research fields in medical science

What Premed Students Should Know About Emerging Fields of Medical Research

Aspiring physician-scientists should bone up on areas such as gene editing, nanotechnology and regenerative medicine.

Premeds and Emerging Medical Research

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If you find a field that interests you, don't hesitate to join a like-minded laboratory while training.

Premedical students aspiring to become physician-scientists will be tasked with navigating emerging fields in research and translating exciting discoveries into the clinical realm. Understanding the latest trends and breakthroughs in biomedical science is paramount for those hoping to bridge the gap between such cutting-edge research and clinical practice – a career goal for many aspiring physician-scientists.

What are these emerging fields, what should aspiring physician-scientists – including those applying to combined M.D.-Ph.D. programs – know about getting involved in these fields, and are there any pitfalls? 

This is an extraordinarily exciting time in scientific research, with recent breakthroughs in diverse fields such as gene editing, immunotherapies, nanotechnology, precision medicine, machine learning and regenerative medicine. Highlights run the gamut of the biomedical spectrum, including evolutionary genomics, novel neurotechnology, advances in cardiovascular imaging, cell-based therapies and therapeutic manipulation of the microbiome, to name a few.

Aspiring physician-scientists will undoubtedly be tempted to ride this wave of exciting discoveries and join laboratories moving the needle in these fields, many of which are still in their infancy. 

Premed students should be aware of these emerging fields, as these advances are expected to contribute increasingly to health care throughout the coming decades and will undoubtedly remain important for the duration of a lengthy career in medicine .

These fields are likely to hold long-term career opportunities for students interested in biomedical research. They also represent opportunities to contribute to innovation, be involved in groundbreaking discoveries and help shape the future of science and medicine.

Many emerging fields are exciting in part due to new or newly appreciated applications to clinical practice, with direct implications for patient care . By understanding these emerging fields, premed students will remain informed and up to date regarding novel treatment paradigms, new diagnostic tools and different preventive strategies that could benefit their future patients. 

Students’ research interests often evolve during undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate education. Many fascinating fields of biomedical science are neither new nor well known, and they deserve serious consideration. You will have multiple opportunities to change fields should your interests diverge at any point, so you should not feel locked in to the discipline of your first research experience.

However, if you do have a genuine intellectual interest in a popular scientific field at an early phase of training, don’t hesitate to join such a like-minded laboratory. 

Finding a Laboratory in Emerging Research Fields

If you are a premed student interested in an exciting field like cancer immunotherapy, genomics, AI-enabled precision medicine , etc., you may struggle to understand which laboratories would be appropriate and rewarding to join and a good fit for your career goals.

To start, assess the research landscape at your home institution through departmental web pages and note which faculty in your field of interest are involved in active research projects. Get in touch with a few faculty members and discuss the possibility of joining their laboratory.

As you learn about their research projects, you can also ask if they know of other labs in the same field that may also be of interest. Often, research faculty themselves are the best resource for understanding the current research landscape of the university, as departmental web pages and related resources can be out of date. 

Departmental administrators or undergraduate research coordinators may also be quite helpful in finding a lab in a specific area that would be a good fit for an undergraduate student. If you read a lay press article – especially from a local publication – about an area of exciting, “hot” science, pay attention to which studies and researchers they reference or quote. These investigators are often leading voices in the field. 

Use PubMed to find the latest work in a field or by a specific investigator. Explore the "trending articles" section to see which articles have had recent activity – a sign of a field gaining broad interest. If you find investigators doing work that is particularly interesting to you, use the "saved searches" function to get updates about their work directly in your email inbox. 

Appreciate that emerging fields are often a result of novel collaboration across disparate disciplines such as distinct subfields in biology and medicine, biomedical engineering or computer science .

Application of a known technology to a new field can also yield exciting advancements. A recent example is cryo-EM-mediated determination of complex structures, such as ligand-bound receptors, which could not previously be accurately determined.

Look for labs that are working in an interdisciplinary manner to tackle an important question in medicine or biology, and you are likely to find stimulating research in an important emerging field. 

Pitfalls to Avoid

Avoid presuming that only well-known fields with significant popularity and press attention are the only interesting domains of scientific research. The biggest discoveries often come from unpredictable places, and their genesis can be traced to less well-known fields.

Recent high-profile examples include prokaryotic genomics that spawned CRISPR/Cas9-based gene editing, and nucleoside modifications that advanced mRNA vaccines. This is characteristic of biomedical research and should lead you to explore various fields and meet with a variety of investigators to find the field, research and lab that most interest you. 

A few exceedingly popular fields – such as microbiome research, cancer immunotherapy , etc. – run the risk of becoming oversaturated, with many excellent investigators trying to solve similar problems. These fields can thus become quite competitive, with several associated challenges.

If you do join a competitive field, look for opportunities to do novel work that can separate your project from the rest of the crowd. A good strategy when selecting a laboratory is to assess which researchers are pushing the boundaries in these fields and are looking to incorporate interdisciplinary approaches, as they are more likely to be working in their own lane, away from other investigators. Use the same approach when selecting a project within your lab.

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• Medical Scientists: Jobs, Career, Salary and Education Information

Medical Scientists

Career, salary and education information.

What They Do : Medical scientists conduct research aimed at improving overall human health.

Work Environment : Medical scientists work in offices and laboratories. Most work full time.

How to Become One : Medical scientists typically have a Ph.D., usually in biology or a related life science. Some medical scientists get a medical degree instead of, or in addition to, a Ph.D.

Salary : The median annual wage for medical scientists is $95,310.

Job Outlook : Employment of medical scientists is projected to grow 17 percent over the next ten years, much faster than the average for all occupations.

Related Careers : Compare the job duties, education, job growth, and pay of medical scientists with similar occupations.

Following is everything you need to know about a career as a medical scientist with lots of details. As a first step, take a look at some of the following jobs, which are real jobs with real employers. You will be able to see the very real job career requirements for employers who are actively hiring. The link will open in a new tab so that you can come back to this page to continue reading about the career:

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Medical Science Liaison/ Senior Medical Science Liaison, Rheumatology- N. CA, MV, UT page is loaded Medical Science Liaison/ Senior Medical Science Liaison, Rheumatology- N. CA, MV, UT Apply ...

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What Medical Scientists Do [ About this section ] [ To Top ]

Medical scientists conduct research aimed at improving overall human health. They often use clinical trials and other investigative methods to reach their findings.

Duties of Medical Scientists

Medical scientists typically do the following:

• Design and conduct studies that investigate both human diseases and methods to prevent and treat them
• Prepare and analyze medical samples and data to investigate causes and treatment of toxicity, pathogens, or chronic diseases
• Standardize drug potency, doses, and methods to allow for the mass manufacturing and distribution of drugs and medicinal compounds
• Create and test medical devices
• Develop programs that improve health outcomes, in partnership with health departments, industry personnel, and physicians
• Write research grant proposals and apply for funding from government agencies and private funding sources
• Follow procedures to avoid contamination and maintain safety

Many medical scientists form hypotheses and develop experiments, with little supervision. They often lead teams of technicians and, sometimes, students, who perform support tasks. For example, a medical scientist working in a university laboratory may have undergraduate assistants take measurements and make observations for the scientist's research.

Medical scientists study the causes of diseases and other health problems. For example, a medical scientist who does cancer research might put together a combination of drugs that could slow the cancer's progress. A clinical trial may be done to test the drugs. A medical scientist may work with licensed physicians to test the new combination on patients who are willing to participate in the study.

In a clinical trial, patients agree to help determine if a particular drug, a combination of drugs, or some other medical intervention works. Without knowing which group they are in, patients in a drug-related clinical trial receive either the trial drug or a placebo—a pill or injection that looks like the trial drug but does not actually contain the drug.

Medical scientists analyze the data from all of the patients in the clinical trial, to see how the trial drug performed. They compare the results with those obtained from the control group that took the placebo, and they analyze the attributes of the participants. After they complete their analysis, medical scientists may write about and publish their findings.

Medical scientists do research both to develop new treatments and to try to prevent health problems. For example, they may study the link between smoking and lung cancer or between diet and diabetes.

Medical scientists who work in private industry usually have to research the topics that benefit their company the most, rather than investigate their own interests. Although they may not have the pressure of writing grant proposals to get money for their research, they may have to explain their research plans to nonscientist managers or executives.

Medical scientists usually specialize in an area of research within the broad area of understanding and improving human health. Medical scientists may engage in basic and translational research that seeks to improve the understanding of, or strategies for, improving health. They may also choose to engage in clinical research that studies specific experimental treatments.

Work Environment for Medical Scientists [ About this section ] [ To Top ]

Medical scientists hold about 119,200 jobs. The largest employers of medical scientists are as follows:

Medical scientists usually work in offices and laboratories. They spend most of their time studying data and reports. Medical scientists sometimes work with dangerous biological samples and chemicals, but they take precautions that ensure a safe environment.

Medical Scientist Work Schedules

Most medical scientists work full time.

How to Become a Medical Scientist [ About this section ] [ To Top ]

Get the education you need: Find schools for Medical Scientists near you!

Medical scientists typically have a Ph.D., usually in biology or a related life science. Some medical scientists get a medical degree instead of, or in addition to, a Ph.D.

Education for Medical Scientists

Students planning careers as medical scientists generally pursue a bachelor's degree in biology, chemistry, or a related field. Undergraduate students benefit from taking a broad range of classes, including life sciences, physical sciences, and math. Students also typically take courses that develop communication and writing skills, because they must learn to write grants effectively and publish their research findings.

After students have completed their undergraduate studies, they typically enter Ph.D. programs. Dual-degree programs are available that pair a Ph.D. with a range of specialized medical degrees. A few degree programs that are commonly paired with Ph.D. studies are Medical Doctor (M.D.), Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S.), Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.), Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.), and advanced nursing degrees. Whereas Ph.D. studies focus on research methods, such as project design and data interpretation, students in dual-degree programs learn both the clinical skills needed to be a physician and the research skills needed to be a scientist.

Graduate programs emphasize both laboratory work and original research. These programs offer prospective medical scientists the opportunity to develop their experiments and, sometimes, to supervise undergraduates. Ph.D. programs culminate in a dissertation that the candidate presents before a committee of professors. Students may specialize in a particular field, such as gerontology, neurology, or cancer.

Those who go to medical school spend most of the first 2 years in labs and classrooms, taking courses such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, psychology, microbiology, pathology, medical ethics, and medical law. They also learn how to record medical histories, examine patients, and diagnose illnesses. They may be required to participate in residency programs, meeting the same requirements that physicians and surgeons have to fulfill.

Medical scientists often continue their education with postdoctoral work. This provides additional and more independent lab experience, including experience in specific processes and techniques, such as gene splicing. Often, that experience is transferable to other research projects.

Licenses, Certifications, and Registrations for Medical Scientists

Medical scientists primarily conduct research and typically do not need licenses or certifications. However, those who administer drugs or gene therapy or who otherwise practice medicine on patients in clinical trials or a private practice need a license to practice as a physician.

Medical Scientist Training

Medical scientists often begin their careers in temporary postdoctoral research positions or in medical residency. During their postdoctoral appointments, they work with experienced scientists as they continue to learn about their specialties or develop a broader understanding of related areas of research. Graduates of M.D. or D.O. programs may enter a residency program in their specialty of interest. A residency usually takes place in a hospital and varies in duration, generally lasting from 3 to 7 years, depending on the specialty. Some fellowships exist that train medical practitioners in research skills. These may take place before or after residency.

Postdoctoral positions frequently offer the opportunity to publish research findings. A solid record of published research is essential to getting a permanent college or university faculty position.

Work Experience in a Related Occupation for Medical Scientists

Although it is not a requirement for entry, many medical scientists become interested in research after working as a physician or surgeon , or in another medical profession, such as dentist .

Important Qualities for Medical Scientists

Communication skills. Communication is critical, because medical scientists must be able to explain their conclusions. In addition, medical scientists write grant proposals, because grants often are required to fund their research.

Critical-thinking skills. Medical scientists must use their expertise to determine the best method for solving a specific research question.

Data-analysis skills. Medical scientists use statistical techniques, so that they can properly quantify and analyze health research questions.

Decisionmaking skills. Medical scientists must determine what research questions to ask, how best to investigate the questions, and what data will best answer the questions.

Observation skills. Medical scientists conduct experiments that require precise observation of samples and other health-related data. Any mistake could lead to inconclusive or misleading results.

Medical Scientist Salaries [ About this section ] [ More salary/earnings info ] [ To Top ]

The median annual wage for medical scientists is $95,310. The median wage is the wage at which half the workers in an occupation earned more than that amount and half earned less. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $50,100, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $166,980.

The median annual wages for medical scientists in the top industries in which they work are as follows:

Job Outlook for Medical Scientists [ About this section ] [ To Top ]

Employment of medical scientists is projected to grow 17 percent over the next ten years, much faster than the average for all occupations.

About 10,000 openings for medical scientists are projected each year, on average, over the decade. Many of those openings are expected to result from the need to replace workers who transfer to different occupations or exit the labor force, such as to retire.

Employment of Medical Scientists

Demand for medical scientists will stem from greater demand for a variety of healthcare services as the population continues to age and rates of chronic disease continue to increase. These scientists will be needed for research into treating diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and cancer, and problems related to treatment, such as resistance to antibiotics. In addition, medical scientists will continue to be needed for medical research as a growing population travels globally and facilitates the spread of diseases.

The availability of federal funds for medical research grants also may affect opportunities for these scientists.

Careers Related to Medical Scientists [ About this section ] [ To Top ]

Agricultural and food scientists.

Agricultural and food scientists research ways to improve the efficiency and safety of agricultural establishments and products.

Biochemists and Biophysicists

Biochemists and biophysicists study the chemical and physical principles of living things and of biological processes, such as cell development, growth, heredity, and disease.

Epidemiologists

Epidemiologists are public health professionals who investigate patterns and causes of disease and injury in humans. They seek to reduce the risk and occurrence of negative health outcomes through research, community education, and health policy.

Health Educators and Community Health Workers

Health educators teach people about behaviors that promote wellness. They develop and implement strategies to improve the health of individuals and communities. Community health workers collect data and discuss health concerns with members of specific populations or communities.

Medical and Clinical Laboratory Technologists and Technicians

Medical laboratory technologists (commonly known as medical laboratory scientists) and medical laboratory technicians collect samples and perform tests to analyze body fluids, tissue, and other substances.

Microbiologists

Microbiologists study microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, algae, fungi, and some types of parasites. They try to understand how these organisms live, grow, and interact with their environments.

Physicians and Surgeons

Physicians and surgeons diagnose and treat injuries or illnesses. Physicians examine patients; take medical histories; prescribe medications; and order, perform, and interpret diagnostic tests. They counsel patients on diet, hygiene, and preventive healthcare. Surgeons operate on patients to treat injuries, such as broken bones; diseases, such as cancerous tumors; and deformities, such as cleft palates.

Postsecondary Teachers

Postsecondary teachers instruct students in a wide variety of academic and technical subjects beyond the high school level. They may also conduct research and publish scholarly papers and books.

Veterinarians

Veterinarians care for the health of animals and work to improve public health. They diagnose, treat, and research medical conditions and diseases of pets, livestock, and other animals.

More Medical Scientist Information [ About this section ] [ To Top ]

For more information about research specialties and opportunities within specialized fields for medical scientists, visit

American Association for Cancer Research

American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

The American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science

American Society for Clinical Pathology

American Society for Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics

The American Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics

The Gerontological Society of America

Infectious Diseases Society of America

National Institute of General Medical Sciences

Society for Neuroscience

Society of Toxicology

A portion of the information on this page is used by permission of the U.S. Department of Labor.

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• Published: 07 December 2020

2021: research and medical trends in a post-pandemic world

• Mike May 1  

Nature Medicine volume  26 ,  pages 1808–1809 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Goodbye 2020, a year of arguably too many challenges for the world. As tempting as it is to leave this year behind, the biomedical community is forever changed by the pandemic, while business as usual needs to carry on. Looking forward to a new year, experts share six trends for the biomedical community in 2021.

Summing up 2020, Sharon Peacock, director of the COVID-19 Genomics UK Consortium, says “we’ve seen some excellent examples of people working together from academia, industry, and healthcare sectors...I’m hopeful that will stay with us going into 2021.” Nonetheless, we have lost ground and momentum in non-COVID research, she says. “This could have a profound effect on our ability to research other areas in the future.”

The coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has already revealed weaknesses in medical research and clinical capabilities, as well as opportunities. Although it is too soon to know when countries around the world will control the COVID-19 pandemic, there is already much to be learned.

To explore trends for 2021, we talked to experts from around the world who specialize in medical research. Here is what we learned.

1. The new normal

Marion Koopman, head of the Erasmus MC Department of Viroscience, predicts that emerging-disease experts will overwhelmingly remain focused on SARS-CoV-2, at least for the coming year.

“I really hope we will not go back to life as we used to know it, because that would mean that the risk of emerging diseases and the need for an ambitious preparedness research agenda would go to the back burner,” Koopman says. “That cannot happen.”

Scientists must stay prepared, because the virus keeps changing. Already, Koopman says, “We have seen spillback [of SARS-CoV-2] into mink in our country, and ongoing circulation with accumulation of mutations in the spike and other parts of the genome.”

Juleen R. Zierath, an expert in the physiological mechanisms of metabolic diseases at the Karolinska Institute and the University of Copenhagen, points out that the pandemic “has raised attention to deleterious health consequences of metabolic diseases, including obesity and type 2 diabetes,” because people with these disorders have been “disproportionally affected by COVID-19.” She notes that the coupling of the immune system to metabolism at large probably deserves more attention.

2. Trial by fire for open repositories

The speed of SARS-CoV-2’s spread transformed how scientists disseminate information. “There is an increased use of open repositories such as bioRxiv and medRxiv, enabling faster dissemination of study and trial results,” says Alan Karthikesalingam, Research Lead at Google Health UK. “When paired with the complementary — though necessarily slower — approach of peer review that safeguards rigor and quality, this can result in faster innovation.”

“I suspect that the way in which we communicate ongoing scientific developments from our laboratories will change going forward,” Zierath says. That is already happening, with many meetings going to virtual formats.

Deborah Johnson, president and CEO of the Keystone Symposia on Molecular and Cellular Biology, notes that while virtual events cannot fully replace the networking opportunities that are created with in-person meetings, “virtual events have democratized access to biomedical research conferences, enabling greater participation from young investigators and those from low-and-middle-income countries.” Even when in-person conferences return, she says, “it will be important to continue to offer virtual components that engage these broader audiences.”

3. Leaps and bounds for immunology

Basic research on the immune system, catapulted to the frontlines of the COVID-19 response, has received a boost in attention this year, and more research in that field could pay off big going forward.

Immunobiologist Akiko Iwasaki at the Yale School of Medicine hopes that the pandemic will drive a transformation in immunology. “It has become quite clear over decades of research that mucosal immunity against respiratory, gastrointestinal, and sexually transmitted infections is much more effective in thwarting off invading pathogens than systemic immunity,” she says. “Yet, the vast majority of vaccine efforts are put into parenteral vaccines.”

“It is time for the immunology field to do a deep dive in understanding fundamental mechanisms of protection at the mucosal surfaces, as well as to developing strategies that allow the immune response to be targeted to the mucosal surfaces,” she explains.

“We are discovering that the roles of immune cells extend far beyond what was previously thought, to play underlying roles in health and disease across all human systems, from cancer to mental health,” says Johnson.

She sees this knowledge leading to more engineered immune cells to treat diseases. “Cancer immunotherapies will likely serve as the proving ground for immune-mediated therapies against many other diseases that we are only starting to see through the lens of the immune system.”

4. Rewind time for neurodegeneration

Oskar Hansson, research team manager of Lund University’s Clinical Memory Research, expects the trend of attempting to intervene against neurodegenerative disease before widespread neurodegeneration, and even before symptom onset, to continue next year.

This approach has already shown potential. “Several promising disease-modifying therapies against Alzheimer’s disease are now planned to be evaluated in this early pre-symptomatic disease phase,” he says, “and I think we will have similar developments in other areas like Parkinson’s disease and [amyotrophic lateral sclerosis].”

Delving deeper into such treatments depends on better understanding of how neurodegeneration develops. As Hansson notes, the continued development of cohort studies from around the world will help scientists “study how different factors — genetics, development, lifestyle, etcetera — affect the initiation and evolution of even the pre-symptomatic stages of the disease, which most probably will result in a much deeper understanding of the disease as well as discovery of new drug targets.”

5. Digital still front and center

“As [artificial intelligence] algorithms around the world begin to be released more commonly in regulated medical device software, I think there will be an increasing trend toward prospective research examining algorithmic robustness, safety, credibility and fairness in real-world medical settings,” says Karthikesalingam. “The opportunity for clinical and machine-learning research to improve patient outcomes in this setting is substantial.”

However, more trials are needed to prove which artificial intelligence works in medicine and which does not. Eric Topol, a cardiologist who combines genomic and digital medicine in his work at Scripps Research, says “there are not many big, annotated sets of data on, for example, scans, and you need big datasets to train new algorithms.” Otherwise, only unsupervised learning algorithms can be used, and “that’s trickier,” he says.

Despite today’s bottlenecks in advancing digital health, Topol remains very optimistic. “Over time, we’ll see tremendous progress across all modalities — imaging data, speech data, and text data — to gather important information through patient tests, research articles or reviewing patient chats,” he says.

He envisions that speech-recognition software could, for instance, capture physician–patient talks and turn them into notes. “Doctors will love this,” he says, “and patients will be able to look a doctor in the eye, which enhances the relationship.”

6. ‘Be better prepared’ — a new medical mantra

One trend that every expert interviewed has emphasized is the need for preparation. As Gabriel Leung, a specialist in public-health medicine at the University of Hong Kong, put it, “We need a readiness — not just in technology platforms but also business cases — to have a sustained pipeline of vaccines and therapies, so that we would not be scrambling for some of the solutions in the middle of a pandemic.”

Building social resilience ahead of a crisis is also important. “[SARS-CoV-2] and the resulting pandemic make up the single most important watershed in healthcare,” Leung explains. “The justice issue around infection risk, access to testing and treatment — thus outcomes — already make up the single gravest health inequity in the last century.”

One change that Peacock hopes for in the near future is the sequencing of pathogens on location, instead of more centrally. “For pathogen sequencing, you need to be able to apply it where the problem under investigation is happening,” she explains. “In the UK, COVID-19 has been the catalyst for us to develop a highly collaborative, distributed network of sequencing capabilities.”

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May, M. 2021: research and medical trends in a post-pandemic world. Nat Med 26 , 1808–1809 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-01146-z

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Nih research matters.

December 22, 2021

2021 Research Highlights — Promising Medical Findings

Results with potential for enhancing human health.

With NIH support, scientists across the United States and around the world conduct wide-ranging research to discover ways to enhance health, lengthen life, and reduce illness and disability. Groundbreaking NIH-funded research often receives top scientific honors. In 2021, these honors included Nobel Prizes to five NIH-supported scientists . Here’s just a small sample of the NIH-supported research accomplishments in 2021.

Printer-friendly version of full 2021 NIH Research Highlights

20210615-covid.jpg

Advancing COVID-19 treatment and prevention

Amid the sustained pandemic, researchers continued to develop new drugs and vaccines for COVID-19. They found oral drugs that could  inhibit virus replication in hamsters and shut down a key enzyme that the virus needs to replicate. Both drugs are currently in clinical trials. Another drug effectively treated both SARS-CoV-2 and RSV, another serious respiratory virus, in animals. Other researchers used an airway-on-a-chip to screen approved drugs for use against COVID-19. These studies identified oral drugs that could be administered outside of clinical settings. Such drugs could become powerful tools for fighting the ongoing pandemic. Also in development are an intranasal vaccine , which could help prevent virus transmission, and vaccines that can protect against a range of coronaviruses .

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Developments in Alzheimer’s disease research

One of the hallmarks of Alzheimer’s is an abnormal buildup of amyloid-beta protein. A study in mice suggests that antibody therapies targeting amyloid-beta protein could be more effective after enhancing the brain’s waste drainage system . In another study, irisin, an exercise-induced hormone, was found to improve cognitive performance in mice . New approaches also found two approved drugs (described below) with promise for treating AD. These findings point to potential strategies for treating Alzheimer’s. Meanwhile, researchers found that people who slept six hours or less per night in their 50s and 60s were more likely to develop dementia later in life, suggesting that inadequate sleep duration could increase dementia risk.

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New uses for old drugs

Developing new drugs can be costly, and the odds of success can be slim. So, some researchers have turned to repurposing drugs that are already approved for other conditions. Scientists found that two FDA-approved drugs were associated with lower rates of Alzheimer’s disease. One is used for high blood pressure and swelling. The other is FDA-approved to treat erectile dysfunction and pulmonary hypertension. Meanwhile, the antidepressant fluoxetine was associated with reduced risk of age-related macular degeneration. Clinical trials will be needed to confirm these drugs’ effects.

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Making a wireless, biodegradable pacemaker

Pacemakers are a vital part of medical care for many people with heart rhythm disorders. Temporary pacemakers currently use wires connected to a power source outside the body. Researchers developed a temporary pacemaker that is powered wirelessly. It also breaks down harmlessly in the body after use. Studies showed that the device can generate enough power to pace a human heart without causing damage or inflammation.

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Fungi may impair wound healing in Crohn’s disease

Inflammatory bowel disease develops when immune cells in the gut overreact to a perceived threat to the body. It’s thought that the microbiome plays a role in this process. Researchers found that a fungus called  Debaryomyces hansenii  impaired gut wound healing in mice and was also found in damaged gut tissue in people with Crohn’s disease, a type of inflammatory bowel disease. Blocking this microbe might encourage tissue repair in Crohn’s disease.

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Nanoparticle-based flu vaccine

Influenza, or flu, kills an estimated 290,000-650,000 people each year worldwide. The flu virus changes, or mutates, quickly. A single vaccine that conferred protection against a wide variety of strains would provide a major boost to global health. Researchers developed a nanoparticle-based vaccine that protected against a broad range of flu virus strains in animals. The vaccine may prevent flu more effectively than current seasonal vaccines. Researchers are planning a Phase 1 clinical trial to test the vaccine in people.

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A targeted antibiotic for treating Lyme disease

Lyme disease cases are becoming more frequent and widespread. Current treatment entails the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics. But these drugs can damage the patient’s gut microbiome and select for resistance in non-target bacteria. Researchers found that a neglected antibiotic called hygromycin A selectively kills the bacteria that cause Lyme disease. The antibiotic was able to treat Lyme disease in mice without disrupting the microbiome and could make an attractive therapeutic candidate.

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Retraining the brain to treat chronic pain

More than 25 million people in the U.S. live with chronic pain. After a treatment called pain reprocessing therapy, two-thirds of people with mild or moderate chronic back pain for which no physical cause could be found were mostly or completely pain-free. The findings suggest that people can learn to reduce the brain activity causing some types of chronic pain that occur in the absence of injury or persist after healing.

2021 Research Highlights — Basic Research Insights >>

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Mayo Clinic biostatisticians power every step of medical research

Kris Schanilec

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From groundbreaking discoveries in breast cancer treatment to advancements in genomics, biostatisticians bring a unique perspective and skill set to medical research. Last year, Mayo Clinic's Division of Clinical Trials and Biostatistics supported about 5,000 studies spanning discovery science, clinical trials, translational science and population health.

"As one of the largest biostatistics groups in the U.S., Mayo Clinic biostatisticians are integrated into research programs to ensure that the statistical methods we use are the most appropriate in the context of the research question," says Jennifer Le-Rademacher, Ph.D. , chair of the Division of Clinical Trials and Biostatistics. 

Biostatistics staff support every step of a research study, starting with the research question. They advise on protocols and study designs. They build, curate, clean and analyze datasets. They report results, co-author papers and respond to statistical review comments.

The division has multiyear federal grants and serves as the statistics and data coordinating center for investigator-initiated, multicenter cancer research programs. Its staff members serve on National Institutes of Health committees and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advisory panels, and they lead committees that guide national standards. They are faculty in national and international clinical research training programs.

Contributing to team science

For most of her 33-year career, Mayo Clinic statistician Vera Suman, Ph.D. , has worked in the Mayo Clinic Comprehensive Cancer Center statistical unit, where she is the lead statistician for breast cancer and melanoma. She also directs the Biostatistics Core in Mayo Clinic's Breast Cancer Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE).

She supported a major phase 3 clinical trial of the drug trastuzumab (Herceptin) with chemotherapy for breast cancer treatment. She was part of the team that decided the assay process for confirming participant eligibility, helping to ensure data integrity.

"I'm just one piece in this whole operation. We couldn't do the kinds of trials and the number of trials we do without everybody involved," Dr. Suman says. "This is team science. It is collaboration."

Finding the story in the data

At any given time, principal biostatistician Ryan Lennon may be supporting 20 projects at various stages of development. He currently supports Mayo Clinic's Cardiac Catheterization Laboratory as well as the Gastroenterology and Rheumatology departments.

Lennon provided statistical expertise for a large pharmacogenetics clinical trial conducted at 40 centers worldwide. He helped plan the trial and played a key role throughout the seven-year study . The researchers found that genetic testing may be useful in selecting antiplatelet medications — a significant step forward in genetic-guided treatment.

For Lennon, it's about getting the best data for the research question. "I love getting to know the data and finding out what the story is inside it, and getting a number that helps people understand what the data is trying to tell us," he says.

Translating ideas to improve patient care

As a principal biostatistician at Mayo Clinic in Arizona, Katie L. Kunze, Ph.D., likens her work to that of a translator. "My goal is to understand where the investigators and study team are coming from, what is the background research and then build a study or an analysis, or create a body of work, to investigate those questions and support patient care," Dr. Kunze says.

She supported a study that found that 1 in 8 patients with cancer may have an inherited, cancer-related gene mutation that is clinically actionable — ushering in a new era of genetic screening and detection.

Dr. Kunze supports gastroenterology, Center for Individualized Medicine and other areas. "It brings me joy when I feel the work I'm doing is actually helping patients," she says.

Stretching the limits of database design

Statistical programmers like Regina Herges ensure data quality and use various programming tools and techniques to support database design, data management, statistical analyses and results reporting.

Herges advises study teams on electronic systems to capture and house data. She also builds study databases and provides ongoing support. She has worked in many research areas and currently supports radiation oncology.

Shortly after Mayo Clinic launched a nationwide program in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Herges and Laura A. Nelson were recruited to help solve an issue with a database serving more than 2,000 medical teams across the country. The Mayo team designed a single-system solution that could automatically link data on the back end when clinicians requested convalescent plasma for patients. 

"It was a really unique challenge, and we helped come up with a great solution," Herges says.

Read more about Mayo Clinic's biostatisticians.

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What Jobs Can You Get With A Biology Degree - A New Scientist Careers Guide

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“What can I do with a biology degree?” is a question biology students often ask themselves. Everything from microscopic proteins and the DNA within the cells of all living organisms to how we interact with complex ecological systems on Earth falls under the realm of biology. Some of the major types of biology include molecular biology , anatomy, physiology and ecology .

With science becoming more interdisciplinary, new careers in biology are emerging as well. Indeed, a degree in biology provides you with knowledge and skills highly relevant to countless industries. 

Graduating from the best universities for biology in the UK, as ranked in the 2024 league table by the Complete University Guide, can lead to lucrative career opportunities. Top universities include Cambridge, University College London (UCL), Oxford, Imperial College London and Durham.

Popular areas where your biology degree will be highly valued include pure biology and life sciences , clinical science , technology and engineering , and environmental science . This article discusses the top three highest paying jobs with a biology degree in each of these fields.

Pure biology and life sciences

Traditional jobs for biology graduates typically involve teaching, research or health promotion. In these fields, you could inspire future biological scientists and conduct high-impact research. With experience and excellence, you could even become a pioneer in whichever area you work in, helping progress the field of biology as a whole.  

• Headteacher

Job role: Headteachers run schools and ensure their success. They are the face of the school and they set out the school’s values and agenda, devise strategies for areas of improvement, comply with health and safety standards, manage finances and foster relationships with students, parents, teachers and, sometimes, politicians. You can still continue to teach biology as a headteacher.

Route: With a biology degree, you could start teaching biology at school once you complete the qualified teacher status (QTS). Get involved with senior roles within your school and help with running the school. Ideally, complete the National Professional Qualification for Headship. After several years of experience as a senior teacher, you could become a headteacher. 

Average salary (experienced): £131,000  

• Professor of biology

Job role: Teaching biological sciences at higher education level is no small feat. Senior lecturers and academics at universities are typically pioneers in their area of interest and have contributed greatly to research, especially at renowned institutions.

Route: Once you have graduated with a BSc in biology, you usually need a Master’s to enter a PhD programme. After working as a research scientist, getting involved in lecturing and doing high-impact research as a postdoc for several years, you could apply for professorship. Senior academics usually end up doing research in a niche area of biology.

Average salary (experienced): £55,000; over £100,000 at certain universities e.g. Cambridge  

• Sports physiologist

Job role: Sports and exercise scientists apply their knowledge of human physiology to help people enhance their sporting performance and improve their overall health. Their working environment may include sports centres, hospitals or research facilities. Many work privately, seeing a range of clients including athletes.

Route: A degree in physiology or biology is typically required; a Master’s or PhD specifically in sports physiology or exercise science can further enhance your employability. After you have established a good reputation, you could manage your own consulting company or work exclusively for high-profile athletes.

Average salary (experienced): £60,000

Naturally, biology is at the heart of medicine and healthcare . Expertise in fields such as genetics , microbiology and biochemistry are driving innovation in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. If you completed a biology degree, you could do a Master’s, clinical training or placements to qualify for a range of clinical careers.  

• Pathologist

Job role: Pathologists process and examine tissue samples collected from patients to aid the diagnosis of medical conditions. They work with high-tech machines and microscopes and are usually based in hospital labs.

Route: Relevant undergraduate degrees include biology or biomedical science. To work in the NHS, you must enrol onto the Scientist Training Programme (STP) and register with the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC). You could additionally complete Higher Specialist Scientist Training (HSST) to obtain consultant status.

Average salary (experienced): £69,000

• Clinical scientist

Job role: Clinical scientists can work in a range of specialisms, such as neurophysiology, cardiac science or microbiology. They form a crucial part of a multidisciplinary team to deliver healthcare efficiently and safely. Your exact duties will depend on your chosen career path and may include working as a laboratory technician or seeing patients and performing tests.

Route: This job also involves completion of the STP and HCPC registration, and, optionally, HSST for consultancy. A biology degree is broad enough to allow you to move into most specialisms in clinical science. As a senior clinical scientist, you could take on managerial roles in your department or apply your expertise in biotech , e.g. quality control or research and development.

Average salary (experienced): £68,000

Job role: Geneticists analyse the genomics in all living organisms, but in a clinical setting their focus is limited to human genetics. They study genes involved in health and disease to help medical teams diagnose and offer targeted therapies for genetic conditions and cancers. 

Route: Relevant pre-STP degrees include genetics, biology or other life sciences. A Master’s or PhD is the norm, particularly in academic research. With experience, you could manage genomic research departments, become a professor or move into industries, e.g. the pharmaceutical sector.

Average salary (experienced): £58,000

Technology and engineering

As with most industries, research, medicine and agriculture are becoming heavily reliant on technology. Fields such as biotechnology, bioinformatics and biomedical engineering require excellent knowledge of biology as well as engineering and physics principles. As such, biology graduates with an interest in technological innovation can play a vital role in the biotech sector.

• Data scientist

Job role: Data science is one of the highest paying jobs in tech, particularly in life sciences that deal with large amounts of complex data. Data scientists with a background in biology perform complex data analysis for universities, research facilities or biotech companies with the aim of providing actionable insight.

Route: After a biology degree, you could either do a Master’s in data science or gain relevant experience to land a junior position. Learning advanced methods relating to machine learning and artificial intelligence can significantly boost your job prospects. With experience, you could become a principal data scientist at a biotech firm or an independent consultant data scientist.

Average salary (experienced): £82,500

• Software engineer

Job role: Software engineers with a background in biology design, build and test software for use in biological research at hospitals, labs or biotech firms. They ensure their programme meets their clients’ needs and troubleshoot any potential errors.

Route: A biology degree puts you in a good position to apply to biotech firms for junior positions as employers often prefer candidates with in-depth knowledge of the field. To gain programming skills, you can do a Master’s in software development or become self-taught. With experience, you could move into consultancy or run your own business.

Average salary (experienced): £70,000

• Biomedical engineer

Job role: Biomedical engineering combines principles from biology, physics and engineering to design medical machines and equipment, ranging from prosthetics and implants to surgical robots and scanners. Those in this field often conduct research to build new products to be used in healthcare.

Route: An undergraduate degree in biomedical engineering is the traditional route, but you can still enter this field with a biology degree if you do a relevant Master’s or gain relevant experience, e.g. working as a biological technician. 

As a senior biomedical engineer working in a specialised area, e.g. bionic eyes, you could move into industry and take on managerial roles in health-tech companies. You could also work for the NHS if you complete the STP and register with the HCPC.

Average salary (experienced): £50,000

Environmental and animal care

Biologists working in the environmental and animal care sector offer immense value when it comes to tackling global challenges such as sustainability, conservation , biodiversity and restoration. Environmental scientists can help shape policies and practices aimed at preserving natural environments and safeguarding animal welfare , ensuring a better, greener world.  

Job role: Agronomists supervise agricultural operations and offer guidance to farmers on enhancing soil health and increasing crop yields. Working environments include farms, laboratories and offices. They research soil properties, fertilisers and other substances, and innovate new farming techniques.

Route: A degree in biology with exposure to agriculture is typically sufficient to secure junior positions. Some employers prefer candidates with postgraduate qualifications in certain areas, e.g. crop technology. You could move into consultancy if you become a specialist in advanced methods such as laser weeding.

• Environmental consultant

Job role: Eco consultants investigate the effects of an organisation’s activities on the climate and vice versa. They provide guidance to organisations or governmental bodies on green energy, waste management and environmental regulations. 

Route: After your biology degree, ideally with a focus on ecology, you could complete a Master’s in environmental science to maximise your chances of landing a job and reaching consultancy level quickly. The Knowledge Transfer Partnership (KTP) may be of interest, as it offers postgraduate courses with academic and industrial research projects. With experience, you could become a chartered consultant.

Job role: Zoologists explore animals and their behaviours and may work in academia, wildlife conservation or government. They develop specialisation in one field, such as entomology (insects), ornithology (birds), herpetology (reptiles) or marine biology . Tasks vary based on the sector, but typically involve applying research methods in the field or laboratory to study animals.

Route: Aim to focus on zoology for your biology degree and gain exposure to wildlife conservation. A Master's or PhD degree can significantly enhance your prospects, particularly if you wish to conduct independent research. As you gain experience, you could manage zoology departments, become a consultant or move into environmental journalism.

Average salary (experienced): £48,000

Biology degrees provide a breadth of knowledge about all living organisms and how they interact with the world surrounding them. This, along with their critical thinking and transferable skills, make biology graduates highly employable across sectors. From analysing molecules in disease to building artificial organs or even conserving endangered species, there is no shortage of jobs involving biology .

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• Science & Research | ZSL [Internet]. The Zoological Society of London. Available from: https://www.zsl.org/what-we-do/science-research

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How important is research for bs/md programs.

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Direct medical programs, often referred to as BS/MD programs, are some of the most competitive programs in the country. With programs at Baylor University, Brown University and Case Western Reserve University accepting less than 3% of all its applicants, these programs are often more competitive than the Ivy League. They are looking for exceptional students who are completely committed to becoming physicians. That means the students have spent the better part of their high school career pursuing STEM-focused activities, including physician shadowing, volunteering in healthcare settings and leadership positions in clubs.

Many BS/MD hopefuls pursue research as a way to build their resume.

Numerous BS/MD programs like Rensselaer Polytechnic University, like to see students with extensive research experience. Its program, aptly named the Physician-Scientist Program, wants to see students who will not only participate in research during their tenure in the program but also lead and create their own research projects. The University of South Carolina’s Accelerated Undergraduate to M.D. program has an extensive research and thesis component that is required throughout the student’s academic career. The University of Rochester offers funding for summer research for its BS/MD students. Similarly, the University of Illinois at Chicago looks for students who can demonstrate their “research aptitude.”

What Type Of Research Do BS/MD Programs Accept?

High school students have access to a wide array of research opportunities. School-related options could include science fair projects or AP Seminar and AP Research. Students might also choose to pursue camps or programs over the summer, which allows them to dedicate more time to research. Other students find independent research projects with a local professor. Alternatively, others opt to write a literature review paper to get published.

When BS/MD admission officers review applications, they don’t pit one type of experience against another. They know not every student will be able to find a local professor who allows them to research with them or can afford to do a paid summer program that spans numerous weeks or months. Consequently, they typically will consider holistically the depth of a student’s research experience, irrespective of the type of research the student completes.

Virtual Or In-Person Programs?

Both virtual and in-person experiences can add value to a BS/MD application. However, it depends on the program’s learning objectives and deliverables. Some students don’t have the flexibility to travel to an in-person camp and spend multiple weeks or months there. The University of Pittsburgh’s Guaranteed Admission Program says that “while in-person experiences are encouraged, virtual or remote experiences will be considered when evaluating the applicant.” For those students who have other obligations, a virtual camp might be the perfect fit and still offer a valuable experience.

‘Ghost Of Tsushima’ Is Already Flooded With Negative Reviews On Steam

Wwe smackdown results, winners and grades with stratton vs. belair, biden trump debates what to know as trump pushes for 2 more faceoffs, does the research topic matter.

The research experience doesn’t necessarily have to align with the student’s research interests, but it can often be helpful if it does. However, BS/MD admission officers know that high school students are still exploring their interests, which will likely evolve over the years. An opportunity that doesn’t align with the student’s interest will still be valuable because it allows the student to gain valuable skills that they can leverage to other research experiences in the future.

Summer programs might give students a chance to explore dual interests. Some students interested in medicine might also want to explore computer science or Artificial Intelligence, so finding an opportunity that allows them to blend those interests might be ideal. For example, Rising Researchers , a sister company of Moon Prep, is hosting two five-week summer camps that allow students to practice AI and Machine Learning to study human diseases. Other camps, like Penn Summer Academies, allow students to apply coding skills to other areas of study.

How Long Should The Research Experience Be?

The typical length of a research experience, especially one in the summer, can vary from as short as one week to up to eight weeks. A longer research experience can give students a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter and, importantly, the opportunity to build meaningful relationships with their mentor and fellow students. However, the duration is not the sole determinant of a meaningful experience. Students should also look to see what the tangible outcomes of the program, such as a research paper, skills gained, letter of recommendation and more.

For students who find an independent research experience, the relationship might span several months or even years. Those experiences might result in more fruitful research results and a strong relationship between the student and the mentor.

Are Publications Required?

An experience resulting in a research publication is an added bonus, but it isn’t a requirement. If a student writes a research paper, even if not published, can still demonstrate the student’s scientific writing ability and add value to their college application.

Every BS/MD program is different, and the admission officers' value of research might vary from program to program. Ultimately, BS/MD programs are looking for students who are passionate about medicine and have had extensive experiences to affirm that passion. The College of New Jersey stated in an interview with Moon Prep that they are looking for passionate students, be it a deep involvement in Boy Scouts, Taekwondo or music. Therefore, students should never feel obligated to research if it does not align with their interests. Being genuine in their activities and demonstrating their passions is how to build a resume that stands out to BS/MD admission officers.

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Is a Degree in Medical Laboratory Science Right for Me?

Why major in medical laboratory science.

Choosing the right major is a crucial decision that can significantly impact your academic journey and future career. If you're considering  a Bachelor's Degree in Medical Laboratory Science,  you're on the right track. In this blog post, we'll help you evaluate if this dynamic field aligns with your interests and goals. If a bachelor's degree in biology is right for you, the  UNH College of Life Sciences and Agriculture (UNH COLSA)  is here to help. Here are some factors to consider when making this decision.

How To Know a Degree in Medical Laboratory Science Is Right for You

Interest in medical diagnostics.

If you're intrigued by the science behind medical diagnoses and have a passion for healthcare, a degree in medical laboratory science could be an excellent fit.

Precision and Attention to Detail

Medical laboratory scientists play a crucial role in providing accurate and reliable test results. If you have a keen eye for detail and a commitment to precision, this field may be for you.

Problem-Solving Skills

Medical laboratory science involves identifying and troubleshooting issues related to laboratory tests. If you enjoy solving puzzles and approaching challenges analytically, this major offers ample opportunities.

Interest in Clinical Research

If you're curious about advancing medical knowledge and contributing to patient care through research, a degree in medical laboratory science can be a stepping stone to a career in clinical research.

Desire to Work in Healthcare

Medical laboratory scientists play a vital role in patient care by providing essential information for diagnoses and treatment plans. If you want to directly impact healthcare outcomes, this major is well-suited.

Interest in Laboratory Work

If you thrive in a laboratory environment and find satisfaction in conducting experiments and running tests, a degree in medical laboratory science aligns with your preferences.

Teamwork and Collaboration

Medical laboratory scientists work closely with healthcare professionals to provide crucial information for patient care. If you value teamwork and enjoy being an integral part of a healthcare team, this field is a great fit.

Career Opportunities and Growth

The demand for qualified medical laboratory scientists is on the rise, with opportunities in hospitals, clinics, research labs, and more. If you're looking for a field with strong job prospects and room for advancement, this major is a promising choice.

A  bachelor's degree in medical laboratory science  offers a rewarding path for those interested in the intersection of healthcare and diagnostics. If you possess a keen eye for detail, enjoy problem-solving, and are passionate about making a positive impact on patient care, this field could be the perfect fit for you. Explore the world of medical laboratory science, embark on a journey of discovery, and contribute to the advancement of healthcare. Your future as a vital member of the healthcare team starts here.

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National Research Council (US) and Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on the Organizational Structure of the National Institutes of Health. Enhancing the Vitality of the National Institutes of Health: Organizational Change to Meet New Challenges. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2003.

Enhancing the Vitality of the National Institutes of Health: Organizational Change to Meet New Challenges.

• Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

3 New Opportunities, New Challenges: The Changing Nature of Biomedical Science

The frontier of biomedical science has rarely been as exciting and as full of spectacular opportunities as it is today. From basic science through clinical research to health services research, the opportunities made available through the impressive advances of recent decades in the biomedical as well as the physical, computational, and behavioral and social sciences have brought us to a frontier of unprecedented opportunity. Those developments have also begun to transform the conduct of both large- and small-scale biological and biomedical research in rather dramatic ways. Although traditionally structured laboratory and clinical investigations are still its most essential components, several technical and scientific breakthroughs have altered how research is conducted. For example, high-throughput technologies are enabling rapid accumulation of unprecedented amounts of biological and health-related information. Nucleic acid and protein databases are revolutionizing some of the ways in which the structure and function of biomolecules and cells are studied. Databases and biological repositories have become ever more essential resources for scientists, and biocomputing and bioinformatics are indispensable tools in new types of investigations that are based on these vast amounts of data. Moreover, in some fields the scientific enterprise is characterized by the increased importance of large-scale and complex projects. All those additions to the traditional research paradigm are placing new demands on approaches to research funding and management because some parts of the scientific frontier require the creation of larger-scale products, significant new infrastructure investments, 1 or the mobilization of interdisciplinary research teams, sometimes involving large numbers of investigators at many institutions. More strategic planning and coordination of investigators on the part of the National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) as a whole are required if it is to make the most effective use of its resources.

Increasingly, investigators will need to integrate knowledge gained from high-throughput molecular research and high-powered imaging studies with knowledge from population-based epidemiological studies and clinical trials to learn what works and what does not work, what is safe and what is not safe. It seems clear, for example, that there will be a greater need for research on interactions among genetic variation, cell dynamics and behavioral, metabolic, nutritional, environmental, and pharmaceutical variables. And greater prominence must be given to research in the behavioral and social sciences, to health services research that is related to the more effective treatment of diseases and improvement of quality of life, and to the continuing evaluation of preventive interventions. Growing awareness of the association between socioeconomic status and health and health disparities provides new challenges as well as opportunities for research. The opportunities and needs raise the issues of setting research priorities and defining appropriate boundaries for NIH research, but they also raise questions about whether NIH's current institutional structure facilitates or limits the adaptability of its programs.

Finally, international and economic factors are changing the nature of science. First, a greater sense of urgency permeates some fields of research, given the threat of bioterrorism, persistent and emerging infectious diseases, and the complexity of the international environment for science with its pressing health needs. Second, private industry and foreign governments have substantially increased their funding of biomedical research and development (R&D) ( National Science Foundation, 2002 ). Third, the increasingly global nature of science raises new challenges to the NIH structure with respect to international collaboration, capacity-building, and training.

An overview of how biomedical science has developed in the last decade and where it might be leading is helpful in determining whether NIH 's current organizational structure is best suited to address emerging scientific opportunities and partner effectively with other federal agencies and the private sector. This chapter presents a snapshot of certain aspects of the current research environment with some speculation as to how it is changing.

• CLINICAL RESEARCH NEEDS

Clinical research informs and stimulates fundamental science; conversely, basic laboratory and epidemiological research inform and stimulate clinical research. As defined broadly by NIH in a report of a task force chaired by David G. Nathan ( National Institutes of Health, 1997a ), 2 clinical research includes

• Research conducted with human subjects or on material of human origin (tissues, specimens, and cognitive phenomena) in which an investigator interacts directly with human subjects. This research includes mechanisms of human disease, therapeutic interventions, clinical trials, and development of new technologies.
• Epidemiologic and behavioral studies.
• Outcomes and health services research.

Others might define clinical research more broadly to include some aspects of drug screening, and development of diagnostics and gene therapy—all laboratory-based activities but nonetheless patient-focused forms of research.

The research community recognizes a social compact with the public to help improve health by advancing knowledge along all relevant parts of the scientific frontier. At the same time, the translation of discoveries in fundamental and applied science into useful clinical and public health interventions and uses of such interventions to reduce disability, morbidity, and health disparities are the ways the public measures the success of its investments in biological and behavioral research.

Yet for nearly 25 years there have been persistent concerns about the health and future of our national efforts in clinical research ( Wyngaarden, 1979 ). Reviews of its status and recommendations for improvement have been conducted previously and in a far more thorough manner than could this Committee. Most recently, the NIH director's Panel on Clinical Research was commissioned in the spring of 1995 by Harold Varmus, the director of NIH, because the “perception of crisis in clinical research that had simmered for decades had intensified by a funding shortage induced by managed care and new restrictions on the Federal budget” ( National Institutes of Health, 1997a ). More recently, members of the Clinical Research Roundtable of IOM published a review of the challenges facing the national clinical research enterprise ( Sung et al., 2003 ).

NIH sponsors a large set of programs in clinical research and training through its institutes' and centers' extramural and intramural research programs; the agency is the largest sponsor of clinical research in the world. NIH spent $7.6 billion on clinical research in FY 2002, estimates it will spend $8.4 billion of its $27 billion budget in FY 2003 and projects spending $8.7 billion in FY 2004. A large portion of the clinical research supported by NIH occurs extramurally in hospitals and clinics affiliated with medical schools, independent research institutes, and health departments throughout the United States. A smaller but vitally important portion of NIH's clinical research portfolio is conducted through the intramural research programs of the institutes and at its Clinical Center.

The clinical research programs sponsored by NIH differ from most of those supported by the private sector in that NIH-sponsored clinical research focuses most heavily on increased understanding of disease prevalence, disease mechanisms, and long-term outcomes of therapies. Appropriately, most clinical research sponsored by the private sector (such as pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and medical device companies) focuses on testing the efficacy and safety of new drugs and devices before their approval by the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ). Both types of clinical research are essential to advance human health, and they depend on one another.

Clinical research is often conducted on a large-scale at multiple institutions across the country or even around the world. For example, in 1991, NIH launched the Women's Health Initiative ( WHI ) with the broad goal of investigating strategies for the prevention and control of some of the most common causes of morbidity and mortality among postmenopausal women, including cancers, cardiovascular disease, and osteoporotic fractures. 3 Congress provided special funding, totaling $213 million over 4 years, through the Office of the Director. The WHI has functioned as a trans-NIH consortium and is one of the largest studies of its kind ever undertaken in the United States, involving more than 40 centers nationwide and 162,000 women. The first results from the WHI have been reported, for example, the rates of cancers, heart disease, and osteoporosis in women taking hormone replacement therapy ( Pradhan et al., 2002 ). The findings have had a large and prompt impact on medical practice and on the ways physicians prescribe such therapy for their patients.

Another example is the Collaborative Programs of Excellence in Autism, launched in 1997. 4 At the request of Congress, NIH formed the Autism Coordinating Committee ( ACC ) to enhance the quality, pace, and coordination of NIH efforts to find a cure for autism, and the ACC has been instrumental in the research into, understanding of, and advances in autism. Five institutes (the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institute of Mental Health ( NIMH ), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, and National Institute on Deafness and Communication Disorders) are members of the ACC. In addition, representatives of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine participate in ACC meetings, as do representatives of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ), FDA , and the US Department of Education.

Because many major diseases have common risk factors, broad-based, potentially large-scale, and trans- NIH projects are sometimes required to share information and show linkages more precisely. For example, smoking, high-fat and low-fiber diets, physical inactivity, and exposures to exogenous and endogenous toxins are all likely to contribute to the development and progression of numerous diseases that are within the purview of multiple institutes. But despite a growing list of successful trans-NIH collaborations, NIH officials told the Committee that NIH has for decades had a notably difficult time in funding clinical, let alone population-based, studies that involve major diseases that belong to multiple institutes, such as cancers, heart disease, pregnancy outcomes, and duodenal ulcers related to smoking. In addition to studies of causation, trials seeking reduction of lung cancer and heart disease with other agents (such as beta-carotene in the 1980s and 1990s and other antioxidants now) have been difficult to fund across institutes. 5 Generally, one institute has had to be willing to fund the whole study, but this often results in less than fully efficient investigations of diseases that fall outside the institute's mandate (such as heart disease in trials supported by NCI or cancer in trials supported by NHLBI ) or in passing up the opportunity to broaden the benefit of a trial at a modest cost.

• Evidence-Based Medicine and Health Services Research

An increasingly important extension of the value of clinical trials is in research to enhance evidence-based medicine, which aims to take the best available information from clinical trials and observational studies and apply it in clinical practice. For example, despite a rich evidence base for management of cardiovascular disorders, study after study has demonstrated disconcertingly low rates of compliance with widely disseminated evidence-based treatment guidelines for managing such common cardiovascular conditions as coronary heart disease, congestive heart failure, and high blood pressure. The difficulty in translating the results of clinical trials into clinical practice suggests the presence of multiple barriers to implementation. Although there is substantial overlap, the barriers are in four general domains related to science, the health profession, the patient, and the health system. Even very well-designed randomized clinical trials may fail to examine all the relevant risk factors and patient and cultural variables.

Barriers related to the health profession include lack of knowledge of the best current evidence, time constraints, and the overriding desire to avoid iatrogenic complications. Patient-related barriers include managing multiple prescriptions for multiple chronic conditions, time and financial constraints, and difficulties in engaging in health-modifying behaviors such as smoking cessation, exercise, and dietary modification. Barriers related to the health system include lack of sufficient insurance, lack of integrated approaches to the care of chronic illness, and the high cost of health care. The complexity of issues involved mandates a comprehensive and collaborative approach involving physicians and other health care professionals, patients and their families or other support systems, and the health care system itself if the myriad barriers to implementing evidence-based care are to be overcome ( Rich, 2002 ). Indeed, much of the complexity is not fully understood and requires further research.

Health services research is within the mission of NIH . Some institutes, such as the National Institute on Aging, National Cancer Institute ( NCI ), NIMH , the National Institute on Drug Abuse, and the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, have substantial portfolios, even whole divisions, that focus specifically on health services research. Another Department of Health and Human Services agency, the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality ( AHRQ ), takes the lead in some aspects of health services research and recommends strategies for monitoring and improving quality of care, but it cannot fully address the demand for the full array of such research. Furthermore, health services research is closely related at the disease or health-dimension level to treatment research, as well as to much more basic behavioral science (such as social psychology theory or organizational theory). Thus, there are many reasons to support health services research in multiple institutes. In fact, NIH estimates that it spends about $800 million per year on health services research compared with $300 million per year for the entire AHRQ budget ( Sung et al., 2003 ; Helms, 2002 ). Clearly, more coordination across NIH and between NIH and other agencies, such as AHRQ, the Department of Veterans Affairs, and the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, would advance this developing field.

• INCREASING URGENCY IN SOME FIELDS OF RESEARCH

In the last few years, the United States has become increasingly and uncomfortably aware of its vulnerability to bioterrorist threats. Concerns about vaccine supplies, efficacy and safety of older vaccines, and the documentation for handling and storing materials that pose biological, chemical, and radioactive hazards have reopened discussions about public health research in general and about openness and secrecy in scientific communication ( Omenn, 2003 ). The role of NIH in rapid response to research needs arising from bioterrorism—especially in areas where there is little incentive for private investment—has been the subject of recent analyses; some have questioned the agency's ability to be flexible and responsive ( National Research Council, 2002 ).

New infectious diseases (West Nile virus and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome [ SARS ]) and reemerging infectious diseases (malaria in Virginia and tuberculosis worldwide), increasing antibiotic-resistance in pathogenic bacteria, and the threat of bioterrorism have caused renewed interest in infectious disease agents, epidemiology, and surveillance of potentially exposed populations ( Omenn, 2003 ). Those research subjects require reaching across public health, agriculture, ecology, and other fields in ways that might not be typical or easy with NIH 's current structural configuration. Beyond NIH, greater collaboration with the intelligence community, emergency workers, law enforcement, and the pharmaceutical, communications, and information industries will be required ( National Research Council, 2002 ). The sudden spread of SARS in China and several other countries also highlights the need for rapid detection, identification, and response. Working with CDC and international health organizations, NIH can play a pivotal role in improving scientific knowledge of the coronavirus that will be important in developing vaccines and treatments.

• ADDRESSING HEALTH DISPARITIES

Increasing attention is being directed to the biological, genetic, and socioeconomic basis of health and whether all Americans are benefiting from health-related research advances. The life expectancy of members of many minority groups in the United States is still much shorter than that of white Americans. Recent years have seen gains in longevity and lessening of the impact of chronic diseases, but minority populations have not benefited as much as the white population. The disparities have many causes ( Institute of Medicine, 2002 ).

The influence of racial bias is not limited to access to health care. Racial prejudice and discrimination can be sources of acute and chronic stress that have been linked to such conditions as cardiovascular disease and alcohol abuse ( Cooper, 2001 ; Yen et al., 1999 ). Discrimination can restrict people's educational, employment, economic, residential, and partner choices, affecting health through pathways linked with what psychosocial scientists refer to as human capital. Environmental influences of industry, toxic waste disposal sites, and other geographic characteristics linked with poverty and minority status can result in serious disadvantages to minority groups' health ( Institute of Medicine, 1999 ).

The increasingly recognized links among genetics, health, socioeconomic status, and macroeconomics emphasize the importance of research to examine and decrease the magnitude of health disparities. In 2000, the National Center on Minority Health and Health Disparities was established by the passage of the Minority Health and Health Disparities Research and Education Act of 2000 (PL 106-525), reflecting a concern among policymakers that NIH was not paying sufficient attention to this issue. 6

• THE GROWTH OF LARGE-SCALE AND DISCOVERY-DRIVEN SCIENCE

Most federally-supported biomedical research has been conducted through small independent projects initiated by individual investigators working in relatively small research groups. Such research is typically hypothesis-driven, that is, aiming to address specific biological questions. That approach to research remains essential, but developments on the scientific frontier have encouraged scientists to consider also the increased importance of carefully selected broader and larger-scale projects, for example, to develop extensive pools of data and other research tools that can then facilitate the more conventional approach to research. This approach, often called “discovery” science, is based on the assumption that the analysis of a complete data set collected across the breadth of a biological system (for example, an entire genome) is likely to yield clues and patterns on which to base hypotheses about the relationships of important biomolecules operating in the system.

• The Human Genome Project: An Important Additional Paradigm in Basic Biology

The biggest and most visible large-scale, discovery-driven research project in biology is the Human Genome Project ( HGP ), an international effort to map and sequence the entire human genome. When it was first proposed, many scientists opposed the project on the basis of its cost and size and the fact that it was managed science; they assumed it would take funding away from other, more important projects. It was also viewed by many as a forced transition away from hypothesis-driven science to a directed, hierarchical mode of “Big Science” ( Cook-Deegan, 1994 ). Many argued that it was technically infeasible. Proponents of the HGP won out, especially as the Department of Energy began on its own, and NIH secured designated funds that allowed it to make its first awards in 1988. A draft sequence of the entire human genome was completed in 2000, and the full sequence in April 2003 ( Pennisi, 2003 ). The data from the HGP constitute a vast and rich resource for biomedical research for many years to come.

The next challenge lies in identifying the functions of the genes and the complex regulatory dynamics of the cell to understand the mechanisms that lead to the creation of proteins and their functions ( Burley, 2000 ). Sequences from the genome project are being analyzed with improved understanding of cell dynamics to help to identify protein families. Structural genomics uses computational analyses with structural determinations of the protein products to advance the study of protein function. Proteomics permits simultaneous examination of changes in expression levels and modifications of structure and function in health and disease. The resulting data must be assessed against a background of population-based studies entailing the generation, storage, and analysis of enormous quantities of epidemiologic, genotypic, and phenotypic data. The process of hunting for disease-related mechanisms that seem to be directly related to genetic material—once an expensive and arduous undertaking conducted by individual laboratories and investigators— has become rapid and highly automated; it is limited primarily by the incompleteness of our understanding of cell regulation, the unexpected complexity of many diseases, and the lack of a rich information base regarding many nongenetic risk factors in the relevant human populations. Despite the spectacular discoveries of recent decades there remain large gaps in our understanding of how genetic information is transformed into biological meaning. The challenge of this task has led some to warn of the prospect of a bottleneck between genome-based scientific advances and translation to clinical improvement ( Nathan and Varmus, 2000 ).

• The Mounting Importance of Biocomputing, Bioinformatics, and Clinical Informatics

As a result of the HGP , associated projects, and imaging research, biologists and clinical investigators are faced with more opportunity and data and a greater need to organize the data in a meaningful, coherent, and public manner than ever before. For example, automation has allowed fewer people to accomplish more sequencing in shorter periods. The immense amount of information generated by this class of projects is stimulating new collaborations among clinical medicine, biology, chemistry, physics, and the fields of bioinformatics, computer science, and mathematics. Large amounts of computational expertise are a necessity. To understand the similarities and differences among organisms of the same and different species, sophisticated comparisons must be conducted, and many of them cannot be conducted effectively solely with traditional tools. Using appropriately designed databases and powerful computers, bioinformatics is providing a view of the relationships among organisms that are sometimes separated in evolution by many millions of years. Computers can display patterns and periodicities that would rarely be found if searched for with traditional approaches and techniques ( Hood, 2003 ). Thus, in many ways, biology is becoming an information science ( Botstein, 2000 ). The creation and development of such databases and database technologies (methods for storing, retrieving, sharing, and analyzing biomedical data) are becoming more important in all biomedical fields. As more information from clinical trials becomes available, the need for standardization and interoperability of clinical databases will increase. Coordinating knowledge gained from a large and growing set of clinical trials with new insights from genetic research could appreciably advance knowledge about the treatment of disease. A system of interoperable databases would allow clinical researchers to track more efficiently any finding back to its basic scientific roots; conversely, a research scientist might track forward to postulate from hypotheses through potential applications on the basis of innovative uses of existing data ( NIH, 1999b ). Similarly, linkages between genetic databases or clinical databases and environmental exposure databases will be essential for understanding and modifying gene-environment interactions ( National Research Council, 2002 ).

• Other Large-Scale and Trans-NIH Science Initiatives

As a result of the success of the HGP , there is considerable interest in developing other larger scale projects with broad potential benefits. One well established example in cancer research is the Cancer Genome Anatomy Project ( CGAP ) of NCI . The goal of the CGAP is to develop gene-expression profiles of normal, precancerous, and cancer cells, which could be used by many investigators to search for new methods of cancer detection, diagnosis, and treatment. In addition to the CGAP, the number of large-scale initiatives in genomics involving multiple institutes has grown. The successful initiation of many of them depended on the institutional leadership at the time combined with growing budgets, according to Francis Collins, director of the National Human Genome Research Institute. In his presentation to the Committee, Collins described other plans for large-scale, trans- NIH projects that include building libraries of small molecules and tools for screening; longitudinal cohort studies to connect genotype, phenotype, and environmental risks; highly annotated databases of gene and protein structures and function; development of a computational model of the cell; and large-scale efforts in imaging and other population-based studies.

Recently, 18 institutes co-funded a bioengineering nanotechnology initiative, 12 co-funded initiatives in structural biology of membrane proteins, and 16 institutes and centers supported an effort in methods and measurement in the behavioral and social sciences.

The examples cited above indicate that there is some flexibility in NIH 's administrative and priority-setting procedures to respond to new developments and allow for the initiation of large-scale research endeavors. However, recent funding patterns indicate that the institutes with the largest budgets, such as NCI , the National Institute of General Medical Sciences ( NIGMS ), and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, are more likely to initiate and support large-scale research projects. Smaller institutes do not have enough funds or flexibility in their budgets to begin such projects although they often leverage their resources through a larger institute's investment. It is not clear to what extent these projects are true collaborations in the sense that the participating institutes identify a challenge or an opportunity, work together toward developing a project, co-fund investigators and/or institutions, and manage and oversee the ongoing work. Thus, “multi-institute funding” should be distinguished from “trans-NIH initiatives,” with the latter referring to activities that involve more than one institute in planning and implementation from start to finish.

Unanticipated fluctuations in annual congressional allocations and the appropriations process (which provides separate budgets for each IC ) make strategic planning for new long-range, large-scale, or trans- NIH projects more difficult. In years in which the budget remains flat, new projects, especially large-scale new projects, are especially difficult to initiate. Moreover, because large-scale science is costly, it has the potential to reduce the funding available for the critical, but smaller, investigator-initiated projects. It is a bit more complicated for small research groups to initiate larger-scale projects because of the requirement that applicants for RO1 grants >$500,000 per year in direct costs obtain institute or center agreement at least six weeks prior to the anticipated submissions deadline before they can apply. 7 Thus, these requests require special budgetary and program planning in addition to scientific merit and budget justification. Applications submitted in response to NIH Program Announcements or Requests for Applications (RFAs), which include their own specific budgetary limits, are not subject to the same limits. In addition to cost considerations, NIH management told the committee that true collaborations across institutes and centers can be made more difficult for a number of administrative reasons, such as: lack of clear support from leadership about the importance of such work; insufficient rewards for work conducted beyond the purview of an institute's specific mission; placement of “available” staff on such projects rather than individuals with the most appropriate skills or background; and insufficient financial resources and office space dedicated to get the work done.

• NEW RESOURCE REQUIREMENTS: PATIENT DATABASES AND SPECIMEN BANKS

Other trends in biomedical science are influencing the importance of some kinds of data. For example, collections of archived patient information—including clinical data, family history, and risk factors—and such human biological materials as tissue, blood, urine, and DNA samples are essential for studying the biology, etiology, and epidemiology of diseases, especially if the diseases are linked. Such data can also be used to examine the long-term effects of medical interventions.

In 1999, the National Bioethics Advisory Commission estimated that more than 282 million specimens of human biological materials were stored in the United States and that they were accumulating at a rate of more than 20 million cases per year ( NBAC, 1999 ). Maintenance, cataloging, and storage of these specimen banks and related data in a format that is widely accessible to the research community would require a long-term investment. Ensuring the quality and usefulness of specimen banks after the project-based funding ends is an unresolved issue now managed on a case-by-case basis.

The capacity to link medical records of individuals with family histories and disease phenotypes is an important point of departure for genetic analysis. Investigators at centers that have developed the capability and permission to search their patient database for informative patients and families will be well positioned to compete for the increasing proportion of federal and industrial research resources that will be devoted to genetic research, especially if non-genetic variables can be measured and linked ( Silverstein, 2001 ; Omenn, 2000 ). Electronic medical records could make the work of specialists in one discipline widely accessible to specialists in many disciplines. If appropriate protocols can be developed, these records could be used to integrate the work of clinicians with that of researchers and administrators, and could permit better and more rapid assessments of the health of the public in general and of individual patients in particular ( Silverstein, 2001 ). It is important to note, however, that such electronic medical records would be available only in carefully reviewed and controlled circumstances under the federal Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act and provisions of the Common Rule (45 CFR 46).

Electronically accessible medical records also could be used to track the health of the public in real time, for example, vaccine use or occurrence of hypertension, bacterial and viral pneumonias, cardiac arrhythmias, and sexually transmitted diseases. This would require substantial new federal money for equipment, personnel, and infrastructure and the expertise and resources of agencies other than NIH ( Silverstein, 2001 ). In addition, the widespread use of the records raises a whole set of new ethical issues concerning privacy and confidentiality that must be adequately addressed if the public is to maintain its support for biomedical research. Non-clinical database links will be essential to address environmental, dietary, and behavioral interactions with genetic predispositions ( Omenn 2000 ).

One issue that is common to all large-scale projects that generate research tools or databases is accessibility. Concerns are often raised regarding intellectual property rights, open communication among researchers, public dissemination of data and assuring protection of privacy and confidentiality. Explicit understanding must be negotiated and must be included in informed consent documents.

• THE GROWING NEED FOR INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH

Many of the projects described above are interdisciplinary. However, smaller-scale studies in the biological and biomedical sciences are also requiring more organized collaboration among disciplines. For example, data assessment, technology development, and a deeper understanding of science increasingly necessitate the involvement of non-biologists, such as engineers, physicists, and computer scientists. Recognition of the value of interdisciplinary research is not new. Indeed, the history of medicine demonstrates that many important advances have come from an interdisciplinary approach, for example, laser surgery involved ophthalmologists, anatomists, and physicists; and gene discovery, such as the cloning of the gene associated with Huntington disease, required the input of epidemiologists, neurologists, psychologists, sociologists, and geneticists. In fact, some of the newer fields in science are hybrid or trans-disciplinary efforts, such as bioinformatics, neuroscience, and health services research. The HGP has relied on the combined expertise of biologists, chemists, computer scientists, mathematicians, and engineers. In the behavioral sciences, psychologists increasingly use artificial intelligence, brain imaging, and molecular biology to map behaviors ( Institute of Medicine, 2000 ). And psychiatric researchers long ago turned to epidemiologists and geneticists for help in identifying risk factors.

What is changing is the recognition that the need for interdisciplinary research is likely to grow. Some of the most persistent and chronic causes of disease, disability, and death are proving to be vexingly complex. Elaborate and sometimes subtle relationships among genes, environment, behavior, and disease and treatment interventions underlie HIV/ AIDS , heart disease, autoimmune diseases, cancers, and substance abuse. Those conditions rarely lend themselves to the model of the single investigator working in isolation in their own discipline.

Most scientists would agree that the collective framing of research questions often leads to better answers. At the very least, most scientists are recognizing that the variables of interest and the tools of other disciplines might be useful in their own work. However, the organization of science and research administration, in academia and funding agencies, often presents challenges to interdisciplinary work. In 2000, an Institute of Medicine committee examining the need to foster interdisciplinary science in the brain, behavioral, and clinical sciences wrote that “long-held biases, beliefs, educational practices, and research funding mechanisms have created a system in which it is easier to conduct unidisciplinary than multidisciplinary work” ( Institute of Medicine, 2000 ). The committee concluded that the creation of environments in which interdisciplinary research and training occur will probably require many changes and multiple integrated approaches. Creating a new breed of interdisciplinary scientists requires rethinking of the training process, including redesigning research training programs and funding mechanisms to support interdisciplinary training, research, and practice.

In 1999, NIGMS initiated a new funding mechanism referred to as glue grants, intended to provide the resources to bring together and retain scientists from multiple disciplines to focus on a research topic. In 2003, the Fogarty International Center announced a similar program. NIGMS's goal was to address problems that are beyond the reach of individual investigators who already held funded research grants related to a proposed topic of study. The RFA stated:

Biomedical science has entered a new era where these collaborations are becoming critical to rapid progress. This is the result of several factors. First, not every laboratory has the breadth to pursue problems that increasingly must be solved through the application of a multitude of approaches. These include the involvement of fields such as physics, engineering, mathematics, and computer science that were previously considered peripheral to mainstream biomedical science. Second, the ability to attack large projects that involve considerable data collection and technology development require the collaboration of many groups and laboratories. Finally, large-scale, expensive technologies such as combinatorial chemistry, DNA chips, high throughput mass spectrometric analysis, etc., are not readily available to all laboratories that could benefit from their use. These technologies require specialized expertise, but could lend themselves to management by specialists who collaborate or offer services to others.

NIGMS originally conceived of the large-scale glue grants after consultations with leaders in the scientific community who emphasized the importance of confronting intractable biological problems with the expertise and input of large, multi-faceted groups of scientists. Applicants are asked to consider what it would take to solve a problem if a team of investigators already funded were to coordinate and integrate their efforts and what approaches might be possible with the grant that cannot be achieved with just R01 support. Efforts to disseminate information are required, for example, meetings of participating investigators, newsletters, and Web sites. Materials produced as a result of glue grants are to be made as available to the wider community as is reasonable. One important objective of the glue grant program is to benefit a broad scientific community (beyond those named in the application).

• TRENDS IN PUBLIC-PRIVATE SECTOR RESEARCH AND COLLABORATION

Changes in the financing, organization, and performance of R&D and technological innovation have altered how industry, research performers, and governments in the United States and elsewhere invest in research. According to the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA), in 2001 member companies spent over $30 billion on research to develop new treatments for diseases—an estimated 17% of sales, a higher R&D-to-sales ratio than any other US industry. An additional $17 billion was spent on R&D by the biotechnology industry ( Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America, 2001 ; Biotechnology Industry Organization, 2003 ).

Many initiatives—such as the SNPs Consortium, the mouse genome project, the structural genomics consortium, and the more general Small Business Innovation Research Program—have involved close collaborations between public funding agencies and private industry. Furthermore, numerous NIH institutes have started specific projects and grants that have been directed at enhancing public-private collaboration. Those experiments promise to deliver benefits to patient care. At the same time, they have raised important issues about intellectual property, ethical conduct of research, and conflict of interest that need to be addressed. The development of new products, processes, and services often entails gaining access to firm-specific intellectual property and capabilities.

Firms and research performers have responded to these developments by outsourcing R&D and by forming collaborations and alliances to share R&D costs, spread market risk, and obtain access to needed information and know-how. Alliances, cross-licensing of intellectual property, mergers and acquisitions, and other tools have transformed industrial R&D and innovation. Universities have moved to increase funding links, technology transfer, and collaborative research activities with industry and government agencies. Government policies have supported these developments through changes in antitrust regulations, intellectual property regimens, and initiatives in support of technology transfer and joint activities ( NSF, 2002a ).

In addition, numerous strategic research and technology alliances among a variety of institutions and enterprises, many involving international partners, have been created over the last two decades. Universities are important partners in these research joint ventures, participating in 16% of them from 1985 to 2000 ( NSF, 2002a ).

• INCREASING INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH

The decline of global political blocs, expansion of convenient and inexpensive air travel, and advent of the Internet have facilitated scientific communication, contact, and collaboration. Data collected by NSF (2002a) show that the expansion of R&D efforts in many countries is taking place against a backdrop of growing international collaboration in the conduct of R&D. More R&D collaborations can be expected to develop with Internet-facilitated innovations such as virtual research laboratories and the simultaneous use of distributed virtual data banks by investigators around the globe.

In many countries, foreign sources of R&D funding have been increasing, and this underlines the growing internationalization of industry R&D efforts. In Canada and the United Kingdom, foreign funding has reached nearly 20% of total industrial R&D; it stands at nearly 10% for France, Italy, and the European Union as a whole. US firms are also investing in R&D conducted in other locations. R&D spending by US companies abroad reached $17 billion in 1999; it rose by 28% over a 3-year span. More than half that spending was in transportation equipment, chemicals (including pharmaceuticals), and computer and electronics products ( NSF, 2002a ).

A particularly notable international collaboration is the Human Proteome Organization ( HUPO ), which has launched international initiatives in characterization of proteins in plasma, liver, and brain and in underlying technologies, antibody resources, and bioinformatics ( Hanash and Celis, 2002 ). NIH Director Zerhouni's Roadmap exercise identified proteomics as a leading enabling technology for new discoveries. NIH and FDA are closely involved with the not-for-profit HUPO, and several individual institutes have mounted their own proteomics workshops.

Multiple trends are changing the nature and environment of biomedical research, including the persistent need for better approaches to clinical research, health services research, and evidence-based medicine; continuing concerns about health disparities; the looming threats of emerging infectious diseases and bioterrorism; the increased need for large-scale and trans- NIH projects that require longer-term strategic planning and commitments; the emergence of discovery-driven science and its attendant informatics and data requirements; the need to add new infrastructure elements to the nation's biomedical enterprise; the essential role of interdisciplinary research in many diseases; and expanding relationships between the public and private sector and between the United States and the rest of the world in research.

At the same time that the present committee was conducting its work, the National Cancer Policy Board of the National Academies was preparing a report, Large-Scale Biomedical Science: Exploring Strategies for Future Research ( Institute of Medicine, 2003a ). Some of the material in this chapter was gathered by the National Cancer Policy Board during its deliberations.

NIH 's definition excludes in vitro studies that use human tissues but do not deal directly with patients. That is, clinical, or patient-oriented, research is research in which it is necessary to know the identity of the patient from whom the cells or tissues under study are derived.

See http://www ​.nhlbi.nih ​.gov/health/public/heart ​/other/whi/wmn_hlt.htm .

See http://www ​.nichd.nih ​.gov/autism/nihacc.cfm .

These and related issues concerning trans- NIH initiatives were raised repeatedly during Committee interviews with NIH senior management.

In particular, see July 26, 2000, hearing of the Senate Health, Education, Labor and Pensions Committee's Subcommittee on Public Health on health disparities of minorities, women, and underserved populations, and NIH 's role in addressing them. Witnesses were also asked to comment on the proposed Health Care Fairness Act, S. 1880 and H.R. 3250.

NIH Notice for Acceptance for review of unsolicited applications that request more than $500,000 in direct costs, Effective June 1, 1998; see http://grants ​.nih.gov ​/grants/guide/notice-files/not98-030 ​.html .

• Cite this Page National Research Council (US) and Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on the Organizational Structure of the National Institutes of Health. Enhancing the Vitality of the National Institutes of Health: Organizational Change to Meet New Challenges. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2003. 3, New Opportunities, New Challenges: The Changing Nature of Biomedical Science.
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Risk of ‘genetic discrimination’ by insurance companies is ruining people’s trust in vital medical science

Lecturer in psychology., Swinburne University of Technology

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Brad Elphinstone received funding from a Medical Research Future Fund grant.

Swinburne University of Technology provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU.

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Should you be denied life insurance or have to pay extra if you have a genetic risk for certain diseases? Should insurance companies even have access to your genetic data in the first place? This is known as “genetic discrimination”, a practice already banned in some countries, including Canada .

The Australian Treasury is currently working on a review of the relevant legislation, with insurance industry bodies arguing a total ban would raise life insurance bills.

But this legislation doesn’t just have implications for genetic discrimination. Genetic testing underpins vital branches of medical science. Our research shows the question of who can assess a person’s genomic data directly influences public trust in future genomic research in Australia.

What is genomic research?

Human genomic research holds promise for the development of cures and treatments for cancers and heritable diseases. To achieve this, researchers rely on people willingly donating their genomic data. This is your DNA code derived from something like a blood sample. Genomic data is particularly useful when linked with lifestyle – diet, exercise, habits – and health records.

If researchers have access to this data from thousands of people, they can look for patterns to see if certain genes might be linked to certain illnesses or diseases. Treatments or cures can then be developed to target the gene or genes involved.

To assist with making genomic research viable and accessible for researchers, national-level biobanks exist, such as in the United Kingdom . These biobanks can store data from hundreds of thousands of people.

Australia does not yet have a national biobank, but some researchers in Australia do conduct studies that involve the collection of genomic data.

Can we trust biobanks?

Previous research has found people are generally supportive of genomic research and biobanks. They recognise the potential for new treatments or cures such research can bring.

However, trust in biobanks decreases substantially if there is any commercial involvement in biobank management or research. This poses a problem, as commercial involvement in biobanking is increasingly likely. Running these repositories, conducting research and bringing new treatments to market is expensive.

People who express such distrust often cite concerns that profit will be put ahead of the public good. One common issue is the perceived unfairness of “big pharma” hypothetically making large profits from freely donated genomic data.

Another primary concern, that is often a dealbreaker when it comes to hypothetically donating data, is that data will be sold to insurance companies who will then deny cover or increase premiums.

If people are unwilling to donate to biobanks due to the perceived risk of genetic discrimination from insurance companies, the scope of genomic research may suffer.

People are most trusting of biobanks if they are managed by universities and hospitals, who then also conduct the research. This is because these types of public institutions are not typically seen to be profit driven.

Would Australians trust a biobank?

Our research explored the required conditions for a trusted Australian national biobank. Specifically, we examined what Australians think about genomic research and sources of distrust. We also examined different legal safeguards that could be implemented to enhance trust and willingness to donate.

We started by surveying a statistically representative sample of 1,000 Australians. We found four groups Australians can be categorised into based on their attitudes towards genomic research:

• highly supportive and willing to donate to a national biobank (approximately 23% of the population if you extrapolate from our sample)
• supportive and open to donating but wary of commercial involvement (37%)
• supportive and open to donating but wary of commercial and governmental involvement (26%)
• completely unwilling to donate under any circumstances (14%)

In a follow-up study we interviewed 39 people from these groups. Across the four groups, including those who were willing to donate, there were clear concerns about genetic discrimination from insurers or employers. Concern about corporate profiteering was also widespread. However, respondents maintained a pragmatic view that pharmaceutical companies necessarily need to make some profit.

Based on the interviews, and a third experimental survey, it was clear a national biobank should be managed by a public institution. Additionally, we should have a data access committee comprising relevant experts.

This committee would assess applications from researchers attempting to access the data. For example, data access would be allowed only for researchers from established commercial or public organisations. Additionally, researchers would be compelled to only use data for ethical human health research and make no effort to identify donors.

Overall, Australians generally do support genomic research – they recognise its potential to give us much-needed new medical treatments and even cures.

But this support is undermined if people feel that genetic discrimination is a likely risk for themselves or their blood relatives.

Legislation that reduces this risk targets a main source of distrust that can make people unwilling to donate genomic data. A law preventing genetic discrimination could therefore indirectly benefit genomic research and support for a national biobank, should one exist in the future.

The author would like to acknowledge research collaborators Jarrod Walshe from Swinburne University of Technology, Dianne Nicol from the University of Tasmania and Mark Taylor from the University of Melbourne. The research project was based on a Medical Research Future Fund grant that was awarded to Professor Christine Critchley who sadly passed in 2020.

• Medical research
• Genetic testing
• Genomic research
• Genomic data

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Research Assistant (Life Science Research Professional 1)

🔍 stanford, california, united states.

DESIRED QUALIFICATIONS: 

•    Bachelor’s degree in molecular biology, cell biology, biochemistry, biophysics, or related field. •    Experience with standard wet lab molecular biology techniques (cloning, PCR, mutagenesis) and biochemical techniques                 (protein purification, gel electrophoresis, Western blot). •    Experience with mammalian cell culture techniques. •    Strong analytical and quantitative skills and attention to detail. •    Highly motivated, dedicated and independent. •    Supportive team player. •    Highly organized. •    Excellent interpersonal and communication skills. •    Willingness to learn.

EDUCATION & EXPERIENCE (REQUIRED):

Bachelor's degree in related scientific field.

KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND ABILITIES (REQUIRED): •    General understanding of scientific principles. Demonstrated performance to use knowledge and skills when needed. •    Demonstrated ability to apply theoretical knowledge of science principals to problem solve work.  •    Ability to maintain detailed records of experiments and outcomes. •    General computer skills and ability to quickly learn and master computer programs, databases, and scientific applications. •    Ability to work under deadlines with general guidance.  •    Excellent organizational skills and demonstrated ability to accurately complete detailed work.

CERTIFICATIONS & LICENSES:

PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS*: •    Frequently stand, walk, twist, bend, stoop, squat, grasp lightly, use fine manipulation, grasp forcefully, perform desk-based computer tasks, use telephone, write by hand, lift, carry, push and pull objects weighing over 40 pounds.  •    Occasionally sit, kneel, crawl, reach and work above shoulders, sort and file paperwork or parts.  •    Rarely climb, scrub, sweep, mop, chop and mix or operate hand and foot controls.  •    Must have correctible vision to perform duties of the job. •    Ability to bend, squat, kneel, stand, reach above shoulder level, and move on hard surfaces for up to eight hours. •    Ability to lift heavy objects weighing up to 50 pounds. •    Ability to work in a dusty, dirty, and odorous environment. •    Position may require repetitive motion.

*- Consistent with its obligations under the law, the University will provide reasonable accommodation to any employee with a disability who requires accommodation to perform the essential functions of his or her job.

WORKING CONDITIONS:

•    May require working in close proximity to blood borne pathogens. •    May require work in an environment where animals are used for teaching and research. •    Position may at times require the employee to work with or be in areas where hazardous materials and/or infectious diseases are present.  •    Employee must perform tasks that require the use of personal protective equipment, such as safety glasses and shoes, protective clothing and gloves, and possibly a respirator.  •    May require extended or unusual work hours based on research requirements and business needs.

The Pleiner lab at Stanford Medicine, Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, is seeking a Research Assistant (Life Sciences Research Professional 1) to assist a fundamental research program in cellular and molecular biology. Join our growing team! 

Our lab aims to understand how human cells produce and quality control biomedically important membrane proteins like transporters, receptors and ion channels that are essential many cellular functions. Misfolding and premature degradation of these membrane proteins is leads to severe diseases like cystic fibrosis or various channelopathies. In addition, many viruses exploit the cell’s biogenesis and quality control machinery to for their own replication. We aim to characterize the molecular machines and pathways that mature human membrane proteins to better understand how to treat these disease and fend off deadly viral infections. 

Towards that goal, the lab also develops novel technology to study and modulate protein quality control pathways for therapeutic benefit. The lab combines cell biology, (structural) biochemistry and protein engineering approaches to tackle challenging human health problems like protein misfolding diseases that cause neurodegeneration. One particular type of tool we exploit for these purposes are small, single-domain antibodies (called nanobodies) from alpacas. These tiny antibodies can be produced in human cells to manipulate intracellular biology e.g. to inhibit or activate protein folding and degradation processes. We use alpaca immunization, synthetic nanobody libraries and computational binder prediction tools to generate function-modulating nanobodies targeting key protein folding and degradation factors of biomedical importance. 

In this role you will work alongside senior lab members to assist, as well as independently execute and troubleshoot experiments. You will have the opportunity to train new lab members, help in organizing the lab space and contribute directly to our ongoing research projects and publications. 

Our lab is an inclusive space that fosters learning & curiosity, promotes team work and values mentorship to drive an innovative research program that pushes the boundaries of molecular biology. The ideal candidate will join the lab in June or July.

For more visit our lab website: www.pleinerlab.org

Duties include:  •    Plan approach to experiments in support of research projects in lab and/or field based on knowledge of scientific theory.  •    Independently conduct experiments; maintain detailed records of experiments and outcomes.  •    Apply the theories and methods of a life science discipline to interpret and perform analyses of experiment results; offer suggestions regarding modifications to procedures and protocols in collaboration with senior researcher. •    Review literature on an ongoing basis to remain current with new procedures and apply learnings to related research.  •    Contribute to publication of findings as needed. Participate in the preparation of written documents, including procedures, presentations, and proposals.  •    Help with general lab maintenance as needed; maintain lab stock, manage chemical inventory and safety records, and provide general lab support as needed. •    Assist with orientation and training of new staff or students on lab procedures or techniques.

*- Other duties may also be assigned

The job duties listed are typical examples of work performed by positions in this job classification and are not designed to contain or be interpreted as a comprehensive inventory of all duties, tasks, and responsibilities. Specific duties and responsibilities may vary depending on department or program needs without changing the general nature and scope of the job or level of responsibility. Employees may also perform other duties as assigned.

The expected pay range for this position is $26.44 to $36.54 per hour. Stanford University provides pay ranges representing its good faith estimate of what the university reasonably expects to pay for a position. The pay offered to a selected candidate will be determined based on factors such as (but not limited to) the scope and responsibilities of the position, the qualifications of the selected candidate, departmental budget availability, internal equity, geographic location and external market pay for comparable jobs.

At Stanford University, base pay represents only one aspect of the comprehensive rewards package. The Cardinal at Work website ( https://cardinalatwork.stanford.edu/benefits-rewards ) provides detailed information on Stanford’s extensive range of benefits and rewards offered to employees. Specifics about the rewards package for this position may be discussed during the hiring process.

Consistent with its obligations under the law, the University will provide reasonable accommodations to applicants and employees with disabilities. Applicants requiring a reasonable accommodation for any part of the application or hiring process should contact Stanford University Human Resources at [email protected] . For all other inquiries, please submit a contact form .

Stanford is an equal employment opportunity and affirmative action employer.  All qualified applicants will receive consideration for employment without regard to race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, national origin, disability, protected veteran status, or any other characteristic protected by law.

• Schedule: Full-time
• Job Code: 4943
• Employee Status: Regular
• Requisition ID: 103242
• Work Arrangement : On Site

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Two decades of studies suggest health benefits associated with plant-based diets

But researchers caution against broad diet recommendations until remaining knowledge gaps are filled.

Vegetarian and vegan diets are generally associated with better status on various medical factors linked to cardiovascular health and cancer risk, as well as lower risk of cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and death, according to a new review of 49 previously published papers. Angelo Capodici and colleagues present these findings in the open-access journal PLOS ONE on May 15, 2024.

Prior studies have linked certain diets with increased risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer. A diet that is poor in plant products and rich in meat, refined grains, sugar, and salt is associated with higher risk of death. Reducing consumption of animal-based products in favor of plant-based products has been suggested to lower the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer. However, the overall benefits of such diets remain unclear.

To deepen understanding of the potential benefits of plant-based diets, Capodici and colleagues reviewed 48 papers published between January 2000 and June 2023 that themselves compiled evidence from multiple prior studies. Following an "umbrella" review approach, they extracted and analyzed data from the 48 papers on links between plant-based diets, cardiovascular health, and cancer risk.

Their analysis showed that, overall, vegetarian and vegan diets have a robust statistical association with better health status on a number of risk factors associated with cardiometabolic diseases, cancer, and mortality, such as blood pressure, management of blood sugar, and body mass index. Such diets are associated with reduced risk of ischemic heart disease, gastrointestinal and prostate cancer, and death from cardiovascular disease.

However, among pregnant women specifically, those with vegetarian diets faced no difference in their risk of gestational diabetes and hypertension compared to those on non-plant-based diets.

Overall, these findings suggest that plant-based diets are associated with significant health benefits. However, the researchers note, the statistical strength of this association is significantly limited by the many differences between past studies in terms of the specific diet regimens followed, patient demographics, study duration, and other factors. Moreover, some plant-based diets may introduce vitamin and mineral deficiencies for some people. Thus, the researchers caution against large-scale recommendation of plant-based diets until more research is completed.

The authors add: "Our study evaluates the different impacts of animal-free diets for cardiovascular health and cancer risk showing how a vegetarian diet can be beneficial to human health and be one of the effective preventive strategies for the two most impactful chronic diseases on human health in the 21st century."

• Diet and Weight Loss
• Diseases and Conditions
• Colon Cancer
• Endangered Plants
• Veterinary Medicine
• Colorectal cancer
• Ovarian cancer
• Polyphenol antioxidant
• Stomach cancer
• Cervical cancer
• HPV vaccine
• Breast cancer

Story Source:

Materials provided by PLOS . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Angelo Capodici, Gabriele Mocciaro, Davide Gori, Matthew J. Landry, Alice Masini, Francesco Sanmarchi, Matteo Fiore, Angela Andrea Coa, Gisele Castagna, Christopher D. Gardner, Federica Guaraldi. Cardiovascular health and cancer risk associated with plant based diets: An umbrella review . PLOS ONE , 2024; 19 (5): e0300711 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0300711

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Sensitive technology research areas, pdf version.

358 KB , 16 pages

Introduction

The list of Sensitive Technology Research Areas consists of advanced and emerging technologies that are important to Canadian research and development, but may also be of interest to foreign state, state-sponsored, and non-state actors, seeking to misappropriate Canada’s technological advantages to our detriment.

While advancement in each of these areas is crucial for Canadian innovation, it is equally important to ensure that open and collaborative research funded by the Government of Canada does not cause injury to Canada’s national security or defence.

The list covers research areas and includes technologies at various stages of development. Of specific concern is the advancement of a technology during the course of the research . This list is not intended to cover the use of any technology that may already be ubiquitous in the course of a research project. Each high-level technology category is complemented by sub-categories which provide researchers with further specificity regarding where the main concerns lie.

The list will be reviewed on a regular basis and updated as technology areas evolve and mature, and as new information and insights are provided by scientific and technical experts across the Government of Canada, allied countries, and the academic research community.

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1. Advanced Digital Infrastructure Technology

Advanced digital infrastructure technology refers to the devices, systems and technologies which compute, process, store, transmit and secure a growing amount of information and data that support an increasingly digital and data-driven world.

Advanced communications technology

Technologies that enable fast, secure and reliable wireless communication to facilitate growing demand for connectivity and faster processing and transmission of data and information. These technologies could also enable communications in remote environments or adverse conditions where conventional methods are ineffective, or in spectrum-congested areas. Examples include: adaptive/cognitive/intelligent radios; massive multiple input/multiple output; millimeter-wave spectrum, open/virtualized radio access networks, optical/photonic communications and wideband high frequency communications.

Advanced computing technology

Computing systems with high computational power that enable the processing of complex calculations that are data- or compute-intensive. Examples include: context-aware computing, edge computing, high performance computing and neuromorphic computing.

Cryptography

Methods and technologies that enable secure communications by transforming, transmitting or storing data in a secure format that can only be deciphered by the intended recipient. Examples of emerging capabilities in cryptography that may replace or enhance current encryption methods include: biometric encryption, DNA-based encryption, post-quantum cryptography, homomorphic encryption and optical stealth encryption.

Cyber security technology

Technologies that protect the integrity, confidentiality and availability of internet-connected systems, including their hardware, software, as well as data from unauthorized access or malicious activities. Examples include: cyber defence tools, cross domain solutions and moving target defence technology.

Data storage technology

The methods, tools, platforms, and infrastructure for storing data or information securely in a digital format. Examples include: five-dimensional (5D) optical storage, DNA storage, single-molecule magnets.

Distributed ledger technology

Digital ledgers or databases that track assets or records transactions in multiple locations at the same time, with no centralized or single point of control or storage. Examples include: blockchain, cryptocurrencies, digital currencies and non-fungible tokens.

Microelectronics

Microelectronics encompasses the development and manufacturing of very small electronic designs on a substrate. It incorporates semiconductors as well as more conventional components such as surface mount technology with the goal of producing smaller and faster products. As microelectronics reach the limit for integration, photonic components are making their way into this field. Examples of semiconductor components include: memory-centric logic, multi-chip module, systems-on-chip and stacked memory on chip.

Next-generation network technology

Fifth and future generations of communications networks that use high frequency spectrums to enable significantly faster processing and transmission speeds for larger amounts of data. Advancements in networking could allow for integrated communication across air, land, space and sea using terrestrial and non-terrestrial networks, as well as increased data speed and capacity for network traffic. It could also pave the way for new AI- and big data-driven applications and services, and its massive data processing capabilities could enable the Internet of Everything.

2. Advanced Energy Technology

Advanced energy technology refers to technologies and processes that enable improved generation, storage and transmission of energy, as well as operating in remote or adverse environments where power sources may not be readily available, but are required to support permanent or temporary infrastructure and power vehicles, equipment and devices.

Advanced energy storage technology

Technologies that store energy, such as batteries, with new or enhanced properties, including improved energy density, compact size and low weight to enable portability, survivability in harsh conditions and the ability to recharge quickly. Examples include: fuel cells, novel batteries (biodegradable batteries; graphene aluminium-ion batteries; lithium-air batteries; room-temperature all-liquid-metal batteries; solid-state batteries; structural batteries) and supercapacitors (or ultracapacitors).

Advanced nuclear generation technology

New reactors and technologies that are smaller in size than conventional nuclear reactors and are developed to be less capital-intensive, therefore minimizing risks faced during construction. Examples include: nuclear fusion and small modular reactors.

Wireless power transfer technology

Enables the transmission of electricity without using wire over extended distances that vary greatly and could be up to several kilometres. Examples include recharging zones (analogous to Wi-Fi zones) that allow for electric devices, such as vehicles, to be recharged within a large radius, as well as for recharging space-based objects, such as satellites.

3. Advanced Materials and Manufacturing

Advanced materials.

Advanced materials refer to high-value products, components or materials with new or enhanced structural or functional properties. They may rely on advanced manufacturing processes or novel approaches for their production.

Augmented conventional materials

Conventional materials such as high strength steel or aluminum and magnesium alloys – products that are already widely used – which are augmented to have unconventional or extraordinary properties. Examples of these properties could include improved durability or high temperature strength, corrosion resistance, flexibility, weldability, or reduced weight, among others.

Auxetic materials

Materials that have a negative Poisson’s ratio, meaning that when stretched horizontally, they thicken or expand vertically (rather than thinning as most materials do when stretched), and do the opposite when compressed horizontally. These materials possess unique properties, such as energy-absorption, high rigidity, improved energy/impact absorption and resistance to fracture.

High-entropy materials

Special materials, including high-entropy alloys, high-entropy oxides or other high-entropy compounds, comprised of several elements or components. Depending on their composition, high-entropy materials can enhance fracture toughness, strength, conductivity, corrosion resistance, hardness and other desired properties. Due to the breadth of the theoretically available combinations and their respective properties, these materials can be used in several industries, including aerospace. Additionally, high-entropy oxides are being considered for applications in energy production and storage, as well as thermal barrier coatings.

Metamaterials

Structured materials that are not found or easily obtained in nature. Metamaterials often have unique interactions with electromagnetic radiation (i.e. light or microwaves) or sound waves.

Multifunctional/smart materials

Materials that can transform in response to external stimuli (e.g. heat, water, light, etc.) within a given amount of time. Examples include: magnetorheological fluid, shape memory alloys, shape memory polymers and self-assembled materials.

Nanomaterials

Nanomaterial materials have dimensions of less than 100 nanometers and exhibit certain properties or unique characteristics such as increased durability or self-repair. A subset of nanomaterials, nano-energetic materials are energetic materials synthesized and fabricated at the nano-level that have a small particle size and high surface area between particles, which enable faster or more efficient reaction pathways when exposed to other substances.

Powder materials for additive manufacturing

Powders that typically consist of metal, polymer, ceramic and composite materials. These powders enable additive manufacturing processes, also referred to as 3D printing. Research into novel powder materials can lead to manufactured parts with enhanced mechanical properties and other desired characteristics.

Superconducting materials

Materials that can transmit electricity with no resistance, ultimately eliminating power losses associated with electrical resistivity that normally occurs in conductors. Manufacturing of superconducting electronic circuits is one of the most promising approaches to implementing quantum computers.

Two-dimensional (2D) materials

Materials with a thickness of roughly one atomic layer. One of the most well-known 2D materials, for which there are currently production/fabrication technologies, is graphene. Other examples of 2D materials include: silicene, germanene, stantene, metal chalcogenides and others, which are currently being researched with potential applications in sensors, miniaturized electronic devices, semiconductors and more.

Advanced Manufacturing

Advanced manufacturing refers to enhanced or novel technologies, tools and processes used to develop and manufacture advanced materials or components. This could include using specialized software, artificial intelligence, sensors and high performance tools, among others, to facilitate process automation or closed-loop automated machining and create new materials or components.

Additive manufacturing (3D printing)

Various processes in which solid three-dimensional objects are constructed using computer-aided-design (CAD) software to build an object, ranging from simple geometric shapes to parts for commercial airplanes. 3D printing could be used to accelerate the development through rapid prototyping of customized equipment, spare tools or novel shapes or objects that are stronger and lighter. Approaches are also being developed for multi-material additive manufacturing and volumetric additive manufacturing, as well as additive manufacturing for repair and restoration.

Advanced semiconductor manufacturing

Methods, materials and processes related to the manufacturing of semiconductor devices. Examples of techniques include: advancements in deposition, coating, lithography, ionization/doping, and other core and supporting processes, such as thermal management techniques. Recent technological advancements include developments in Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) lithography, which is an advanced method for fabricating intricate patterns on a substrate to produce a semiconductor device with extremely small features.

Critical materials manufacturing

Up and midstream technologies necessary to extract, process, upgrade, and recycle/recover critical materials (e.g. rare earth elements, scandium, lithium, etc.) and establish and maintain secure domestic and allied supply chains. More information about critical minerals can be found in Canada’s Critical Minerals List .

Four-dimensional (4D) printing

Production and manufacture of 3D products using multifunctional or “smart” materials that are programmed to transform in response to external stimuli (e.g. heat, water, light, etc.) within a given amount of time. Recent developments have also been made in creating reversible 4D printed objects, which can return to their original shape without human involvement.

Nano-manufacturing

Production and manufacture of nanoscale materials, structures, devices and systems in a scaled-up, reliable and cost-effective manner.

Two-dimensional (2D) materials manufacturing

Standardized, scalable and cost-effective large-scale production of 2D materials.

4. Advanced Sensing and Surveillance

Advanced sensing and surveillance refers to a large array of advanced technologies that detect, measure or monitor physical, chemical, biological or environmental conditions and generate data or information about them. Advanced surveillance technologies, in particular, are used to monitor and observe the activities and communications of specific individuals or groups for national security or law enforcement purposes, but have also been used for mass surveillance with increased accuracy and scale.

Advanced biometric recognition technologies

Technologies that identify individuals based on their distinctive physical identifiers (e.g. face, fingerprint or DNA) or behavioural identifiers (e.g. gait, keystroke pattern and voice). These technologies are becoming more advanced due to improving sensing capabilities, as well as integrating artificial intelligence to identify/verify an individual more quickly and accurately.

Advanced radar technologies

Radar is a system that uses radio waves to detect moving objects and measure their distance, speed and direction. Advancements in radar technology could enable improved detection and surveillance in different environments and over greater distances. Examples include: active electronically-scanned arrays, cognitive radars, high frequency skywave radar (or over-the-horizon radar), passive radar and synthetic aperture radar.

Atomic interferometer sensors

Sensors that perform sensitive interferometric measurements using the wave character of atomic particles and quantum gases. These sensors can detect small changes in inertial forces and can be used in gravimetry. They can also improve accuracy in navigation and provide position information in environments where the Global Positioning System (GPS) is unavailable.

Cross-cueing sensors

Systems that enable multiple sensors to cue one another. Cross cueing can be used in satellites for data validation, objection tracking, enhanced reliability (i.e. in the event of a sensor failure) and earth observations.

Electric field sensors

Sensors that detect variations in electric fields and use low amounts of power. They are useful for detecting power lines or lightning, as well as locating power grids or damaged components in the aftermath of a natural disaster.

Imaging and optical devices and sensors

Devices and sensors that provide a visual depiction of the physical structure of an object beyond the typical capabilities of consumer grade imaging techniques such as cameras, cellphones, and visible light-imaging. Such technologies typically make use of electromagnetic radiation beyond the visible spectrum, or use advanced techniques and materials to improve optical capabilities, such as enabling more precise imaging from a greater distance. This sensitive research area also includes sensitive infrared sensors.

Magnetic field sensors (or magnetometers)

Sensors that are used to detect or measure changes in a magnetic field, or its intensity or direction.

Micro (or nano) electro-mechanical systems (M/NEMS)

Miniaturized, lightweight electro-mechanical devices that integrate mechanical and electrical functionality at the microscopic or nano level. A potential use of M/NEMS could be as ‘smart dust’, or a group of M/NEMs, made up of various components, including sensors, circuits, communications technology and a power supply, that function as a single digital entity. Smart dust could be light enough to float in the air and detect vibrations, light, pressure and temperature, among other things, to capture a great deal of information about a particular environment.

Position, navigation and timing (PNT) technology

Systems, platforms or capabilities that enable accurate and timely calculation of positioning, navigation and timing. These technologies are critical to a wide-range of applications, most notably for enabling the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), one of which is the widely-used Global Positioning System (GPS), but also for enabling navigation in areas where GPS or GNSS do not work. Examples include: chip-scale advanced atomic clocks, gravity-aided inertial navigation system, long-range underwater navigation system, magnetic anomaly navigation, precision inertial navigation system.

Side scan sonar

An active sonar system that uses a transducer array to send and receive acoustic pulses in swaths laterally from the tow-body or vessel, enabling it to quickly scan a large area in a body of water to produce an image of the sea floor beneath the tow-body or vessel.

Synthetic aperture sonar (SAS)

An active sonar system that produces high resolution images of the sea floor along the track of the vessel or tow body. SAS can send continuous sonar signals to capture images underwater at 30 times the resolution of traditional sonar systems, as well as up to 10 times the range and area coverage.

Underwater (wireless) sensor network

Network of sensors and autonomous/uncrewed underwater vehicles that use acoustic waves to communicate with each other, or with underwater sinks that collect and transmit data from deep ocean sensors, to enable remote sensing, surveillance and ocean exploration, observation and monitoring.

5. Advanced Weapons

Emerging or improved weapons used by military, and in some instances law enforcement, for defence and national security purposes. Advancements in materials, manufacturing, propulsion, energy and other technologies have brought weapons like directed energy weapons and hypersonic weapons closer to reality, while nanotechnology, synthetic biology, artificial intelligence and sensing technologies, among others, have provided enhancements to existing weapons, such as biological/chemical weapons and autonomous weapons.

6. Aerospace, Space and Satellite Technology

Aerospace technology refers to the technology that enables the design, production, testing, operation and maintenance of aircraft, spacecraft and their respective components, as well as other aeronautics. Space and satellite technology refers to technologies that enable travel, research and exploration in space, as well as weather-tracking, advanced PNT, communications, remote sensing and other capabilities using satellites and other space-based assets.

Advanced wind tunnels

Technological advancements in systems related to wind tunnel infrastructure. Existing facilities are used to simulate various flight conditions and speeds ranging from subsonic, transonic, supersonic and hypersonic.

On-orbit servicing, assembly and manufacturing systems

Systems and equipment that are used for space-based servicing, assembly and manufacturing. On-orbit servicing, assembly and manufacturing systems can be used to optimize space logistics, increase efficiencies, mitigate debris threats and to modernize space asset capabilities.

Lower cost satellite payloads with increased performance that can meet the needs of various markets. This will require several technology improvements, such as light weight apertures, antennas, panels, transceivers, control actuators, optical/infrared sensor and multi-spectral imagers, to meet the growing demand and ever-increasing technical requirements.

Propulsion technologies

Components and systems that produce a powerful thrust to push an object forward, which is essential to launching aircraft, spacecraft, rockets or missiles. Innovations could range from new designs or advanced materials to enable improved performance, speed, energy-efficiency and other enhanced properties, as well as reduced aircraft production times and emissions. Examples include: electrified aircraft propulsion, solar electric propulsion, pulse detonation engines, nuclear thermal propulsion systems, nuclear pulse propulsion systems and nuclear electric propulsion systems, among others.

Artificial or human-made, including (semi-)autonomous, objects placed into orbit. Depending on their specific function, satellites typically consist of an antenna, radio communications system, a power source and a computer, but their exact composition may vary. Continued developments have led to smaller satellites that are less costly to manufacture and deploy compared to large satellites, resulting in faster development times and increased accessibility to space. Examples include: remote sensing and communications satellites.

Space-based positioning, navigation and timing technology

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)-based satellites and technologies that will improve the accuracy, agility and resilience of GNSS and the Global Positioning System (GPS).

Space stations

Space-based facility that can act as an orbital outpost while having the ability to support extended human operations. Space stations can be used as a hub to support other space-based activities including assembly, manufacturing, research, experimentations, training, space vehicle docking and storage. Examples of innovations in space stations could include the ability to extend further out into space or enhanced life support systems that can be used to prolong human missions.

Zero-emission/fuel aircraft

Aircraft powered by energy sources that do not emit polluting emissions that disrupt the environment or do not require fuel to fly. While still in early stages, these advances in powering aircraft could support cleaner air travel, as well as enable flight over greater distances and to remote areas without the need for refueling (for zero-fuel aircraft).

7. Artificial Intelligence and Big Data Technology

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a broad field encompassing the science of making computers behave in a manner that simulates human behaviour/intelligence using data and algorithms. Big data refers to information and data that is large and complex in volume, velocity and variety, and as such, requires specialized tools, techniques and technologies to process, analyze and visualize it. AI and big data technology may be considered cross-cutting given how important they are in enabling developments in other technology areas, including biotechnology, advanced materials and manufacturing, robotics and autonomous systems and others.

AI chipsets

Custom-designed chips meant to process large amounts of data and information that enable algorithms to perform calculations more efficiently, simultaneously and using less energy than general-purpose chips. AI chips have unique design features specialized for AI, which may make them more cost-effective to use for AI development.

Computer vision

Field of AI that allows computers to see and extract meaning from the content of digital images such as photos and videos. Examples of computer vision techniques include: image classification, object detection, depth perception and others.

Data science and big data technology

Enables the autonomous or semi-autonomous analysis of data, namely large and/or complex sets of data when it comes to big data technology. It also includes the extraction or generation of deeper insights, predictions or recommendations to inform decision-making. Examples include: AI-enabled data analytics, big data technology (i.e. data warehouse, data mining, data correlation) and predictive analytics.

Digital twin technology

Virtual representations of physical objects or systems that combine real-time sensor data, big data processing and artificial intelligence (namely machine learning) to create an interactive model and predict the object or system’s future behaviour or performance. Advancements in digital twin technology could enable the growth and integration of an immersive digital experience (e.g. the metaverse) into daily life.

Machine learning (ML)

Branch of AI where computer programs are trained using algorithms and data to improve their decisions when introduced to a new set of data without necessarily being programmed to do so. Types of ML include: deep learning, evolutionary computation and neural networks.

Natural language processing

An area of AI that allows computers to process and make sense of, or ‘translate’, natural human language using speech and audio recognition to identify, analyze and interpret human voices and other types of audio. Examples include: syntactic and semantic analysis, tokenization, text classification and others, which enable capabilities like virtual assistants, chatbots, machine translation, predictive text, sentiment analysis and automatic summarization.

8. Human-Machine Integration

Human-machine integration refers to the pairing of operators with technology to enhance or optimize human capability. The nature of the integration can vary widely, with an important dimension being the invasive nature of the pairing.

Brain-computer interfaces

Interfaces that allow a human to interact with a computer directly via input from the brain through a device that senses brain activity, allowing for research, mapping, assistance or augmentation of human brain functions that could enable improved cognitive performance or communication with digital devices.

Exoskeletons

External devices or ‘wearable robots’ that can assist or augment the physical and physiological performance/capabilities of an individual or a group.

Neuroprosthetic/cybernetic devices

Implanted and worn devices that interact with the nervous system to enhance or restore motor, sensory, cognitive, visual, auditory or communicative functions, often resulting from brain injury. This includes cybernetic limbs or devices that go beyond medical use to contribute to human performance enhancement.

Virtual/augmented/mixed reality

Immersive technologies that combine elements of the virtual world with the real world to create an interactive virtual experience. An application of these technologies that several companies are developing is the ‘metaverse’ which is an immersive digital experience that integrates the physical world with the digital one and allows users to interact and perform a variety of activities like shopping and gaming, seamlessly in one virtual ecosystem. While still being explored, this could potentially translate into a digital economy with its own currency, property and other goods.

Wearable neurotechnology

Brain-computer interfaces that are wearable and non-invasive (i.e. do not need to be implanted). These wearable brain devices can be used for medical uses, such as tracking brain health and sending data to a doctor to inform treatment, as well as for non-medical applications related to human optimization, augmentation or enhancement, such as user-drowsiness, cognitive load monitoring or early reaction detection, among others.

9. Life Science Technology

Life science technology is a broad term that encompasses a wide array of technologies that enhance living organisms, such as biotechnology and medical and healthcare technologies.

Biotechnology

Biotechnology uses living systems, processes and organisms, or parts of them, to develop new or improved products, processes or services. It often integrates other areas of technology, such as nanotechnology, artificial intelligence, computing and others, to create novel solutions to problems, including in the area of human performance enhancement.

Biomanufacturing

Methods and processes that enable the industrial production of biological products and materials through the modification of biological organisms or systems. Advances in biomanufacturing, such as automation and sensor-based production, has led to commercial-scale production of new biological products, such as biomaterials and biosensors.

Genomic sequencing and genetic engineering

Technologies that enable whole genome sequencing, the direct manipulation of an organism’s genome using DNA, or genetic engineering to produce new or modified organisms. Examples include: Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) and Next Generation Sequencing (NGS).

Large-scale and experimental analysis of protein, proteomes and proteome informatics. Proteomic applications can be used for the identification of unknown bacterial species and strains, as well as species level identifications of tissues, body fluids, and bones of unknown origin.

Synthetic biology

Combination of biology and engineering to create new biological entities, such as cells or enzymes, or redesign existing biological systems, with new functions like sensing or producing a specific substance. Synthetic biology is expected to enable advancements in many areas, such as antibiotic, drug and vaccine development, biocomputers, biofuel, novel drug delivery platforms, novel chemicals, synthetic food, and synthetic life.

Medical and Healthcare Technology

Medical and healthcare technology refers to tools, processes or services that support good health and prevent, or attempt to prevent, disease. Advances in biotechnology, nanotechnology and advanced materials are enabling new methods of delivering medicine or treating injuries, diseases or exposure to toxic substances.

Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) medical countermeasures

Various medical assets used to prevent, identify or treat injuries or illnesses caused by chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear (CBRN) threats, whether naturally-occurring or engineered. CBRN medical countermeasures include therapeutics to treat injuries and illnesses, such as biologic products or drugs, as well diagnostics to identify the threats.

Gene therapy

Use of gene manipulation or modification in humans to prevent, treat or cure disease, either by replacing or disabling disease-causing genes or inserting new or modified genes.

Nanomedicine

Use of nanomaterials to diagnose, monitor, prevent and/or treat disease. Examples of nanomedicine include nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery, smart imaging using nanomaterials, as well as nano-engineered implants to support tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine

Methods of regenerating or rebuilding cells, tissues or organs to allow normal, biological functions to be restored. Regenerative medicine includes self-healing, where the body is able to use its own tools or other biological materials to regrow tissues or cells, whereas tissue engineering largely focuses on the use of synthetic and biological materials, such as stem cells, to build function constructs or supports that help heal or restore damaged tissues or organs.

10. Quantum Science and Technology

Quantum science and technology refers to a new generation of devices that use quantum effects to significantly enhance the performance over those of existing, ‘classical’, technologies. This technology is expected to deliver sensing and imaging, communications, and computing capabilities that far exceed those of conventional technologies in certain cases, well as new materials with extraordinary properties and many useful applications. Quantum science and technology may be considered cross-cutting, given that quantum-enhanced technologies are expected to enable advancements or improvements in most other technology areas, including biotechnology, advanced materials, robotics and autonomous systems, aerospace, space and satellite technology and others.

Quantum communications

Use of quantum physics to enable secure communications and protect data using quantum cryptography, also know as quantum key distribution.

Quantum computing

Use of quantum bits, also known as qubits, to process information by capitalizing on quantum mechanical effects that allow for a large amount of information, such as calculations, to be processed at the same time. A quantum computer that can harness qubits in a controlled quantum state may be able to compute and solve certain problems significantly faster than the most powerful supercomputers.

Quantum materials

Materials with unusual magnetic and electrical properties. Examples include: superconductors, graphene, topological insulators, Weyl semimetals, metal chalcogenides and others. While many of these materials are still being explored and studied, they are promising contenders that could enable energy-efficient electrical systems, better batteries and the development of new types of electronic devices.

Quantum sensing

Broad of range of devices, at various stages of technological readiness, that use quantum systems, properties, or phenomena to measure a physical quantity with increased precision, stability and accuracy. Recent developments in applications of quantum physics identified the possibility of exploiting quantum phenomena as means to develop quantum radar technology.

Quantum software

Software and algorithms that run on quantum computers, enable the efficient operation and design of quantum computers, or software that enables the development and optimization of quantum computing applications.

11. Robotics and Autonomous Systems

Robotics and Autonomous Systems are machines or systems with a certain degree of autonomy (ranging from semi- to fully autonomous) that are able to carry out certain activities with little to no human control or intervention by gathering insights from their surroundings and making decisions based on them, including improving their overall task performance.

Molecular (or nano) robotics

Development of robots at the molecular or nano-scale level by programming molecules to carry out a particular task.

(Semi-)autonomous/uncrewed aerial/ground/marine vehicles

Vehicles that function without any onboard human intervention, and instead, are either controlled remotely by a human operator, or operate semi-autonomously or autonomously. Uncrewed vehicles rely on software, sensors and artificial intelligence technology to collect and analyze information about their environment, plan and alter their route (if semi- or fully autonomous), and interact with other vehicles (or human operator, if remotely-controlled).

Service robots

Robots that carry out tasks useful to humans that may be tedious, time-consuming, repetitive, dangerous or complement human behaviour when resources are not available, e.g. supporting elderly people. They are semi- or fully-autonomous, able to make decisions with some or no human interaction/intervention (depending on the degree of autonomy), and can be manually overridden by a human.

Space robotics

Devices, or ‘space robots’, that are able to perform various functions in orbit, such as assembling or servicing, to support astronauts, or replace human explorers in the exploration of remote planets.