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• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

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When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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Home » Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Historical Research

Definition:

Historical research is the process of investigating and studying past events, people, and societies using a variety of sources and methods. This type of research aims to reconstruct and interpret the past based on the available evidence.

Types of Historical Research

There are several types of historical research, including:

Descriptive Research

This type of historical research focuses on describing events, people, or cultures in detail. It can involve examining artifacts, documents, or other sources of information to create a detailed account of what happened or existed.

Analytical Research

This type of historical research aims to explain why events, people, or cultures occurred in a certain way. It involves analyzing data to identify patterns, causes, and effects, and making interpretations based on this analysis.

Comparative Research

This type of historical research involves comparing two or more events, people, or cultures to identify similarities and differences. This can help researchers understand the unique characteristics of each and how they interacted with each other.

Interpretive Research

This type of historical research focuses on interpreting the meaning of past events, people, or cultures. It can involve analyzing cultural symbols, beliefs, and practices to understand their significance in a particular historical context.

Quantitative Research

This type of historical research involves using statistical methods to analyze historical data. It can involve examining demographic information, economic indicators, or other quantitative data to identify patterns and trends.

Qualitative Research

This type of historical research involves examining non-numerical data such as personal accounts, letters, or diaries. It can provide insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period.

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods are as follows:

• Archival research : This involves analyzing documents and records that have been preserved over time, such as government records, diaries, letters, newspapers, and photographs. Archival research is often conducted in libraries, archives, and museums.
• Oral history : This involves conducting interviews with individuals who have lived through a particular historical period or event. Oral history can provide a unique perspective on past events and can help to fill gaps in the historical record.
• Artifact analysis: This involves examining physical objects from the past, such as tools, clothing, and artwork, to gain insights into past cultures and practices.
• Secondary sources: This involves analyzing published works, such as books, articles, and academic papers, that discuss past events and cultures. Secondary sources can provide context and insights into the historical period being studied.
• Statistical analysis : This involves analyzing numerical data from the past, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends.
• Fieldwork : This involves conducting on-site research in a particular location, such as visiting a historical site or conducting ethnographic research in a particular community. Fieldwork can provide a firsthand understanding of the culture and environment being studied.
• Content analysis: This involves analyzing the content of media from the past, such as films, television programs, and advertisements, to gain insights into cultural attitudes and beliefs.

Data Analysis Methods

• Content analysis : This involves analyzing the content of written or visual material, such as books, newspapers, or photographs, to identify patterns and themes. Content analysis can be used to identify changes in cultural values and beliefs over time.
• Textual analysis : This involves analyzing written texts, such as letters or diaries, to understand the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period. Textual analysis can provide insights into how people lived and thought in the past.
• Discourse analysis : This involves analyzing how language is used to construct meaning and power relations in a particular historical period. Discourse analysis can help to identify how social and political ideologies were constructed and maintained over time.
• Statistical analysis: This involves using statistical methods to analyze numerical data, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends. Statistical analysis can help to identify changes in population demographics, economic conditions, and other factors over time.
• Comparative analysis : This involves comparing data from two or more historical periods or events to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can help to identify patterns and trends that may not be apparent from analyzing data from a single historical period.
• Qualitative analysis: This involves analyzing non-numerical data, such as oral history interviews or ethnographic field notes, to identify themes and patterns. Qualitative analysis can provide a rich understanding of the experiences and perspectives of individuals in the past.

Historical Research Methodology

Here are the general steps involved in historical research methodology:

• Define the research question: Start by identifying a research question that you want to answer through your historical research. This question should be focused, specific, and relevant to your research goals.
• Review the literature: Conduct a review of the existing literature on the topic of your research question. This can involve reading books, articles, and academic papers to gain a thorough understanding of the existing research.
• Develop a research design : Develop a research design that outlines the methods you will use to collect and analyze data. This design should be based on the research question and should be feasible given the resources and time available.
• Collect data: Use the methods outlined in your research design to collect data on past events, people, and cultures. This can involve archival research, oral history interviews, artifact analysis, and other data collection methods.
• Analyze data : Analyze the data you have collected using the methods outlined in your research design. This can involve content analysis, textual analysis, statistical analysis, and other data analysis methods.
• Interpret findings : Use the results of your data analysis to draw meaningful insights and conclusions related to your research question. These insights should be grounded in the data and should be relevant to the research goals.
• Communicate results: Communicate your findings through a research report, academic paper, or other means. This should be done in a clear, concise, and well-organized manner, with appropriate citations and references to the literature.

Applications of Historical Research

Historical research has a wide range of applications in various fields, including:

• Education : Historical research can be used to develop curriculum materials that reflect a more accurate and inclusive representation of history. It can also be used to provide students with a deeper understanding of past events and cultures.
• Museums : Historical research is used to develop exhibits, programs, and other materials for museums. It can provide a more accurate and engaging presentation of historical events and artifacts.
• Public policy : Historical research is used to inform public policy decisions by providing insights into the historical context of current issues. It can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of past policies and programs.
• Business : Historical research can be used by businesses to understand the evolution of their industry and to identify trends that may affect their future success. It can also be used to develop marketing strategies that resonate with customers’ historical interests and values.
• Law : Historical research is used in legal proceedings to provide evidence and context for cases involving historical events or practices. It can also be used to inform the development of new laws and policies.
• Genealogy : Historical research can be used by individuals to trace their family history and to understand their ancestral roots.
• Cultural preservation : Historical research is used to preserve cultural heritage by documenting and interpreting past events, practices, and traditions. It can also be used to identify and preserve historical landmarks and artifacts.

Examples of Historical Research

Examples of Historical Research are as follows:

• Examining the history of race relations in the United States: Historical research could be used to explore the historical roots of racial inequality and injustice in the United States. This could help inform current efforts to address systemic racism and promote social justice.
• Tracing the evolution of political ideologies: Historical research could be used to study the development of political ideologies over time. This could help to contextualize current political debates and provide insights into the origins and evolution of political beliefs and values.
• Analyzing the impact of technology on society : Historical research could be used to explore the impact of technology on society over time. This could include examining the impact of previous technological revolutions (such as the industrial revolution) on society, as well as studying the current impact of emerging technologies on society and the environment.
• Documenting the history of marginalized communities : Historical research could be used to document the history of marginalized communities (such as LGBTQ+ communities or indigenous communities). This could help to preserve cultural heritage, promote social justice, and promote a more inclusive understanding of history.

Purpose of Historical Research

The purpose of historical research is to study the past in order to gain a better understanding of the present and to inform future decision-making. Some specific purposes of historical research include:

• To understand the origins of current events, practices, and institutions : Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
• To develop a more accurate and inclusive understanding of history : Historical research can be used to correct inaccuracies and biases in historical narratives. By exploring different perspectives and sources of information, we can develop a more complete and nuanced understanding of history.
• To inform decision-making: Historical research can be used to inform decision-making in various fields, including education, public policy, business, and law. By understanding the historical context of current issues, we can make more informed decisions about how to address them.
• To preserve cultural heritage : Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage, including traditions, practices, and artifacts. By understanding the historical significance of these cultural elements, we can work to preserve them for future generations.
• To stimulate curiosity and critical thinking: Historical research can be used to stimulate curiosity and critical thinking about the past. By exploring different historical perspectives and interpretations, we can develop a more critical and reflective approach to understanding history and its relevance to the present.

When to use Historical Research

Historical research can be useful in a variety of contexts. Here are some examples of when historical research might be particularly appropriate:

• When examining the historical roots of current events: Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
• When examining the historical context of a particular topic : Historical research can be used to explore the historical context of a particular topic, such as a social issue, political debate, or scientific development. By understanding the historical context, we can gain a more nuanced understanding of the topic and its significance.
• When exploring the evolution of a particular field or discipline : Historical research can be used to explore the evolution of a particular field or discipline, such as medicine, law, or art. By understanding the historical development of the field, we can gain a better understanding of its current state and future directions.
• When examining the impact of past events on current society : Historical research can be used to examine the impact of past events (such as wars, revolutions, or social movements) on current society. By understanding the historical context and impact of these events, we can gain insights into current social and political issues.
• When studying the cultural heritage of a particular community or group : Historical research can be used to document and preserve the cultural heritage of a particular community or group. By understanding the historical significance of cultural practices, traditions, and artifacts, we can work to preserve them for future generations.

Characteristics of Historical Research

The following are some characteristics of historical research:

• Focus on the past : Historical research focuses on events, people, and phenomena of the past. It seeks to understand how things developed over time and how they relate to current events.
• Reliance on primary sources: Historical research relies on primary sources such as letters, diaries, newspapers, government documents, and other artifacts from the period being studied. These sources provide firsthand accounts of events and can help researchers gain a more accurate understanding of the past.
• Interpretation of data : Historical research involves interpretation of data from primary sources. Researchers analyze and interpret data to draw conclusions about the past.
• Use of multiple sources: Historical research often involves using multiple sources of data to gain a more complete understanding of the past. By examining a range of sources, researchers can cross-reference information and validate their findings.
• Importance of context: Historical research emphasizes the importance of context. Researchers analyze the historical context in which events occurred and consider how that context influenced people’s actions and decisions.
• Subjectivity : Historical research is inherently subjective, as researchers interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own perspectives and biases. Researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis.
• Importance of historical significance: Historical research emphasizes the importance of historical significance. Researchers consider the historical significance of events, people, and phenomena and their impact on the present and future.
• Use of qualitative methods : Historical research often uses qualitative methods such as content analysis, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis to analyze data and draw conclusions about the past.

Advantages of Historical Research

There are several advantages to historical research:

• Provides a deeper understanding of the past : Historical research can provide a more comprehensive understanding of past events and how they have shaped current social, political, and economic conditions. This can help individuals and organizations make informed decisions about the future.
• Helps preserve cultural heritage: Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage. By studying the history of a particular culture, researchers can gain insights into the cultural practices and beliefs that have shaped that culture over time.
• Provides insights into long-term trends : Historical research can provide insights into long-term trends and patterns. By studying historical data over time, researchers can identify patterns and trends that may be difficult to discern from short-term data.
• Facilitates the development of hypotheses: Historical research can facilitate the development of hypotheses about how past events have influenced current conditions. These hypotheses can be tested using other research methods, such as experiments or surveys.
• Helps identify root causes of social problems : Historical research can help identify the root causes of social problems. By studying the historical context in which these problems developed, researchers can gain a better understanding of how they emerged and what factors may have contributed to their development.
• Provides a source of inspiration: Historical research can provide a source of inspiration for individuals and organizations seeking to address current social, political, and economic challenges. By studying the accomplishments and struggles of past generations, researchers can gain insights into how to address current challenges.

Limitations of Historical Research

Some Limitations of Historical Research are as follows:

• Reliance on incomplete or biased data: Historical research is often limited by the availability and quality of data. Many primary sources have been lost, destroyed, or are inaccessible, making it difficult to get a complete picture of historical events. Additionally, some primary sources may be biased or represent only one perspective on an event.
• Difficulty in generalizing findings: Historical research is often specific to a particular time and place and may not be easily generalized to other contexts. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions about human behavior or social phenomena.
• Lack of control over variables : Historical research often lacks control over variables. Researchers cannot manipulate or control historical events, making it difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Subjectivity of interpretation : Historical research is often subjective because researchers must interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own biases and perspectives. Different researchers may interpret the same data differently, leading to different conclusions.
• Limited ability to test hypotheses: Historical research is often limited in its ability to test hypotheses. Because the events being studied have already occurred, researchers cannot manipulate variables or conduct experiments to test their hypotheses.
• Lack of objectivity: Historical research is often subjective, and researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis. However, it can be difficult to maintain objectivity when studying events that are emotionally charged or controversial.
• Limited generalizability: Historical research is often limited in its generalizability, as the events and conditions being studied may be specific to a particular time and place. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions that apply to other contexts or time periods.

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The History of the Case Study at Harvard Business School

• 28 Feb 2017

Many first-time HBS Online participants are surprised to learn that, often, the professor is not at the center of their learning experience. Instead of long faculty lectures, the HBS Online learning model centers on smaller, more digestible pieces of content that require participants to interact with each other, test concepts, and learn from real-world examples.

Often, the professor fades into the background and lets the focus shift to interviews with executives, industry leaders, and small business owners. Some students might be left thinking, "Wait, where did that professor go? Why am I learning about a grocery store in Harvard Square?"

In the words of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy , “Don’t panic.” These interviews, or cases, feature leaders at companies of all sizes and provide valuable examples of business concepts in action. This case study method forms the backbone of the Harvard Business School curriculum.

Back in the 1920s, HBS professors decided to develop and experiment with innovative and unique business instruction methods. As the first school in the world to design a signature, distinctive program in business, later to be called the MBA, there was a need for a teaching method that would benefit this novel approach.

HBS professors selected and took a few pages to summarize recent events, momentous challenges, strategic planning, and important decisions undertaken by major companies and organizations. The idea was, and remains to this day, that through direct contact with a real-world case, students will think independently about those facts, discuss and compare their perspectives and findings with their peers, and eventually discover a new concept on their own.

Central to the case method is the idea that students are not provided the "answer" or resolution to the problem at hand. Instead, just like a board member, CEO, or manager, the student is forced to analyze a situation and find solutions without full knowledge of all methods and facts. Without excluding more traditional aspects, such as interaction with professors and textbooks, the case method provides the student with the opportunity to think and act like managers.

Since 1924, the case method has been the most widely applied and successful teaching instrument to come out of HBS, and it is used today in almost all MBA and Executive Education courses there, as well as in hundreds of other top business schools around the world. The application of the case method is so extensive that HBS students will often choose to rely on cases, instead of textbooks or other material, for their research. Large corporations use the case method as well to approach their own challenges, while competing universities create their own versions for their students.

This is what the case method does—it puts students straight into the game, and ensures they acquire not just skills and abstract knowledge, but also a solid understanding of the outside world.

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Historical research, you are here.

...qualitative research helps to understand human experience and meaning within a given context using text rather than numbers, interpreting experience and meaning to generate understanding, and recognizing the role of the researcher in the construction of knowledge.

We use a Qualitative Research Framework as proposed by Carter and Little (2007, pp. 1316) (figure below) founded on epistemology, methodology and method, and their interrelationships:

Epistemology guides methodological choices and is axiological. Methodology shapes and is shaped by research objectives, questions, and study design. Methodologies can prescribe choices of method, resonate with particular academic disciplines, and encourage or discourage the use and/or development of theory. Method is constrained by and makes visible methodological and epistemic choices.

...hard skills [Positivism] are focused on the administrative tasks, in particular the use of the toolsets within project management, and associated with a hard systems worldview. Soft skills [Interprevitism] enable working through and with people and groups, and with that, handling the associated human factors. (Maylor and Söderlund, 2012, pp. 689)

As part of our approach there are two primary research methodologies, case study research and historiography advocated for researching historical management and project management. Both have been used extensively for LFH publications. Knowledge of the past can inform our future actions, so it is necessary that the interpretation of history is based on sound historiographical techniques and judgements. A third supportive methodology interdisciplinarity has been used with more recent publications to guide the research.

The research can be used to discover patterns in different historical case studies.

According to Petty et al (2012, pp.269):

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Historical Case Studies: The “Model Organisms” of Philosophy of Science

• Original Research
• Published: 14 February 2020
• Volume 87 , pages 933–952, ( 2022 )

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• Samuel Schindler   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5656-9840 1 &
• Raphael Scholl   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7161-2715 2  

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Philosophers use historical case studies to support wide-ranging claims about science. This practice is often criticized as problematic. In this paper we suggest that the function of case studies can be understood and justified by analogy to a well-established practice in biology: the investigation of model organisms. We argue that inferences based on case studies are no more (or less) problematic than inferences from model organisms to larger classes of organisms in biology. We demonstrate our view in detail by reference to a case study with a long history: Semmelweis’s discovery of the cause of childbed fever.

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Contrasting Cases: The Lotka-Volterra Model Times Three

“baseline” and “snapshot”: philosophical reflections on an approach to historical case studies.

Philosophy of Science and the Curse of the Case Study

See Worrall ( 1989 ). For lists of historical cases that have been discussed in the realism debate see Laudan ( 1981 ) and Vickers ( 2013 ).

See Weber ( 2008 ), Craver ( 2008 ) and Levy ( 2013 ).

Like Lennox ( 2001 ), we refer to our proposal as a “phylogenetic approach”, but we take the analogy to phylogenetic reasoning in biology in a different direction.

This is not to say, however, that complicated cases can never be used for extrapolatory inferences. On the contrary, sometimes it may be worth-while for the philosophical community to pick very complex cases and to direct all efforts on those. That would be advisable when methodological complexity is called for by the historical cases which the case study under consideration is supposed to elucidate.

For an in-depth discussion of this sometimes overlooked aspect of Lakatos’s work see Schindler ( 2018 ).

Whether Laudan’s account in fact accommodates progress is debated. See Worrall ( 1988 ), Laudan ( 1989 ), and Worrall ( 1989 ).

Notably, Kuhn made an explicit analogy between evolution by natural selection and the growth of scientific ideas in Chapter XIII of Structure .

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Acknnowledgements

We received helpful comments from several referees and the audiences at the Eighth Quadrennial Fellows Conference organized by the Pittsburgh Centre for Philosophy of Science in Lund in 2016 and the Twenty-Fifth Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association in Atlanta in 2016. In particular we thank Dana Tulodziecki, Kareem Khalifa, Lilia Gurova, Mike Stuart, Sara Green, Caterina Schürch, and Tim Lewens’s group at the Department of HPS in Cambridge. Raphael Scholl was supported in part by a grant from the Swiss National Science Foundation (grant number P300P1_154590).

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Schindler, S., Scholl, R. Historical Case Studies: The “Model Organisms” of Philosophy of Science. Erkenn 87 , 933–952 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10670-020-00224-5

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Case study research design is a versatile method used across various fields like design, accounting, and cultural landscapes to gain in-depth insights into specific cases or bounded systems . It allows researchers to explore "how" and "why" questions, offering a holistic understanding of the subject within real-life contexts . In accounting, case study design can be approached quantitatively, qualitatively, or through mixed methods, providing flexibility while maintaining analytical rigor . Case-control studies, a type of case study, are observational and involve comparing cases with controls to determine associations between exposures and outcomes, often using logistic regression for analysis . Cultural landscape case studies emphasize the importance of understanding and safeguarding heritage landscapes, showcasing the complex interactions between cultural and natural systems at various scales . Overall, case study research design is a valuable tool for exploring specific cases comprehensively and uncovering intricate details through a methodical investigative approach.

A case study in research is a versatile and intensive methodology used across various disciplines, including social sciences, health research, and medical education, to investigate a single unit, such as an individual, group, community, or phenomenon, in depth and within its real-life context . This approach is particularly valuable for exploring complex phenomena where the interaction between context and the subject of study is dynamic and multifaceted . Case studies can provide rich, contextualized insights and are often employed to understand causal mechanisms, the conditions under which these mechanisms operate, and the theories of causality held by system actors . Despite their potential, there is considerable variation in how case studies are defined, designed, and reported, which can diminish their perceived value and utility . For instance, in nursing research, the term 'case' can be narrowly defined, sometimes overlooking the broader context influencing the phenomenon under study . In medical education, well-structured case studies can reveal critical insights into teaching, learning, leadership, and innovation, although inconsistencies in their application can limit their effectiveness . Collaborative research teams using case studies can enhance research capacity and foster positive academic relationships, leveraging the strengths of individual team members to produce more robust findings . Despite concerns about their generalizability, case studies are argued to offer credible new insights and valuable explanations, particularly in applied social sciences and policy-making contexts . To maximize their impact, it is recommended that case study researchers adopt clear methodological guidelines and ensure transparency in reporting to aid discoverability and enhance the evidence base for complex interventions .

A case study in qualitative research design focuses on a single bounded system, such as an individual, a group, or a program, to provide a holistic understanding within real-life contexts, emphasizing the "how" and "why" questions . It allows researchers to delve deeply into the intricacies of a specific case, aiming to illuminate uniqueness, promote vicarious experiences, and support theorization about broader phenomena . Qualitative case studies are valuable for capturing lived experiences authentically, enabling generalization of findings when well-grounded theoretically . This approach is particularly useful in studying complex phenomena within their contexts, aiding in theory development, program evaluation, and intervention design in fields like health sciences .

Historical studies are utilized in research design to enhance the efficiency and accuracy of various types of trials. Incorporating historical data can improve the operating characteristics of model-assisted designs, such as the Bayesian optimal interval (BOIN) and modified toxicity probability interval (mTPI) designs, similar to model-based designs . Furthermore, leveraging historical data in phase 2 randomized controlled trials can lead to reduced sample sizes without compromising statistical power, especially in oncology Bayesian augmented control (BAC) trials . Historical control trials, which compare experimental treatments with previously conducted controls, can better identify promising treatments in early phases by assigning all samples to the experimental arm . However, it is crucial to consider the limitations of retrospective studies, such as missing information and biases, when interpreting results and planning prospective studies .

A case study is a research method that involves investigating a subject area and its contextual position . It allows for a holistic understanding of a thing within real-life contexts from the perspective of those involved . Case studies are used to study social movements and movement-related processes, distinguishing them from other research strategies . The case study method has historical origins in applied and natural sciences and is widely used in social science, political and cultural studies, sociology, and educational research . Case studies are crucial research tools that work in dialogue with other methodologies to identify real-world challenges and understand the systemic complexity of specific instances . They can elaborate on findings from other research, offer caveats, or raise new research questions . Overall, case studies are a method of inquiry that allows for a deep understanding of individual cases and are suited to research that asks "how" and "why" questions .

Trending Questions

The role of science and technology in globalization is multifaceted, serving as both a driver and a product of global interconnectedness. Science and technology have become integral to national economies, with countries leveraging global knowledge to enhance their competitiveness in a rapidly changing geopolitical landscape . The globalization of science is characterized by the embedding of national science systems within a global framework, where individual scientists' capacity for international collaboration is crucial for harnessing global knowledge . Furthermore, the globalization of science and technology is propelled by international trade and technology transfers, which are essential for economic growth and innovation . However, the dynamics of globalization also reveal tensions, such as the resistance to cultural homogenization and the push for national uniqueness, which complicate the integration of science and technology across borders . Overall, while science and technology facilitate globalization, they also reflect the complexities and contradictions inherent in global cooperation .

Teachers assigned to far-flung schools face a multitude of challenges that significantly impact their professional experience and effectiveness. Key issues include transportation difficulties, which hinder access to schools, and inadequate physical facilities, such as insufficient water and food supplies, which affect both teachers and students' learning environments. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated these challenges, as novice teachers struggled to maintain educational continuity amidst health crises, often relying on community support and reflective practices to adapt their teaching methods. Moreover, English teachers in remote areas reported challenges related to school-based management, including a lack of parental motivation, low student competence, and overwhelming responsibilities. The shortage of qualified teachers, particularly for culturally and linguistically diverse students, further complicates the situation in rural settings. Collectively, these factors create a demanding environment that requires robust support systems and collaborative efforts among educators, administrators, and the community to enhance teaching effectiveness and student outcomes.

To prove mechanisms in psychological research, it is essential to identify and empirically test the processes that underlie observed psychological phenomena. Mechanistic explanations involve decomposing complex systems into their component parts and operations, allowing researchers to construct models that elucidate how these mechanisms function within a broader context. For instance, in psychotherapy, mechanisms such as emotional engagement and cognitive changes are critical for understanding how interventions like cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) produce outcomes. Research should focus on clearly specifying these mechanisms and employing rigorous empirical methods to test them, as this can differentiate between theories with similar predictions. Additionally, studies should explore shared mechanisms across different treatments, as findings suggest that various therapeutic approaches may achieve similar outcomes through common underlying processes. This comprehensive approach not only enhances theoretical understanding but also informs practical applications in psychological interventions.

Chapter 5 of the book '10.1201/9781003256830-5' holds significant importance as it explores various interdisciplinary themes, each contributing to a broader understanding of their respective fields. For instance, one context discusses the clinical significance of herb-drug interactions, highlighting safety concerns regarding herbal supplements and their potential pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions with conventional medications. Another context shifts focus to the "geometry of reaction" in mathematics, examining the social dynamics and historical context of synthetic mathematics, which reflects a modern anxiety about the purity of mathematical knowledge. Additionally, the chapter addresses the evolution of birth figures in midwifery, challenging traditional narratives by presenting a diverse visual culture in medical illustrations. Lastly, it considers the impact of public art installations on environmental awareness, emphasizing the role of placement and presence in rhetoric. Collectively, these discussions underscore the chapter's role in bridging diverse academic inquiries and fostering a multidisciplinary dialogue.

The term "related literature" refers to the body of existing research and theoretical frameworks that inform a specific study. It encompasses both the review and synthesis of prior work, which helps to contextualize new research within established knowledge. A literature review serves multiple purposes: it organizes existing knowledge, identifies gaps in the literature, and critiques previous studies to highlight weaknesses or discrepancies . This process not only aids researchers in understanding where their work fits within the broader academic discourse but also guides them in formulating their research questions and methodologies . Furthermore, literature-related discovery (LRD) emphasizes the importance of linking previously unconnected concepts to generate novel insights, thereby enhancing the potential for new discoveries . Ultimately, engaging with related literature is crucial for situating research within a continuum of knowledge and fostering academic dialogue .

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Historical Case Study

2020, Methods of Analysis

It would seem that historical method has always implied case study if interpreted as the history of single events, episodic history as different from universal history, courtes durées as different from longues durées. From the early twentieth century, historical case study was basically biography, particularities of individuals used to counter the “vast amount of generalization” marking most histories and textbooks (Nichols, 1927, p. 270). Yet historical case study, in the way historians think of it, is primarily a post-WWII methodology.

Related Papers

International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET)

IJRASET Publication

Historical research describes the past things what was happened. This is related with investigating, recording as well as interpreting the past events with respect to the in present perspectives. Historical research is a procedure for the observation with which researcher. It is a systematic collection and objective evaluation of the collected data with respect to the first occurrence to verify causes and effects related to the events with the help of these two explain the present events as well as anticipate for the future work purpose

Nadine Álvarez Montoya

Library & Information Science Research

Michael Widdersheim

Fr. B.M. Thomas

Historical method is technique developed to present past events in their correct perspective. It helps us to know how to write history, as the goal of historical writing is to reconstruct the past as nearly as it really happened, for this the material has to be used with great care. It involves diligently collecting of all relevant sources, critically examining the literal and real meaning of the text and penetrating or scrutiny to eliminate all possible errors. A historian also requires reason and imagination, skill and foresight, logic and intuition for presenting materials as he had to investigate things that took place decades or even hundreds or thousands of years ago without any trace of evidence. It is a process of making different parts of sources into integrated whole.

Albert Mills

Anil Kumar Prasanna Devaramatha Magala

Historical methods of research are the process of systematically examining an account of what has happened in the past. It is not facts and dates or even a description of past events. The dynamic account of past events that involves an interpretation attempt to recapture the personalities and ideas of the events. One of the goals of historical research is to communicating of past events. In the field of library and information science, there are vast arrays of topics that may be considered for conducting historical research. For example, a researcher may choose to answer to questions about the development of any type of the libraries, the rise of technology and the benefits/ problems it brings, the development of preservation methods, famous personalities in the field, library statistics, or geographical demographics and how they affect library distribution.

Journal of Applied History

Jelle van Lottum

The past few years, the field of applied history has witnessed the publication of several manifestoes, the establishment of dedicated research centers, and the foundation of an academic journal. Conceptual discussions about the notion of applied history and the very fact that the methods and techniques of applied history are now part of the discipline of history provide further evidence of the field’s maturity. By offering an historiographical overview tracing the roots of applied history, this article will show that both discussions about the contemporary relevance and application of historical thinking, and the actual application of history to current events, possess a long history: applied history has been part and parcel of history writing since ancient times. Moreover, the article offers a discussion of recent debates about the concept and methods of applied history and concludes by mapping the trends that are shaping its current development.

Aaron Milavec

This article details the personal history of how a New Testament and church history professor abandoned traditional teaching methods as he became captivated by the Harvard Case Study Method and went on to create dozens of Case Studies designed to facilitate the interactive learning of his college and seminary students. The advantages and disadvantages of this methodology are examined, with special attention being given to the needs of adult learners who find all significant learning to be deep, personal, and transformative. The article illustrates how the author orientates his students to readjust their learning style to take advantage of a self-discovery mode of learning. Details are provided as to how the Guardian Angel and Learning Partner function to facilitate cooperative learning and the sharing of satisfaction beyond the classroom. Teaching with Case Studies results in a nine-fold increase in the interaction between students in the classroom. Students respond enthusiastically because Case Studies enables them to do deep thinking, and everyone comes into class with something to contribute. Adult learners, more especially, learn best with Case Studies because they thrive when they are figuring things out for themselves and going at their own pace. Former graduates regularly return to tell me, "You were my best teacher." They invariably point to some combination of their experience doing my Case Studies and my contagious enthusiasm for learning. They say, "The Case Studies taught me how sacred texts are initially shaped by and later end up shaping a faith community." Others tell me how they repeatedly used the deep lessons learned: "Not a week passes when I don't make use of my discoveries in one or the other of your Case Studies." For many years I stayed away from the Case Study Methodology because I judged that the time in the classroom was too precious to waste on ill-defined and open-ended discussions. . . .

This article details the personal history of how a New Testament and church history professor abandoned traditional teaching methods as he became captivated by the Harvard Case Study Method and went on to create dozens of Case Studies designed to facilitate the interactive learning of his college and seminary students. The advantages and disadvantages of this methodology are examined, with special attention being given to the needs of adult learners who find all significant learning to be deep, personal, and transformative. The article illustrates how the author orientates his students to readjust their learning style to take advantage of a self-discovery mode of learning.

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Kolkata doctor rape-murder case: How the incident unfolded, what we know so far

In the biggest seizure of medical services in india, the indian medical association (ima) announced that non-essential services, such as routine opds and elective procedures, will be closed for a whole day on august 17 and 18, starting at 6 a.m..

• Updated Aug 16, 2024, 11:16 AM IST

The tragic rape and murder of the female trainee doctor at Kolkata’s R G Kar Medical College and Hospital have drawn nationwide outrage, leading to protests by junior doctors who have halted work to demand justice for the victim.

In the latest, while engaging with the students on Thursday, Suhrita Pal, the new principal of RGKMCH, lost her composure. In response to the horrifying rape and murder of a 31-year-old trainee doctor that occurred on Friday in the hospital's seminar hall, the demonstrating students demanded that Pal act right now.

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• 'Rape kahan nahi hota. Hathras aur Unnao mein toh...': TMC leader’s shocking statement on Kolkata hospital brutality
• 'Baam and Ram have done this': Mamata Banerjee blames Left and BJP for vandalism in Kolkata hospital
• Kolkata Doctor's rape & murder case: Who is Kolkata Police Commissioner Vineet Kumar Goyal, the IPS officer under fire for 'botched up' probe

On the other hand, in the biggest seizure of medical services, the Indian Medical Association (IMA) announced that non-essential services, such as routine OPDs and elective procedures, will be closed for a whole day on August 17 and 18, starting at 6 a.m. The night of the horrendous act

- A second-year postgraduate trainee doctor spent her night just like any other night. She had dinner with her juniors and decided to go take some rest at 2 am, early morning. 

- Due to a lack of rest space in the hospital, the doctor decided to go rest in the seminar hall, considering it safe to rest.

- Cut to next morning when her body was discovered semi-nude inside a seminar hall on August 9, after she had been on duty the previous night.

- Her father expressed grave concerns, stating that there were clear indications of rape and that the hospital was delaying the investigation.

How did the community respond?

- PGT doctors at the hospital immediately stopped working across all departments except the emergency services, demanding the immediate arrest of the perpetrators.

- Student associations organised rallies for a swift investigation.

- Opposition leaders, including Bengal BJP legislators, called for an independent magistrate-led investigation.

Autopsy revealed shocking details

- Several doctors who accessed the autopsy report have indicated a possibility of a gang rape.  In an exclusive interview with India Today TV, DR Subarna Goswami pointed out that the kind of injuries inflicted by the 31-year-old trainee doctor cannot be the work of one single person.

- She said that according to the autopsy report, 151 mg of liquid (semen) was found from the vaginal swab. "That quantity cannot be of one person. It suggests the involvement of multiple people," Dr Goswami said.

- Preliminary autopsy reports indicated that the victim was sexually assaulted before her murder.

- The autopsy ruled out suicide and found multiple injuries consistent with a violent death, including broken bones and bleeding from various body parts.

- Sources suggested that her nose and mouth were covered, and her head was forcefully pushed against a wall or floor to silence her cries for help.

- The crime is believed to have occurred between 3 am and 6 am, with signs of strangulation and smothering.

Arrests and investigations so far

- The police have arrested 33-year-old Sanjoy Roy, a civic volunteer, for his alleged role in the crime. Evidence, including a torn Bluetooth earphone, helped lead to his arrest.

- Roy had access to various hospital departments due to his connections with senior police officers and hospital authorities.

- Allegations surfaced regarding Roy’s past behaviour, including previous marital abuse and his history of watching pornography.

The buzz around the college's principal

- Dr Sandip Ghosh, the former head of RG Kar Medical College and Hospital, was asked to go on leave after concerns were raised over his leadership and response during the case.

- Dr Ghosh faced backlash for comments perceived as victim-blaming and for failing to maintain adequate safety for staff, after which he resigned from his post.

- However, in a surprising turn of events, he was reinstated as Principal of Calcutta Medical College and Hospital just 24 hours later.

Government and legal actions

- West Bengal Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee has called for the death penalty for the accused and has stated her support for the protesting doctors while also urging them to continue patient care.

- The state government has implemented police camps in hospitals to enhance security for healthcare workers and has promised to transfer the case to the CBI if local police do not make sufficient progress by the weekend.

Justice delayed is justice denied: Court hands over the case to CBI

- After pointing out serious flaws and lack of support from concerned officials in the case and no significant progress, the Kolkata High Court transferred the case to the CBI.

- The specialised team from the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) arrived in Kolkata on Wednesday, accompanied by forensic and medical experts, to begin the investigation into the alleged rape and murder. 

Arrests and investigation

- A total of 19 arrests have been made so far in the RG Kar hospital case. Five of those arrested were identified through social media feedback, according to the Kolkata Police

- Eight physicians and other medical personnel have been called in by the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) to be questioned in connection with the rape and murder case at RG Kar Medical College and Hospital. 

Reclaim the Night protest goes violent

- The 'Reclaim the Night' protest in Kolkata turned violent and chaotic late Wednesday night as a violent mob breached the RG Kar Medical College and Hospital, the site where a 31-year-old trainee doctor was tragically raped and murdered.

- Visual footage revealed scenes of havoc, with mob members vandalising the emergency ward of the medical facility and damaging police vehicles stationed nearby. 

Further investigations are underway. Now, the call for justice and safety in medical institutions is growing louder across the nation, impacting patient care and challenging the authorities to take decisive action.  

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New clue into the curious case of our ageing immune system

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A WEHI study could help solve a long-standing mystery into why a key immune organ in our bodies shrinks and loses its function as we get older.

The thymus is an organ essential for good health due to its ability to produce special immune cells that are responsible for fighting infections and cancer.

In a world-first, researchers have uncovered new cells that drive this ageing process in the thymus – significant findings that could unlock a way to restore function in the thymus and prevent our immunity from waning as we age.

T cells, also known as T lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in our immune system. T cells are essential for identifying and responding to pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria, and for eliminating infected or cancerous cells.

The thymus is a small, but mighty, organ that sits behind the breastbone. It is the only organ in the body that can make T cells.

But a curious feature of the thymus is that it is the first organ in our bodies to shrink as we get older. As this happens, the T cell growth areas in the thymus are replaced with fatty tissue, diminishing T cell production and contributing to a weakened immune system.

While the thymus is capable of regenerating from damage, to date researchers have been unable to figure out how to unlock this ability and boost immunity in humans as we age.

WEHI Laboratory Head Professor Daniel Gray said the new findings, published in Nature Immunology , could help solve this mystery that has stumped researchers for decades.

“The number of new T cells produced in the body significantly declines after puberty, irrespective of how fit you are. By age 65, the thymus has virtually retired,” Prof Gray said.

“This weakening of the thymus makes it harder for the body to deal with new infections, cancers and reg-ulate immunity as we age.

“This is also why adults who have depleted immune systems, for example due to cancer treatment or stem cell transplants, take much longer than children to recover.

“These adults need years to recover their T cells – or sometimes never do – putting them at higher risk of contracting potentially life-threatening infections for the rest of their lives.

“Exploring ways to restore thymic function is critical to finding new therapies that can improve outcomes for these vulnerable patients and find a way to ensure a healthy level of T cells are produced throughout our lives.”

The new study, an international collaboration with groups at the Fred Hutch Cancer Center (Seattle) and Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Centre (NYC), provides crucial new insights that could help achieve this goal.

“Our discovery provides a new angle for thymic regeneration and immune restoration, could unravel a way to boost immune function in vulnerable patients in the future,” Prof Gray said.

Scarring effects

Using advanced imaging techniques at WEHI’s Centre for Dynamic Imaging and animal models, the re-search team discovered two new cell types that cause the thymus to lose its function.

These cells, which appeared only in the defective thymus of older mice and humans, were found to form clusters around T cell growth areas, impairing the organ’s ability to make these important immune cells.

In a world-first, the researchers discovered these clusters also formed ‘scars’ in the thymus which prevented the organ from restoring itself after damage.

Dr Kelin Zhao, who led the imaging efforts, said the findings showed for the first time how this scarring process acts as a barrier to thymic regeneration and function.

“While a large focus of research into thymic loss of function has focused on the shrinking process, we’ve proven that changes that occur inside the organ also impact its ability to function with age,” Dr Zhao said.

“By capturing these cell clusters in the act and showing how they contribute to loss of thymic function, we’ve been able to do something no one else has ever done before, largely thanks to the incredible advanced imaging platforms we have at WEHI.

“This knowledge enables us to investigate whether these cells can be therapeutically targeted in future, to help turn back the clock on the ageing thymus and boost T cell function in humans as we get older. This is the goal our team is working towards.”

Rich WEHI history

The thymus has deep roots to the institute, with the function of the organ discovered by WEHI Emeritus Professor Jacques Miller in 1958.

While working at the Chester Beatty Research Institute in London, Prof Miller’s work on leukaemia led him to discover that the thymus was crucial to the development of the immune system. He is now credited as the last person to have identified the function of a major organ.

Prof Miller’s discovery revolutionised our understanding of the immune system, infection and disease, with many WEHI researchers – including Prof Daniel Gray’s lab – continuing to build upon his landmark findings.

This research was supported by National Institutes of Health, the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Cancer Council of Victoria, the Starr Cancer Consortium, the Tri-Institutional Stem Cell Initiative, The Lymphoma Foundation, The Susan and Peter Solomon Divisional Genomics Program, Cycle for Survival, and the Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy and the University of Melbourne Research Training Program Scholarship.

Header image: Pictured are the cells that form clusters in the thymus with age. On the left, the thymus from a two-month-old mouse has few age-associated (in blue) clusters. On the right, the thymus from a 24-month-old mouse shows many clusters. Researchers have found these clusters form ‘scars’ in the thymus which prevent the organ from restoring itself after damage. Credit: WEHI

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Supreme Court's immunity ruling a recipe for governmental lawlessness | Opinion

America is now being made to suffer because a few oblivious, politicalized, unethical hacks in black robes are clueless about this nation’s history.

One of the easiest ways to predict the future is to study the past. Case in point, the U.S. Supreme Court’s recent ruling bestowing immunity from criminal prosecution on presidential acts committed in an "official" capacity.

One frequent argument I’ve heard against this ruling is that it essentially makes the president a king. But what many have forgotten is that just a few decades ago, America actually did have such a king, and the results were not pretty.

During the 1950s through the early 1970s, J. Edgar Hoover, director of the FBI, covertly implemented the COINTELPRO operation. Although Hoover did not enjoy de jure immunity, what he did have was enough extortion material on prominent politicians that he essentially had de facto immunity.

COINTELPRO engaged in various forms of illegal activities, including conducting illegal spying, wiretapping, framing of innocent activists, and even government instigated violence, with perhaps the best known being the murders of Fred Hampton and Mark Clark in December of 1969.

Although Hoover died before the extent of COINTELPRO became known, two others who had allegedly ordered unauthorized break-ins, Mark Felt and Edward Miller, were tried and convicted, only to be pardoned by Ronald Reagan.

Now a sitting president can actually authorize legally what Hoover did illegally and also pardon those instructed to conduct these activities. If this is not a recipe for governmental lawlessness, then what is?

It has been said that those who do not learn from the past are doomed to repeat it, and America is now being made to suffer because a few oblivious, politicalized, unethical hacks in black robes are clueless about this nation’s history.

But this is not the only repetition of history Americans should be concerned about. While I am in no way endeavoring to minimize or exploit the recent assassination attempt against Donald Trump, which should appall all Americans, history has also shown that assassination attempts often result in brutal suppression of dissent and civil rights and liberties, often against political adversaries who played no role in the attempt.

Which raises the question of whether the same result will occur if Trump is elected president, especially now that he has been cloaked in the garments of absolute immunity.

In rationalizing its egregious "immunity" decision, the Supreme Court disingenuously cited Alexander Hamilton’s assertions about the need for a strong president. What they ignored is the fact that Hamilton was opposed to creating another king, and only wanted this presidential "strength" to be placed in principled hands.

In fact, one point of contention between Hamilton and Aaron Burr, which led to their famous duel, is that while Hamilton deplored the principles of Thomas Jefferson, Burr’s rival in the presidential election of 1800, he more deplored that Burr appeared to have no principles at all.

In a letter that sounds eerily relevant today, Hamilton wrote, "Mr. Jefferson, though too revolutionary in his notions, is yet a lover of liberty and will be desirous of something like orderly Government − Mr. Burr loves nothing but himself − thinks of nothing but his own aggrandizement − and will be content with nothing short of permanent power..."

As I said, one of the easiest ways to predict the future is to study the past.

David R. Hoffman is a retired civil rights and constitutional law attorney who lives in South Bend, Indiana.