolution of public forest management towards forest stewardship and restoration has changed the type of economic values and impacts that come from the forest; these range from commodity timber production to numerous nonmarket economic services that invoke both direct use and passive use values ( Robbins and Daniels 2012 ). Despite the change in commodity focus, ecological restoration has become a significant industry, generating $10 billion annually in US output and 126,000 jobs ( BenDor et al. 2015 ). Case studies in the Northwest have shown that forest and watershed restoration support approximately 16 jobs per million dollars of investment ( Nielsen-Pincus and Moseley 2013 ).

Stewardship contracting, where goods such as woody biomass are offered for services such as restoration thinning, is playing a greater role in public lands forest restoration. As opposed to traditional timber sales, stewardship contracts allow for a greater retention of receipts locally, where the profits from sale of woody byproducts are used for other local restoration projects instead of being retained by the US Treasury. Stewardship contracts are increasingly being incorporated as funding mechanisms for other restoration activities that may not produce salable products, such as trail relocation, road decommissioning, and the eradication of invasive species.

Previous research has been conducted on the economic impacts of forest stewardship contracts involving holistic restoration approaches. Kerkvliet (2010) estimated the regional economic impacts of the Clearwater Stewardship Project in Montana and found an increase of $23 million in regional expenditures on restoration activities. He noted that the incorporation of other restoration activities resulted in spreading impacts across a greater number of regional sectors due to the inclusion of watershed restoration activities, monitoring, and administration. Daniels et al. (2018) examined the regional economic contribution of two stewardship projects in Oregon that included forest and watershed restoration activities, combined with traditional timber commercial and precommercial thinning activities. They also found impacts spread across a greater number of regional industries than traditional timber sale contracts. Shrestha and Mehmood (2018) interviewed primary contractors for the Shortleaf-Bluestem Community Restoration CFLR project to determine local capture of contracts and estimate regional and national economic impacts of the project, finding that 94% of the total restoration investment was spent within the regional economic area.

In Arizona, piecemeal forest restoration stewardship contracts have been ongoing since the early 2000s and, beginning in 2004, the White Mountain Stewardship Project in eastern Arizona has been the largest and longest stewardship contract to date ( Mottek Lucas et al. 2017 ). These earlier stewardship contracts, including the Fort Valley pilot stewardship contract near Flagstaff, helped lay the groundwork for 4FRI. Hjerpe and Kim (2008) investigated the regional economic impact of these earlier Arizona and Southwest stewardship contracts and found that $40 million of output (total sales) and 500 regional jobs were generated across five national forests.

Building on the success of previous stewardship contracts, the CFLRP was congressionally established in 2009 to provide long-term funding for science-based ecosystem restoration programs jointly proposed by the USFS and local collaborators. The CFLRP is a competitive program, requiring review boards to allocate funds to the highest priority restoration landscapes and to the proposals that illustrated the greatest amount of collaboration and social acceptability. There are currently 23 CFLRP projects across the country, all of which are in fire-adapted landscapes ( Schultz et al. 2017 ). An innovative component of the CFLRP is its requirements for project-level multiparty monitoring, a component too often neglected in forest management projects ( Schultz et al. 2014 ). Although the intent of the CFLRP is to broadly encourage ecological, economic, and social sustainability, three of the five national indicators of success for the program revolve around economic impacts, fire costs, and leveraged funds ( Bixler and Kittler 2015 ). The economics of forest restoration play a central role in determining the value and the future of the CFLRP.

The previously referenced literature included individual case studies of the regional economic contributions of USFS stewardship contracts, where forest restoration was often a main component, but primary considerations for modeling economic contributions of forest restoration have not yet been proposed. Generalizing best practices for forest restoration contribution analysis is needed and these case studies provide a good starting point for assembling primary considerations. Further case studies from the gray literature and from the USFS Treatments for Restoration Economic Analysis Tool (TREAT) are also valuable for constructing recommendations for forest restoration contribution analysis.

Previous estimates of regional economic contributions of 4FRI have been presented in required annual CFLRP reports (fiscal year [FY] 2012–2017). 1 Annual estimates of regional CFLRP contributions are prepared by local USFS staff and then analyzed by USFS economists using TREAT modeling software. TREAT incorporates prepackaged regional input-output tables from impact analysis for planning (IMPLAN) but includes modifications germane to logging and wood production industries and restoration service providers. Specifically, the latest version of TREAT uses restoration production functions as detailed from national surveys conducted by the University of Oregon Ecosystem Workforce Program (EWP) (e.g., Nielson-Pincus and Moseley 2013 , Kooistra and Moseley 2019 ). The TREAT model also incorporates direct employment and income response coefficients for logging and wood utilization based on regional surveys of forest and mill operators ( Sorenson et al. 2015 ).

The EWP has conducted several economic studies concerning forest restoration, particularly in Oregon. Ellison and Huber-Stearns (2019) conducted social and economic monitoring of the Lakeview Stewardship CFLR Project, which included an estimate of economic contributions using the TREAT model and local capture rate of contracts. This analysis built upon earlier EWP studies by White et al. (2015a) and Rosenburg et al. (2018) . Likewise, White et al. (2015b) reported on social and economic monitoring for the Southern Blues Restoration Coalition Project, another CFLR project in Oregon, and forest-restoration projects in central and eastern Oregon ( White et al. 2016 ). In terms of modeling restoration contributions, these researchers typically collected expenditure and contract information from Forest Service records on service and timber contracts (e.g., the Federal Procurement Data System, the Timber Information Management System, and the Forest Activity Tracking System) and used these as inputs for IMPLAN.

An important methodological contribution of the referenced EWP studies is their approach and focus on estimating local capture rates by parsing contractor addresses and places of business. McIver (2016) has also examined USFS contracts and agreements to determine local capture rates for CFLR projects on the Colville National Forest in Washington and the Southwestern Crown of the Continent in Montana ( McIver 2013 ). Understanding the local capture of work for forest-restoration projects is essential for determining the amount of economic activity that is leaked from the region (leakage) and is a prerequisite for accurately modeling regional economic contributions ( Shrestha and Mehmood 2018 ). Whereas identifying expenditures within the regional economy is important for any type of economic contribution analysis, it is even more critical when examining forest restoration due to its novelty, lack of existing restoration businesses, and evolving Forest Service approaches to packaging timber sales and restoration contracts. With fewer businesses and less diversity of services, rural areas have a more difficult time providing the services and labor needed for restoration projects than urban areas, and the portion of local contracting has been decreasing ( Moseley and Reyes 2008 ). In Arizona, for example, all equipment purchases from a federal biomass utilization grant program (WoodyBUG) were from out-of-state suppliers, due to a lack of regional equipment manufacturing ( Davis et al. 2014 ).

Using USFS contracts and agreements to understand the economic contributions of forest restoration is a necessary first step in conducting regional economic contribution analysis. However, relying solely on USFS contract and agreement analysis can be risky because of inconsistent and disparate data entry across national forests. Analyses relying on sale and contract reporting often apply those activities in the initiation year or spread them evenly across project years. That approach does not capture annual variation in economic activity. As noted by White et al. (2016) , restoration contractors often have three or more years after contract initiation to harvest purchased timber. Interviewing contractors can provide best estimates of actual economic activity each year and is a means to ground-truth and verify data collected from USFS-derived metrics. Following up with contractor interviews and surveys, as done by Daniels et al. (2018) and Shrestha and Mehmood (2018) , provides the highest resolution for estimated regional contributions.

Because of the nascent rise of forest restoration as a pivotal wildfire management strategy, the various businesses that are impacted are not well known. Economic contribution analysis is conducted by entering changes in final demand, or an economic shock, by industry sector for a specified regional economy. For economic contributions of forest restoration, analysts must match restoration expenditures by activity to changes in final demand for specific industry sectors such as the logging sector, the sawmill sector, and the environmental consulting service sector. The allocation of restoration expenditures to industry sectors is critically important as it represents the final process by which all effects, multipliers, and total contributions are estimated within an input-output (I-O) model.

When dealing with newer economic activities such as forest restoration, transparency in illustrating changes in final demand becomes even more important by allowing for scientific replication. Unfortunately, several existing contribution analyses of forest restoration, including TREAT and the EWP analyses, do not illustrate the final bridging of restoration expenditures used to initiate their contribution analysis, which leads to a black box approach. This black box approach hinders the ability for replication and methodological refinements and limits the widespread use of potentially innovative restoration contribution analysis add-ons like the EWP production functions and the timber and logging direct-response coefficients.

Finally, the existing literature on economic contributions of forest-restoration projects has been presented as the monitoring of baselines with little discussion of how regional economic contributions can be enhanced via greater wood utilization. However, if contractors are also surveyed by wood harvest volumes and types of wood products, along with employment data, economists will have much greater insight into small-diameter wood utilization strategies. We recommend that economists go beyond the presentation of monitoring baselines when conducting forest restoration contribution analyses and also consider and discuss opportunities for increasing regional contributions.

By synthesizing existing approaches to estimating regional economic contributions of forest restoration and building on this foundation, we propose a set of primary considerations for modeling forest restoration contributions. General guidelines for modeling regional economic contributions of forest restoration include the following: (1) when possible, survey all primary contractors (e.g., Daniels et al. 2018 , Shrestha and Mehmood 2018 ), (2) appropriate treatment of regional context and local capture rates (e.g., McIver 2013 , White et al. 2016 , Ellison and Huber-Stearns 2019 ), (3) methodological transparency in bridging final demand changes to I-O model sectors (e.g., Table 1 in Kerkvliet 2010 and in Shrestha and Mehmood 2018 ), and (4) discussion of methods to enhance regional economic contributions, such as woody byproduct utilization strategies (e.g., Hjerpe and Kim 2008 ). To demonstrate primary considerations for contribution analysis of forest restoration, we incorporated these guidelines into our 4FRI case study and present this below.

Regional 4FRI mechanical thinning and wood utilization employment for FY 2017

IMPLAN Sector Number .	Description .	FTE Annual Jobs .
16	Commercial logging	57.7
19	Support activities for agriculture and forestry	13.6
47	Electric power generation - biomass	25
64	Maintenance and repair construction of highways, streets, bridges, and tunnels	5.2
134	Sawmills	87.2
145	All other miscellaneous wood product manufacturing	8
411	Truck transportation	25.4

IMPLAN Sector Number .	Description .	FTE Annual Jobs .
16	Commercial logging	57.7
19	Support activities for agriculture and forestry	13.6
47	Electric power generation - biomass	25
64	Maintenance and repair construction of highways, streets, bridges, and tunnels	5.2
134	Sawmills	87.2
145	All other miscellaneous wood product manufacturing	8
411	Truck transportation	25.4

FTE, full-time equivalent; IMPLAN, impact analysis for planning.

We conducted a literature review and synthesis of existing information on 4FRI economics from the USFS and stakeholders. We collected primary economic data from regional operators and the USFS to analyze contributions of 4FRI-related projects. Primary data were uploaded into IMPLAN economic modeling software. We conducted regional economic contribution analysis of contractor activities including logging, road building, trucking, milling, and biomass utilization, along with other restoration activities conducted by the USFS and private businesses such as prescribed fire, road decommissioning, and environmental planning.

Restoration activities associated with 4FRI are being conducted on four Arizona national forests: the Apache-Sitgreaves, the Coconino, the Kaibab, and the Tonto. These national forests stretch from central Arizona near the towns of Williams and Flagstaff across to eastern Arizona and the White Mountain towns of Snowflake, Heber-Overgaard, and Nutrioso (see Figure 1 ). Restoration efforts take place primarily in five Arizona counties: Apache, Coconino, Gila, Greenlee, and Navajo. These five counties contain the fire-adapted communities most affected by ponderosa pine ( pinus ponderosa) restoration. Because most of the restoration workforce for 4FRI are located in these counties, we used them as our IMPLAN regional economic impact zone for the contribution analysis.

4FRI regional economic contribution zone.

One project not directly administered or funded as part of the 4FRI was included. The Flagstaff Watershed Protection Project (FWPP) is a partnership effort between the Arizona Department of Forestry & Fire Management, the City of Flagstaff, and the Coconino National Forest. In 2012, Flagstaff city voters approved a $10 million bond to restore forests on city, state, and national forest lands to reduce risk of severe wildfire and postfire flooding and to preserve the water supply in two critical watersheds that the City of Flagstaff relies on. 2 Considering that only a small portion of acres being treated for the FWPP are on city and state lands, the USFS included FWPP acres in their accomplishment reports and subsequent 4FRI CFLRP annual report.

Data Collection

To determine regional economic contributions of 4FRI-related activities, we collected data on expenditures and employment in FY 2017 (October 2016–September 2017) in three areas: thinning and wood utilization, other restoration activities such as restoring wetlands connectivity and road decommissioning, and regional USFS activities that include National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) planning, site preparation, and prescribed fire. Due to differing contracting mechanisms and whether restoration activities were conducted in-house by the USFS, each set of regional contributions required separate data collection methods that are detailed below.

Thinning and Wood Utilization

Regional thinning operators were surveyed to understand their economic impacts. We developed, pretested, and implemented a survey of primary USFS thinning contractors for 4FRI activities in FY 2017. Contractors were identified from meetings with USFS managers and from publicly available 4FRI USFS monthly updates that summarize mechanical thinning, prescribed fire, and NEPA contracts. Operators were contacted both by telephone and email and were asked to participate in our economic contribution survey. When applicable, Dillman survey methods were employed, including multiple follow-up requests for participation and assisting with survey completion. The survey was conducted during the fall and winter months of 2017 and 2018. In total, nine FY 2017 primary thinning contractors were identified, and all completed the survey.

Survey questions centered on acres thinned, employment, and wood utilization. Contractors were asked to detail volumes of wood harvested and types of wood products produced. All survey questions were focused on outcomes from actual acres thinned in FY 2017. Primary contractors were asked to estimate 4FRI-related employment and wood utilization for their businesses and for any of their subcontractors who conducted thinning work and subsequent wood utilization. For all employment questions, contractors were asked to estimate the number of jobs that were conducted within the regional economic impact zone and the percentage of employees who live within the region. Contractors were asked to estimate full-time equivalent (FTE) employment, or the number of months fully employed, for the following activities:

logging and in-woods chipping

road construction/decommissioning and culvert repair

technical assistance

administration and management of contracts

trucking of logs and biomass

off-site wood milling and processing

Survey data was ground-truthed, or triangulated, with other known sources of logging and utilization jobs in northern Arizona, such as mill ownership, in order to verify contractor responses. In some cases, contractors were called and asked to correct initial estimates that appeared to be outliers based on information from key informants who were familiar with the range of data. In these cases, survey participants misinterpreted the survey questions being asked. Table 1 illustrates the FTE employment for mechanical thinning and wood utilization from 4FRI.

Other Restoration Activities

To estimate the regional contributions of nonthinning restoration activities, we acquired a list of all other restoration activities contracted out by the USFS for FY 2017 4FRI projects and identified expenditure amounts and business names. To isolate restoration contractors that are regionally based businesses, we conducted a web search of all business names to determine contractor addresses and whether they had regional offices located within the five-county regional economic impact zone. Because northern Arizona is rural, it is impossible for the USFS to fill all restoration contract needs with local operators. However, because numerous ‘other’ restoration contractors were determined to be local, it appeared that the USFS was trying to spur regional economic contributions when possible. All of the ‘other’ restoration expenditures come from FY 2017 executed contracts.

Restoration contract expenditures were restricted to regional operators and were tallied among three broad categories ( Nielsen-Pincus and Moseley 2013 ):

Equipment-intensive, which includes excavation, construction, concrete and materials, and road building and decommissioning.

Labor-intensive, which includes hand thinning, invasive plant removal, and trail work.

Technical, which includes forestry consulting, archeology services, biological assessments, NEPA work, and research.

The other restoration expenditures were then bridged to the appropriate regional economic sector defined in IMPLAN. Our bridge of other restoration expenditures to the appropriate IMPLAN sector is in line with previous published forest restoration impact/contribution analyses (e.g., Hjerpe and Kim 2008 , Kerkvliet 2010 , Shrestha and Mehmood 2018 ) and is generally different than the bridge approach used by the USFS in TREAT modeling and by the University of Oregon EWP restoration studies (e.g., Nielsen-Pincus and Moseley 2013 , White et al. 2015a ). 3 Table 2 shows the final list of regional expenditures by the USFS for other restoration work by IMPLAN sector. These expenditures were part of the final demand change, along with mechanical thinning, wood utilization, and USFS restoration jobs, used to initiate the contribution analysis. Expenditures were converted to FTE employment and IMPLAN full- and part-time jobs estimates in each category as detailed in the contribution analysis methods (see Table 3 ).

Regional 4FRI ‘Other’ Restoration Contract Expenditures for FY 2017

IMPLAN Sector Number .	Description .	Contracting Expenditures .
16	Logging	$396,608
19	Support activities for agriculture and forestry	$136,032
56	Construction of new highways and streets	$825,459
64	Maintenance and repair construction of highways, streets, bridges, and tunnels	$150,163
455	Environmental and other technical consulting services	$634,887
456	Scientific research and development services	$31,872
469	Landscape and horticultural services	$256,872
531	Other state and local government enterprises	$12,012

IMPLAN Sector Number .	Description .	Contracting Expenditures .
16	Logging	$396,608
19	Support activities for agriculture and forestry	$136,032
56	Construction of new highways and streets	$825,459
64	Maintenance and repair construction of highways, streets, bridges, and tunnels	$150,163
455	Environmental and other technical consulting services	$634,887
456	Scientific research and development services	$31,872
469	Landscape and horticultural services	$256,872
531	Other state and local government enterprises	$12,012

IMPLAN, impact analysis for planning

Final Demand Change for Regional 4FRI Activities in FY 2017

IMPLAN Sector Number .	Description .	IMPLAN Full- and Part-time Jobs .	FTE Jobs .
16	Logging	71.3	61.7
19	Support activities for agriculture and forestry	20.6	17.7
47	Electric power generation - biomass	25.4	25.0
56	Construction of new highways and streets	5.4	5.2
64	Maintenance and repair construction of highways, streets, bridges	6.5	6.2
134	Sawmills	90.0	87.2
145	All other miscellaneous wood product manufacturing	8.3	8.0
411	Truck transportation	26.8	25.4
455	Environmental and other technical consulting services	10.4	9.8
456	Scientific research and development services	0.1	0.1
469	Landscape and horticultural services	5.8	5.4
531	Other state and local government enterprises	0.2	0.1
535	Employment and payroll of federal government, nonmilitary	265.2	258.0

IMPLAN Sector Number .	Description .	IMPLAN Full- and Part-time Jobs .	FTE Jobs .
16	Logging	71.3	61.7
19	Support activities for agriculture and forestry	20.6	17.7
47	Electric power generation - biomass	25.4	25.0
56	Construction of new highways and streets	5.4	5.2
64	Maintenance and repair construction of highways, streets, bridges	6.5	6.2
134	Sawmills	90.0	87.2
145	All other miscellaneous wood product manufacturing	8.3	8.0
411	Truck transportation	26.8	25.4
455	Environmental and other technical consulting services	10.4	9.8
456	Scientific research and development services	0.1	0.1
469	Landscape and horticultural services	5.8	5.4
531	Other state and local government enterprises	0.2	0.1
535	Employment and payroll of federal government, nonmilitary	265.2	258.0

FTE, full-time equivalent; IMPLAN, impact analysis for planning

USFS Prep and Prescribed Fire

To estimate the amount of regional, annual employment generated by the USFS for 4FRI activities conducted ‘in-house’ (i.e., not contracted out), USFS managers provided a list of FTE jobs associated with 4FRI restoration work for the fiscal year of 2017. Although numerous USFS staff work on 4FRI planning in both the regional office (Albuquerque, New Mexico) and the national office (Washington, DC), we limited USFS annual 4FRI employment to staff working in offices adjacent to the four national forests. Particularly in rural communities such as those near the 4FRI landscape, year-round USFS jobs play an important role in regional economies.

In total, approximately 258 FTE USFS jobs focused on 4FRI planning and implementation were sustained in the regional economic contribution zone in FY 2017 (see Table 3 ). These jobs represent a diverse suite of restoration activities ranging from NEPA planning to timber management to conducting prescribed burns. However, for the regional economic contribution analysis, they were entered under one IMPLAN sector (#535): employment and payroll of federal government, non-military.

Regional Economic Contribution Analysis

The CFLRP funds and other USFS funds used for restoration trigger output and employment in several regional industry sectors, including forestry, logging, and sawmills. The regional restoration expenditures spur initial or direct effects in the industry sectors such as contract sales for services. These direct effects, in turn, generate indirect effects on other industries that provide the supplies and basic services required for the final products and services. For example, logging companies performing restoration thinning purchase heavy equipment such as forwarders and feller-bunchers, fuel to run equipment, and electronic tablets for matching restoration prescriptions in the field. Finally, induced effects are spurred when logging sides spend their paychecks locally on goods and services like lunches and entertainment. The combination of direct, indirect, and induced effects creates the total effect that initial 4FRI restoration expenditures have on the regional economy.

Regional economic contribution analysis (ECA) is a method of tracking the backward linkages of indirect and induced effects spurred by restoration expenditures throughout a regional economy. Regional ECA is similar to economic impact analysis in tracing initial changes in final demand throughout the regional economy but is more appropriate for activities that are recurring every year as opposed to the gain (or loss) of a new economic activity ( Watson et al. 2007 ). A good delineation for determining whether economic impacts or contributions are the appropriate measure for a particular set of activities is the timing of the project. With projecting ex ante economic activities, generally, employing economic impact analysis is best. On the other hand, in tracking ex post economic activities, economic contribution analysis is generally considered to be the preferred method ( Watson et al. 2015 ).

Regional ECA is conducted within an I-O model, where the production of all industries is presented in a matrix and all industries are both buyers and sellers of goods and services. The I-O model is predicated on the Leontief Inverse, or an equation allowing for the balancing of the social accounting matrix when inputs are applied to a particular sector ( Isard et al. 1998 ). IMPLAN originated as a Forest Service model and is well suited for regional analyses ( Crihfield and Campbell 1991 ). However, it is important to acknowledge a few of IMPLAN’s limitations. First, IMPLAN and I-O models give only a partial view of overall economic values, focusing on market impacts and neglecting societal costs and benefits. IMPLAN is a static I-O model, as opposed to some of the more expensive dynamic computable general equilibrium models. Due to assumptions of fixed technology and lack of supply constraints, industry relationships tend to be more linear in the software, and results generated in IMPLAN represent a snapshot in time.

Contribution analysis is conducted by entering initial changes in final demand transacted within the regional economy. In IMPLAN, changes in final demand can be entered as sales expenditures or as employment. IMPLAN regional economic data provides output, employment, labor income, and value-added equivalents by individual industry sectors based on the initial final demand changes entered. We used employment to initiate the contribution analysis. Because we had to conduct data collection in three different areas, the primary data obtained were in different units ranging from job estimates to contract expenditures. To streamline the inputs for the contribution analysis, we converted all 4FRI contributions to employment estimates. ‘Other’ restoration activity expenditures were converted to IMPLAN full- and part-time jobs by dividing total contract expenditures in each sector by the average output per job for each sector presented in the IMPLAN study area data (i.e., the five-county regional economic impact zone). Survey data on thinning and wood utilization, along with USFS preparation and prescribed fire, were collected as FTE employment. Thus, we also converted these FTE data into IMPLAN full- and part-time jobs by applying IMPLAN conversion ratios specific to each industrial sector. 4

To estimate regional contributions of 4FRI activities, total employment from the three regional final demand components were entered into IMPLAN’s impact analysis under the appropriate industry sector. Table 3 illustrates final demand change by sector.

Restoration activities associated with 4FRI are dispersed across four Arizona national forests and five Arizona counties. With the dramatic decrease in logging and timber production in the 1990s, Arizona wood product industries experienced sharp declines in economic importance that was particularly pronounced in rural forested communities. However, wood utilization from 4FRI projects is now helping to generate jobs and income within the region.

Wood Utilization

In FY 2017, approximately 12,450 acres of ponderosa pine were mechanically thinned across northern Arizona. 5 Survey results indicate that operators removed almost 400,000 green tons, or 115,000 ccf, of sawlogs and biomass from these treated acres.

Figures 2 and 3 illustrate wood removal rates as documented from our survey of primary 4FRI contractors. On a per acre basis, approximately 32 green tons were removed, or a little more than 9 ccf per acre. About 20 tons were in the form of sawlogs and about 12 tons were biomass.

Total wood removed for 4FRI acres FY 2017.

Wood removed per acre for 4FRI FY 2017.

Typical mechanical thinning projects start with thinning and sorting of sawlogs and slash. Most operators grind and chip slash at the restoration site and then transport material to processing sites. Trucking of material is a large cost for wood utilizers, particularly when dealing with low-quality wood and traveling long distances to mills. Finding market outlets for small diameter ponderosa pine can be difficult. On the east side of 4FRI (White Mountain region), wood processing from restoration projects is largely conducted within the White Mountains due to the existence of a small but vertically integrated and clustered wood products industry. The west side of 4FRI activities (greater Flagstaff region) has much less milling and wood products infrastructure, which in turn limits marketing and utilization options. Many of the sawlogs from the 4FRI west side leave the region with limited or no processing. Figure 4 illustrates the primary wood products coming from 4FRI thinning, showing both regional and out-of-region pathways for restoration woody byproducts.

Typical flow of 4FRI wood utilization (blue boxes indicate regional economic contributions).

In FY 2017, thinning for 4FRI led to the regional production of 18 million board feet (mmbf) of rounds or cants and 10 mmbf of dimension lumber. Biomass from 4FRI projects collectively provided over 100,000 tons of chips and residue for electricity generation, approximately 18,000 tons of material for heating pellets, and some 20,000 tons for conversion into fertilizer and landscaping mulch. 6

Regional Economic Contributions

Including indirect and induced effects, 4FRI activities provided approximately 960 full- and part-time jobs in FY 2017. For every direct job generated, another 0.8 jobs were supported, with a regional employment multiplier of 1.79. About $100 million of direct regional output was spurred by all 4FRI activities in FY 2017. This regional output in turn generated another $46 million in output when including total effects for a regional output multiplier of 1.46. In total, 4FRI activities contributed $50 million in annual regional labor income. Table 4 illustrates total effects and multiplier effects for employment, labor income, total value added, and output.

Total 4FRI Regional Economic Contributions for FY 2017 ($2017)

Impact Type .	Employment .	Labor Income .	Total Value Added .	Output .
Direct Effect	536	$35,886,339	$55,791,608	$98,460,186
Indirect Effect	238	$8,130,931	$11,056,039	$22,794,086
Induced Effect	184	$6,356,022	$12,473,210	$22,839,887

Impact Type .	Employment .	Labor Income .	Total Value Added .	Output .
Direct Effect	536	$35,886,339	$55,791,608	$98,460,186
Indirect Effect	238	$8,130,931	$11,056,039	$22,794,086
Induced Effect	184	$6,356,022	$12,473,210	$22,839,887

Source: IMPLAN3, Northern Arizona Region 2016, Type social accounting matrix (SAM) Multipliers

a Includes full- and part-time jobs.

b Value added is the difference between an industry’s total output and its intermediate inputs. It includes employee compensation, taxes, and surplus.

In terms of regional employment, the federal USFS land managers that plan and implement restoration activities account for over 250 FTE annual jobs to prepare the largest forest landscape restoration program in the US (see Table 5 ). In terms of nonfederal job creation, 4FRI activities are most impactful on the logging and wood utilization sectors. When including indirect and induced effects, commercial logging generates over 150 full- and part-time jobs and sawmills spur almost one hundred full- and part-time jobs. Support activities for 4FRI forest restoration, trucking of woody byproducts, and the biomass power plant contribute another one hundred full- and part-time jobs to the regional economy.

Top Ten Regional Employment for 4FRI FY 2017 ($2017)

Description .	Total Employment .	Total Labor Income .	Total Value Added .	Total Output .
Employment and payroll of federal government	265.2	$24,321,200	$31,501,009	$31,501,007
Commercial logging	156.2	$6,825,055	$7,340,017	$13,547,127
Sawmills	92.1	$2,483,640	$2,684,270	$21,812,472
Support activities for agriculture and forestry	38.9	$571,022	$634,655	$1,112,463
Truck transportation	31.7	$2,207,149	$2,758,931	$5,660,667
Electric power generation - Biomass	25.4	$2,611,361	$14,208,380	$30,201,791
All other crop farming	22.6	$8,564	$16,200	$44,302
Full-service restaurants	18.3	$462,714	$514,828	$947,564
Wholesale trade	15.7	$538,430	$1,276,722	$2,546,097
Limited-service restaurants	14.6	$299,683	$693,013	$1,224,368

Description .	Total Employment .	Total Labor Income .	Total Value Added .	Total Output .
Employment and payroll of federal government	265.2	$24,321,200	$31,501,009	$31,501,007
Commercial logging	156.2	$6,825,055	$7,340,017	$13,547,127
Sawmills	92.1	$2,483,640	$2,684,270	$21,812,472
Support activities for agriculture and forestry	38.9	$571,022	$634,655	$1,112,463
Truck transportation	31.7	$2,207,149	$2,758,931	$5,660,667
Electric power generation - Biomass	25.4	$2,611,361	$14,208,380	$30,201,791
All other crop farming	22.6	$8,564	$16,200	$44,302
Full-service restaurants	18.3	$462,714	$514,828	$947,564
Wholesale trade	15.7	$538,430	$1,276,722	$2,546,097
Limited-service restaurants	14.6	$299,683	$693,013	$1,224,368

Source: IMPLAN3, Northern Arizona Region 2016, Type SAM Multipliers, Total effects include indirect and induced

Logging and wood utilization provide numerous good-paying jobs throughout northern Arizona. Combined with the important year-round USFS jobs and other restoration contractors, the 4FRI has a large economic footprint to accompany its ecological footprint. In FY 2017, 4FRI restoration activities led to 536 direct full- and part-time jobs and approximately $100 million in direct regional output (958 full- and part-time jobs and $144 million in regional output when including multiplier effects). Over 140 separate industry sectors were affected by 4FRI activities in this fiscal year.

The FY 2017 CFLRP annual report for 4FRI has TREAT estimates of regional economic contributions. The overall project estimates include activity funded directly from CFLRP budget line items and matching funds. The FY 2017 4FRI annual report includes 13,108 acres of mechanical harvest. When including other hand-thinning acres, 327 full- and part-time jobs were reported for the timber harvesting component and 185 full- and part-time jobs for the mill processing component. ‘Other’ forest and watershed restoration were reported to contribute about 50 full- and part-time annual jobs, and another 331 full- and part-time jobs were contributed for implementation and monitoring of 4FRI activities by USFS staff. In total, almost 900 direct full- and part-time jobs were estimated in TREAT.

Regional Contribution Considerations for Forest Restoration and 4FRI

When utilizing primary employment data collected from 4FRI wood contractors, our resulting economic contributions are quite a bit less than the 4FRI annual report estimates analyzed in the TREAT model. The differences are accounted for in the different methods used in our contribution analysis. Surveying local operators, as done in this study, provides higher resolution data on wood harvested, employment, and leakage associated with 4FRI thinning. The TREAT model incorporates regional response coefficients to determine direct logging and sawmill employment per unit of harvested wood. These response coefficients originate from regional, multistate surveys of logging and wood-processing companies ( Sorenson et al. 2015 ) that are largely comprised of traditional timber production estimates—not only small-diameter wood utilization estimates that come from restoration treatments.

A comparison of employment to volume harvested ratios for our case study and for the employment estimates used in TREAT from Sorenson et al. (2015) illustrates differences between directly surveying operators and using multistate regional averages. In Sorenson et al. (2015) , employment estimates for timber harvesting and processing are calculated on a million-cubic-feet (MMCF) basis for eleven separate regions across the country. Employment estimates from the Four Corners region, comprised of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah, are used to model economic contributions for 4FRI in TREAT. Sorenson et al. (2015) estimate that the Four Corners region sustains approximately 32 logging jobs per 1 MMCF of timber harvested, the highest of any region in the US. Our survey of operators found that every 1 MMCF of logs harvested for 4FRI in FY 2017 resulted in only six logging jobs, which is much less than the TREAT estimates. Sorenson et al. (2015) suggest that the Four Corners logging-jobs-to-harvest ratio is high due to a greater use of stewardship contracting in the region, which includes “multiple objectives and activities in addition to logging”. The large logging-job estimates in TREAT is the single biggest difference between our 4FRI contribution analysis results and the TREAT model estimates.

We suspect our logging-jobs-to-volume-harvested ratio is lower than Sorenson et al.’s (2015) estimates due mostly to the mechanized nature of 4FRI restoration treatments. The Sorenson et al. (2015) direct-response coefficients for logging in the Four Corners region include both traditional selective harvests and various restoration treatments, leading to higher estimates of logging jobs per unit of harvest. With gentler terrain than most Western forests and uniform second growth ponderosa pine that has generally grown back as a plantation-like monoculture, 4FRI treatments are primarily conducted via mechanized harvesting. Additionally, dense stands of small-diameter trees and biomass removal requirements result in high levels of harvested volume per acre in northern Arizona. Greater volume harvested per acre, along with greater mechanization, decrease the jobs-to-volume-harvested coefficients as compared to other timber production where selective harvest and greater care (and more human labor) will be taken for harvesting larger diameter and more valuable logs.

Other measures of the relationship between employment and wood utilization for our 4FRI analysis, such as jobs per unit of wood utilized for softwood sawmills, sawmill residue, and electric power generation are fairly similar to reported ratios for the Four Corners region provided by Sorenson et al. (2015) , once similar amounts of in-region wood processing are compared. 7 However, other components of restoration thinning and wood utilization, such as forestry support services and log hauling/trucking, are not included in the Sorenson et al. (2015) study and are only indirectly included in TREAT analysis. By surveying contractors, we found that over 10% of regional thinning and wood utilization jobs for 4FRI were associated with truck transportation of logs. These important employment estimates should be included as direct-response coefficients in future TREAT analyses and should be emphasized for regions that have limited processing capacity and long haul distances to mills.

An important concept for modeling regional economic contributions of forest restoration is evaluating the amount of leakage of expenditures from the region, or alternatively, the local capture rate of restoration expenditures, and using this information to strategize how to enhance regional contributions. In rural areas, such as northern Arizona, a portion of restoration expenditures will immediately leak out of the region because of a lack of manufacturing of equipment, technical services, and fuel production in the region. That is, rural counties cannot be expected to produce all the equipment, services, fuel, etc., necessary to complete 4FRI activities. Likewise, when dealing with large-scale land treatments on public lands, a good portion of federal funds will necessarily be expended outside of the region. However, increasing regional wood processing options can be a focal point for decreasing leakage of restoration contributions. Currently, the majority of sawlogs and biomass on the west side of 4FRI is processed outside of the regional economic contribution zone because of a lack of wood utilization infrastructure. Overall, approximately 65% of sawlogs from FY 2017 4FRI treatments were processed within the five-county region, leading to a 35% leakage rate for primary wood utilization. Increasing primary wood processing opportunities adjacent to 4FRI communities would decrease leakage of economic contributions and add value to small-diameter ponderosa pine slated for thinning.

In terms of enhancing regional economic contributions via greater wood utilization, we have used our collected data to impart a few observations. The most important component of wood utilization that is currently missing on the west side of 4FRI is a processing facility within a reasonable haul distance that can use small trees, chips, slash, and residue. Based on our collected data, logging operators and mills on the east side of the 4FRI footprint have consistently processed much more wood per acre within the region than their counterparts on the west side, leading to greater capture rates of regional economic contributions. This is because the White Mountain Stewardship Project assisted in reestablishing wood-processing infrastructure on the east side of the state. Conversely, the absence of an earlier large-scale stewardship project near Flagstaff deterred infrastructure development in the central and west sides of the state. In particular, the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest region on the east side contains a greater number of family-owned businesses ( Mottek Lucas et al. 2017 ), intermittent tribal timber processing that allows for market outlets for large-diameter trees, and most importantly for 4FRI, the region has a 27 megawatt biomass power plant.

Although the importance of a keystone bioenergy plant for rural economic wood utilization is recognized, it cannot be overstated how vital it is to develop a profitable vertically integrated wood-industry cluster ( Mottek Lucas et al. 2017 ). Consequently, as rural communities with high forest-restoration needs and low levels of wood utilization infrastructure begin large-scale restoration programs, prioritizing the development of a collaboratively funded processing facility, such as a biomass plant, is key to ensuring the development and success of a wood-products-industry cluster. High-production, small-diameter sawmills are also critical to success, but mills and other processing options are likely to follow a large biomass processing facility. Although any large processor of small-diameter pine would be a welcome addition, a biomass power plant has advantages of uploading product directly to existing power grids, and woody biomass electricity generation in northern Arizona has been shown to result in avoided environmental and health damage costs when compared to current coal use ( Huang and Bagdon 2018 ). Additionally, haul distances are not only a concern for getting logs to the mill but are also important in the marketing of final wood products. Northern Arizona rural towns are generally far from large markets, limiting the economic feasibility (and possibility) of large facilities, like those found in the eastern US that make composite products, such as oriented strand board and plywood.

As indicated in the Discussion section, there are a few primary considerations for modeling forest restoration economic contributions. Foremost among these considerations is directly surveying primary contractors, including an appropriate investigation of the regional context, including methodological transparency as related to bridging restoration expenditures to I-O industry sectors, and consideration of methods to enhance economic contributions. Using TREAT models to assess the economic contributions of CFLR projects provides an important overview of restoration economics that is streamlined to allow for comparisons among projects. However, dedicating resources to acquire primary local data can better capture the unique regional contexts of each project and allow for higher resolution when examining regional wood infrastructure, products, and local capture rates.

A detailed economic monitoring approach that includes surveying primary contractors is unlikely to be completed annually, such as TREAT applications, but should be prioritized intermittently for CFLR and other forest restoration projects. Accordingly, administering periodic contractor surveys is recommended as a valuable tool that can be used to inform and adjust TREAT direct-response coefficients. As noted by Shrestha and Mehmood (2018) , getting a census of all primary contractors for a forest-restoration project can be difficult as private contractors are often reluctant to provide information. The USFS may want to consider improving the exchange of information with industry to improve the feasibility of restoration contracts and the accuracy of required monitoring. Ultimately, surveying primary contractors can allow for the tracking of woody byproducts from stump to store, or stump to power grid, and presents a more realistic picture of direct effects in contribution analysis.

In terms of monitoring 4FRI regional economic contributions, our review of past trends and our results show that overall restoration accomplishments have seen limited growth since the inception of the 4FRI and remain well below original project objectives and forecasts. 4FRI foundational documents called for thinning up to one million acres over 20 years, ramping up to 50,000 acres per year. If treated acres were closer to original projections, regional economic contributions would be much greater. With both the social license and agency support generally in place, wood supply is no longer an issue. The clear barrier to ramping up 4FRI mechanical thinning accomplishments is the expectation that processing and utilizing small-diameter ponderosa pine for wood products can fully pay for restoration ( Hjerpe et al. 2009 ). This simply is not the case and illustrates a lack of understanding and monetizing the numerous other benefits and services afforded by forest restoration.

Supplementary data are available at Journal of Forestry online.

Supplemental Image 1. Small diameter ponderosa pine thinning on Observatory Mesa, southwest of Flagstaff, AZ.

Available at: https://www.fs.usda.gov/detailfull/4fri/home/?cid=stelprdb5346432

For more information see: http://flagstaffwatershedprotection.org/ .

Specific bridging of other restoration expenditures to changes in final demand for IMPLAN sectors is not clearly shown in the TREAT User’s Manual nor in the University of Oregon’s EWP studies. Some bridging is shown in Nielsen-Pincus and Moseley (2010) , but it is unclear how much restoration expenditures (i.e., changes in final demand) were specifically allocated to which IMPLAN sectors.

IMPLAN sector conversions from full- and part-time jobs to FTE jobs, or vice versa, are available here: https://implanhelp.zendesk.com/hc/en-us/articles/115002997573-536-Sector-Bridges-and-Conversions .

This total includes 1,460 acres of non-USFS lands that were part of the Flagstaff Watershed Protection Project.

Most of the fertilizer/mulch is processed outside the region and is not included in our regional contribution analysis.

Based on input from local USFS staff, the 2017 4FRI TREAT analysis assumed that 96% of volume harvested was processed inside the regional economic impact zone. Our survey of primary contractors reveals that only about 65% of sawlogs was processed inside the regional economic impact zone.

We are very appreciative of comments and suggestions from anonymous reviewers. We thank Jamey Basye for data collection and Leah Dunn for GIS help. We are appreciative of forest and wood contractors for helping to pretest surveys and participate in data collection and for assistance from Patrick Rappold, Yeon-Su Kim, Ann Anderson, Dick Fleishman, and Daniel Kipervaser. This research was partially funded by the US Department of Agriculture (17-CS-11030420-024) and contributions from Coconino County and the state of Arizona.

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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Insights Weekly Essay Challenges 2022 – Week 92- Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence

Insights weekly essay challenges 2022 – week 92.

18 September 2022

Write an essay on the following topic in not more than 1000-1200 words:

“Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence”

CLICK HERE FOR ESSAY SYNOPSIS

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Forests are the Best-Case Studies for Economic Excellence
Forests are the Best-Case Studies for Economic Excellence. 21 Sep 2022. 10 min read. The ecosystem of India's forests has a lot to teach the nation's economy. An ecosystem includes both the economy and the forest. While the economy is a man-made system with the flow of money, supply chain, and distribution, the forest is a natural ecosystem ...
Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence
This essay explores how economic systems can embody and operate on the virtues that forests possess, along with a few case studies that demonstrate the excellence an economy can achieve by emulating forests. Firstly, forests are characterized by their resilience—the ability to recover and bounce back from challenging situations.
Forests are the Best-Case Studies for Economic Excellence
Forests are the Best-Case Studies for Economic Excellence | 21 Sep 2022. The ecosystem of India's forests has a lot to teach the nation's economy. An ecosystem includes both the economy and the forest. ... The solution to issues with the economic system or the forest ecology is technology. Without technological advancement, it is difficult to ...
[Essay Topic- 1 Mains 2022] Forests are the best-case studies for
Forests stand as best-case studies for economic excellence due to their sustainable resource generation, ... Embracing forest-centric economic models can pave the way for a more resilient, equitable, and sustainable global economy. Conclusion Forests are not just the lungs of our planet but also its economic heart. They embody the principles of ...
Forests Are the Best-case Studies for Economic Excellence
Forest indeed is the best-case studies for economic excellence. We only used to consider them as providers of food, air and shelter, but now we know we can learn so much more from them - in life and in economy. The Indus Valley and the Rig Vedic people had knowledge about this and therefore, worshipped them.
PDF Background Analytical Study Forests, inclusive and sustainable economic
ential on the theme of forest-based inclusive and sustainable economic growth and employment.The elements mentioned above are developed more extensively in the Background Analytical Study 3 ...
Economic Contributions from Conserved Forests: Four Case Studies of the
The Forest Legacy Program (FLP) is administered by the USDA Forest Service to protect historic forest uses and intact working forest landscapes. This study quantified economic activities on FLP land in four areas to assess how these activities contribute to the economy of the multistate region in which the projects are located.
Green Gold: Forests as Blueprints for Economic Brilliance
Delve into the intriguing concept that "Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence." Explore how forests offer sustainable resources, tourism revenue, climate benefits, and ecosystem services, while also exemplifying the delicate balance between economic gains and environmental preservation.
Case Study: Forest Management as Economic Resilience
The Shawnee National Forest is a major presence in the region with 24% of Hardin County and 35% of Pope County comprised of federally protected forest land. Outcomes from the Planning Process. These protection plans came together by synthesizing the strengths, needs, and challenges of the region sourced from local stakeholder input meetings ...
Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence
The immediate question that comes to one's mind is how it is to draw a comparison between a nation and a forest. And the subsequent question that unfolds is how forests can act as the 'best' case studies, not for economic growth, progress, or development, but for economic excellence. The answer to the first question is quite simple.
(PDF) Economic Contributions from Conserved Forests: Four Case Studies
While some prior studies have aggregated the economic contribution of forest sector activities at the regional or multi-state level, none have specifically calculated this in a comprehensive ...
Investing in Forests: The Business Case
Investing in Forests: The Business Case. Download PDF. Forest destruction and degradation is accelerating the severe climate and nature crises facing the world. Halting business practices that contribute to this degradation is a vital priority and investment in forest conservation and restoration is urgently needed. Investing in forests fulfils ...
Modeling Regional Economic Contributions of Forest Restoration: A Case
The previously referenced literature included individual case studies of the regional economic contributions of USFS stewardship contracts, where forest restoration was often a main component, but primary considerations for modeling economic contributions of forest restoration have not yet been proposed. ... Generalizing best practices for ...
Forest and Economic Development
The study reviews the many ways in which forests contribute to economic development in the ECE region, and analyses, on the basis of recent ECE/FAO studies, the outlook and main challenges for the forest sector in the region: wood energy, sustainability of wood supply, the forest sector workforce, payment for forest ecosystem services, innovation, demonstrating and communicating the ...
UPSC CSE 2022 Essay
In this video Vikas sir talks about deconstructing the UPSC CSE 2022 Essay topic 'Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence'. #upsc #mains #c...
"Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence."
"Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence." ― Hendrith Vanlon Smith Jr, CEO of Mayflower-Plymouth tags: business, economics, permaculture-economics, permaculture-economy. Read more quotes from Hendrith Vanlon Smith Jr. Share this quote: Like Quote ...
Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence
00:00 Introduction 0:24 Brainstorming the Introduction1:13 Example of an Eye-Catching introduction2:24 Simplifying the meaning of Economic Excellence ?3:24 F...
PDF UPSC Mains 2022 Essay Paper Synopsis
1. Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence. Introduction: You may start the essay with an anecdote, poem or a riveting story or by mentioning the facts that forest is the reservoir of natural resources, a home to numerous species. Here, you can define forest. Forest functions with the interactions of biotic and abiotic components.
Forests are the Best-Case Studies for Economic Excellence
While the economy is a man-made system with the flow of money, supply chain, and distribution, the forest is a natural ecosystem with fundamental functions like energy flow and food web. ... Forests are the Best-Case Studies for Economic Excellence. Miss San. Dec 17, 2023. 1.
Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence
In fact, forests are among the best case studies for economic excellence, as they provide a wide range of benefits and opportunities for sustainable development. One of the most obvious benefits of forests is the economic value of the timber they produce. Timber is a valuable resource that is used in construction, furniture, and paper ...
Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence
Discover how forests exemplify economic excellence and drive sustainable development. Explore their vital role in a thriving economy. #EconomicExcellence
Insights Weekly Essay Challenges 2022
Categories ESSAY, ESSAY PERSPECTIVES, ESSAY TIPS, ESSAY WRITING CHALLENGE, Today's Article Tags Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence. Related Posts. Tags Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence Post navigation. Previous Post Previous INSIGHTS IAS WEEKLY CURRENT AFFAIRS MAGAZINE : 12th Sep - 17th Sep 2022.

Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence – UPSC CSE PYQ 2022

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Question: What role do forests play in supporting rural economies and livelihoods?

Question: How can the conservation of forests contribute to economic sustainability?

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UPSC ESSAY 2020 QUESTION PAPER – Edukemy

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Forests are the Best-Case Studies for Economic Excellence | 21 Sep 2022

Necessity of Resilience and Flow

Diversity in Economy

Mutual Symbiosis

Invasion by Other Economies

[Essay Topic- 1 Mains 2022] Forests are the best-case studies for economic excellence.

Forests stand as best-case studies for economic excellence due to their sustainable resource generation, intrinsic valuation, and the multifaceted economic opportunities they provide to local and global economies.

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FORESTS ARE THE BEST-CASE STUDIES FOR ECONOMIC EXCELLENCE

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Green Gold: Forests as Blueprints for Economic Brilliance | Essay Writing for UPSC by Vikash Ranjan Sir | Triumph ias

Green Gold: Forests as Blueprints for Economic Brilliance

Introduction:

Navigating the Economic-Ecological Tightrope: The statement also alludes to the delicate balance required for responsible forest management:

Extending the Paradigm Beyond Forests: The notion of “Forests as the best case studies for economic excellence” radiates relevance beyond the forest realm:

Conclusion:

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Forest Management as Economic Resilience

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Economic Contributions from Conserved Forests: Four Case Studies of the USDA Forest Service Forest Legacy Program

Abstract and Figures

Article Contents

Data Collection

Thinning and Wood Utilization

Other Restoration Activities

USFS Prep and Prescribed Fire

Regional Economic Contribution Analysis

Wood Utilization

Regional Economic Contributions

Regional Contribution Considerations for Forest Restoration and 4FRI

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Forests are the Best-Case Studies for Economic Excellence

Forests are the best case studies for economic excellence - Essay for UPSC