difference between problem based learning and problem solving

PBL vs TBL: What's the Difference?

Shreya verma.

Jul 18, 2022 • 6min read

Educators are always looking for effective teaching approaches and strategies that benefit their students. Two common approaches include Problem-based Learning (PBL) and Team-based Learning (TBL).   

PBL and TBL share several common characteristics – they are both student-centered approaches that involve small groups of students working together to solve real-world problems. However, these approaches are used in various contexts and produce different learning outcomes.  

In PBL, students need to solve complex, real-world problems. There is one teacher/facilitator per small group. Unlike traditional classes, where the teacher begins classes by presenting the relevant material needed by students to solve a problem, PBL assigns the problem to the students first. The students then identify the concepts they need to know, and then apply them to solve the problem.  

PBL requires students to have some prior knowledge about the subject. Thus, PBL works more effectively for higher level modules where students already understand basic concepts.   

PBL problems are the classroom’s main subject matter, so they need to be structured well ( Duch, Groh and Allen, 2001 ).

Through PBL, students are able to sharpen their problem-solving and critical thinking abilities ( Kurt, 2020 ).  

Team-based Learning, on the other hand, is a structured form of small-group learning that emphasizes student preparation out of class and the application of knowledge in class. There is usually one teacher/facilitator assigned to all the small groups in a classroom. While PBL focuses on problem-solving through existing knowledge, TBL focuses on preparing the students through prework before testing them individually and as a team. The students will then solve a real-world problem. There is also a peer evaluation component in TBL.

TBL problems – or the application activities – need to follow the 4S framework .  

Application activities require teams to make a specific choice about a significant problem. Teams need to work on the same problem and report their decisions simultaneously. This structure allows teams to articulate their thinking. Teams need to evaluate their own reasoning when confronted with different decisions that other teams may make.  

Here is a table that summarizes the differences between PBL and TBL:  

Before deciding whether to adopt TBL or PBL for your class, it is important to fully understand each approach. PBL might cause anxiety among students as classes can get messy without a proper structure. Prior learning experiences also may not prepare students well enough for PBL. TBL, on the other hand, is well-structured and requires students to conduct prework before classes. Thus, students start with the same knowledge, irrespective of their background.

Both students and facilitator are aware of the learning objectives that they are set out to achieve. This allows for a constructivist learning environment where students also become decision-makers in their learning journey. TBL also has a peer evaluation component which encourages students to take accountability for their learning.  

If you would like to learn more about TBL, feel free to book a consultation with us here .  

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Home > Libraries > LIBRARIESPUBLISHING > PUPOAJ > IJPBL > Vol. 1 (2006) > Iss. 1

Overview of Problem-based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions

John R. Savery Follow

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional approach that has been used successfully for over 30 years and continues to gain acceptance in multiple disciplines. It is an instructional (and curricular) learner-centered approach that empowers learners to conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and skills to develop a viable solution to a defined problem. This overview presents a brief history, followed by a discussion of the similarities and differences between PBL and other experiential approaches to teaching, and identifies some of the challenges that lie ahead for PBL.

Recommended Citation

Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of Problem-based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 1 (1). Available at: https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1002

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Project-Based Learning vs. Problem-Based Learning vs. X-BL

At the Buck Institute for Education (BIE), we've been keeping a list of the many types of "_____- based learning" we've run across over the years:

• Case-based learning
• Challenge-based learning
• Community-based learning
• Design-based learning
• Game-based learning
• Inquiry-based learning
• Land-based learning
• Passion-based learning
• Place-based learning
• Problem-based learning
• Proficiency-based learning
• Service-based learning
• Studio-based learning
• Team-based learning
• Work-based learning

. . . and our new fave . . .

• Zombie-based learning (look it up!)

Let's Try to Sort This Out

The term "project learning" derives from the work of John Dewey and dates back to William Kilpatrick, who first used the term in 1918. At BIE, we see project-based learning as a broad category which, as long as there is an extended "project" at the heart of it, could take several forms or be a combination of:

• Designing and/or creating a tangible product, performance or event
• Solving a real-world problem (may be simulated or fully authentic)
• Investigating a topic or issue to develop an answer to an open-ended question

So according to our "big tent" model of PBL, some of the newer "X-BLs" -- problem-, challenge- and design-based -- are basically modern versions of the same concept. They feature, to varying degrees, all of BIE's Essential Elements of PBL , although each has its own distinct flavor. (And by the way, each of these three, along with project-based learning, falls under the general category of inquiry-based learning -- which also includes research papers, scientific investigations, Socratic Seminars or other text-based discussions, etc. The other X-BLs might involve some inquiry, too, but now we're getting into the weeds . . .)

Other X-BLs are so named because they use a specific context for learning, such as a particular place or type of activity. They may contain projects within them, or have some of the 8 Essential Elements, but not necessarily. For example, within a community- or service-based learning experience, students may plan and conduct a project that improves their local community or helps the people in it, but they may also do other activities that are not part of a project. Conversely, students may learn content and skills via a game-based or work-based program that does not involve anything like what we would call a PBL-style project.

Problem-Based Learning vs. Project-Based Learning

Because they have the same acronym, we get a lot of questions about the similarities and differences between the two PBLs. We even had questions ourselves -- some years ago we created units for high school economics and government that we called "problem-based." But we later changed the name to " Project-Based Economics " and " Project-Based Government " to eliminate confusion about which PBL it was.

We decided to call problem-based learning a subset of project-based learning -- that is, one of the ways a teacher could frame a project is "to solve a problem." But problem-BL does have its own history and set of typically-followed procedures, which are more formally observed than in other types of projects. The use of case studies and simulations as "problems" dates back to medical schools in the 1960s, and problem-BL is still more often seen in the post-secondary world than in K-12, where project-BL is more common.

Problem-based learning typically follow prescribed steps:

• Presentation of an "ill-structured" (open-ended, "messy") problem
• Problem definition or formulation (the problem statement)
• Generation of a "knowledge inventory" (a list of "what we know about the problem" and "what we need to know")
• Generation of possible solutions
• Formulation of learning issues for self-directed and coached learning
• Sharing of findings and solutions

If you're a project-BL teacher, this probably looks pretty familiar, even though the process goes by different names. Other than the framing and the more formalized steps in problem-BL, there's really not much conceptual difference between the two PBLs -- it’s more a question of style and scope:

A Note on Math and the Two PBLs

Teachers at some K-12 schools that use project-BL as a primary instructional method, such as the New Technology Network and Envision Schools , have begun saying that they use problem-BL for math. Especially at the secondary level, teaching math primarily through multi-disciplinary projects has proved challenging. (Not that occasional multi-disciplinary projects including math are a bad idea!) By using problem-BL, these teachers feel they can design single-subject math projects -- aka "problems" -- that effectively teach more math content by being more limited in scope than many typical project-BL units. Tackling a "problem," for example, may not involve as much independent student inquiry, nor the creation of a complex product for presentation to a public audience.

How Does This Tale of Two PBLs End?

One could argue that completing any type of project involves solving a problem. If students are investigating an issue -- say, immigration policy -- the problem is deciding where they stand on it and how to communicate their views to a particular audience in a video. Or if students are building a new play structure for a playground, the problem is how to build it properly, given the users' wants and needs and the various constraints of safe, approved construction. Or even if they're writing stories for a book to be published about the Driving Question "How do we grow up?", the problem is how to express a unique, rich answer to the question.

So the semantics aren't worth worrying about, at least not for very long. The two PBLs are really two sides of the same coin. What type of PBL you decide to call your, er . . . extended learning experience just depends on how you frame it. The bottom line is the same: both PBLs can powerfully engage and effectively teach your students!

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Taking this axis into account, problem solving seems not to affect it whilst in determined context a pure PBL curriculum may do, especially in the morphophysiological stage. This exactly occurred in our medical school since 2002 onwards, leading from then on to the proposal of a hybrid format for ameliorating this failure1, 2, 3, 4

1. Carrera LI, Tellez TE, D¡¯Ottavio AE: Implementing a problem - based learning curriculum in an Argentinean medical school: implications for developing countries. Academic Medicine 78: 1-4, 2003

2. D¡¯Ottavio AE: Issues on curricular changes. Are they unique to Argentina? (Letter to the Editor) Singapore Medical Journal 48: 7: 704- 704, 2007

3. Carrera LI, Tellez TE, D¡¯Ottavio AE: A hybrid curriculum would be a more suitable format for developing countries (Response to Diana F Wood¡¯s Editorial: Problem based learning. BMJ 2008;336:971 (3 May) British Medical Journal on line 336 (7651), 3 may 2008

4. D¡¯Ottavio AE: Transformaciones curriculares: an¨¢lisis y reflexiones. Revista Elementos. 72 (15): 35-38, 2008

Competing interests: No competing interests

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Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a teaching method in which complex real-world problems are used as the vehicle to promote student learning of concepts and principles as opposed to direct presentation of facts and concepts. In addition to course content, PBL can promote the development of critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and communication skills. It can also provide opportunities for working in groups, finding and evaluating research materials, and life-long learning (Duch et al, 2001).

PBL can be incorporated into any learning situation. In the strictest definition of PBL, the approach is used over the entire semester as the primary method of teaching. However, broader definitions and uses range from including PBL in lab and design classes, to using it simply to start a single discussion. PBL can also be used to create assessment items. The main thread connecting these various uses is the real-world problem.

Any subject area can be adapted to PBL with a little creativity. While the core problems will vary among disciplines, there are some characteristics of good PBL problems that transcend fields (Duch, Groh, and Allen, 2001):

• The problem must motivate students to seek out a deeper understanding of concepts.
• The problem should require students to make reasoned decisions and to defend them.
• The problem should incorporate the content objectives in such a way as to connect it to previous courses/knowledge.
• If used for a group project, the problem needs a level of complexity to ensure that the students must work together to solve it.
• If used for a multistage project, the initial steps of the problem should be open-ended and engaging to draw students into the problem.

The problems can come from a variety of sources: newspapers, magazines, journals, books, textbooks, and television/ movies. Some are in such form that they can be used with little editing; however, others need to be rewritten to be of use. The following guidelines from The Power of Problem-Based Learning (Duch et al, 2001) are written for creating PBL problems for a class centered around the method; however, the general ideas can be applied in simpler uses of PBL:

• Choose a central idea, concept, or principle that is always taught in a given course, and then think of a typical end-of-chapter problem, assignment, or homework that is usually assigned to students to help them learn that concept. List the learning objectives that students should meet when they work through the problem.
• Think of a real-world context for the concept under consideration. Develop a storytelling aspect to an end-of-chapter problem, or research an actual case that can be adapted, adding some motivation for students to solve the problem. More complex problems will challenge students to go beyond simple plug-and-chug to solve it. Look at magazines, newspapers, and articles for ideas on the story line. Some PBL practitioners talk to professionals in the field, searching for ideas of realistic applications of the concept being taught.
• What will the first page (or stage) look like? What open-ended questions can be asked? What learning issues will be identified?
• How will the problem be structured?
• How long will the problem be? How many class periods will it take to complete?
• Will students be given information in subsequent pages (or stages) as they work through the problem?
• What resources will the students need?
• What end product will the students produce at the completion of the problem?
• Write a teacher's guide detailing the instructional plans on using the problem in the course. If the course is a medium- to large-size class, a combination of mini-lectures, whole-class discussions, and small group work with regular reporting may be necessary. The teacher's guide can indicate plans or options for cycling through the pages of the problem interspersing the various modes of learning.
• The final step is to identify key resources for students. Students need to learn to identify and utilize learning resources on their own, but it can be helpful if the instructor indicates a few good sources to get them started. Many students will want to limit their research to the Internet, so it will be important to guide them toward the library as well.

The method for distributing a PBL problem falls under three closely related teaching techniques: case studies, role-plays, and simulations. Case studies are presented to students in written form. Role-plays have students improvise scenes based on character descriptions given. Today, simulations often involve computer-based programs. Regardless of which technique is used, the heart of the method remains the same: the real-world problem.

Where can I learn more?

• PBL through the Institute for Transforming Undergraduate Education at the University of Delaware
• Duch, B. J., Groh, S. E, & Allen, D. E. (Eds.). (2001). The power of problem-based learning . Sterling, VA: Stylus.
• Grasha, A. F. (1996). Teaching with style: A practical guide to enhancing learning by understanding teaching and learning styles. Pittsburgh: Alliance Publishers.

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Case-based Teaching and Problem-based Learning

Case-based teaching.

With case-based teaching, students develop skills in analytical thinking and reflective judgment by reading and discussing complex, real-life scenarios. The articles in this section explain how to use cases in teaching and provide case studies for the natural sciences, social sciences, and other disciplines.

Teaching with Case Studies (Stanford University)

This article from the Stanford Center for Teaching and Learning describes the rationale for using case studies, the process for choosing appropriate cases, and tips for how to implement them in college courses.

The Case Method (University of Illinois)

Tips for teachers on how to be successful using the Case Method in the college/university classroom. Includes information about the Case Method values, uses, and additional resource links.

National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (National Science Teaching Association)

This site offers resources and examples specific to teaching in the sciences. This includes the “UB Case Study Collection,” an extensive list of ready-to-use cases in a variety of science disciplines. Each case features a PDF handout describing the case, as well as teaching notes.

The Michigan Sustainability Cases Initiative (CRLT Occasional Paper)

This paper describes the Michigan Sustainability Cases Initiative, including links to the full library of cases, and it offers advice both for writing cases and facilitating case discussions effectively.

The Case Method and the Interactive Classroom (Foran, 2001, NEA Higher Education Journal)

First-person account of how a sociology faculty member at University of California, Santa Barbara began using case studies in his teaching and how his methods have evolved over time as a professor.

Problem-based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is both a teaching method and an approach to the curriculum. It consists of carefully designed problems that challenge students to use problem solving techniques, self-directed learning strategies, team participation skills, and disciplinary knowledge. The articles and links in this section describe the characteristics and objectives of PBL and the process for using PBL. There is also a list of printed and web resources.

Problem-Based Learning Network (Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy)

Site includes an interactive PBL Model, Professional Development links, and video vignettes to illustrate how to effectively use problem-based learning in the classroom. The goals of IMSA's PBLNetwork are to mentor educators in all disciplines, to explore problem-based learning strategies, and to connect PBL educators to one another.

Problem-Based Learning: An Introduction (Rhem, 1998, National Teaching and Learning Forum)

This piece summarizes the benefits of using problem-based learning, its historical origins, and the faculty/student roles in PBL. Overall, this is an easy to read introduction to problem-based learning.

Problem-Based Learning (Stanford University, 2001)

This issue of Speaking of Teaching identifies the central features of PBL, provides some guidelines for planning a PBL course, and discusses the impact of PBL on student learning and motivation.

Problem-Based Learning Clearinghouse (University of Delaware)

Collection of peer reviewed problems and articles to assist educators in using problem-based learning. Teaching notes and supplemental materials accompany each problem, providing insights and strategies that are innovative and classroom-tested. Free registration is required to view and download the Clearinghouse’s resources.

See also: The International Journal of Problem-Based Learning

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Problem-Based and Inquiry-Based Learning: What’s the difference?

Sep 30th, 2019 by Kathryn Mulholland

“If your goal is to engage students in critical thinking… you need to present interesting challenges to solve, rather than simply explaining how other smart people have already solved those challenges.” – Therese Huston

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) are both student-centered teaching pedagogies that encourage active learning and critical thinking through investigation. Both methods offer students interesting problems to consider. And research shows that both PBL and IBL are effective models of learning. 

So, what’s the difference between the two?

According to Banchi and Bell [4], there are four different levels of inquiry.

• Confirmation Inquiry: Students confirm a principle through an activity when the results are known in advance.
• Structured Inquiry: Students investigate a teacher-presented question through a prescribed procedure. 
• Guided Inquiry: Students investigate a teacher-presented question using student designed or selected procedures.
• Open Inquiry: Students investigate questions that are student formulated through student designed or selected procedures.

Most academics define Inquiry-Based-Learning as a pedagogy that is based on one of these levels. So IBL can be as methodical as guiding students through a procedure to discover a known result or as free-form as encouraging students to formulate original questions. For example, in a Physics laboratory, suppose the topic is Newton’s Second Law of Motion. The lab instructions could define a procedure to record the mass and impact force of various objects. Multiplying the mass by the acceleration due to gravity, the students should recover the force they recorded, thus confirming Newton’s Second Law.

Problem-Based-Learning can be classified as guided inquiry where the teacher-presented question is an unsolved, real-world problem. For example, in a Middle Eastern Studies course, the main problem posed by the instructor could be “Propose a solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.” This question will motivate the study of the history of the region, the theological differences between Judaism and Islam, and current events. At the end of the semester, students would be expected to present and justify their solution. 

Therefore, using the definition above, PBL is a type of IBL .

PBL is great because it motivates course content and maximizes learning via investigation, explanation, and resolution of real and meaningful problems. At any level, inquiry can be an effective method of learning because it is student-centered and encourages the development of practical skills and higher-level thinking. 

As you plan for your next class, I invite you to reflect on your method of content delivery. Is it motivated? How? Would your students benefit from a day based on inquiry?

References.

• Inquiry Based Learning. University of Notre Dame Notes on Teaching and Learning. https://sites.nd.edu/kaneb/2014/11/10/inquiry-based-learning/ .
• Problem-Based Learning. Cornell University Center for Teaching Innovation . https://teaching.cornell.edu/teaching-resources/engaging-students/problem-based-learning .
• Hmelo-Silver, Cindy E.; Duncan, Ravit Golan; Chinn, Clark A. (2007). “Scaffolding and Achievement in Problem-Based and Inquiry Learning: A Response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)”. Educational Psychologi st. 42 (2): 99–107. doi : 10.1080/00461520701263368 .
• Banchi, H., & Bell R. (2008). The many levels of inquiry. Science and Children.

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Project-Based vs. Problem-Based Learning: Which is Right for Your Classroom?

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Introduction to PBL

Project-based learning (PBL) is a inquiry-based and learner-centered instructional approach that immerses students in real-world projects that foster deeper learning and critical thinking skills.

In contrast to traditional instruction and rote memorization, project-based learning encourages learner agency, collaboration, and problem-solving, empowering students to become active participants in their own learning. Students collaborate to solve real world problems that require understanding content knowledge, critical thinking, creativity, and robust communication skills.

New Tech Network (NTN) schools employ a pedagogy of project-based learning and in math, this can result in enhanced student understanding by having learners make real-world connections to math content and skills. However, it can be difficult to do math on a deep level encompassing all the requisite mathematical standards. As a result, NTN strongly promotes primarily problem-based learning (PrBL) in math classrooms, although, at times there may be authentic ways to embed math in a project-based learning unit. 

In this article we will highlight New Tech Network’s lens on PrBL, the similarities and differences between project-based learning and problem-based learning, and what both look like when implemented in the classroom.

What is Project-Based Learning (PBL)?

The basic principle of the project-based instruction lies in students actively participating in an authentic challenging problem that enables students to have experiential learning, connection to community members, higher classroom engagement, and a deeper understanding of content. The PBL approach diverges from traditional instruction by encouraging students to learn about and try to solve real world issues, use problem solving skills, communicate ideas, become proficient in technology tools, and make a personal connection to content. These skills prepare students for success in college and career.

To learn more about implementing project-based learning, project design, and project-based learning examples, explore the article: The Comprehensive Guide to Project-Based Learning: Empowering Student Choice through an Effective Teaching Method . For a more in-depth look at the benefits of project-based learning, read How Project-Based Learning is Effective in Education .

What is Problem-Based Learning (PrBL)?

Like project-based learning (PBL), problem-based learning (PrBL) engages students in complex tasks, employs student-centered instruction and small group work, and positions the teacher as a facilitator of learning. In addition, PrBL accurately reflects the types of explorations, discussions, questions, and interactions that are authentic to mathematics as a discipline. PrBL uses formative and performance-based assessments to give feedback and check student progress.

The key differences between project-based learning and PrBL are that PrBL focuses on one or two standards at a time and each problem takes place over a shorter time period (roughly one to four days). In PrBL, students are mainly exploring and discussing mathematical ideas, with an emphasis on the problem solving process and productive struggle, whereas in PBL there is a greater emphasis on creating a culminating product that answers a Driving Question.

Project-Based Learning vs Problem-Based Learning

NTN suggests a secondary math learning environment which utilizes problem-based learning (PrBL) and in elementary math, problems appear alongside projects and, when applicable, within a project-based learning curriculum.

Problem-based learning provides a rich problem solving environment that allows for and necessitates the learning and assessment of the New Tech Network Learning Outcomes of Agency, Written Communication, Oral Communication, Collaboration, and Knowledge and Thinking along with important content standards. There some key differences between project-based learning and problem-based learning, primarily in timing and scope, but far more similarities exist than differences as shown below:

Problem-Based Learning

• Standards: 1-2 Standards
• Time: 1-4 Days
• Main Activity: Inquiry and Discourse
• Emphasis: Problem-solving Process

Similarities

• Engages students in complex tasks
• Student-centered small-group work
• Reflects the work of the discipline
• Teacher as facilitator of learning
• Formative and performance-based assessment

Project-Based Learning

• Standards: 4+ Standards
• Time: 4-6 Weeks
• Main Activity: Applying Learning
• Emphasis: Product

The Differences:

The easiest answer to the PBL vs PrBL question is scope. NTN often supports schools and districts in a project-based learning environment, which can cause a tricky situation in terms of scaling this to a problem or choosing to do a project. Projects are typically designed to learn about a larger cluster of standards that can be taught using a single context, warrant multiple weeks of learning, and culminate in a substantial product as a presentation of learning.

However, a project is often not sufficient to adequately develop the deep understanding required of some math concepts. This is where PrBL plays a key role. PrBL allows a teacher to scale down to focus on just a few standards and to focus on students’ processes as they tackle contextual scenarios over the course of a few problems while still enabling a real world application. 

The Similarities:

There are far more similarities between PrBL and PBL than differences. Both project-based learning and problem-based learning include entry events, knows and need to knows, rubrics, etc. However, as the number of standards and duration is scaled down, entry events and rubrics must be scaled down as well. But while perhaps a bit shorter/quicker in a problem rather than project, we must not lose the intent of each similarity. Here are two examples to better illustrate this point.

Keeping the Intent of Entry Events and Knows and Need to Knows in PrBL

An entry event is the student introduction or “hook” to the project or problem. A well-crafted entry event will solicit student needs to be met in order to adequately address the content and skills presented in the project or problem’s plan. For a project, the introduction needs to kick off (and help to sustain) weeks of learning. Examples of entry events might include field trips, interview with community partners, or perhaps a debate.

Moving to PrBL, the purpose of the entry event remains the same, but the scale needs to shift. For a problem you might present students with text, an image, or a video that will prompt students to pose questions. This can be something as simple as the image at right of a restaurant promotion, as long as you can then prompt students what questions they have, and what additional information they need. 

You’ll want to document these questions in some way, but note that in a problem the number of questions or “need to knows” will likely be fewer than for a project due to the scope of standards you’re addressing. Gather enough questions to allow students to have direction (know what they are starting to solve) and can begin to struggle in solving the problem.

Keeping the Intent of Rubrics in PrBL

As a problem scales down the number of standards you’re addressing, so too should you scale down the number of indicators you’re giving feedback around and assessing. 

While the culminating product of a project often serves as a hefty assessment through a hefty rubric, a problem-based approach offers a teacher the opportunity to get really specific about the rubric indicators they are after, sometimes narrowing down to just 1 or 2 for a product. Similarly, PrBL teachers will need to narrow the focus of rubric indicators for the other New Tech Network Learning Outcomes.

For example, for collaboration you may also want to zoom in on just one or two indicators – few enough that you can authentically teach, provide feedback, and assess in the shorter time span of a problem. 

New Tech Network's Problem-Based Learning Model

Problem-based learning as we think about it at NTN consists of three phases: Launch, Explore, and Discuss .  Launch-Explore-Discuss allows students to engage in inquiry, build their self-regard, and have discourse in small and large groups.

In Launch, students are introduced to the problem in a learner-centered way. Explore is when learners have time to explore solution strategies (correct or incorrect) in small groups, asking questions of each other and you. The problem ends with a Discussion in which multiple strategies are shared by learners and the whole class makes connections between different strategies, puts formal vocabulary to their ideas, and makes generalizations to connect to math standards. Each phase is discussed more in depth below.

A problem-based lesson would begin with a launch, where the problem is introduced in a learner-centered way to support learners in making sense of the problem and what is being asked as well as building excitement and interest. In order for learners to engage meaningfully in a cognitively challenging task, they need time to process and make sense of the problem.

A key aspect of the launch is not to “get learners started” by showing the first step or an example problem. The goal and the teacher’s role is to spark inquiry, maintain productive struggle, and allow learners to pursue multiple solution strategies.

The next phase is “explore”, where learners have time to try potential solution strategies that may or may not be correct in pairs or small groups, asking questions of each other and of the teacher. This phase serves to create a math classroom centered on student thinking and ideas, by giving students time to come up with their own solution strategies.

Facilitators must lean into their role as facilitators vs “rescuers”, moving away from the idea of saving students by telling them what to do. It’s okay if some of them are wrong, as there will be time to revise during the discussion section. This is also a time for learners to practice their collaboration and discourse in a low stakes setting. 

Finally, all students engage in a whole-class discussion. During this time, learners share strategies, make connections, and generalize a rule. This is a time to share academic vocabulary, formal notation, and make explicit connections to prior topics and standards. After having time to come up with strategies in “explore”, students can compare multiple strategies and collectively decide what works and what doesn’t.

By drawing connections between strategies, learners can strengthen and deepen their understanding of the content. Teachers support learners during discussion by making connections and giving formal language and notation to learner generated ideas. 

These strategies are not always easy to implement. Students need to be taught how to problem solve independently, how to work collaboratively in a group, and how to understand, evaluate, and question others’ ideas. These skills are supported by cultivating and sustaining a supportive and inclusive classroom culture. In addition to a strong classroom culture, facilitators must also consider important shifts in math instruction.

Key shifts in Math encouraged in a PrBL classroom

Math classrooms enacting these shifts provide a rich problem-solving environment that allow for and necessitate the learning and assessment of the New Tech Network Learning Outcomes. The Key Shifts in math facilitation are meant to guide the ongoing, hard work of all New Tech Network (NTN) math facilitators, new or veteran. We don’t pretend that they are easy; in fact, they often run directly against how we were taught to teach or even how we were taught ourselves and take years to fully implement.

Longtime methods of presenting and practicing content, and the associated frustration of students and teachers alike, are familiar to many of us. With these shifts as a lens, we can all work to reduce math anxiety, restore student engagement, and connect to the beauty of the subject we teach. 

NTN Secondary Math Key Shifts

Successfully Supporting All Students

Key Shift One: Emphasis on Self Regard

Key shift two: emphasis on discourse, key shift three: emphasis on inquiry, key shift #1: improve mathematical self-regard.

It’s important for a teacher to communicate explicitly that each of their students are budding mathematicians. This directly contradicts deeply embedded cultural messages about who is “good at math” and what it means to be good at math (Boaler 2016). As a result, teacher messages must be intentional and consistent, as well as paired with a more accurate depiction of mathematics that aligns with the discipline, rather than the way mathematics is traditionally presented in schools.

For example, in the discipline, deep thinking, questioning, and creativity are key aspects of mathematics. However, in schools math classes tend to emphasize speed, breadth, and passive learning (Banilower et al. 2006).

By presenting mathematics as a discipline that requires a wider variety of skills, more students can see themselves as members of a mathematical community (Horn 2012). This also allows students of many cultural backgrounds to use their assets to be successful in mathematics (Carpenter et al. 1989).

Key Shift #2: Emphasis on Discourse

Research shows that complex knowledge such as mathematics is learned through social interactions (Vygotsky and Cole 1978; Lave and Wenger 1991). In traditional US math classrooms, discussion is typically teacher-led and consists of short, fact based questions and answers (Horn 2012).

The shift is to transform those discussions into ones that are student-led and consist of students’ conceptual ideas, questions, and mistakes, evaluating their own and others’ ideas.

Like all the shifts, this is not easy to accomplish and requires explicit instruction and support for students to learn how to participate in a small group or whole class discussion. In addition, it requires a change to class structures and the types of problems that are presented. Both must make space for student discussion and ideas to drive their own learning. 

Key Shift #3: Emphasis on Inquiry

In an inquiry-based classroom, students construct their own knowledge, rather than teachers transferring knowledge to students. In this setting, the teacher’s role is to create a learning environment in which students can come up with ideas, share them, and refine them together with each other and the teacher (NCTM 2015). 

One challenge is that teachers must maintain the cognitive load of the task – where students are engaging in reasoning and problem solving without being given a specific path to follow. 

While these shifts are challenging, they are also mutually reinforcing. Inquiry and discourse position students as the possessors and creators of knowledge, which increases their self regard as mathematicians.

A learning environment that encourages inquiry will also lead to discussion as students come up with ideas, share them, and refine them in pursuit of understanding. As students come to regard themselves as mathematicians, they will feel more empowered to engage in discourse and PrBL.

PrBL Examples and Resources

Squirrel Race Guy is an Algebra 1 problem, designed in NTN’s Problem Planning Form and models the Explore-Launch-Discuss model described above. The planning form also includes a page that models the anticipatory planning required to design and implement strong problems.

Designing a 3D Product in 2D: Sports Bag This 7th grade sample problem is from the Mathematics Assessment Project which is part of the Math Design Collaborative initiated by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. The project set out to design and develop well-engineered tools for formative and summative assessment that expose students’ mathematical knowledge and reasoning, helping teachers guide them towards improvement and monitor progress.

The Class Trip is a sample 3rd grade problem from Illustrative Math that models high-quality k-12 math problems aligned to NTN’s model of PrBL.

Resources for finding Math Problems to Adapt is a comprehensive list of resources curated by NTN for designing and adapting problems in your PrBL classroom.

Project-Based Learning is uses a real-world approach that requires students to use collaboration, problem solving and critical thinking skills that leads to a culminating product over an extended period of time. While Problem-Based Learning uses those same skills and narrows the focus to 1 or 2 standards over a shorter time period, emphasizing inquiry, exploration, and discussion of math concepts. Both approaches involve essential elements such as entry events that “hook” students with a real world problem or real math work and using rubrics for assessing learning outcomes.

New Tech Network’s Problem-Based Learning Model outlines three phases: Launch, Explore, and Discuss. Each phase plays a crucial role in engaging students in inquiry, building self-regard, and fostering discourse.

Both project-based learning and problem-based learning are both effective educational approaches that empower students to become active learners, critical thinkers, and effective collaborators. Using the resources from this article and creating a curriculum supported by projects and problems will allow students to strengthen their skills most needed for success in the 21st century.

About New Tech Network

New Tech Network is committed to meeting schools and districts where they are and helping them achieve their vision of student success. For a full list of our additional paths to impact or to speak with someone about how the NTN Model can make an impact in your district, please send an email to  [email protected] .

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Problem-Based Learning: Conception, Practice, and Future

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Originally conceived to respond to the failure of traditional lecture-based methods in preparing medical students readily for clinical practice, problem-based learning (PBL) has made an inerasable mark in the history of education. Instead of an instructor-centered, content-oriented, decontextualized teaching and learning mode, PBL uses a student-led, problem-driven, problem-solving, and contextualized learning approach to prepare students for real-world challenges. Forty years after its first implementation, PBL has been and continues to be deemed as an innovative instructional method that helps students develop practical problem-solving, self-directed learning, and collaboration skills. Today, PBL has been implemented throughout almost all disciplines and subjects in professional education, higher education, and K-12 education. This chapter provides an overview of the conceptual framework of PBL, its current research issues and instructional practices, and future directions. First, I will review the theoretical conception of PBL. Second, I will examine PBL models, instructional design, and practice issues, such as utilizing instructional strategies or cognitive tools for facilitating students’ learning in various steps and functions during the PBL process and problem/case design issues. Lastly, I will provide recommendations for future research.

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Hung, W. (2015). Problem-Based Learning: Conception, Practice, and Future. In: Cho, Y., Caleon, I., Kapur, M. (eds) Authentic Problem Solving and Learning in the 21st Century. Education Innovation Series. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-521-1_5

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Instructional Strategies and Engaging Pedagogies

2 Problem and Project Based Learning

Amena Karimi; Fatima Nasiry; and Zainab Mirzaie

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter you will:

• Be able to differentiate between project-based and problem-based learning.
• Know effective strategies to improve students’ critical thinking and creativity skills.
• Develop projects that foster students’ independence, teamwork, and communication skills.
• Teach students how to organize, develop, and manage successful projects.
• Relate problem and project-based learning to the real world.
• Break down problems into components to process and provide solutions.

This chapter contains an overview of the problem and project-based learning, its advantages, and challenges. The main focus of the chapter is on the effective tips and strategies for implementing this pedagogy in the k-12 setting. Moreover, it states how problem and project-based learning pedagogy is different from a traditional classroom while outlining its impacts on solving real-world problems and students’ life. This chapter is written based on reviewing several kinds of literature and their findings and also, real experiences of teachers from the internet and a podcast interview, which is included here as a source of information and knowledge sharing for instructors.

Introduction

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered approach where students learn about a subject or course by working in groups or individually to find the solution for an open-ended problem (Cornell, n.d.), and project-based learning (PBL) or project-based instruction is an instructional approach that gives students the opportunity to acquire knowledge and skills through interactive projects, along with the challenges and difficulties they may confront in the real world (M, K, 2022). Thus, problem- and project-based learning, when combined, is a learning method that allows students to enhance their understanding by experimenting with a project practically (Thomas, 2000). It requires them to design, execute, and assess projects that have real-world applications outside of the classroom (Westwood, 2008). According to Affandi et al. (2016), project-based learning and problem-based learning are terms that are employed in order to define a variety of instructional strategies. These approaches focus on students and provide them the opportunity to ask the teacher a question or several while working (Bell, 2010). The advantages of these approaches are to allow students to make decisions, find solutions to problems while learning, and develop their ability to think critically (Ndraka, 1985). PPBL has a wide range of applications in the student-centered method, in which students learn by experimenting and the teachers play a significant role in facilitating the instruction for the students.

This chapter discusses the problem and project-based learning, their differences, along with their advantages and disadvantages. In addition, the practical strategies to improve the student’s critical thinking and creativity skills include several ways the teachers use in their classes to enhance the student’s critical thinking and creativity skills. Furthermore, it includes tips on how to implement an effective PPBL that fosters student independence, develops student teamwork, and improves student communication and collaborative working skills. It also includes the key elements to consider for a successful project and ways to prepare the students to organize, develop, and manage projects. Moreover, this chapter covers the role of the problem- and project-based learning in solving real-world problems and the relationship between PPBL and traditional learning methods as well as how it is used in K–12 settings.

 Problem-Based Learning

One educational strategy is problem-based learning, where students spend a lot of time researching and responding to solve challenges, and problems but authentic questions to gain Knowledge and skills (Hartman et al, 2013, p. 2). PBL is a targeted, practical form of education based on the evaluation, defense, and resolution of significant problems. students in this method learning practice many skills in a group to become skillful (Loyens et al, 2011 p.5). To facilitate student learning through the learning cycle, the instructor is a facilitator (Hartman et al, 2013, p. 2). Throughout the cycle, the students are presented with a problem scenario. By selecting the crucial information from the event, they construct and analyze the problem, representing the issue and developing theories regarding potential solutions.(Hussain et al, 2014 p.51). Finding knowledge gaps about the issue is a crucial step in this cycle,  When students engage in self-directed learning, these knowledge gaps turn into what is known as learning difficulties (Loyens et al, 2011 p.4). Students then put their newly learned knowledge to use by applying it and evaluating their hypotheses in light of what they have discovered SDL. The teacher assists students in acquiring the cognitive skills required for cooperation in problem-solving. (Silver, 2004, p.237).

Figure 1 The process of problem-based learning

Problem-based curricula give students supervised opportunities to learn by resolving challenging real-world issues. according to Silver (2004), PBL was created with several significant goals which are listed below. 

• It is intended to support students in building a broad and flexible knowledge base,
• Effective problem-solving abilities,
• Self-directed,
• Lifelong learning skills,
• Effective collaboration abilities, and intrinsic motivation to learn.

Project-Based Learning

PBL is a teaching method based on practical assignments that pose challenges for students to solve as well as learning activities. Also, PBL is described as a student-driven (student-centered) approach to learning in which students are obliged to engage in a real project by formulating a topic or inquiry and working under the guidance of teachers to produce a project to present to a select audience (Le, 2018 p.2). In other words, students are involved in creating their research questions, organizing their research, planning their learning, putting into practice a variety of learning methodologies, and evaluating their projects that have applications outside of the classroom. These tasks allow students to work largely independently for lengthy periods and result in realistic presentations or products (Colley, 2008, p.27).

The same to problem-based learning, project-based learning works through a cycle. This cycle includes Orientation, a project’s identification, Planning, implementing a project, reporting project findings, and evaluation. Students will be familiar with the project’s question, significance, methodology, resources, and timetable by the end of this cycle. Then they define each member’s function and accountability. Finally, they need to assess their workflow (Colley, 2008, p.27).

Figure 2 The Process of Project-Based Learning

After suffering for a while in most academic contexts, many students discover the purpose and justification for learning by working on projects. Project-based learning can assist students in meeting state requirements and preparing for state exams by aiding the acquisition of subject-matter knowledge as well as reasoning and problem-solving skills. It shows that PBL’s ability to engage students and motivate those results in high achievement. A larger variety of learning opportunities can be introduced into the classroom through PBL. According to Le (2018), PBL in teaching and learning provided these significant goals which are listed below.

• Students’ academic achievement
• Students’ understanding of the subject matter
• Students gain an understanding of related skills and strategies
• Students’ positive attitudes toward learning
• Perceived changes in work habits and other PBL process behavior

What Is the difference between Problem and project-based learning

Problem-based learning and project-based learning are frequently mixed. This may be partially because the abbreviation PBL is commonly used to describe both techniques. Although they are similar, problem-based learning and project-based learning differ in a few significant ways. Students participate in both PBLs by striving to provide answers to or resolve issues. In both approaches, students are tasked with coming up with a unique solution to challenging problems that lack an obvious solution. The result that students produced is the primary distinction between problem- and project-based learning. In a problem-based learning class, students just emerge a solution to a problem. While Students in project-based learning must develop their concepts and finish a comprehensive project (Lynch, 2017). One type of problem-based learning is project-based learning (PBL), which differs from other kinds of PrBL encounters in a few key ways. Both PBL and PrBL begin with a real-world problem, but the two have slightly different processes and results (Segar, 2021).

Video 1 Difference between problem and project-based learning

Advantages and Disadvantages of Problem and Project-Based Learning

According to Jones (2006) and Mihic and Zavrski (2017), problem and project-based learning have several advantages in the learning process, while it has some challenges either, some of which are listed below.

• Avoiding overload of information and focusing on learning fundamental information that is applicable to real-world circumstances.
• Fostering the development of significant transferrable skills that are beneficial for lifetime learning. They include team leadership, communication, and problem-solving.
• Allows control over and opposition to the learning process. encouraging pupils to be responsible for their own learning. This is a key skill for medical specialists who actively participate in their own ongoing professional progress throughout their careers.
• Strengthens analytical reasoning. Learners are more motivated to learn when learning is centered on “real-life” occurrences.
• Improves problem-solving and higher-order cognitive abilities. It promotes a deep rather than a surface-level approach to learning by requiring students to interact with the content in greater depth and on more levels than in typical teaching approaches.

Disadvantages

• Because the facilitator job has taken the place of the traditional teaching role, it could be difficult for trainees to emulate effective teachers as role models.
• Teaching staff members should foster learning rather than quickly transfer their knowledge. To academics, this could be perceived as unproductive and even demotivating.
• Why Information acquired through PBL is less structured than information acquired through traditional learning.
• Training facilitators can be difficult, and there aren’t many academics that have facilitating abilities in addition to more traditional teaching ones.
• The time commitment that trainees must make to PBL. For aspiring anesthetists or prospective doctors of acute care, this can be particularly challenging.
• Time limitations on the creation, administration, and administration of PBL courses.

Effective Strategies to Improve the Student’s Critical thinking and Creativity skills

Problem-and project-based learning is an essential pedagogy for developing creative thinkers and learners. Students answer genuine problems by creating their own queries, making plans for their own learning, arranging their research, and putting a variety of learning techniques into action. Students thrive in this student-centered, motivating learning environment and develop valuable skills that will lay a reliable foundation for their success.

Critical Thinking

The skill to interpret data, draw assumptions, demonstrate points effectively, analyze data, and assess data is referred to as critical thinking. However, the student’s critical thinking skills are still developing (Anazifa et al., 2017). Critical thinking, which also refers to higher-level thinking (higher-ordered thinking or higher-level thinking), consists of the top three competencies in Bloom’s Taxonomy: the capability to analyze, summarize, and assess (Bookhart, 2010; Moore & Stanley, 2010). Critical thinking skills can be developed through open-ended or distinct questions. Anazifa et al. (2017) cite that open-ended questions are those that have multiple right answers. Hence, problem-based learning is among the learning methods that promote critical thinking skills, particularly in science. Problem-based learning introduces problems that motivate students to consider not only the reason but also the method for addressing the issue (Strobel & Barnevel, 2009). Students’ abilities to think critically can be developed and improved through problem-and project-based learning.

Figure 3 Critical Thinking Skills

Creativity S kills

The goal of creativity development is to train students to confront challenges while working in groups or individually (Kind & Kind, 2007). According to Trilling and Fadel (2009), creativity can be discovered in an environment that promotes queries, persistence, willingness to explore innovative ideas, high trust, and acquiring knowledge from failures and mistakes. Continual practice can assist in increasing the student’s creativity. For example, learning through projects to solve real-world problems is among the most effective methods for fostering creativity. In addition, Anazifa et al. (2017) cite that creative thinking has a significant impact on students’ academic achievement along with PPBL.

How to Improve Critical Thinking and Creativity Skills ?

There are several ways for improving critical thinking creativity and abilities, Jamie Birt. (2019):

• Increase S elf- A wareness: The student should think about their thought processes, values, morals, integrity, and other perceptions as their self-awareness grows. The teachers should teach them to consider their preferences and dislikes with objectivity. The teachers can better understand their students’ perspectives by becoming more aware of their personal preferences, areas of strength, and prejudices.
• Recognize the Student’s C ognitive S tate:  The way students obtain and apply relevant data should be determined and analyzed. It is crucial to understand a person’s listening, perceiving, and responding processes in order to improve cognitive productivity in group or individual work. Being a critical thinker involves being aware of our prejudices and how they impact our decisions and choices. The students must take some time to consider their thought processes before attempting to make a decision. They will be able to react more logically as a result.
• Develop Vision:  Students should be taught to consider how others might respond to a circumstance or decision they make. It’s important to consider a condition’s possible consequences as well as any factors that could have a positive or negative impact on it. Making the best choice will be facilitated by having the foresight to foresee the reactions that their behavior in collaborative work will result in.
• Practice Active Listening:  Critical thinking requires active listening as a fundamental skill. While collaborating with their peers and being guided by their teachers, students must be attentive and listen intently. They should practice empathy and concentrate on comprehending the viewpoint of their adversary. Understanding what they want, need, or anticipate in great detail can help them respond positively and produce positive results.
• Ask Questions:  Students must always ask their teachers for explanations if they have questions. They could, for instance, ask about the things they already know to make sure that everything they already know is accurate, or they could ask follow-up questions to find out if there was any specific information that was overlooked or misunderstood. This step can help students give information a purpose and value.
• Examine the Available Evidence:  The students must practice critical thinking to reach their final decision, which they must support with evidence from their past experiences. By conducting experiments, organizing facts, and using prior experience as available evidence, students can come up with a more appropriate and effective method for working within the present.

In addition, Jamie Birt (2019) states that taking part in team-building exercises, looking for leadership positions, and seeking assistance from an instructor can all help students develop their critical and creative thinking abilities.

How do Problem and Project-Based Learning foster students’ independence?

Independence or self-directed learning is the learning that students learn by doing on their own. It does not mean students take isolated from others but students for learning communicate and take guidance from others. In self-directed learning, the teacher is not the one who teaches each and single part of the subject, but students independently go to search and learn (Kapur, 2019 p.1). The importance of self-learning leadership is that the student is not limited to the teacher’s method, theory, and plan, but seeks different and new ways to learn and complete her or his project (Tripon, 2015 p.40). This makes the student learn and gain experience beyond what is expected (Kapur, 2019). These project-based learning techniques enable students to engage in self-directed learning (Bagheri et al. 2013 p.19):

• The organization of learning around real-world problems
• Student-centered instruction
• Collaboration
• Teacher as facilitator
• Authenticity through the use of authentic materials and audiences
• Formative assessment
• And the production of authentic artifacts

Teamwork Development in Problem and Project-Based Learning

Teamwork is small group students accomplishing unit goals work together on one project. Teamwork has several advantages it encourages students to learn from one another, students get social support for individual efforts, and students through teamwork learn different skills (Campbell & Siha, 20015 p.2). A successful team has these characteristics, it helps the member learn from diverse knowledge, skills, experiences, and interests of team members; the team helps members find creative responses to challenges; the team accelerates the product, services, and profitable strategies and the team directed the challenges to a productive direction (Serrat, 2017 p4). In today’s world, most organizations in different parts accept teamwork because they think the team is more helpful for solving problems than the individual. Mainly the problem with these features (Serrat, 2017 p2.3):

• The problem is relatively complex, uncertain, and holds the potential for conflict
• The problem requires inter-group cooperation and coordination.
• The problem and its solution have important organizational consequences.
• Deadlines are tight but not immediate.
• Widespread acceptance and commitment are critical to successfully implementing a response to a situation, condition, or issue.

In PPL, the teacher typically assigns a group project that the students must complete by the end of the term. Working on projects helps students develop a variety of abilities, including active listening, communication, problem-solving, team building, task allocation, and team relationships, also learning delegation, quality standards, and goal-setting techniques (McCuddy et all, 2002 p.7).

Improving Students’ Communication Skills via Problem and Project-Based Learning

A meaningful exchange of thoughts, opinions, ideas, viewpoints, or messages between at least two people is often regarded as communication or it may also be seen as an exchange of concepts and knowledge to create a shared understanding for the efficient operation of business associations. (S U Putri and S Hidayat, 2019 p. 2). Good communication has these qualities: First, it is clarity. Good communication must transform the messages clearly without any wrong pronunciation, grammar matters, and wrong spelling words. Also, the information must be unity and coherent. It helps there not be any doubt or misunderstanding for the receiver. Second, good communication is brevity, we should communicate with few words. It means in a short time try to transform your message into simple and short words instead of long phrases. Conciseness, avoid misunderstanding and confusion among receivers. Third, communication should be complete. It should include facts and necessary information.  Communication shows the personality and images of a person and organization. Incomplete information is the waste of time and shows the weakness of the sender. Additionally, in good communication sender considers the feeling and wishes of the receivers. Finally, listening with patience is one of the most important characteristics of communication related to the receiver. The receiver should pay attention with patience does not harry to respond especially in oral communication (Girdhar & Malik, 2018 p1.2). Problem-based project-based learning encourages students to practice their communication skills throughout each term of their academic careers, it means Students can connect and communicate with one another while working on a project by engaging in activities, and as they complete the project, they use their persuasive skills to share ideas and persuade one another(S U Putri and S Hidayat, 2019 p. 8). By the way, Students will learn how to communicate effectively by practicing how clarity, conciseness, completeness, and consideration communicate. 

Elements to C onsider for S uccessful P rojects

Problem and project-based learning enable the students to work collaboratively with their classmates to share their team working skills and design a successful project. Realistic projects typically require success criteria. However, PBL requires students to tackle real-world issues (Bell, 2010).

According to Wyman. (2020), the elements to be considered for making a Project successful are;

• Provide meaningful real-world connections : The students need to be given real-life problems to be able to comprehend them thoroughly. Developing a component in real life instills importance while also stimulating curiosity, awareness, and emotional development.
• Make time for practical learning : Students are required to make time for experiential learning elements that require them to examine and experience them through trial and error. Knowledge gained from failed attempts is equally beneficial for implementation as knowledge gained from successful attempts.
• Provide opportunities for team building : Allow students to collaborate creatively so that they can express their views and test ideas to increase participation and class connection. Instead of relying solely on the teacher, students can benefit from one another and gain confidence as researchers and observers.
• Reconsider the driving question : It is critical to stay focused on the question in order to solve the problem and complete the project-based learning project successfully. Sticking to the driving question makes sure that the definition of the component is not lost, that your rubric accurately examines your key goals, and that students are aware of its greater emphasis and benefit.
• Differentiate through teams : Educators must divide the students wisely to verify the type of success the teacher knows they require. Make a distinction based on academic excellence, communication ability, personal preferences, or motivating factors. This provides students with better opportunities of grasping the material in the ways that are most effective for them. This, in turn, helps them feel personally and academically successful within the group.
• Focus on student-driven learning : Once the problem and project-based learning projects are underway, remember that students will need this time to research and discover new thoughts by the teacher’s guidelines.
• Include self-assessment : Accountability and in-depth interpretation are encouraged when students are asked to evaluate their work and performance as valuable teammates, leaders, observers, and collaborators. If these assessments have been a regular practice, students frequently begin to recognize how they have enhanced their interpersonal skills.
• Reflect on your progress : These reflections help teachers improve each element of project-based learning so that it gets better with every iteration and the students get the most out of it.

Ways to P repare the S tudents to O rganize, D evelop, and M anage P rojects

Project organization, development, and management have emerged as essential skills for learners who have started organizing their work in the form of projects led by groups of students with the goal of achieving successful objectives for their project (Kloppenborg. et.al, 2016). Furthermore, Kloppenborg et al. (2016) cite that to meet project criteria and deal with various challenges while working on a project, project management necessitates applying skills, tools, and methods for executing the project. (PMI, 2000, p. 6)

The following are some ways that problem and project-based learning can help students prepare. (Method Schools Team, 2017):

• Time management: A successful project needs an incredible quantity of time management to be developed and presented in order to be organized, developed, and managed. To accomplish a project by a specific deadline, the student should first ascertain how much time they will need to allocate as a whole. They must then divide a certain time period into relatively small, more achievable steps. Students would be more ready to work on complex projects if they had the chance to acquire this expertise through a wide range of projects.
• Organizational skills: Assembling projects teach students the value of organization, both physically and mentally. This is certainly relevant if they are provided with a separate working environment, which they must maintain organized. It also relates to individuals who collaborate in communal environments like group work and are responsible for organizing their own opinions, concepts, and materials.
• Collaboration Skills: The students should be taught how to work collaboratively while working with their peers, which will enable them to enhance their skills by working as part of a group. In addition, it allows the students to look at the importance of teamwork thoroughly, which is an indispensable learning opportunity when it comes to working in a cooperative environment as part of a group.
• Problem-Solving Skills: Traditional methods of instruction necessitate students to learn in an extremely passive way. For instance, passive learning in the traditional school setting involves students listening to long, unsatisfying lectures. However, problem- and project-based learning encourages learners to think outside their comfort zones and find solutions in a new and exciting manner.
• Self-Direction: The ability to divide any activity into achievable pieces in order to determine what to do next is a critical skill that every education system should assist students in developing. It is even more significant to have the motivation to complete those activities. These two abilities combine to produce a person with wonderful work. Thus, problem and project-based learning expand the student’s knowledge to organize, develop, and manage a project with productive results.
• Ability to Find Information: To organize, develop, and manage important tasks, the creator must conduct extensive research. Because lecture-based and memorization-based learning are rarely used in project-based learning, students must conduct their own research. This is a critical step in the procedure because it teaches students how to find helpful information.
• Constant state of Learning: The most incredible positive aspect of problem and project-based learning is the enthusiasm it fosters in students. Students in a project-based learning classroom enhance a long-standing willingness to satisfy their curiosity since the projects designated almost exclusively focus on subjects that intrigue them and also play an influential role in their education. This seems to be best suited for acquiring new abilities and adapting to environments that change frequently. Project-based learning is an excellent alternative to traditional curricula, particularly for preparing students for upcoming group projects for their further education.

Bell (2010) states students complete a self-evaluation at the end of the project. They assess not only their own learning but also the effectiveness of their interpersonal relationships. They consider their communication skills and whether they could communicate with other students in terms of listening thoroughly to their ideas and having their own perspectives heard. Effective implementation and practice of this expertise will contribute to competency and deep understanding over time.

Role of Problem and Project-Based Learning in Solving Real-World Problems

Problem-based learning is about solving real-world problems in unique ways. In problem and project-based learning, students are immersed in real-world issues, helping them to develop critical thinking, metacognitive abilities, creativity, and invention (Devilee, 2008). One of the important characteristics of PPBL is that it uses real-world, relevant problems that are meaningful to learners and makes learning more personalized and practical.

Where did Problem-Based Learning Emerge from?

Problem-based learning was first implemented at McMaster University of Canada in the 1970s (Barrows, 1994; Norman and Schmidt, 1992 as cited in Gallagher, 1997). The McMaster team of the medical school noticed that there are big differences between medical students whose time was passed with textbooks and physicians in their examining room. They discovered that, although medical students had only the correct answers and were not flexible thinkers, physicians were constantly willing to modify their thoughts and build new notions of what was wrong with patients. The McMaster university team came up with the next best thing—simulated patients, who are frequently taken from genuine case files—after seeing that learning environments where students were engaged with textbooks but not real case patients maintained the students as constrained learners. Assigning relevant texts and educating pupils on problems are preferable. By using teachers as problem-solving guides rather than as all-knowing experts, PBL transformed traditional learning into problem-based learning (Gallagher, 1997). It later spread to other disciplines of economy, business, law, and education. Because PBL has a strong emphasis on real-world issues and social processes, it belongs to the social family of educational practices.

Problem and Project-Based Learning Vs Traditional Learning

The concept of one-size-fits-all instruction is associated with traditional education. This type of training makes the assumption that regardless of their innate talents and abilities, all students must go through their education at the same rate and with the same resources in order to reach the same level of abilities, knowledge, and skills. This helps them design unique assessments that raise the bar for all students to the same level. But students are really different from one another. Each of them possesses a distinctive skill, learning style, IQ, and rate of information processing (Samurai, 2021). Whereas John Dewey’s concept of subject matters in learners was the foundation for problem and project-based learning in his book Education and Democracy. He believes that “knowledge exists as the content of intelligent ability—the power to do” (p.192). The qualities that individuals learn by doing—such as how to walk, talk, read, write, skate, ride a bicycle, operate a machine, calculate, drive a horse, sell goods, manage people, and so forth—stick with them the longest (Dewey, 2001). The following table makes the differences between the 2 models and their learning outcomes easier to understand.

Figure 4 PPBL vs traditional learning Method

Problem and Project Based learning in the k-12 setting

PBL appears to be a successful method for raising students’ accomplishment levels and is a potent tool for tying students to their community with actual goals and audiences. It is crucial that kids understand they have a voice and what can potentially lead to change. There is a link between the students’ project’s purpose and every class. Therefore, PBL through civic education is a crucial component of students becoming engaged, contributing, and functioning citizens of their communities (Edutopia, 2017). Because they meet problems without conducting any background research and with knowledge insufficient to address the challenge, PBL calls for students to expand their existing knowledge and understanding and apply this expanded understanding to propose a solution. “Ill-structured” problems without a single, straightforward, or formulaic answer inspire students to ask questions and look for more information (Wirkala and Kuhn, 2011).

Significant Effects of Problem and Project-based learning on students’ personal and academic lives

•  Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills

To fulfill the criteria of the 21st century, one of the eligibility requirements is the ability to think critically and solve problems. When searching for accurate solutions and understandings about the real world, critical thinking refers to a trustworthy and effective mental process. It mostly concerns the process of evaluating concepts in a more concentrated manner (Sholihah and Lastariwati, 2020). One of the instructional approaches that promote critical thinking and problem-solving abilities is problem and project-based learning. In this model, the amount of knowledge transferred from teacher to students is not as important as the development of critical thinking competence. By utilizing their communication, problem-solving, critical thinking, and independent learning skills, it allows students the freedom to tackle educational challenges. This ability to solve problems can be observed in how students look into a situation and identify solutions (Ernawat, 2022). Through PPBL, students will learn the process of solving problems through the following steps which are a part of design thinking too.

• Determine the problem.
• Make a list of all potential solutions or actions.
• Consider all of the options.
• Decide which approach to try.
• Use the answer to your problem.

The process of students working to solve a real-world problem is an illustration of design thinking in which children use real-world situations to address problems and come up with solutions (Wikibooks, 2016).  Understanding the problem at hand is a crucial indication of the problem-solving abilities that need to be developed during learning. This is consistent with the beginning steps of the PBL paradigm, which entail posing problems for students to solve. Students are taught to comprehend a problem, formulate a solution, implement the solution as planned, and evaluate all phases through problem-based learning (Sari et al., 2020).

• Collaborative Activities 

Research has demonstrated that using a team to work on projects to find answers or ideas for problems in the real world increases students’ social attitudes toward teamwork. A problem and project-based learning approach involves students in team and collaborative activities. In a capstone college course, around 85% of students reported receiving good feedback regarding their team’s performance, according to a research by Kapp (2009). This course was evaluated in 2 steps of individual and collaborative assessments to show how students develop through peer reviews and feedback. Adopting PPBL from elementary to higher education creates the social attitude of teamwork for students. Not only the educational life but personal and academic life of students requires the skill of collaborative working. According to AC Nielsen Research Services (2000) as cited in (Jalinus et al., 2020) employers are looking for people with abilities including creativity, problem-solving, and cooperation. According to Wulandari et al. (2015), in the workplace, problem-solving requires strong teamwork in addition to knowledge and abilities. According to the study by Setiawan and Soenarto (2017), three competencies—teamwork skills, self-management skills, and technological skills—have a high level of needs when it comes to categorizing the effective competency of graduates required by the sector. Students can encourage one another and aid in the success of their projects by working on cooperative projects. Many students encounter both technical and non-technical issues when completing projects, and teamwork is the key to resolving these issues. Since they are aware of it, students naturally develop their collaborative skills to address difficulties (Jalinus et al., 2020).

Students explore to learn about a subject via problem- and project-based learning, which is a student-centered educational strategy.(Thomas, 2000). Most people think problem-based learning and project-based learning look similar, but there are a few significant ways they differ. While in a project-based learning session, students are required to develop their ideas further and complete a whole project, students in a problem-based learning lesson are only required to come up with a solution to an issue. (Lynch, 2017). Although there are some challenges to the implementation of PPBL like a lack of professional facilitators, a lack of time, and less structured information, the implementation of this method of learning has effective outcomes. First of all, PPBL fosters the students’ independence. In this method, it is not the teacher’s responsibility to provide or teach everything to the students; they learn every single thing through working on a project, and the teacher is a facilitator. Second, project-based learning fosters the development of delegation, quality standards, and goal-setting abilities in students. These skills include active listening, communication, problem-solving, team development, task allocation, and team relationships.(Method Schools Team, 2017). Third, engaging in project-related activities encourages student interaction and communication. As they work on the project, they make every effort to share ideas and convince one another(S U Putri and S Hidayat, 2019).Students will practice effective communication skills like clarity, brevity, conciseness, completeness, and consideration through the projects (Girdhar & Malik, 2018 p1.2). Finally, the PPBL develops the critical thinking and creativity skills of the students. Students in PPBL practice the process of solving problems critically by identifying the problem, finding a list of possible solutions, considering the possible solutions, attempting the chosen solution, implementing the solution, and assessing the solution (Colley, 2008, p.27). In addition, there are plenty of methods to advance critical thinking and creativity skills, such as increasing self-awareness, recognizing students’ cognitive states, developing vision, practicing active learning, asking questions, and examining the available evidence. Furthermore, problem- and project-based learning allows the students to perform the given tasks collaboratively with their classmates to share their teamwork skills and design a successful project. The key elements to be considered for a successful project are providing meaningful real-world connections, making time for practical learning, providing opportunities for team building, Reconsidering the driving question, differentiating through teams, focusing on student-driven learning, including self-assessment, and reflecting on the student’s progress. Implementing this model in traditional classrooms is possible. Hence, it develops students’ skills in solving real-world problems. Students will acquire enough knowledge and skills in school to prepare them for future real-world challenges.

Review Questions

We will consider the two strategies of generative learning.

•  Teaching others – the readers will be able to comprehend this chapter’s context.
•  Drawing- A visual graphic organizer from the concept of problem and project-based learning can help readers to imagine and get the practical method of applying the method for students.

Recommended Readings

Jalinus, N., Syahril, S., Nabawi, R. A., & Arbi, Y. (2020). How project-based learning and direct teaching models affect teamwork and welding skills among students . International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change., 11(11) , 85-111.

Stephanie Bell (2010). Project-Based Learning for the 21st Century: Skills for the Future, The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 8:2, 39-43, DOI: 10.1080/00098650903505415

Silver. C.E.H. (2004). Problem-based learning: what and how do students learn. Journal e?education Psychology Review, Vol. 13, No.3, https://www.brown.edu/academics/medical/sites/brown.edu.academics.medical/files/uploads/Hmelo-Silver,%20Problem-Based%20Learning%20What%20and%20How%20Do%20Students%20Learn_0.pdf

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• Project-based Learning: The emphasis of project-based learning is on developing an interactive environment for learning in the classroom where students can actively explore problems and challenges from the real world and gain a deeper understanding.
• Problem-based Learning: Problem-based learning is a student-centered technique where students will gain knowledge about a subject or course by working through an open-ended problem discovered in the material.
• Project Management: Project management is the process of controlling a group’s activity to fulfill the project’s purposes within the time given.
• Critical Thinking: A fundamental component of critical thinking is a questioning and challenging attitude toward information and received wisdom. It entails considering concepts and facts objectively in light of our objective standpoint in light of our values, attitudes, and personal philosophies.
• Creativity Skills: It is the ability to generate something in a new form and it includes assessment, open-mindedness, problem-solving, organization, and communication.
• Bloom’s Taxonomy: This is a hierarchical classification of thinking levels that should be used when developing course objectives.

Podcast Episode

In the podcast episode, we have introduced our topic and its importance. Also interviewed an education expert, Sayed Mohammad Nazim Uddin; an Associate professor at Asian University for Women who shares his experience about the problem and project-based learning in his teaching experience, its effects, challenges, and effective strategies for implementation of the problem and project-based learning for educators.

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Anazifa, Rizqa & Djukri,. (2017). Project- Based Learning and Problem-Based Learning: Are They Effective to Improve Student’s Thinking Skills?. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia. 6. 346-355. 10.15294/jpii.v6i2.11100. 

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Cornell University. (n.d.). Problem-based learning. Welcome | Center for Teaching Innovation.  https://teaching.cornell.edu/teaching-resources/engaging-students/problem-based-learning

 Devilee, A. (2022, April 12). What is problem based learning? | Instructional design. Instructional Design Australia. https://instructionaldesign.com.au/problem-based-learning/

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Edutopia. (2017, June 20). Project-Based Learning: Raising Student Achievement for All Learners [Video]. YouTube.  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eGWqBZSFgxE

Ernawati, M. D. W., Rusdi, M., Asrial, A., Muhaimin, M., Wulandari, M., & Maryani, S. (2022). Analysis of Problem Based Learning in the Scaffolding Design: Students’ Creative-Thinking Skills. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences, 17(7), 2333-2348.

Gallagher, S. A. (1997). Problem-based learning: Where did it come from, what does it do, and where is it going? Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 20(4), 332-362.

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Hartman. B. K, Moberg. C.R., Lambert. J.M. (2013). Effectiveness of problem-based learning in the introductory business courses. Journal of Instructional Pedagogies. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1097131.pdf

Hidayat. S, Putri. S. U. (2019). The effectiveness of project-based learning on students’ communication skills in science. Journal of Physics Conference Series. DOI:  10.1088/1742-6596/1318/1/012006.   https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1177/1052562904266008

Hussian. O ,Mohad.B, Suliaman.A.(2014). An Innovative Learning Cycle in Problem-Based Learning. International Journal of Enhanced Research in Educational Development (IJERED), Vol. 2. www.erpublications.com

Jalinus, N., Syahril, S., Nabawi, R. A., & Arbi, Y. (2020). How project-based learning and direct teaching models affect teamwork and welding skills among students. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change., 11(11), 85-111.

Jamie Birt. (2019). How to improve critical thinking skills at work in 6 steps. Indeed Career Guide.  https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/how-to-improve-critical-thinking

Jones, R. W. (2006). Problem-based learning: description, advantages, disadvantages, scenarios and facilitation. Anaesthesia and intensive care, 34(4), 485-488.

Kapp, E. (2009). Improving student teamwork in a collaborative project-based course. College Teaching , 57(3) , 139-143.

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Kloppenborg, T. J., & Baucus, M. S. (2016). Project Management in Local Nonprofit Organizations: Engaging Students in Problem-Based Learning. Journal of Management Education. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562904266008

Le. T.T.K. (2018). Project based learning in 21st century: A review of dimensions for implementation in university-level teaching and learning. 4th ICEAC International Conference on English across Cultures. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352977987_Project-based_Learning_in_21st_Century_A_Review_of_Dimensions_for_Implementation_in_University-level_Teaching_and_Learning

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Method Schools Team. (2017, March 8). 7 ways project-based learning prepares students for the future. SoCal’s Leading Online K-12 Charter School.  https://www.methodschools.org/blog/7-ways-project-based-learning-prepares-students-for-the-future

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About the authors

name: Amena Karimi

institution: Asian University for women

Amena Karimi is from Afghanistan. In 2019, she graduated from Kabul University in the field of law and politics. She had just finished three years of volunteer work in Integrity Watch Afghanistan as an advocate and monitor for accountability and integrity of different government sectors. Now she is a Master’s student in the field of Art of education.

name: Fatima Nasiry

institution: Asian University for Women

website: https://asian-university.org/

Fatima Nasiry is currently studying for an MA in education at the Asian University for Women. She completed a Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering from SVNIT Surat, India, in May 2021. She worked with CARE International in Afghanistan as a site engineer. Now she is a research assistant intern at Books Unbound and teaches digital literacy at Education Bridge for Afghanistan to Afghan students who are banned from going to school. She is interested in integrating civil engineering with education by designing a curriculum and conducting research on WASH awareness in schools and the impact of infrastructure on students’ academic performance.

name: Mrs Zainab Mirzaie

Zainab Mirzaie is currently pursuing a Master of Arts in Education at the Asian University for Women. She earned a bachelor’s in Computer Engineering and Informatics from Kabul Polytechnic University in Afghanistan. Zainab has worked in the fields of education, data management, and analysis with BRAC and AKAH international organizations and educational centers. She is extremely interested in connecting technology with education and embedding it in the context of her learning and teaching. Her research interests comprise educational technology for special education, leadership, and data science. Zainab is providing digital literacy education and English language instruction for Afghan female students through online schools.

Strong Schools Copyright © 2023 by Amena Karimi; Fatima Nasiry; and Zainab Mirzaie is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Open access
• Published: 17 February 2022

Effectiveness of problem-based learning methodology in undergraduate medical education: a scoping review

• Joan Carles Trullàs   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7380-3475 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Carles Blay   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3962-5887 1 , 4 ,
• Elisabet Sarri   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2435-399X 3 &
• Ramon Pujol   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2527-385X 1  

BMC Medical Education volume  22 , Article number:  104 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Problem-based learning (PBL) is a pedagogical approach that shifts the role of the teacher to the student (student-centered) and is based on self-directed learning. Although PBL has been adopted in undergraduate and postgraduate medical education, the effectiveness of the method is still under discussion. The author’s purpose was to appraise available international evidence concerning to the effectiveness and usefulness of PBL methodology in undergraduate medical teaching programs.

The authors applied the Arksey and O’Malley framework to undertake a scoping review. The search was carried out in February 2021 in PubMed and Web of Science including all publications in English and Spanish with no limits on publication date, study design or country of origin.

The literature search identified one hundred and twenty-four publications eligible for this review. Despite the fact that this review included many studies, their design was heterogeneous and only a few provided a high scientific evidence methodology (randomized design and/or systematic reviews with meta-analysis). Furthermore, most were single-center experiences with small sample size and there were no large multi-center studies. PBL methodology obtained a high level of satisfaction, especially among students. It was more effective than other more traditional (or lecture-based methods) at improving social and communication skills, problem-solving and self-learning skills. Knowledge retention and academic performance weren’t worse (and in many studies were better) than with traditional methods. PBL was not universally widespread, probably because requires greater human resources and continuous training for its implementation.

PBL is an effective and satisfactory methodology for medical education. It is likely that through PBL medical students will not only acquire knowledge but also other competencies that are needed in medical professionalism.

Peer Review reports

There has always been enormous interest in identifying the best learning methods. In the mid-twentieth century, US educator Edgar Dale proposed which actions would lead to deeper learning than others and published the well-known (and at the same time controversial) “Cone of Experience or Cone of Dale”. At the apex of the cone are oral representations (verbal descriptions, written descriptions, etc.) and at the base is direct experience (based on a person carrying out the activity that they aim to learn), which represents the greatest depth of our learning. In other words, each level of the cone corresponds to various learning methods. At the base are the most effective, participative methods (what we do and what we say) and at the apex are the least effective, abstract methods (what we read and what we hear) [ 1 ]. In 1990, psychologist George Miller proposed a framework pyramid to assess clinical competence. At the lowest level of the pyramid is knowledge (knows), followed by the competence (knows how), execution (shows how) and finally the action (does) [ 2 ]. Both Miller’s pyramid and Dale’s cone propose a very efficient way of training and, at the same time, of evaluation. Miller suggested that the learning curve passes through various levels, from the acquisition of theoretical knowledge to knowing how to put this knowledge into practice and demonstrate it. Dale stated that to remember a high percentage of the acquired knowledge, a theatrical representation should be carried out or real experiences should be simulated. It is difficult to situate methodologies such as problem-based learning (PBL), case-based learning (CBL) and team-based learning (TBL) in the context of these learning frameworks.

In the last 50 years, various university education models have emerged and have attempted to reconcile teaching with learning, according to the principle that students should lead their own learning process. Perhaps one of the most successful models is PBL that came out of the English-speaking environment. There are many descriptions of PBL in the literature, but in practice there is great variability in what people understand by this methodology. The original conception of PBL as an educational strategy in medicine was initiated at McMaster University (Canada) in 1969, leaving aside the traditional methodology (which is often based on lectures) and introducing student-centered learning. The new formulation of medical education proposed by McMaster did not separate the basic sciences from the clinical sciences, and partially abandoned theoretical classes, which were taught after the presentation of the problem. In its original version, PBL is a methodology in which the starting point is a problem or a problematic situation. The situation enables students to develop a hypothesis and identify learning needs so that they can better understand the problem and meet the established learning objectives [ 3 , 4 ]. PBL is taught using small groups (usually around 8–10 students) with a tutor. The aim of the group sessions is to identify a problem or scenario, define the key concepts identified, brainstorm ideas and discuss key learning objectives, research these and share this information with each other at subsequent sessions. Tutors are used to guide students, so they stay on track with the learning objectives of the task. Contemporary medical education also employs other small group learning methods including CBL and TBL. Characteristics common to the pedagogy of both CBL and TBL include the use of an authentic clinical case, active small-group learning, activation of existing knowledge and application of newly acquired knowledge. In CBL students are encouraged to engage in peer learning and apply new knowledge to these authentic clinical problems under the guidance of a facilitator. CBL encourages a structured and critical approach to clinical problem-solving, and, in contrast to PBL, is designed to allow the facilitator to correct and redirect students [ 5 ]. On the other hand, TBL offers a student-centered, instructional approach for large classes of students who are divided into small teams of typically five to seven students to solve clinically relevant problems. The overall similarities between PBL and TBL relate to the use of professionally relevant problems and small group learning, while the main difference relates to one teacher facilitating interactions between multiple self-managed teams in TBL, whereas each small group in PBL is facilitated by one teacher. Further differences are related to mandatory pre-reading assignments in TBL, testing of prior knowledge in TBL and activating prior knowledge in PBL, teacher-initiated clarifying of concepts that students struggled with in TBL versus students-generated issues that need further study in PBL, inter-team discussions in TBL and structured feedback and problems with related questions in TBL [ 6 ].

In the present study we have focused on PBL methodology, and, as attractive as the method may seem, we should consider whether it is really useful and effective as a learning method. Although PBL has been adopted in undergraduate and postgraduate medical education, the effectiveness (in terms of academic performance and/or skill improvement) of the method is still under discussion. This is due partly to the methodological difficulty in comparing PBL with traditional curricula based on lectures. To our knowledge, there is no systematic scoping review in the literature that has analyzed these aspects.

The main motivation for carrying out this research and writing this article was scientific but also professional interest. We believe that reviewing the state of the art of this methodology once it was already underway in our young Faculty of Medicine, could allow us to know if we were on the right track and if we should implement changes in the training of future doctors.

The primary goal of this study was to appraise available international evidence concerning to the effectiveness and usefulness of PBL methodology in undergraduate medical teaching programs. As the intention was to synthesize the scattered evidence available, the option was to conduct a scoping review. A scoping study tends to address broader topics where many different study designs might be applicable. Scoping studies may be particularly relevant to disciplines, such as medical education, in which the paucity of randomized controlled trials makes it difficult for researchers to undertake systematic reviews [ 7 , 8 ]. Even though the scoping review methodology is not widely used in medical education, it is well established for synthesizing heterogeneous research evidence [ 9 ].

The specific aims were: 1) to determine the effectiveness of PBL in academic performance (learning and retention of knowledge) in medical education; 2) to determine the effectiveness of PBL in other skills (social and communication skills, problem solving or self-learning) in medical education; 3) to know the level of satisfaction perceived by the medical students (and/or tutors) when they are taught with the PBL methodology (or when they teach in case of tutors).

This review was guided by Arksey and O’Malley’s methodological framework for conducting scoping reviews. The five main stages of the framework are: (1) identifying the research question; (2) ascertaining relevant studies; (3) determining study selection; (4) charting the data; and (5) collating, summarizing and reporting the results [ 7 ]. We reported our process according to the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews [ 10 ].

Stage 1: Identifying the research question

With the goals of the study established, the four members of the research team established the research questions. The primary research question was “What is the effectiveness of PBL methodology for learning in undergraduate medicine?” and the secondary question “What is the perception and satisfaction of medical students and tutors in relation to PBL methodology?”.

Stage 2: Identifying relevant studies

After the research questions and a search strategy were defined, the searches were conducted in PubMed and Web of Science using the MeSH terms “problem-based learning” and “Medicine” (the Boolean operator “AND” was applied to the search terms). No limits were set on language, publication date, study design or country of origin. The search was carried out on 14th February 2021. Citations were uploaded to the reference manager software Mendeley Desktop (version 1.19.8) for title and abstract screening, and data characterization.

Stage 3: Study selection

The searching strategy in our scoping study generated a total of 2399 references. The literature search and screening of title, abstract and full text for suitability was performed independently by one author (JCT) based on predetermined inclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria were: 1) PBL methodology was the major research topic; 2) participants were undergraduate medical students or tutors; 3) the main outcome was academic performance (learning and knowledge retention); 4) the secondary outcomes were one of the following: social and communication skills, problem solving or self-learning and/or student/tutor satisfaction; 5) all types of studies were included including descriptive papers, qualitative, quantitative and mixed studies methods, perspectives, opinion, commentary pieces and editorials. Exclusion criteria were studies including other types of participants such as postgraduate medical students, residents and other health non-medical specialties such as pharmacy, veterinary, dentistry or nursing. Studies published in languages other than Spanish and English were also excluded. Situations in which uncertainty arose, all authors (CB, ES, RP) discussed the publication together to reach a final consensus. The outcomes of the search results and screening are presented in Fig.  1 . One-hundred and twenty-four articles met the inclusion criteria and were included in the final analysis.

Study flow PRISMA diagram. Details the review process through the different stages of the review; includes the number of records identified, included and excluded

Stage 4: Charting the data

A data extraction table was developed by the research team. Data extracted from each of the 124 publications included general publication details (year, author, and country), sample size, study population, design/methodology, main and secondary outcomes and relevant results and/or conclusions. We compiled all data into a single spreadsheet in Microsoft Excel for coding and analysis. The characteristics and the study subject of the 124 articles included in this review are summarized in Tables 1 and 2 . The detailed results of the Microsoft Excel file is also available in Additional file 1 .

Stage 5: Collating, summarizing and reporting the results

As indicated in the search strategy (Fig.  1 ) this review resulted in the inclusion of 124 publications. Publication years of the final sample ranged from 1990 to 2020, the majority of the publications (51, 41%) were identified for the years 2010–2020 and the years in which there were more publications were 2001, 2009 and 2015. Countries from the six continents were represented in this review. Most of the publications were from Asia (especially China and Saudi Arabia) and North America followed by Europe, and few studies were from Africa, Oceania and South America. The country with more publications was the United States of America ( n  = 27). The most frequent designs of the selected studies were surveys or questionnaires ( n  = 45) and comparative studies ( n  = 48, only 16 were randomized) with traditional or lecture-based learning methodologies (in two studies the comparison was with simulation) and the most frequently measured outcomes were academic performance followed by student satisfaction (48 studies measured more than one outcome). The few studies with the highest level of scientific evidence (systematic review and meta-analysis and randomized studies) were conducted mostly in Asian countries (Tables  1 and 2 ). The study subject was specified in 81 publications finding a high variability but at the same time great representability of almost all disciplines of the medical studies.

The sample size was available in 99 publications and the median [range] of the participants was 132 [14–2061]. According to study population, there were more participants in the students’ focused studies (median 134 and range 16–2061) in comparison with the tutors’ studies (median 53 and range 14–494).

Finally, after reviewing in detail the measured outcomes (main and secondary) according to the study design (Table 2 and Additional file 1 ) we present a narrative overview and a synthesis of the main findings.

Main outcome: academic performance (learning and knowledge retention)

Seventy-one of the 124 publications had learning and/or knowledge retention as a measured outcome, most of them ( n  = 45) were comparative studies with traditional or lecture-based learning and 16 were randomized. These studies were varied in their methodology, were performed in different geographic zones, and normally analyzed the experience of just one education center. Most studies ( n  = 49) reported superiority of PBL in learning and knowledge acquisition [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 ] but there was no difference between traditional and PBL curriculums in another 19 studies [ 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 ]. Only three studies reported that PBL was less effective [ 79 , 80 , 81 ], two of them were randomized (in one case favoring simulation-based learning [ 80 ] and another favoring lectures [ 81 ]) and the remaining study was based on tutors’ opinion rather than real academic performance [ 79 ]. It is noteworthy that the four systematic reviews and meta-analysis included in this scoping review, all carried out in China, found that PBL was more effective than lecture-based learning in improving knowledge and other skills (clinical, problem-solving, self-learning and collaborative) [ 40 , 51 , 53 , 58 ]. Another relevant example of the superiority of the PBL method over the traditional method is the experience reported by Hoffman et al. from the University of Missouri-Columbia. The authors analyzed the impact of implementing the PBL methodology in its Faculty of Medicine and revealed an improvement in the academic results that lasted for over a decade [ 31 ].

Secondary outcomes

Social and communication skills.

We found five studies in this scoping review that focused on these outcomes and all of them described that a curriculum centered on PBL seems to instill more confidence in social and communication skills among students. Students perceived PBL positively for teamwork, communication skills and interpersonal relations [ 44 , 45 , 67 , 75 , 82 ].

Student satisfaction

Sixty publications analyzed student satisfaction with PBL methodology. The most frequent methodology were surveys or questionnaires (30 studies) followed by comparative studies with traditional or lecture-based methodology (19 studies, 7 of them were randomized). Almost all the studies (51) have shown that PBL is generally well-received [ 11 , 13 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 26 , 29 , 34 , 37 , 39 , 41 , 42 , 46 , 50 , 56 , 58 , 63 , 64 , 66 , 78 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 ] but in 9 studies the overall satisfaction scores for the PBL program were neutral [ 76 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 ] or negative [ 117 , 118 ]. Some factors that have been identified as key components for PBL to be successful include: a small group size, the use of scenarios of realistic cases and good management of group dynamics. Despite a mostly positive assessment of the PBL methodology by the students, there were some negative aspects that could be criticized or improved. These include unclear communication of the learning methodology, objectives and assessment method; bad management and organization of the sessions; tutors having little experience of the method; and a lack of standardization in the implementation of the method by the tutors.

Tutor satisfaction

There are only 15 publications that analyze the satisfaction of tutors, most of them surveys or questionnaires [ 85 , 88 , 92 , 98 , 108 , 110 , 119 ]. In comparison with the satisfaction of the students, here the results are more neutral [ 112 , 113 , 115 , 120 , 121 ] and even unfavorable to the PBL methodology in two publications [ 117 , 122 ]. PBL teaching was favored by tutors when the institutions train them in the subject, when there was administrative support and adequate infrastructure and coordination [ 123 ]. In some experiences, the PBL modules created an unacceptable toll of anxiety, unhappiness and strained relations.

Other skills (problem solving and self-learning)

The effectiveness of the PBL methodology has also been explored in other outcomes such as the ability to solve problems and to self-directed learning. All studies have shown that PBL is more effective than lecture-based learning in problem-solving and self-learning skills [ 18 , 24 , 40 , 48 , 67 , 75 , 93 , 104 , 124 ]. One single study found a poor accuracy of the students’ self-assessment when compared to their own performance [ 125 ]. In addition, there are studies that support PBL methodology for integration between basic and clinical sciences [ 126 ].

Finally, other publications have reported the experience of some faculties in the implementation of the PBL methodology. Different experiences have demonstrated that it is both possible and feasible to shift from a traditional curriculum to a PBL program, recognizing that PBL methodology is complex to plan and structure, needs a large number of human and material resources, requiring an immense teacher effort [ 28 , 31 , 94 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 ]. In addition, and despite its cost implication, a PBL curriculum can be successfully implemented in resource-constrained settings [ 134 , 135 ].

We conducted this scoping review to explore the effectiveness and satisfaction of PBL methodology for teaching in undergraduate medicine and, to our knowledge, it is the only study of its kind (systematic scoping review) that has been carried out in the last years. Similarly, Vernon et al. conducted a meta-analysis of articles published between 1970 and 1992 and their results generally supported the superiority of the PBL approach over more traditional methods of medical education [ 136 ]. PBL methodology is implemented in medical studies on the six continents but there is more experience (or at least more publications) from Asian countries and North America. Despite its apparent difficulties on implementation, a PBL curriculum can be successfully implemented in resource-constrained settings [ 134 , 135 ]. Although it is true that the few studies with the highest level of scientific evidence (randomized studies and meta-analysis) were carried out mainly in Asian countries (and some in North America and Europe), there were no significant differences in the main results according to geographical origin.

In this scoping review we have included a large number of publications that, despite their heterogeneity, tend to show favorable results for the usefulness of the PBL methodology in teaching and learning medicine. The results tend to be especially favorable to PBL methodology when it is compared with traditional or lecture-based teaching methods, but when compared with simulation it is not so clear. There are two studies that show neutral [ 71 ] or superior [ 80 ] results to simulation for the acquisition of specific clinical skills. It seems important to highlight that the four meta-analysis included in this review, which included a high number of participants, show results that are clearly favorable to the PBL methodology in terms of knowledge, clinical skills, problem-solving, self-learning and satisfaction [ 40 , 51 , 53 , 58 ].

Regarding the level of satisfaction described in the surveys or questionnaires, the overall satisfaction rate was higher in the PBL students when compared with traditional learning students. Students work in small groups, allowing and promoting teamwork and facilitating social and communication skills. As sessions are more attractive and dynamic than traditional classes, this could lead to a greater degree of motivation for learning.

These satisfaction results are not so favorable when tutors are asked and this may be due to different reasons; first, some studies are from the 90s, when the methodology was not yet fully implemented; second, the number of tutors included in these studies is low; and third, and perhaps most importantly, the complaints are not usually due to the methodology itself, but rather due to lack of administrative support, and/or work overload. PBL methodology implies more human and material resources. The lack of experience in guided self-learning by lecturers requires more training. Some teachers may not feel comfortable with the method and therefore do not apply it correctly.

Despite how effective and/or attractive the PBL methodology may seem, some (not many) authors are clearly detractors and have published opinion articles with fierce criticism to this methodology. Some of the arguments against are as follows: clinical problem solving is the wrong task for preclinical medical students, self-directed learning interpreted as self-teaching is not appropriate in undergraduate medical education, relegation to the role of facilitators is a misuse of the faculty, small-group experience is inherently variable and sometimes dysfunctional, etc. [ 137 ].

In light of the results found in our study, we believe that PBL is an adequate methodology for the training of future doctors and reinforces the idea that the PBL should have an important weight in the curriculum of our medical school. It is likely that training through PBL, the doctors of the future will not only have great knowledge but may also acquire greater capacity for communication, problem solving and self-learning, all of which are characteristics that are required in medical professionalism. For this purpose, Koh et al. analyzed the effect that PBL during medical school had on physician competencies after graduation, finding a positive effect mainly in social and cognitive dimensions [ 138 ].

Despite its defects and limitations, we must not abandon this methodology and, in any case, perhaps PBL should evolve, adapt, and improve to enhance its strengths and improve its weaknesses. It is likely that the new generations, trained in schools using new technologies and methodologies far from lectures, will feel more comfortable (either as students or as tutors) with methodologies more like PBL (small groups and work focused on problems or projects). It would be interesting to examine the implementation of technologies and even social media into PBL sessions, an issue that has been poorly explorer [ 139 ].

Limitations

Scoping reviews are not without limitations. Our review includes 124 articles from the 2399 initially identified and despite our efforts to be as comprehensive as possible, we may have missed some (probably few) articles. Even though this review includes many studies, their design is very heterogeneous, only a few include a large sample size and high scientific evidence methodology. Furthermore, most are single-center experiences and there are no large multi-center studies. Finally, the frequency of the PBL sessions (from once or twice a year to the whole curriculum) was not considered, in part, because most of the revised studies did not specify this information. This factor could affect the efficiency of PBL and the perceptions of students and tutors about PBL. However, the adoption of a scoping review methodology was effective in terms of summarizing the research findings, identifying limitations in studies’ methodologies and findings and provided a more rigorous vision of the international state of the art.

Conclusions

This systematic scoping review provides a broad overview of the efficacy of PBL methodology in undergraduate medicine teaching from different countries and institutions. PBL is not a new teaching method given that it has already been 50 years since it was implemented in medicine courses. It is a method that shifts the leading role from teachers to students and is based on guided self-learning. If it is applied properly, the degree of satisfaction is high, especially for students. PBL is more effective than traditional methods (based mainly on lectures) at improving social and communication skills, problem-solving and self-learning skills, and has no worse results (and in many studies better results) in relation to academic performance. Despite that, its use is not universally widespread, probably because it requires greater human resources and continuous training for its implementation. In any case, more comparative and randomized studies and/or other systematic reviews and meta-analysis are required to determine which educational strategies could be most suitable for the training of future doctors.

Abbreviations

• Problem-based learning

Case-based learning

Team-based learning

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Characteristics ofthe 124 included studies.

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Trullàs, J.C., Blay, C., Sarri, E. et al. Effectiveness of problem-based learning methodology in undergraduate medical education: a scoping review. BMC Med Educ 22 , 104 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-022-03154-8

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Problem-based learning and project-based learning

Both problem-based learning and project-based learning are referred to as PBL, and some find it confusing to separate the two pedagogies.

So, what is the difference?

Problem-based learning originated in the 1960s and is a teaching pedagogy that is student-centred. Students learn about a topic through the solving of problems and generally work in groups to solve the problem where, often, there is no one correct answer. In short, ‘it empowers learners to conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and skills to develop a viable solution to a defined problem,’ (Savery, 2006).

Project-based learning has its origins back in the work of John Dewey and William Kilpatrick and dates back to 1918 when the term was first used ( Edutopia , 2014). Project-based learning is an instructional approach where students learn by investigating a complex question, problem or challenge. It promotes active learning, engages students, and allows for higher order thinking (Savery, 2006). Students explore real-world problems and find answers through the completion of a project. Students also have some control over the project they will be working on, how the project will finish, as well as the end product.

The differences

The difference between problem-based learning and project-based learning is that students who complete problem-based learning often share the outcomes and jointly set the learning goals and outcomes with the teacher. On the other hand, project-based learning is an approach where the goals are set. It is also quite structured in the way that the teaching occurs.

Project-based learning is often multidisciplinary and longer, whereas problem based learning is more likely to be a single subject and shorter. Generally, project-based learning follows general steps while problem-based learning provides specific steps. Importantly, project-based learning often involves authentic tasks that solve real-world problems while problem-based learning uses scenarios and cases that are perhaps less related to real life (Larmer, 2014).

In conclusion, it is probably the importance of conducting active learning with students that is worthy and not the actual name of the task. Both problem-based and project-based learning have their place in today’s classroom and can promote 21st Century learning.

Larmer, J. (2014). Project-based learning vs. problem-based learning vs. X-BL. Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org/blog/pbl-vs-pbl-vs-xbl-john-larmer

Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of problem-based learning: Definitions and distinctions. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1 (1). Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1002

Further information also available at:

Leggett, A. (2014). Active learning pedagogies: Problem-based learning. Retrieved from http://www.uq.edu.au/tediteach/flipped-classroom/problem-bl.html

Have you used project-based learning or problem-based learning in your classroom?

What activities did you use to engage the students?

Was there any evidence to suggest that students were more engaged?

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