research concept note

How to Write a Concept Note: A Step-by-Step Guide

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Concept notes are important documents that serve as a brief outline of a project. They are used to present a proposed project to potential stakeholders and funders, and are usually requested before a full project proposal is submitted. If you are planning to embark on a new project, it is essential to know how to write a concept note. In this guide, we'll take you through the step-by-step process of writing a winning concept note.

Understanding the Purpose of a Concept Note

Before we delve into the details of how to write a concept note, it is important to understand its purpose. A concept note serves several functions:

What is a Concept Note?

A concept note is a brief outline of a project proposal, usually submitted to potential stakeholders and funders to solicit their support.

Let’s take an example of a non-profit organization that wants to start a new project to provide education to underprivileged children. The organization will need funding and support from donors to make this project a success. To attract potential donors, the organization will need to submit a concept note that outlines the basic details of the project.

Why is a Concept Note Important?

Concept notes are important because they help to identify potential stakeholders and funders for a proposed project. By providing a brief overview of the project, concept notes help to gauge interest and support. This is especially important when dealing with multiple potential stakeholders and funders, as it allows the organization to tailor their proposal to the interests of each party.

Moreover, concept notes help organizations to save time and resources. Instead of preparing a full proposal for every potential stakeholder or funder, concept notes can be used to filter out those who are not interested in the project, allowing the organization to focus on those who are.

When to Use a Concept Note?

Concept notes are usually requested by potential stakeholders and funders before a full project proposal is submitted. They can also be used to introduce a new project to an organization or community. In addition, concept notes can be used as a tool for internal planning and decision-making.

For example, a company may use a concept note to introduce a new product or service to its employees before launching it to the public. This allows the company to gather feedback and make any necessary changes before investing resources into a full launch.

In conclusion, concept notes are an important tool for organizations to attract support and funding for their projects. By providing a brief overview of the project, concept notes help to gauge interest and support, saving time and resources. They can be used to introduce new projects to stakeholders and funders, as well as for internal planning and decision-making.

Key Components of a Concept Note

The following are key components that should be included when writing a concept note:

Project Title

The project title should be clear and concise. It should capture the essence of the project in a few words.

Project Objective

The project objective should be clearly stated, and should contain a succinct statement of what the project intends to achieve.

Background and Context

The background and context should provide an overview of the problem that the project intends to address. It should also highlight the relevance of the problem to the target audience and the broader community.

Target Audience and Beneficiaries

The target audience and beneficiaries should be clearly identified. This helps to ensure that the project is designed to meet the needs of the intended beneficiaries.

Project Activities and Methodology

The project activities and methodology should describe the specific steps that will be taken to achieve the project objectives. It should also provide details on how the project will be implemented.

Expected Outcomes and Impact

The expected outcomes and impact should clearly state what the project hopes to achieve and how it will contribute to the broader goals of the organization or community.

Monitoring and Evaluation

The monitoring and evaluation plan should outline how the project will be monitored and evaluated to determine its success.

Budget and Resources

The budget and resources section should provide a detailed breakdown of the costs associated with the project, as well as the resources required to implement it.

Step-by-Step Guide to Writing a Concept Note

Now that we have covered the key components of a concept note, it is time to take you through a step-by-step guide to writing a winning concept note.

Step 1: Research and Preparation

Before you start writing your concept note, it is important to conduct thorough research on the problem you are seeking to address, the target audience, and the available resources. This will help you to develop a comprehensive understanding of the project and its requirements.

Step 2: Develop a Clear Project Objective

The project objective is the backbone of your concept note. It should be clear, concise, and specific. A well-defined objective will help you to stay focused on the project and ensure that the project is designed to achieve the intended outcomes.

Step 3: Provide a Strong Background and Context

The background and context section of your concept note should provide a clear understanding of the problem the project intends to address and its relevance to the target audience and the broader community. This section should demonstrate the importance of the project and why it is needed.

Step 4: Identify Your Target Audience and Beneficiaries

The target audience and beneficiaries section of your concept note should clearly identify who the project is meant to benefit. This section should also provide details on how the project will improve the lives of the intended beneficiaries.

Step 5: Outline Your Project Activities and Methodology

The project activities and methodology section of your concept note should provide a detailed explanation of how the project will achieve its objectives. This section should outline the specific steps that will be taken to implement the project and achieve the desired outcomes.

Step 6: Describe Expected Outcomes and Impact

The expected outcomes and impact section of your concept note should detail the expected results of the project and how they will contribute to the broader goals of the organization or community. This section should also provide a clear understanding of the impact the project is expected to have on the beneficiaries.

Step 7: Develop a Monitoring and Evaluation Plan

The monitoring and evaluation plan should outline how the project will be monitored and evaluated to determine its success. This section should also include the indicators that will be used to measure the project's impact.

Step 8: Prepare a Budget and Identify Resources

The budget and resources section of your concept note should provide a detailed breakdown of the costs associated with the project, as well as the resources required to implement it. This section should also include details on how the project will be funded.

By following these steps, you will be able to develop a comprehensive and winning concept note that will help you to secure funding for your project. Remember to keep your concept note clear, concise and focused on the project objectives. Good luck!

ChatGPT Prompt for Writing a Concept Note

Use the following prompt in an AI chatbot . Below each prompt, be sure to provide additional details about your situation. These could be scratch notes, what you'd like to say or anything else that guides the AI model to write a certain way.

Please prepare a comprehensive and detailed document outlining the key ideas, objectives, and strategies for a proposed project or initiative. This document should clearly articulate the purpose of the project, the target audience, the expected outcomes, and the resources required to implement it. The concept note should be well-structured, concise, and informative, providing a clear roadmap for the proposed project and demonstrating its potential impact and value.

[ADD ADDITIONAL CONTEXT. CAN USE BULLET POINTS.]

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Concept Papers in Research: Deciphering the blueprint of brilliance

Concept papers hold significant importance as a precursor to a full-fledged research proposal in academia and research. Understanding the nuances and significance of a concept paper is essential for any researcher aiming to lay a strong foundation for their investigation.

Table of Contents

What Is Concept Paper

A concept paper can be defined as a concise document which outlines the fundamental aspects of a grant proposal. It outlines the initial ideas, objectives, and theoretical framework of a proposed research project. It is usually two to three-page long overview of the proposal. However, they differ from both research proposal and original research paper in lacking a detailed plan and methodology for a specific study as in research proposal provides and exclusion of the findings and analysis of a completed research project as in an original research paper. A concept paper primarily focuses on introducing the basic idea, intended research question, and the framework that will guide the research.

Purpose of a Concept Paper

A concept paper serves as an initial document, commonly required by private organizations before a formal proposal submission. It offers a preliminary overview of a project or research’s purpose, method, and implementation. It acts as a roadmap, providing clarity and coherence in research direction. Additionally, it also acts as a tool for receiving informal input. The paper is used for internal decision-making, seeking approval from the board, and securing commitment from partners. It promotes cohesive communication and serves as a professional and respectful tool in collaboration.

These papers aid in focusing on the core objectives, theoretical underpinnings, and potential methodology of the research, enabling researchers to gain initial feedback and refine their ideas before delving into detailed research.

Key Elements of a Concept Paper

Key elements of a concept paper include the title page , background , literature review , problem statement , methodology, timeline, and references. It’s crucial for researchers seeking grants as it helps evaluators assess the relevance and feasibility of the proposed research.

Writing an effective concept paper in academic research involves understanding and incorporating essential elements:

How to Write a Concept Paper?

To ensure an effective concept paper, it’s recommended to select a compelling research topic, pose numerous research questions and incorporate data and numbers to support the project’s rationale. The document must be concise (around five pages) after tailoring the content and following the formatting requirements. Additionally, infographics and scientific illustrations can enhance the document’s impact and engagement with the audience. The steps to write a concept paper are as follows:

1. Write a Crisp Title:

Choose a clear, descriptive title that encapsulates the main idea. The title should express the paper’s content. It should serve as a preview for the reader.

2. Provide a Background Information:

Give a background information about the issue or topic. Define the key terminologies or concepts. Review existing literature to identify the gaps your concept paper aims to fill.

3. Outline Contents in the Introduction:

Introduce the concept paper with a brief overview of the problem or idea you’re addressing. Explain its significance. Identify the specific knowledge gaps your research aims to address and mention any contradictory theories related to your research question.

4. Define a Mission Statement:

The mission statement follows a clear problem statement that defines the problem or concept that need to be addressed. Write a concise mission statement that engages your research purpose and explains why gaining the reader’s approval will benefit your field.

5. Explain the Research Aim and Objectives:

Explain why your research is important and the specific questions you aim to answer through your research. State the specific goals and objectives your concept intends to achieve. Provide a detailed explanation of your concept. What is it, how does it work, and what makes it unique?

6. Detail the Methodology:

Discuss the research methods you plan to use, such as surveys, experiments, case studies, interviews, and observations. Mention any ethical concerns related to your research.

7. Outline Proposed Methods and Potential Impact:

Provide detailed information on how you will conduct your research, including any specialized equipment or collaborations. Discuss the expected results or impacts of implementing the concept. Highlight the potential benefits, whether social, economic, or otherwise.

8. Mention the Feasibility

Discuss the resources necessary for the concept’s execution. Mention the expected duration of the research and specific milestones. Outline a proposed timeline for implementing the concept.

9. Include a Support Section:

Include a section that breaks down the project’s budget, explaining the overall cost and individual expenses to demonstrate how the allocated funds will be used.

10. Provide a Conclusion:

Summarize the key points and restate the importance of the concept. If necessary, include a call to action or next steps.

Although the structure and elements of a concept paper may vary depending on the specific requirements, you can tailor your document based on the guidelines or instructions you’ve been given.

Here are some tips to write a concept paper:

Example of a Concept Paper

Here is an example of a concept paper. Please note, this is a generalized example. Your concept paper should align with the specific requirements, guidelines, and objectives you aim to achieve in your proposal. Tailor it accordingly to the needs and context of the initiative you are proposing.

 Download Now!

Importance of a Concept Paper

Concept papers serve various fields, influencing the direction and potential of research in science, social sciences, technology, and more. They contribute to the formulation of groundbreaking studies and novel ideas that can impact societal, economic, and academic spheres.

A concept paper serves several crucial purposes in various fields:

In summary, a well-crafted concept paper is essential in outlining a clear, concise, and structured framework for new ideas or proposals. It helps in assessing the feasibility, viability, and potential impact of the concept before investing significant resources into its implementation.

How well do you understand concept papers? Test your understanding now! 

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Role of AI in Writing Concept Papers

The increasing use of AI, particularly generative models, has facilitated the writing process for concept papers. Responsible use involves leveraging AI to assist in ideation, organization, and language refinement while ensuring that the originality and ethical standards of research are maintained.

AI plays a significant role in aiding the creation and development of concept papers in several ways:

1. Idea Generation and Organization

AI tools can assist in brainstorming initial ideas for concept papers based on key concepts. They can help in organizing information, creating outlines, and structuring the content effectively.

2. Summarizing Research and Data Analysis

AI-powered tools can assist in conducting comprehensive literature reviews, helping writers to gather and synthesize relevant information. AI algorithms can process and analyze vast amounts of data, providing insights and statistics to support the concept presented in the paper.

3. Language and Style Enhancement

AI grammar checker tools can help writers by offering grammar, style, and tone suggestions, ensuring professionalism. It can also facilitate translation, in case a global collaboration.

4. Collaboration and Feedback

AI platforms offer collaborative features that enable multiple authors to work simultaneously on a concept paper, allowing for real-time contributions and edits.

5. Customization and Personalization

AI algorithms can provide personalized recommendations based on the specific requirements or context of the concept paper. They can assist in tailoring the concept paper according to the target audience or specific guidelines.

6. Automation and Efficiency

AI can automate certain tasks, such as citation formatting, bibliography creation, or reference checking, saving time for the writer.

7. Analytics and Prediction

AI models can predict potential outcomes or impacts based on the information provided, helping writers anticipate the possible consequences of the proposed concept.

8. Real-Time Assistance

AI-driven chat-bots can provide real-time support and answers to specific questions related to the concept paper writing process.

AI’s role in writing concept papers significantly streamlines the writing process, enhances the quality of the content, and provides valuable assistance in various stages of development, contributing to the overall effectiveness of the final document.

Concept papers serve as the stepping stone in the research journey, aiding in the crystallization of ideas and the formulation of robust research proposals. It the cornerstone for translating ideas into impactful realities. Their significance spans diverse domains, from academia to business, enabling stakeholders to evaluate, invest, and realize the potential of groundbreaking concepts.

Frequently Asked Questions

A concept paper can be defined as a concise document outlining the fundamental aspects of a grant proposal such as the initial ideas, objectives, and theoretical framework of a proposed research project.

A good concept paper should offer a clear and comprehensive overview of the proposed research. It should demonstrate a strong understanding of the subject matter and outline a structured plan for its execution.

Concept paper is important to develop and clarify ideas, develop and evaluate proposal, inviting collaboration and collecting feedback, presenting proposals for academic and research initiatives and allocating resources.

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What is a Concept Paper and How do You Write One?

• By DiscoverPhDs
• August 26, 2020

What is a Concept Paper?

A concept paper is a short document written by a researcher before starting their research project, with the purpose of explaining what the study is about, why it is important and the methods that will be used.

The concept paper will include your proposed research title, a brief introduction to the subject, the aim of the study, the research questions you intend to answer, the type of data you will collect and how you will collect it. A concept paper can also be referred to as a research proposal.

What is the Purpose of a Concept Paper?

The primary aim of a research concept paper is to convince the reader that the proposed research project is worth doing. This means that the reader should first agree that the research study is novel and interesting. They should be convinced that there is a need for this research and that the research aims and questions are appropriate.

Finally, they should be satisfied that the methods for data collection proposed are feasible, are likely to work and can be performed within the specific time period allocated for this project.

The three main scenarios in which you may need to write a concept paper are if you are:

• A final year undergraduate or master’s student preparing to start a research project with a supervisor.
• A student submitting a research proposal to pursue a PhD project under the supervision of a professor.
• A principal investigator submitting a proposal to a funding body to secure financial support for a research project.

How Long is a Concept Paper?

The concept paper format is usually between 2 and 3 pages in length for students writing proposals for undergraduate, master’s or PhD projects. Concept papers written as part of funding applications may be over 20 pages in length.

How do you Write a Concept Paper?

There are 6 important aspects to consider when writing a concept paper or research proposal:

• 1. The wording of the title page, which is best presented as a question for this type of document. At this study concept stage, you can write the title a bit catchier, for example “Are 3D Printed Engine Parts Safe for Use in Aircraft?”.
• A brief introduction and review of relevant existing literature published within the subject area and identification of where the gaps in knowledge are. This last bit is particularly important as it guides you in defining the statement of the problem. The concept paper should provide a succinct summary of ‘the problem’, which is usually related to what is unknown or poorly understood about your research topic . By the end of the concept paper, the reader should be clear on how your research idea will provide a ‘solution’ to this problem.
• The overarching research aim of your proposed study and the objectives and/or questions you will address to achieve this aim. Align all of these with the problem statement; i.e. write each research question as a clear response to addressing the limitations and gaps identified from previous literature. Also give a clear description of your primary hypothesis.
• The specific data outputs that you plan to capture. For example, will this be qualitative or quantitative data? Do you plan to capture data at specific time points or at other defined intervals? Do you need to repeat data capture to asses any repeatability and reproducibility questions?
• The research methodology you will use to capture this data, including any specific measurement or analysis equipment and software you will use, and a consideration of statistical tests to help interpret the data. If your research requires the use of questionnaires, how will these be prepared and validated? In what sort of time frame would you plan to collect this data?
• Finally, include a statement of the significance of the study , explaining why your research is important and impactful. This can be in the form of a concluding paragraph that reiterate the statement of the problem, clarifies how your research will address this and explains who will benefit from your research and how.

You may need to include a short summary of the timeline for completing the research project. Defining milestones of the time points at which you intend to complete certain tasks can help to show that you’ve considered the practicalities of running this study. It also shows that what you have proposed is feasible in order to achieve your research goal.

If you’re pitching your proposed project to a funder, they may allocate a proportion of the money based on the satisfactory outcome of each milestone. These stakeholders may also be motivated by knowing that you intend to convert your dissertation into an article for journal publication; this level of dissemination is of high importance to them.

Additionally, you may be asked to provide a brief summary of the projected costs of running the study. For a PhD project this could be the bench fees associated with consumables and the cost of any travel if required.

Make sure to include references and cite all other literature and previous research that you discuss in your concept paper.

This guide gave you an overview of the key elements you need to know about when writing concept papers. The purpose of these are first to convey to the reader what your project’s purpose is and why your research topic is important; this is based on the development of a problem statement using evidence from your literature review.

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What is a concept note and how to write one for funding

Every year, countless visionary projects struggle to take flight due to a lack of financial support. In the evolving landscape of social impact and community-driven initiatives, securing funding can be a transformative game-changer. A well-crafted concept note serves as a potent tool to unlock the resources needed to turn your ideas into reality. Whether you represent a non-profit organization, a social enterprise, or an individual with a passion for change, mastering the art of writing a compelling concept note is crucial.

This comprehensive guide is designed to equip you with the knowledge and confidence to craft an engaging and persuasive concept note. We will explore the purpose and significance of concept notes, delving into their essential elements and  practical tips to help you write a winning concept note.  By the end of this blog post, you'll be ready to seize funding opportunities, drive positive change, and make a lasting impact on the world.

Defining a Concept Note

At its core, a concept note is a brief, yet powerful, document that serves as a preview of your proposed project or initiative. Think of it as a captivating trailer for an inspiring movie.  It acts as a prelude to the full project proposal, offering potential funders a glimpse into the project's key objectives, activities, expected outcomes, and budget estimates. The main objective of a concept note is to capture the attention of  potential funders, enticing them to invite you to submit a comprehensive project proposal. Imagine the concept note as your project's golden ticket, granting you access to a world of funding opportunities.

Purpose and Advantages of Concept Notes

Concept notes serve as an essential screening mechanism for both funders and applicants. For funders, they act as gateways to efficiently evaluate numerous project ideas, identifying those that align with their funding priorities. By crafting a compelling concept note, you demonstrate your project's potential, making it more likely to get the green light for further consideration.

As an applicant, a well-crafted concept note offers you the opportunity to generate initial interest, receive valuable feedback, and refine your project proposal before dedicating extensive resources. Consider it as your project's first impression - a chance to dazzle funders with the brilliance of your idea.

Crafting an Impactful Concept Note

1. Project Title and Executive Summary

Crafting an attention-grabbing project title is akin to creating the perfect movie title - it should be both intriguing and reflective of your project's essence. For instance, a project aimed at empowering underprivileged youth might use a title like "Rising Stars: Illuminating Futures Through Education."

Complementing the title, the executive summary serves as an elevator pitch that succinctly presents your project's core objectives, target beneficiaries, and potential impact. Imagine this summary as the opening scene of your concept note - captivating funders from the very beginning.

2. Identifying the Problem and Solution

Begin by articulating the problem or societal challenge your project aims to address. Use data, statistics, or relevant case studies to substantiate the issue's significance. For instance, if your project aims to tackle food insecurity, highlight the rising number of families facing hunger in your target community.

Next, present a compelling solution that sets your project apart from others. Use storytelling techniques to narrate how your project will be the hero that saves the day. Showcase how your innovative solution is well-aligned with the needs of the community you aim to serve, leaving no doubt that your project is the key to overcoming the challenges at hand.

3. Target Beneficiaries and Impact Assessment

Clearly identify the primary beneficiaries of your project and offer an insightful understanding of their needs, aspirations, and struggles. Introduce the heroes of your story - the individuals or communities whose lives will be positively impacted by your project.

Present a robust impact assessment plan, outlining specific indicators you will use to measure success. For example, if your project aims to improve healthcare access, highlight how you will measure reduced mortality rates or increased life expectancy in the target community. Data-driven storytelling adds credibility to your concept note, making it a compelling read for potential funders.

4. Project Methodology and Activities

In this section, bring your concept note to life by elaborating on the methodology you will employ to achieve your project's objectives. Use vivid language to describe the key activities, timelines, and expected outputs. Imagine this section as the heart of your project, showcasing how each activity contributes to your initiative's overall success.

Demonstrate the feasibility and practicality of your project by explaining how you will manage potential challenges. For instance, if your project involves training programs, outline how you will ensure qualified trainers, assess learning outcomes, and continuously improve the program based on participant feedback.

5. Sustainability and Scalability

Funders are interested in projects that create a lasting impact beyond the funding period. Address the sustainability of your project by outlining how you plan to secure long-term resources. Consider exploring avenues such as partnerships, community engagement, or income-generating activities to ensure the continuity of your project.

Furthermore, discuss the potential for scalability, illustrating how successful outcomes can be expanded to benefit larger populations or replicated in other communities. Imagine this section as the promise of an enduring legacy - one that will continue to create ripples of positive change long after the initial funding ends.

6. Budget and Financial Plan

In this final piece of the puzzle, present a well-structured and transparent budget that accurately reflects the financial needs of your project. Think of the budget as the roadmap for your project's financial journey. Offer a detailed breakdown of estimated costs for each activity, ensuring that your budget aligns with your project's goals and expected outcomes. Justify your funding request, assuring funders that their investment will be used efficiently and responsibly.

Tips for Writing a Winning Concept Note

1. Know Your Audience

Before embarking on your concept note, conduct thorough research on the funding organization or donor. Tailor your document to align with their specific funding priorities and requirements. Consider this step as the process of understanding the preferences and expectations of your audience - ensuring that your concept note resonates with their interests.

2. Be Clear and Concise

Remember, concept notes are typically brief, ranging from one to three pages. Craft your narrative with clarity, avoiding jargon or technical language that may hinder comprehension. Present the most critical aspects of your project with eloquence and impact, creating a compelling story that is easy to follow.

3. Demonstrate Expertise and Capacity

Build trust with funders by providing evidence of your organization's expertise and track record in implementing similar initiatives. Clearly articulate your team's capacity to execute the project successfully and manage potential challenges. Use past successes and testimonials from beneficiaries to illustrate your competence in making a difference.

4. Tell a Compelling Story

Infuse your concept note with compelling storytelling techniques, bringing your project's vision and passion to life. Engage funders emotionally while maintaining a logical and data-driven approach to your proposal. Imagine this tip as the art of weaving an unforgettable narrative that leaves funders eager to know more about your project.

5. Seek Feedback and Review

Before finalizing your concept note, seek feedback from peers, mentors, or experts in the field. Incorporate their suggestions to enhance the clarity and persuasiveness of your proposal. Treat this step as a collaborative process of refining your masterpiece, ensuring that every word and element is finely tuned for success.

Writing a compelling concept note is a powerful skill that can open doors to funding opportunities and turn your ambitious ideas into tangible projects. By understanding the purpose and elements of a concept note and implementing effective writing strategies, you can confidently pursue funding opportunities, secure resources, and make a tangible impact on the world.

Remember, each concept note is a unique opportunity to showcase your vision, creativity, and dedication to creating meaningful change. So take the leap, draft your concept note, and embark on your journey to transforming the world, one impactful project at a time. Armed with this step-by-step guide, you hold the key to unlocking funding support and turning your vision into a remarkable reality. Take a look at What Funders Look for in A Winning Concept Note to learn more about how to write your concept note.

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How To Write a Concept Paper for Academic Research: An Ultimate Guide

A concept paper is one of the first steps in helping you fully realize your research project. Because of this, some schools opt to teach students how to write concept papers as early as high school. In college, professors sometimes require their students to submit concept papers before suggesting their research projects to serve as the foundations for their theses.

If you’re reading this right now, you’ve probably been assigned by your teacher or professor to write a concept paper. To help you get started, we’ve prepared a comprehensive guide on how to write a proper concept paper.

Related: How to Write Significance of the Study (with Examples)

Table of Contents

What is the concept paper, 1. academic research concept papers, 2. advertising concept papers, 3. research grant concept papers, concept paper vs. research proposal, tips for finding your research topic, 2. think of research questions that you want to answer in your project, 3. formulate your research hypothesis, 4. plan out how you will achieve, analyze, and present your data, 2. introduction, 3. purpose of the study, 4. preliminary literature review, 5. objectives of the study, 6. research questions and hypotheses, 7. proposed methodology, 8. proposed research timeline, 9. references, sample concept paper for research proposal (pdf), tips for writing your concept paper.

Generally, a concept paper is a summary of everything related to your proposed project or topic. A concept paper indicates what the project is all about, why it’s important, and how and when you plan to conduct your project.

Different Types of the Concept Paper and Their Uses

This type of concept paper is the most common type and the one most people are familiar with. Concept papers for academic research are used by students to provide an outline for their prospective research topics.

These concept papers are used to help students flesh out all the information and ideas related to their topic so that they may arrive at a more specific research hypothesis.

Since this is the most common type of concept paper, it will be the main focus of this article.

Advertising concept papers are usually written by the creative and concept teams in advertising and marketing agencies.

Through a concept paper, the foundation or theme for an advertising campaign or strategy is formed. The concept paper can also serve as a bulletin board for ideas that the creative and concept teams can add to or develop. 

This type of concept paper usually discusses who the target audience of the campaign is, what approach of the campaign will be, how the campaign will be implemented, and the projected benefits and impact of the campaign to the company’s sales, consumer base, and other aspects of the company.

This type of concept paper is most common in the academe and business world. Alongside proving why your research project should be conducted, a research grant concept paper must also appeal to the company or funding agency on why they should be granted funds.

The paper should indicate a proposed timeline and budget for the entire project. It should also be able to persuade the company or funding agency on the benefits of your research project– whether it be an increase in sales or productivity or for the benefit of the general public.

It’s important to discuss the differences between the two because a lot of people often use these terms interchangeably.

A concept paper is one of the first steps in conducting a research project. It is during this process that ideas and relevant information to the research topic are gathered to produce the research hypothesis. Thus, a concept paper should always precede the research proposal. 

A research proposal is a more in-depth outline of a more fleshed-out research project. This is the final step before a researcher can conduct their research project. Although both have similar elements and structures, a research proposal is more specific when it comes to how the entire research project will be conducted.

Getting Started on Your Concept Paper

1. find a research topic you are interested in.

When choosing a research topic, make sure that it is something you are passionate about or want to learn more about. If you are writing one for school, make sure it is still relevant to the subject of your class. Choosing a topic you aren’t invested in may cause you to lose interest in your project later on, which may lower the quality of the research you’ll produce.

A research project may last for months and even years, so it’s important that you will never lose interest in your topic.

• Look for inspiration everywhere. Take a walk outside, read books, or go on your computer. Look around you and try to brainstorm ideas about everything you see. Try to remember any questions you might have asked yourself before like why something is the way it is or why can’t this be done instead of that . 
• Think big. If you’re having trouble thinking up a specific topic to base your research project on, choosing a broad topic and then working your way down should help.
• Is it achievable? A lot of students make the mistake of choosing a topic that is hard to achieve in terms of materials, data, and/or funding available. Before you decide on a research topic, make sure you consider these aspects. Doing so will save you time, money, and effort later on.
• Be as specific as can be. Another common mistake that students make is that they sometimes choose a research topic that is too broad. This results in extra effort and wasted time while conducting their research project. For example: Instead of “The Effects of Bananas on Hungry Monkeys” , you could specify it to “The Effects of Cavendish Bananas on Potassium-deficiency in Hungry Philippine Long-tailed Macaques in Palawan, Philippines”.

Now that you have a general idea of the topic of your research project, you now need to formulate research questions based on your project. These questions will serve as the basis for what your project aims to answer. Like your research topic, make sure these are specific and answerable.

Following the earlier example, possible research questions could be:

• Do Cavendish bananas produce more visible effects on K-deficiency than other bananas?
• How susceptible are Philippine long-tailed macaques to K-deficiency?
• What are the effects of K-deficiency in Philippine long-tailed macaques?

After formulating the research questions, you should also provide your hypothesis for each question. A research hypothesis is a tentative answer to the research problem. You must provide educated answers to the questions based on your existing knowledge of the topic before you conduct your research project.

After conducting research and collecting all of the data into the final research paper, you will then have to approve or disprove these hypotheses based on the outcome of the project.

Prepare a plan on how to acquire the data you will need for your research project. Take note of the different types of analysis you will need to perform on your data to get the desired results. Determine the nature of the relationship between different variables in your research.

Also, make sure that you are able to present your data in a clear and readable manner for those who will read your concept paper. You can achieve this by using tables, charts, graphs, and other visual aids.

Related: How to Make Conceptual Framework (with Examples and Templates)

Generalized Structure of a Concept Paper

Since concept papers are just summaries of your research project, they are usually short and  no longer than 5 pages. However, for big research projects, concept papers can reach up to more than 20 pages.

Your teacher or professor may give you a certain format for your concept papers. Generally, most concept papers are double-spaced and are less than 500 words in length. 

Even though there are different types of concept papers, we’ve provided you with a generalized structure that contains elements that can be found in any type of concept paper.

The title for your paper must be able to effectively summarize what your research is all about. Use simple words so that people who read the title of your research will know what it’s all about even without reading the entire paper. 

The introduction should give the reader a brief background of the research topic and state the main objective that your project aims to achieve. This section should also include a short overview of the benefits of the research project to persuade the reader to acknowledge the need for the project.

The Purpose of the Study should be written in a way that convinces the reader of the need to address the existing problem or gap in knowledge that the research project aims to resolve. In this section, you have to go into more detail about the benefits and value of your project for the target audience/s. 

This section features related studies and papers that will support your research topic. Use this section to analyze the results and methodologies of previous studies and address any gaps in knowledge or questions that your research project aims to answer. You may also use the data to assert the importance of conducting your research.

When choosing which papers and studies you should include in the Preliminary Literature Review, make sure to choose relevant and reliable sources. Reliable sources include academic journals, credible news outlets, government websites, and others. Also, take note of the authors for the papers as you will need to cite them in the References section.

Simply state the main objectives that your research is trying to achieve. The objectives should be able to indicate the direction of the study for both the reader and the researcher. As with other elements in the paper, the objectives should be specific and clearly defined.

Gather the research questions and equivalent research hypotheses you formulated in the earlier step and list them down in this section.

In this section, you should be able to guide the reader through the process of how you will conduct the research project. Make sure to state the purpose for each step of the process, as well as the type of data to be collected and the target population.

Depending on the nature of your research project, the length of the entire process can vary significantly. What’s important is that you are able to provide a reasonable and achievable timeline for your project.

Make sure the time you will allot for each component of your research won’t be too excessive or too insufficient so that the quality of your research won’t suffer.

Ensure that you will give credit to all the authors of the sources you used in your paper. Depending on your area of study or the instructions of your professor, you may need to use a certain style of citation.

There are three main citation styles: the American Psychological Association (APA), Modern Language Association (MLA), and the Chicago style.

The APA style is mostly used for papers related to education, psychology, and the sciences. The APA citation style usually follows this format:

The MLA citation style is the format used by papers and manuscripts in disciplines related to the arts and humanities. The MLA citation style follows this format:

The Chicago citation style is usually used for papers related to business, history, and the fine arts. It follows this citation format:

This is a concept paper sample provided by Dr. Bernard Lango from the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (modified for use in this article). Simply click the link above the download the PDF file.

• Use simple, concise language. Minimize the use of flowery language and always try to use simple and easy-to-understand language. Too many technical or difficult words in your paper may alienate your readers and make your paper hard to read. 
• Choose your sources wisely. When scouring the Internet for sources to use, you should always be wary and double-check the authenticity of your source. Doing this will increase the authenticity of your research project’s claims and ensure better data gathered during the process.
• Follow the specified format, if any. Make sure to follow any specified format when writing your concept paper. This is very important, especially if you’re writing your concept paper for class. Failure to follow the format will usually result in point deductions and delays because of multiple revisions needed.
• Proofread often. Make it a point to reread different sections of your concept paper after you write them. Another way you can do this is by taking a break for a few days and then coming back to proofread your writing. You may notice certain areas you’d like to revise or mistakes you’d like to fix. Make proofreading a habit to increase the quality of your paper.

Written by Ruth Raganit

in Career and Education , Juander How

Ruth Raganit

Ruth Raganit obtained her Bachelor of Science degree in Geology from the University of the Philippines – Diliman. Her love affair with Earth sciences began when she saw a pretty rock and wondered how it came to be. She also likes playing video games, doing digital art, and reading manga.

Browse all articles written by Ruth Raganit

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A concept note is a summary of a proposal containing a brief description of the idea of the project and the objectives to be pursued.

CONCEPT NOTE DEVELOPMENT

1.INTRODUCTION

A concept paper is meant to give the university an informed idea of the applicant’s areas of research interest to avail the necessary assistance for them to develop a full research proposal and allocate supervisors to give the necessary assistance. Applicants should therefore be as specific as possible. Concept papers vary in format and specifics depending on the university but are generally concise documents containing accurate relevant information and persuasive arguments to enable decision making. These guidelines are intended to guide applicants on how to develop the concept papers as part of the application process.

2. PROCESS OF DEVELOPING A CONCEPT PAPER

1. Selection of Research Field- Each University has got specialized fields of  research and therefore students have to research within those fields only. It is a requirement for the students to select a research field only offered by the University and anything outside what is offered will not be acceptable. For example, a student cannot select Robotics as a research field when it is not among the ones offered within the University. The student’s selection will be always guided by the list of the research fields that have been listed by the University.

2. Generate an area of interest- This is an area where you have a curiosity. What are you curious about (within the general area of specialization/field where you wish to do your research? A student who wishes to specialize in public administration would for example be curious about public service values. A student who wishes to do research in computer science may be very curious about systems security or internet fraud. A student who wishes to specialize in business administration may be curious about the increasing corporate governance crisis. A student who wishes to specialize in management may be curious about management styles adopted by CEOs . The selection of this area is influenced by some factors including:-

· The applicant’s knowledge of the state of the scientific discipline of his or her area of specialization

· The applicant’s knowledge of the Social problems

· The applicant’s values and research expertise in a particular file

· Social premiums

· Practical considerations and accessibility to the research subjects

· Financial constraints-applicants must gauge their financial strength to select an area of research.

· The applicant’s research paradigm-qualitative, quantitative orientation or both

· Educational background will determine what initial knowledge the applicant can bring to the research.

3. Choose one of the areas of curiosity and develop some specific questions (this is called “question framing”). Many research questions  can be classified as (1) exploratory (just trying to find out about something); (2) descriptive (trying to obtain descriptive data, such as average age, income, etc.), and (3) explanatory (trying to explain the relationship between variables, like your major in college and your future earnings). Think about answers to certain questions-it is common for a good researcher writing a concept paper to ask the following questions:_

· What will be the research unit?-will the study be on individuals, groups, structures, systems, etc?

· What is the level of research?-first level (relationship between individuals), second level (relationship between individuals and groups), and third level (relationship between groups)

· What key variables are to be explored in the intended study?

· What are the anticipated relationships among the variables identified?

· What hypothesis (if any) does the applicant have on the variables identified?

4. Formulate a possible research topic or title based on the answers   above. In particular, once you are clear on your variables and anticipated relationship, it becomes clear to formulate a tentative topic for investigation which will be discussed and approved by your supervisor. The title should not exceed 20 words and should be clear and concise.

5. Do any of your questions lend themselves to a research hypothesis? If so, write out any hypotheses. A research hypothesis is an “educated guess” about relationships that may explain behavior and phenomena. Sometimes we refer to our research hypothesis as our thesis or theses (plural). If research hypotheses involve quantitative data, they may be tested statistically through statistical hypothesis testing. Note that developing hypotheses may require some preliminary research or prior knowledge (which is why a hypothesis is called an educated guess).

6. Identify the ideal evidence (data) and how you will probably try to  gather that evidence (your methodology). You are very likely to need multiple types of evidence (data). The methodology you will probably have to use will include the following:

· Review literature on history through secondary sources about the area of your proposed research

· Think about what type of data you may need to conduct your study and address your curiosity

· Think about the methods you are likely to use to get the data that you wish

· Think about the population and sample from which you are likely to get the information

· Think about how you are likely to analyze the data that you may collect

7.  Write a Concept Paper. Draw on what you have developed in terms of  areas of curiosity, research questions, research hypotheses, data sources, and methodology. Begin with a very direct and explicit statement of your area of interest and your research question(s). This should take about one paragraph. Move on to state your research hypotheses, or thesis statement. This should take another paragraph or so. Conclude with a discussion of your proposed methodology. This should take another paragraph. The entire Concept Paper should be at least 2 pages and not be more than 10 pages, double-spaced. Citations are appropriate if you used any sources in developing your Concept Paper.

8.  Before turning in your concept paper, go through this checklist to make sure your concept paper is of the highest quality possible:

1. Are you proposing to research something that is really of interest to you? 2. Are your research questions truly appropriate for academic inquiry, or are they more appropriate for casual or non-scholarly consideration?

3. Are your research questions actual questions that can be researched through academic means (e.g., library sources, interviews, surveys, etc.), or are they opinions or attitudes that can’t be researched?

4. Does your concept paper attempt to research an area of interest to you and ask (and propose to answer) specific questions, or is it trying to solve some problem (finding solutions to problems is not appropriate for a research paper, although you may make policy recommendations as a result of your findings).

5. Are your questions specific?

6. Are your questions answerable through research?  

7. Have you stated at least one hypothesis (research or statistical)?

8. Have you identified the data you will need and how you will get it (methodology)? 9. Have you included citations, if appropriate, and a reference list or bibliography?

3. STRUCTURE OF THE CONCEPT PAPER.

As a guide and to encourage uniformity in the assessment of the concept papers, all applicants should structure their concept papers; taking into account the preceding process guidelines; as follows:-

· Cover page include the title of your research, your names as they appear in the academic documents, the area of specialization of the Ph.D. as advertised, and months and date

· Introduction- Briefly tells us about the area of your proposed interest  and why such an area is of significance to study. Justify why such an area is of utmost importance to research ( not more than 3 paragraphs)

· Problem statement – Briefly state what the problem of the investigation  will be for the proposed study. Give evidence of the magnitude of the problem by either giving the statistics where applicable or citations. Remember your problem can be theoretical or practical and whichever you opt to address, make sure you have ‘convicted’ the problem (two paragraphs)

· Research Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses . Formulate the key  questions which your study intends to explore. The questions should be in harmony with the formulated objectives and any hypotheses if any; given the natural relationships among the three. No more than 6 research questions/ objectives should be formulated

· Literature – Briefly review the current literature about the proposed area  of research. Use journal sources and primary sources like dissertations within your area of specialization. At this level, you can show how current you are aware of the debates and developments within your chosen area of research ( 2-3 pages would be adequate)

· Methodology . Finally, you should briefly describe the methodology you intend to follow in conducting the proposed research. You need to show in this methodology the research orientation in terms of research paradigm qualitative, quantitative or both

· References . The last part of your concept paper should be a list of references (all works cited in the text) and ensure you follow the American psychological association style of referencing (APA). Its guidelines are available on the World Wide Web.

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Growth Mindset

What is manifestation science-based ways to manifest, here's what the research says about manifestation..

Updated December 3, 2023 | Reviewed by Jessica Schrader

What is manifestation?

The word " manifestation " means to turn an idea into a reality. Usually, we want to manifest things that improve our happiness and well-being (take this well-being quiz to check your current level of well-being). People generally talk about manifestation as the process of using thoughts, feelings, and beliefs to bring something into reality, but given the science behind manifestation, it seems important to also include actions as a key part of the manifestation process.

What does manifestation really mean?

Manifestation has become popular thanks to books like The Secret and The Law of Attraction . Unfortunately, most psychological scientists will tell you that these books are based on pseudoscience—they claim to be scientific and factual, but they're not actually based on scientific evidence.

So as a psychological scientist I can't, in good conscience , recommend these books. However, I feel like many psychologists throw out the baby with the bathwater when it comes to the idea of "manifestation." They'll often say it's junk science. But I say: Of course we can manifest positive things in our lives—if we couldn't then what would be the point of therapy , wellness interventions, or any of the tools we use to help people?

So what does the science actually say about manifestation ? How can we take a goal or idea we have in our heads and make it real?

What is the science behind manifestation?

There actually is science behind the idea of manifestation—that is, turning an idea into a real thing. Here are some areas of research and how they lend support to manifestation:

A growth mindset can help you manifest your dreams and reach your goals

Research by Dr. Carol Dweck clearly shows that believing you can do something makes it more likely that you'll successfully do it. That means that our beliefs about our ability to learn, grow, and succeed—our growth mindset —can indeed affect whether we effectively manifest what we desire.

Importantly, this research suggests that if we truly believe we can achieve something, we are willing to do the hard work to achieve it. This is in contrast to law-of-attraction style manifestation which suggests that belief alone is enough to bring about manifestation. Ultimately, the science suggests that our beliefs bring about behaviors (and responses from others) that lead to the outcomes we desire.

Self-fulfilling prophecies may explain manifestation

Research shows that our expectations, positive or negative, tend to be confirmed. This is what is known as a self-fulfilling prophecy. So if we expect to bring our idea to life or reach our goal, we're more likely to.

For example, if you don't think you can succeed in some goal, let's say getting your dream job, you'll set in motion events that will actually make it more likely that you won't get your dream job. Maybe you'll be cold or grumpy during a job interview. Maybe you'll engage in negative self-talk with someone who could help you. Or maybe you'll just feel angry and not spend the necessary time required to reach your goal. Your beliefs set in motion circumstances that affect your ability to manifest an outcome.

Negativity bias may explain perceptions about manifestation

Research shows that if we're already feeling bad, we're more likely to interpret neutral circumstances in a negative way. It may be that someone with a more positive attitude just pays more attention to the ways in which they have successfully manifested parts of their dreams. Another person with a more negative outlook may experience the exact same things and only see where they failed to manifest what they desired. That's how bias may affect manifestation .

Upward spirals of positive emotion may explain manifestation success

Dr. Barbara Fredrickson's research has also shown that positive emotions enable us to think more creatively. Similarly, Dr. Sonja Lyubomirsky has shown that happiness leads to success and not the other way around. People who are generally happy and positive attract more opportunities, have better relationships, and seem to be able to manifest what they set their minds to more easily.

It makes sense when you think about it, right? We prefer to be around positive, optimistic people. And being around people with a negative attitude? It's off-putting and doesn't lead us to want to help these people.

How do we use science to manifest what we want?

1. Get clear on what you want to manifest

What do you actually want? Spend some time focusing to get clarity on your manifestation goal. Mindful meditation can be a useful tool for this—it quiets the mind and helps increase self-awareness . Or, you could talk to a friend. Sometimes just talking can help you gain the clarity you need to manifest something.

2. Manifest what matters to you

When deciding what to manifest, ask yourself a few reflection questions:

• Will this make me happy and fulfilled?
• Does it feel right for me? (Or is there something or someone influencing me?)
• Will this do any harm to myself or others?

By asking yourself these questions you can choose the right things to manifest—things that you will be more likely to believe in, things that you have positive expectations about, and things that make you feel more positive. As a result, you'll be more likely to manifest them.

3. Visualize your manifestation to generate positive emotions

Visualizing what you desire can help you feel positive emotions related to it more strongly. And those emotions can help you believe in yourself more. Just close your eyes, take a few deep breaths, and imagine a scene from your future life as you desire it. Here's a future visualization exercise if you need more help.

Created with content from The Berkeley Well-Being Institute.

Tchiki Davis, Ph.D. , is a consultant, writer, and expert on well-being technology.

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An inversion-based clustering approach for complex clusters

• Mohammad Mahdi Barati Jozan 1 ,
• Aynaz Lotfata 2 ,
• Howard J. Hamilton 3 &
• Hamed Tabesh 1  

BMC Research Notes volume  17 , Article number:  133 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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The choice of an appropriate similarity measure plays a pivotal role in the effectiveness of clustering algorithms. However, many conventional measures rely solely on feature values to evaluate the similarity between objects to be clustered. Furthermore, the assumption of feature independence, while valid in certain scenarios, does not hold true for all real-world problems. Hence, considering alternative similarity measures that account for inter-dependencies among features can enhance the effectiveness of clustering in various applications.

In this paper, we present the Inv measure, a novel similarity measure founded on the concept of inversion. The Inv measure considers the significance of features, the values of all object features, and the feature values of other objects, leading to a comprehensive and precise evaluation of similarity. To assess the performance of our proposed clustering approach that incorporates the Inv measure, we evaluate it on simulated data using the adjusted Rand index.

The simulation results strongly indicate that inversion-based clustering outperforms other methods in scenarios where clusters are complex, i.e., apparently highly overlapped. This showcases the practicality and effectiveness of the proposed approach, making it a valuable choice for applications that involve complex clusters across various domains.

Conclusions

The inversion-based clustering approach may hold significant value in the healthcare industry, offering possible benefits in tasks like hospital ranking, treatment improvement, and high-risk patient identification. In social media analysis, it may prove valuable for trend detection, sentiment analysis, and user profiling. E-commerce may be able to utilize the approach for product recommendation and customer segmentation. The manufacturing sector may benefit from improved quality control, process optimization, and predictive maintenance. Additionally, the approach may be applied to traffic management and fleet optimization in the transportation domain. Its versatility and effectiveness make it a promising solution for diverse fields, providing valuable insights and optimization opportunities for complex and dynamic data analysis tasks.

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Introduction

Clustering is a fundamental technique in data mining and machine learning, aiming to group objects into distinct clusters [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Objects within a cluster show high similarity to each other and low similarity to objects in other clusters, determined by a similarity measure [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ].

Selecting an appropriate similarity measure is crucial for clustering algorithms. Studies indicate its significance in algorithm performance [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Various research assesses similarity measures across disciplines like web clustering [ 13 ], trajectory clustering [ 14 ], and chemical databases [ 15 ]. Some research endeavors have further examined performance variations based on the type of data being analyzed, differentiating between categorical data [ 16 ] and continuous data [ 8 ]. Consequently, some scholars [ 17 ] have advocated for the utilization of two fundamental clustering techniques: "similarity measures" for qualitative data and "distance measures" for quantitative data [ 17 ]. In this study, we'll refer to both types of measures as "similarity measures."

Table 1 lists similarity functions for qualitative data, and Table  2 shows distance functions for quantitative data.

A key limitation of similarity measures (e.g., Euclidean distance [ 17 ] and Hamming similarity [ 18 ]) is their exclusive reliance on feature values. Consequently, when two objects or entities exhibit similar feature values, they are considered more similar, regardless of any other pertinent factors. This oversimplification may overlook crucial aspects of the data.

Secondly, similarity measures often assume feature independence, neglecting their interdependence and potential influence on each other's values. This oversight may result in incomplete representations of data relationships. Moreover, most measures overlook feature prioritization, disregarding the varying importance of features in determining similarity. These assumptions do not fully align with real-world complexities, potentially limiting applicability and accuracy. To address these challenges, researchers explore inversion as a promising approach, investigating its theoretical and practical aspects [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ].

In one study [ 19 ], a new constructive bijection connects permutations with a specific number of inversions to those with a particular major index, facilitating exploration of mathematical connections. Another work [ 20 ] introduces a probability distribution on the group of permutations of the set of integers, providing insights into inversion's probabilistic aspects for permutation-based data analysis. Furthermore, [ 21 ] presents six bijections linking a specific type of polyominoes called deco polyominoes with permutations, establishing connections between classical statistics and permutation-related analyses. Moreover, [ 22 ] proposes an efficient solution for counting interior edge crossings in bipartite graphs, relevant for layered graph drawing and data visualization enhancement.

This study introduces " Inv ," an inversion-based similarity measure addressing previous challenges. It forms the basis of a new clustering approach grouping objects by inversion-based similarity. The primary goal is to optimize clustering by maximizing intra-cluster similarity and minimizing inter-cluster similarities. By incorporating this measure, we anticipate achieving more meaningful clustering results that better reflect underlying data patterns and relationships.

Data and method

The flowchart of the activities undertaken to assess the new inversion-based clustering approach is presented in the Fig.  1 .

Flowchart of implementation and evaluation of the inversion-based clustering approach

Formulation of challenges related to similarity criteria

Several key terms used in simulation examples are defined below.

Object: Any entity that we intend to cluster is an object . Each object \({obj}_{i}\) has n features and can be represented by a vector: \({obj}_{i}= \langle {f}_{i1}, {f}_{i2}, \dots , {f}_{in}\rangle\) .

Feature space: Each feature has a valid range of values known as its feature space , represented by \({S}_{f}\) for feature \(f\) .

Universe: The set of all objects we want to cluster is known as the universe , represented by \(U= \left\{{obj}_{1}, {obj}_{2},\dots ,{obj}_{k}\right\}.\)

Similarity Measure: A similarity measure is a measure that takes two objects as input and outputs a numeric value representing their similarity.

Clustering problem: A problem of partitioning k objects into m groups \(\langle {C}_{1}, {C}_{2}, \dots , {C}_{m}\rangle\) according to a specified similarity measure, so that the objects in each group are as similar as possible to each other and as different as possible from objects in other groups. These clusters adhere to two constraints [1–7]:

In the following paragraphs, the challenges stated in the introduction section are formulated using the defined terms.

Symmetry challenge

A drawback of distance-based measures is called the Symmetry challenge , where adding or subtracting a value to a feature has the same distance effect. Given that Euclidean distance is widely used in clustering algorithms [ 23 ], it is used as a representative of distance-based measures in the following practices. Practice 1 demonstrates the weakness of similarity criteria when adding or subtracting a specific value to a feature.

Practice 1: Consider the following three objects:

The first feature of \({obj}_{2}\) is v units less that the first feature of \({obj}_{1}\) , and the first feature of \({obj}_{3}\) is v units more than the first feature of \({obj}_{1}\) . All other features are equal in the three objects. The Euclidean distance \(E\) between them, the similarity for adding \(v\) to the first feature is calculated as follows:

and the similarity for subtracting \(v\) from the first feature is calculated as follows:

This challenge can arise for any feature. In general, this challenge can be expressed as follows:

The equality of the distances is mathematically correct, but in the real world, the significance of adding a specific value to a feature may be different from that of subtracting the same amount. An example based on student scores can be found as Supplementary Example 1 (see Additional file 1 ).

Place symmetry challenge

The Place Symmetry challenge is a generalized form of the previous challenge. In this challenge, increasing or decreasing a value can occur for each feature. In Practice 2, the weakness of the similarity criteria when adding or subtracting a certain value to possibly different features of objects is shown.

Practice 2: Consider the following three objects:

if \({V}_{i}\) represents age and \({V}_{j}\) represents weight, both normalized to their respective feature spaces, adding \(v\) units to \({V}_{i}\) and subtracting \(v\) units from \({V}_{j}\) yields the same Euclidean distance between two pairs of objects. However, the implications of increasing or decreasing \(v\) units in weight differ from those in age due to varying value distributions. Hence, altering their values by \(v\) holds distinct meanings for each feature.

Feature independence challenge

The Feature Independence challenge refers to the treatment of features as if they are independent of each other when calculating distance-based measures, whereas in practice they are often interdependent.

Definition of the concept of inversion

To address the challenges defined in section " Formulation of challenges related to similarity criteria ", a similarity measure named Inv , which is based on the concept of inversion, is proposed. The mathematical definition of inversion is as follows:

Inversion: In a sequence \(S= \langle {a}_{1}, {a}_{2}, \dots , {a}_{n}\rangle\) of pairwise comparable elements \({a}_{i} (i=\mathrm{1,2},\dots ,n)\) , a pair \(({a}_{i},{a}_{j})\) is called an inversion if \(i<j\) and \({a}_{i}>{a}_{j}\) [ 22 ].

The concept of inversion is illustrated by Practice 3.

Practice 3: Suppose we have five movies and we ask two people to rate them on a scale of 1 to 10 according to their preferences. In this example, an object is a person and it is represented by a vector with 5 features [ 24 ].

Scores are given in Table  3 .

The definition of inversion for only one person is presented in Supplementary Example 1 (see Additional file 1 ). Let's now explore a more indirect application of the definition to determine the inversions between the scores of the two people. We arrange the movies for each person in a rank sequence based on preferences, with the highest-scoring movie first. Ties are resolved by ranking the movie with the lower movie number first. Person 1's sequence is \(\langle {Movie}_{1}, {Movie}_{5},{Movie}_{2},{Movie}_{3},{Movie}_{4}\rangle\) , while Person 2's is \(\langle {Movie}_{1}, {Movie}_{3},{Movie}_{4},{Movie}_{2},{Movie}_{5}\rangle\) . Renaming the movies based on Person 1's rank sequence, we get 〈1,2,3,4,5〉 for Person 1 and 〈1,4,5,3,2〉 for Person 2. Applying the inversion definition to the second sequence, we find 4 is inverted compared to 3 and 2 (two inversions), 5 is inverted compared to 3 and 2 (two inversions), and 3 is inverted compared to 2 (one inversion), totaling five inversions.

A visual method for counting inversions involves organizing movies for each person by their scores, highest to lowest, and connecting corresponding movies. The intersections of these lines indicate the number of inversions between the two sequences.

In Fig.  2 , the five inversions are indicated by the five points where the lines intersect. The more different the sequences, the greater the number of the inversions. The minimum and maximum number of inversions of two vectors with n features are 0 and \(\frac{n\left(n+1\right)}{2}\) , respectively [ 25 ]. Supplementary Code 1 contains the inversion calculation algorithm (see Additional file 1 ).

Each point of intersection between lines representing an inversion (practice 3)

Notice from Practice3 that the way ties are broken affects the number of inversions. The proposed way of resolving ties is to consider a default sequence for features, and when the values of two or more features are the same, their order will be based on the default order. For instance, in the movies database, priority is given to movies with smaller numbers. Thus, as Person 2 rated Movie 1 and Movie 3 equally at 9, Movie 1 takes precedence in the rank order.

Practice3 illustrates the importance of feature prioritization in cases where values are equal. Depending on specific requirements, certain features may need to be prioritized over others, which can have a considerable impact on the resulting number of inversions.

Introduction of the Inv similarity measure based on the notion of inversion

In this subsection, the Inv inversion-based similarity measure is introduced. The Inv measure of the similarity of two objects is defined as the number of inversions that exist between two objects according to the Count_Inversions function. Formally, the measure is defined as follows:

According to the Inv measure, as inversion count between two sequences rises, their similarity decreases, and vice versa. Although we refer to inversion as a similarity measure, it actually yields a measure of dissimilarity because the greater the similarity between two objects, the lower the number of inversions.

Three advantages of the inversion-based similarity measure are as follows [ 22 ]: the number of inversions is affected by the rank positions of the features in the vector (Feature Independence challenge); the number of inversions when v is added to feature \({f}_{i}\) can be different from the number of inversions when it is subtracted from \({f}_{i}\) (Symmetry challenge); and the number of inversions when v is added to \({f}_{i}\) may not be the same as the number of inversions when v is added to \({f}_{j}\) (Place Symmetry challenge).

The Symmetry challenge in distance-based measures results from the equal impact of adding or subtracting a value from a feature on the distance. In calculating inversions, not only is the value of a particular feature considered, but also the values of other features become integral. The feature's rank position within the object's vector significantly affects the inversion count. Altering a feature's rank position by adding a value may yield different outcomes compared to subtracting the same value, influenced by other features. Consequently, the inversion count varies depending on specific features, emphasizing the nuanced nature of inversion calculations.

The Place Symmetry challenge expands upon the Symmetry challenge by allowing the increase or decrease of a value for each feature individually. As previously noted, the count of inversions is influenced by both the value of a specific feature and other features, so it addresses this challenge as well as the previous challenge.

To challenge the independence of features, since determining the number of inversions requires determining the values and order of all features, hence the features cannot be independent of each other. The explanation of how the proposed measure addresses the outlined challenges are illustrated in Supplementary practice 1 (see Additional file 1 ).

The proposed similarity measure offers an additional advantage by allowing adjustments to consider feature importance in distance calculation. This enables the consideration of feature relevance or priority, enhancing the measure's utility. To accommodate priorities, the inversion measure can be modified to incorporate both feature value and assigned priority. By default, all variables are assumed to have equal priority. Practice 4 demonstrates a method for factoring feature priority into similarity calculation.

Practice 4 : Consider two objects, each with three features, depicted by colored circles in Fig.  3 . Let the orange feature have priority 1 (lowest), the red feature priority 2, and the blue feature priority 3 (highest). An adjusted inversion function is employed, where each inversion detected is weighted by the product of the relevant features' priorities.

Prioritizing features: A All features have the same priority, which is one, B The priority of each feature is displayed within the corresponding circle (Practice 4)

According to Fig.  3 A, there are 2 inversions because there are 2 points where the lines intersect (OB and RB). Since the priority of every feature is one, the adjusted inversion function is as calculated as:

To calculate the adjusted inversion for Fig.  3 B, the products of the priorities of each inversion (represented by a line) are also considered.

Introduction of the clustering approach based on the Inv measure

In this section, we formulate an algorithmic framework for an inversion-based clustering approach as a type of partitioning clustering method and then we instantiate the framework with different measures to specify two inversion-based clustering algorithms. The main steps of a partitioning clustering method are as follows. First, the number of desired clusters is chosen and initial centroids in the range of the feature values are randomly selected. Next, every input object is assigned to the nearest centroid based on its distance from it using the similarity measure. Every centroid is then moved to the mean location of its assigned cluster, and this process is iteratively repeated until convergence is reached, as indicated by no further changes in assignments [ 25 ]. The pseudo-code of proposed algorithmic framework can be found as Supplementary Code 2 (see Additional file 1 ).

Algorithmic framework for inversion-based clustering

The steps of the algorithmic framework are described below.

Input: \(U=\{{obj}_{1}, {obj}_{2}, \dots , {obj}_{k}\}\) , number of clusters ( \(m\) )

Output : \(m clusters \left({C}_{1}, {C}_{2}, \dots , {C}_{m}\right)\)

Step 1) Normalize each feature based on the Min–Max Feature scaling method. The normalized feature value \({F}_{ia}\) for feature \({f}_{a}\) in object \({obj}_{i}\) is calculated as the following equation:

where \({f}_{ia}\) is the original feature value for \({obj}_{i}\) , \({\text{min}}({f}_{a})\) is the minimum value and \({\text{max}}\left({f}_{a}\right)\) is the maximum value of the feature across all objects in universe U , and \({F}_{ia}\) is the normalized value. The feature space for every normalized feature is equal to [0, 1].

Step 2) Initialize the centroids \({c}_{1}, {c}_{2}, \dots , {c}_{m}\) of clusters \({C}_{1}, {C}_{2}, \dots , {C}_{m}\) randomly.

Step 3) Calculate the number of inversions between every combination of an object \({obj}_{i}\) and a centroid \({c}_{j}\) and assign every object to the cluster for the centroid with the fewest inversions.

Step 4) For each cluster \({C}_{j}\) , calculate the new centroid \({c}_{j}\) as the mean of the objects assigned to the cluster:

\({N}_{j}\) is the number of objects assigned to cluster \({C}_{j}\) , and the sum is taken over all objects in this cluster.

Step 5) Repeat Steps 3 and 4 until the clusters do not change, or the number of iterations reaches a predetermined value.

For the third step of the algorithmic framework, which is to assign an object to a cluster using a measure, two measures are proposed, which lead to the Inversion-Based Clustering Algorithm (ICA) and the Regulator Inversion Euclidean distance based Clustering Algorithm (RIECA).

Approach 1) Inversion-Based Clustering Algorithm (ICA)

In the first round of ICA, the centroids are randomly initialized, then inversions between every combination of an object and a centroid are calculated, and finally every object is assigned to the centroid with the fewest inversions. In subsequent rounds, inversions between every combination of an object and an updated centroid are calculated. In other words, the measure function is defined as follows:

where \({obj}_{i}\) is the \({i}^{th}\) object, \({C}_{c}\) is \({c}^{th}\) cluster (which has centroid \({c}_{c}\) ), and \(Inv\left({obj}_{i},{c}_{c}\right)\) is the number of inversions between \({obj}_{i}\) and \({c}_{c}\) .

Approach 2) Regulator Inversion Euclidean distance based Clustering Algorithm (RIECA)

With RIECA, inversion is used as a regulator for Euclidean distance [ 17 ], i.e. the Euclidean distance is multiplied by the number of inversions. If the number of inversions is high, the value of the measure grows more than if the number of inversions is low. In this approach, the Measure function is defined as follows:

where \({Obj}_{i}\) is the \({i}^{th}\) object, \({c}_{c}\) is the \({c}^{th}\) cluster, \(Inv\left({Obj}_{i},{c}_{c}\right)\) is the number of inversions between \({Obj}_{i}\) and \({c}_{c}\) , and \(E\left({Obj}_{i},{c}_{c}\right)\) is the Euclidean distance between \({Obj}_{i}\) and \({c}_{c}\) .

This section describes the generation of synthetic data and the evaluation of the proposed approach, which correspond to the final two steps of the flowchart given in section " Data and method ".

Generation of synthetic data

Synthetic datasets were generated using the MixSim package [ 26 ]. The average pairwise overlap parameter (denoted as ῶ) in package allows for the creation of clusters with varying degrees of complexity, ranging from well-separated (ῶ = 0.001) to highly overlapped ones (ῶ = 0.4) [ 27 ]. The summary of the package documentation can be found as Supplementary Documentation 1 (see Additional file 1 ).

To evaluate the performance of the ICA and REICA algorithms, we generated two types of random data samples for each value of ῶ (0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.05, and 0.001). The first type of data sample (referred to as Simulated Dataset1) comprised 200 random data values with 6 features, forming 5 clusters. The second type of data sample (referred to as Simulated Dataset2) included 500 random data values with 7 features, forming 10 clusters. These datasets facilitated comprehensive evaluation of algorithm performance across diverse clustering complexities.

Evaluation of the proposed approach

The proposed ICA and REICA algorithms are compared with EM clustering [ 28 ] from the mclust package [ 29 ], k-means [ 3 ] and hierarchal clustering [ 30 ] from the stats package, and k-medoids [ 31 ] clustering from the cluster package [ 32 ]. For the comparison, 1000 data samples of Simulated Dataset 1 and 1000 of Simulated Dataset 2 were prepared and then each algorithm was run on each sample separately. The ICA and REICA algorithms are implemented in R version 3.4.2 [ 33 ]. This study employs the adjusted Rand index implemented in the MixSim package to evaluated algorithms [ 26 , 34 , 35 , 36 ]. The values obtained for the adjusted Rand index for the algorithms when applied to Simulated Dataset 1 are shown in Table 4 .

Table 4 shows that for complex cluster structures (ῶ = 0.4, 0.3, and 0.2), REICA algorithm outperforms other algorithms in cluster formation. However, for moderately or highly separated clusters (ῶ = 0.05, 0.001), both ICA and REICA algorithms perform poorly compared to other algorithms. This was anticipated, as distance between objects outweighs the influence of inversions in such scenarios.

To evaluate the statistical significance of the adjusted Rand index differences among algorithms, we conducted a one-way ANOVA test. Further details are available in Supplementary statistical test result 1 (see Additional file 1 ).

Tables 5 and 6 reveal the optimal algorithm for each ῶ value, offering insights into algorithm performance across diverse clustering scenarios. These results elucidate the efficacy of ICA and REICA algorithms amidst varying clustering complexities and separations.

In highly or moderately separated clusters, distance becomes more influential, diminishing the role of the number of inversions. Consequently, the proposed algorithms are less effective in handling such scenarios compared to other types of clustering. REICA excelled in complex structures, while no algorithm consistently outperformed others in highly or moderately separated clusters. When ῶ = 0.05, k-means was most effective in both simulations. Conversely, with ῶ = 0.001 and a small number of clusters and samples (Simulated Dataset 1), k-means, EM, K-medoids, and Hierarchical algorithms were highly effective. However, with a large number of clusters and samples (Simulated Dataset 2), EM algorithm proved most effective. These findings highlight algorithm strengths in diverse clustering conditions, revealing performance across varying complexities and separations. The selection of the optimal algorithm depends on specific data characteristics and nature.

Clustering techniques encompass partitioning, hierarchical, density-based, grid-based, and model-based methods [ 25 ]. The proposed algorithms fall under partitioning clustering. ICA is similar to k-means but utilizes an inversion-based similarity measure instead of a distance measure, whereas REICA utilizes inversion as a form of regulation for the Euclidean distance. In REICA, Euclidean distance is multiplied by the number of inversions. As a result, when there are more inversions, the measure value increases more prominently compared to scenarios with fewer inversions. This innovative method enriches the algorithm's ability for intricate cluster handling and enhances data analysis insights.

One strength of this study is that it identified three major challenges for Euclidean distance measures: the Symmetry challenge, the Place Symmetry challenge, and the Feature Independence Challenge. To address these challenges, we introduce the inversion-based measure " Inv. " Our findings show the significance of both Euclidean distance and inversions for similarity measures. Particularly, REICA, which multiplies inversions by Euclidean distance, outperforms ICA, which relies solely on inversions. The effectiveness of REICA, which employs a hybrid measure that considers inversions and Euclidean distance, suggests potential for developing other hybrid measures considering both factors. Such measures could prioritize inversion for complex clusters and emphasize Euclidean distance for well-separated clusters, aligning with k-means and other clustering methods.

Another strength of this study is that it benefits from applying statistical testing techniques like one-way ANOVA to rigorously assess the effectiveness of the proposed algorithms in comparison to existing algorithms. Additionally, simulating diverse data samples covering various clustering complexities enhances the findings' robustness and generalizability.

One strength of the proposed inversion-based algorithm is its ability to prioritize features differently. This prioritization operates at two levels. Firstly, during inversion calculation, equal feature values are sorted based on predetermined priority, influencing the number of inversions. Secondly, priority can be introduced as a coefficient in inversion calculations, where each intersection reflects the multiplication of feature priority values. As a result, the distance between two objects will increase with higher priority values, allowing more flexible and nuanced clustering.

For evaluation, the proposed algorithms' performance was compared with classical clustering methods: k-means [ 3 ], EM clustering [ 28 ], hierarchical clustering [ 30 ], and k-medoids [ 31 ]. Results indicate RIECA outperforms other algorithms with complex cluster structures [ 37 , 38 ]. However, in scenarios of moderate or high cluster separation, the proposed algorithms are less effective, consistent with Berikov [ 39 ] and Cupertino [ 40 ].

A limitation of the inversion-based clustering approach is its effectiveness sensitivity to initial centroid selection, a common challenge in partition-based algorithms [ 25 ]. Mitigation strategies, such as repetition and employing the K-means++ initialization method [ 41 ], can be adapted to address this issue. In this study, we adopt the solution of running the algorithm several times with random initial centroids [ 25 ].

Another limitation is the lack of evaluation on real datasets. Assessing an algorithm's performance on actual data is challenging due to unknown cluster complexity. To address this, one could compare synthetic datasets with known complexity to real databases to gain an understanding of the complexity, then evaluate the algorithms under conditions similar to practical tasks. This approach offers insights into real-world performance, establishing their relevance and reliability for diverse data analysis scenarios.

This paper emphasizes the significant impact of similarity measures on clustering algorithm performance. Existing measures, often reliant on feature values and assuming feature independence, may not yield optimal results in practice. To address this, we introduced the innovative inversion-based Inv measure, which considers other object and feature values through inversion. We proposed two algorithms (ICA and RIECA) based on Inv measure, and evaluated their performance using simulated data. Results showed inversion-based clustering outperformed traditional techniques for complex cluster structures.

Future studies can explore practical applications of the Inv measure in real-world problems to improve clustering performance across domains. Further research could investigate other hybrid measures combining inversions and distance-based measure.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the first author on reasonable request.

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Department of Medical Informatics, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Mohammad Mahdi Barati Jozan & Hamed Tabesh

Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, School Of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA

Aynaz Lotfata

Department of Computer Science, University of Regina, Regina, SK, Canada

Howard J. Hamilton

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M.M.B.J.: Conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, writing—original draft, draft preparation. A.L.: Methodology, validation, formal analysis, review, supervision. H.J.H.: Methodology, validation, formal analysis, review, supervision. H.T.: Conceptualization, methodology, validation, formal analysis, review, supervision.

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Barati Jozan, M.M., Lotfata, A., Hamilton, H.J. et al. An inversion-based clustering approach for complex clusters. BMC Res Notes 17 , 133 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-024-06791-y

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CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS article

A concept in flux and starved of the metaphysical: desecularizing emotion.

• Wolfson College, The University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom

Despite being of undisputed importance, there is no consensus on what emotions are, with the majority of research that constructs ideas about them being colored by a particular worldview. This conceptual article examines the case for conducting an Islamic analysis of emotion. It might seem a peculiar area to examine; what would be the need to analyze such a universal psychological concept through the lens of a particular religion? Three points are used to argue for this endeavor. To begin with, this article highlights the relative instability of the term; there is yet no universally agreed upon definition of what emotions are, and which human processes they contribute to. As the concept is still being defined, there is merit in engaging with the discussion, particularly given the relative absence of metaphysics from the debate. Secondly, specificities relating to emotions and how they have conceptualized are considered. This section delves into the way in which variable factors, such as culture, language, and worldview, influence how emotions manifest. The overarching point argued for here is that how emotions are experienced, and even which emotions are experienced, are shaped by factors that are not consistent across time and space. Accordingly, different worldviews will formulate different “emotional palates” and “emotional ideologies”; different groups of people will understand and engage with emotions differently. Thirdly, a broader discussion ensues pertaining to the nature of science, psychology, and their relationship with secularity. This discussion includes critique of the idea that forces such as secularism and scientific materialism have been “discovered” and are therefore value-neutral. Accordingly, understandings of emotions to have emerged from the Academy, and contemporary psychology, are value-laden. This section also looks at the origins of science in order to determine whether it is inherently atheistic or areligious, and therefore antagonistic to a religious worldview. The section also challenges the apparent secularity of psychology and key psychologists. A range of other facets pertaining to how the emotions have been conceptualized, such as their relational core, their interaction with moral faculties, and their enmeshment with what is important to individuals and groups, are also considered.

1 Introduction

“Western folk psychological categories [reflect] a particular, culturally specific theory of mind…Since the professional and publishing institutions of psychological science are filled with people who likely possess and implicitly employ this theory of mind, we cannot, as a field, reconsider these most basic assumptions without also questioning our experience of gravity and the solidity of the objects we interact with. But question we must, because it is distinctly possible that, for a very long time, psychological scientists have misunderstood the nature of the very phenomena that we are attempting to understand. With this challenge in mind, let us strap on our seat belts and take the plunge.” ( Barrett, 2022 , 903)

These are not the musings of a theologian in the seminary, or a pseudo-scientist of the fringes, but an academic who is among the most cited 1% in the world. Lisa Feldman Barrett is of the preeminent psychologists concerned with the emotions, and is a towering figure within the field. While there are those who disagree with her positioning, her ideas command respect and are certainly within the bounds of acceptability. Barrett’s call to re-examination and interrogation of the area of emotions is be to taken seriously. This interrogation includes consideration of the influence of “Western individualism…” which in her view, “…biases scientific thinking” ( Barrett, 2022 , 903); in an earlier publication she wrote of current psychological paradigms being part of a “cherished narrative in Western civilisation” ( Barrett, 2017 , 1), seemingly one that is contestable.

This level of challenge to the status quo reflects one facet of broader debate within the field of emotions, wherein the definitions and delineations are ever being negotiated. Many definitions of the emotions there are, and there are even more claims regarding what emotions do. With this deluge of theories and models already published, it is fair to ask if an Islamic treatment of the emotions and the moral emotions is superfluous. This paper attempts to address this very question; why would an Islamic treatment of the emotions be warranted, let alone needed? The first and second parts of the answer herein hones in on specific aspects of emotions and understandings of them. The third part considers wider questions about the epistemology of “secular psychology” and “Islamic psychology”, and how these considerations fuel the need for an Islamic analysis on this topic. The reality of a deluge of theories and models also supports the proposal itself; this range is revelatory of a concept, and according to significant voices, a construct, that is ill-defined and upon whom discussion and debate is ongoing. Perhaps just as importantly, one might suggest that answers to questions pertaining to what an emotion is, and what its functions are, depend on who is asking and who is answering. Pushing a little further into this area, a further point of enquiry would be to question the epistemological underpinnings of the Academy that has produced most of the contemporary knowledge that is held on the emotions; the work of those such as Wael Hallaq and Recep Şentürk will be instructional to this end ( Hallaq, 2012 , 2018 ; Şentürk, 2022 ). Barrett’s making salient the extent of Western influence on psychology, and understandings of emotions, should not go amiss ( Barrett, 2017 , 2022 ).

While the boundaries are contested, the importance of the emotions are not. It has been said of them that they, “are what make life interesting, and what makes us feel important. From this point of view, they are the most valuable element in human existence” ( Stanghellini and Rosfort, 2013 ; Scarantino and de Sousa, 2021 ). Others have focused on the way in which they “change the way that we think, feel, and behave in powerful ways…the changes wrought by emotion have real-world implications for whether or not we succeed in attaining our goals, for our relationships with others, and for our well-being and life satisfaction” ( Lench and Carpenter, 2018 ,1–2). Emotions are evidently important.

The emotions have been conceptualized in more ways than there are branches of knowledge concerned with them. Crucially, there is no one agreed upon definition of what an emotion is and is not, with Barrett citing Lakoff who wrote, “everyone agrees that emotions exist but no one can agree on their definition” ( Barrett and Russell, 2015 , 4). Such is the debate around them that those such as Niedenthal and Brauer (2012) question whether emotion as a concept can be studied at all, seemingly due the variability of the definitions of the term. Dukes et al. (2021) effectively counter such questioning with a timely reminder that many other complex concepts have proven beyond a one, universal definition yet are soundly researched. The significance of emotions to the life of the individual, and the life of groups, as well as the apparent instability of the way(s) in which they are conceptualized, make them ripe for analysis and discussion.

To better understand the emotions, scholars have noted the need to integrate knowledge “from the cultural to the behavioral, psychological, experimental, physiological, and molecular” ( Coan and Allen, 2008 , 8), while others instead mention the “biological and neurological, behavioral, cultural, structural, and situational” ( Turner, 2009 , 341). Others still have suggested ethology, evolutionary biology, paleto-anthropology, philosophy, neuro-biology, cognitive science, as well as psychology ( Adolphs and Andler, 2018 ). The absence of theology or any related branch of knowledge is both expected and telling; this absence is indicative of what Taylor terms our “secular age,” and itself suggests the need for projects such as the one at hand.

Interdisciplinary sprawl is compounded by significant intra-disciplinary differences too. The range of functions that have been attributed to the emotions reflects both their sizeable and varied purpose, and the complexity of their nature. This range also demonstrates their importance to different processes. Emotions have been theorised as being central to motivation ( Prinz and Nichols, 2010 ), appraisal ( Scarantino and de Sousa, 2021 ), interpersonal communication ( Parkinson, 2020 ), intrapersonal communication ( Reisenzein, 2007 ), readying an individual to react ( Barrett, 2012 ), appraising “performance” post-reaction ( Lefebvre and Krettenauer, 2019 ), commandeering key faculties to allow for a comprehensive reaction ( Sander and Scherer, 2009 ), and more. It is believed that emotions have a specific relationship with things that have meaning to the individual, or are critical for their survival, both in the most basic sense, e.g., surviving from an impending physical threat ( McKenzie et al., 2019 ), and to more abstract factors to thriving, e.g., aligning to meet one’s long term goals ( Nussbaum, 2001 ). Phenomenologists go as far as theorising that emotions link the body to the world to create meaning, and assisting an individual’s grasping of meaning of worldly objects ( Stanghellini and Rosfort, 2013 ). They have been deemed as manifesting as feelings, thoughts, behaviors, and physiological responses. Some believe emotions to be universal and essentially biological ( Ekman, 1993 ); others go to the opposite end of that spectrum and believe them to be wholly socially and culturally constructed ( Barrett and Russell, 2015 ).

Driving the study at hand, the ideologies dominating the contexts within which emotions have been studied also plays a factor in the knowledge derived about them. Plato’s ideas have long dominated thinking about the emotions, and knowledge as a whole ( Giner-Sorolla, 2013 ). While approaches varied, Hellenic philosophers set a general tone of suspicion towards the emotions which long carried through into most of the two millennia that succeeded theirs. It was not until the Renaissance that emotions began being viewed in a positive light ( Williams, 1998 ), certainly, within the Western world. The influence of Hellenic philosophy on Islamic thought is of course of significance. According to Williams’s (1998) telling, Plato may have been the first mover in this trend of suspicion towards emotions, but it is the Enlightenment that deals it a significant and lasting boost. Williams’ assertion that the Enlightenment is significant in subduing the value of emotions is relevant to discussions about religious approaches to emotions, given the Enlightenment’s largely antagonistic relationship with religion. In the vein of antagonistic relationships with religion, Freud obliges and maintains this tradition, with psychology eventually moving past its psychodynamic birth, into behaviorism, then cognitivism, until finally, something of an age of affectivism sprouts ( Haidt, 2001 ; Dukes et al., 2021 ). This is a brief telling of the history of Western psychology, though undoubtedly the “Muslim world” has been influenced by it, as shall be discussed ( Hallaq, 2012 , 2018 ; Şentürk, 2022 ). The idea that the context from which our current body of work on emotions emerged is part of the story of what we know (or think we know) about emotions is worth keeping in mind, and is one driver of this study. Illustrating this idea is Taylor’s assertion that secularism was not discovered, but rather, was constructed ( Taylor, 2007 ).

1.1 The malleability of emotional manifestation

If hard, biological, universalist theories—that argue that emotions are exclusively biophysiological and are experienced universally by all in nearly the same manner—are to be believed, the importance of an Islamic conceptualization of the emotions becomes less important, if important at all. In this telling, emotions are impervious to individual and cultural variation, or, individual and cultural variation play insignificant roles in their function and expression. Significant figures in the field of emotions, such as Ekman, do indeed argue that emotions are largely biological and universal ( Ekman, 1993 ). The counter position to emotional universalism is well described by Mesquita et al. (2016) who note that emotions are not something that humans simply “have,” but rather, that emotions are something people “do,” such is the role that construction plays in emotional experience. While a full examination of this debate falls outside the scope of this paper, it seems more likely that processes such as individual appraisal, and cultural variation, play a role in how emotions are experienced ( Lazarus, 1993 ; Barrett, 2017 ). Rather than debating whether the individual and their culture play any role in how emotions are manifest and understood, the livelier debate centres around just how much of an influence these factors play. One compromise from amidst emotional universalism is offered in the characterisation of the emotions as being universal yet exhibiting different dialects ( Scarantino and de Sousa, 2021 ). Another route to reconciliation is found in differentiating between basic emotions (e.g., fear and sadness), and complex emotions (e.g., shame and gratitude); universalists tend to focus on basic emotions.

James’ seminal paper from more than a century ago made the claim that emotions are essentially a feeling derived from (1) a stimulus in the environment which leads to (2) a physiological response and results in (3) an individual’s interpretation of that physiological response ( James, 1884 ). What became commonly known as the James-Lange theory places great significance on the individual’s perception and interpretation. Since then, different theories have advanced, deepened, and added nuances to the role that an individual’s interpretation of what is going on plays on the experience of emotions.

Lazarus and Folkman’s theory of stress is a useful example of this, with it placing a great deal of significance on the way individuals appraise a potentially stressful stimuli ( Lazarus and Folkman, 1984 ). Lazarus’ later theory goes further, postulating that individuals who appraise a potential stressor as a challenge, and something that might be beneficial and conducive to growth can experience stress in a different way, with it being experienced as eustress ( Lazarus, 1993 ). Appraisalists argue that appraisal plays an important role in the way emotions are experienced, with the process of appraising depending on cognitions, which are shaped by factors such as personality and culture. Stimuli might be objective, but their interpretation and assessment is very much subjective.

Barrett’s work is apparently most popular of those making the claim that emotions are in large part constructions ( Barrett, 2012 , 2017 , 2022 ; Barrett and Russell, 2015 ). Barrett’s (2022) work develops this theme within the context of her belief that much of the world is existing within people’s minds:

“Goals, value, affect, and other mental features are not properties that exist in the world or the body. They are features that exist only in a brain that creates these relational ensembles.” ( Barrett, 2022 , 906)

The idea that reality primarily exists in minds is seen by Taylor as being among the forces that foment and give rise to secularism; he relates it in particular to another force in atomisation ( Taylor, 2007 ).

As well as giving significance to individual interpretation, Barrett’s work makes salient the social and cultural element of this. Her determination of emotions as “ontologically subjective categories” ( Barrett, 2012 ), put the individual, and the individual as a member of a community, at the center of the process by which emotions are understood and experienced. Barrett (2012) writes on the significance of group-level understanding of emotions; according to her, emotions are only as effective, and as real, as a group’s understanding of them. Without a shared understanding, emotions can exist, but are arguably devoid of significance and meaning. Illustrating this point well, Barrett leans on the work of philosopher John Searle’s reflections about what determines whether a plant is a flower or a weed ( Searle, 1995 ). The meaning of this is created and shared within a group, and allows them to communicate and influence one another; collective intentionality and understanding is key.

Barrett articulates:

“Humans create ontologically subjective categories to serve functions that help constitute social life…such functions are the glue that holds a human society together. If emotion categories are ontologically subjective categories, then they can be thought of as collective tools that allow members of the same culture (and even different cultures, depending on the categories, of course) to represent and shape the social meaning of physical events.” ( Barrett, 2012 , 419)

Emotions are experienced within a social reality, with the members of the community playing a role in constructing what this meaning is. The significance of this point is deepened still when one reflects on the comparatively concrete nature of plants, as opposed to the immaterial constitution of emotions. Groups construct different meanings about emotions, and develop different vocabulary to reflect them, which in turn impacts how they are experienced. If Barrett’s thesis on the role that groups play in constructing meanings about emotions is even partially true, it serves to support the proposal at hand. The idea of boundaried groups and intragroup construction of meaning invites consideration of the Islamic concept of ummah. Stemming from this point is another of significance– all terms are informed by a worldview, with the secular materialistic worldview that dominates the Academy today being as much of a construction as any other; Taylor’s point about secularism’s construction rather than discovery again comes to mind ( Taylor, 2007 ).

Taylor’s writings on the significance of language argue that it is particularly in the world of feelings and other abstract concepts that language becomes critical. Contrasting the neatness of using language to describe “things”, and more universal emotions like sadness and happiness, Taylor notes the significant role played by a culture’s language in facilitating emotional experience:

“But how do we, either individually or as a culture, go beyond these obvious, basic cases, and find more refined and subtle terms for how we feel: ‘uneasy’, ‘troubled’, ‘serene’, ‘alienated’? How do we learn to describe our world as full of meaning, or flattened, deprived of meaning? Unlike the basic cases, these feelings/meaning arise in certain cultures and not others, and they are connected through skeins of meaning to a whole host of other discriminations which belong to this culture: its virtues, values, morals, sense of beauty, sense of fullness, its understandings of shame, and (where this is important) guilt….” ( Taylor, 2016 , 187)

Taylor describes the motivational force that is generated by an individual’s better understanding themselves through the words they know and apply, writing on it bringing clarity to confusion, and clarifying a “sense of what really matters.” Laden within his ideas here is the catalysation of a sense of catharsis that can emerge from better understanding oneself, with language playing a central role in this. With this in mind, ideas such as those of Lazhar gain weight ( Lazhar, 2023 ). Lazhar writes on the Islamic worldview, and more specifically, the Quran as having, “insufflated a new semantic life to the Arabic vocabulary…evolving in the context of a distinct worldview and value system, the word [in this case, salat/ritual prayer] now denotes a new reality in which etymology and custom only play a secondary role” ( Lazhar, 2023 , 162). Taylor describes the importance of language to knowledge and self-knowledge, while Lazhar describes the Islamic worldview as having reanimated the language used by its adherents. The role that language plays in shaping realities evokes ideas such as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis ( Scholz et al., 2024 ). This thesis posits that language plays a direct and directive role in influencing thought, to the extent that different languages uniquely influence their speakers.

Coulter adds to this position with his writings on the social construction of emotions ( Coulter, 1979 ). Using the example of shame, he highlights the strength of a social aspect to its manifestation by way of the fact that shame is rooted in right and wrong, and the violation of societal standards:

“No matter how much a dog may cringe with its tail between its legs when caught in the act of dragging its bone across the rug, it does not feel guilt or shame. Whatever it is that the dog feels (fear?) the ascription of categories such as guilt, shame, or remorse, apply only by analogical extension….” ( Coulter, 1979 , 132–133)

Coulter’s specific mention of the moral emotions here calls to mind an idea from Taylor and the related idea of the social construction of morality:

“We are constantly losing from sight…that being a self is inseparable from existing in a space of moral issues…the real difficult thing is distinguishing the human universals from the historical constellations and not eliding the second into the first so that our particular way seems somehow inescapable for humans as such, as we are always tempted to do.” ( Taylor, 1989 , 112)

If emotions are partly socially constructed, and morality is partly socially constructed, different groups would likely benefit from analysing psychological phenomena through the lens of their own worldview. In fact, those such as Tagney have deemed moral emotions such as shame as psychological “moral barometers” ( Tangney et al., 2007 ). As well as construction, they serve a distinct moral function. Different worldviews will surely produce different barometers based on their different needs.

The relational aspect of emotions has been well established, with many of the proposed functions of emotions relating to others, by way of communicating with them, expressing something to them, influencing what they feel so as to influence what they think and what they do, and so on. While an individual’s relationship with God is largely absent from the Western Secular academy, it remains at the forefront of the Islamic creed; it could even be argued that no other relationship matters in a comparative sense. The Islamic conception of the importance of god-consciousness is unrelenting. Conceptualizing what emotions are, while giving them a strongly relational focus, sets up emotions in a way so as to serve human relationships. Inserting, or re-inserting, as colossal a figure as The Almighty within that plane would necessarily change the dynamics of how emotions are understood, and what functions they are believed to conduct. Within a web of relational understanding, God’s gravitational pull would markedly impact on the entire structure.

Which relationships are important, and what constitutes morality, are concerns that relate to worldviews. Further to the idea that a comprehensive worldview would want to involve itself in the fundamental workings of how its harbourers navigate their world, another suggested function of emotions becomes relevant. According to a number of scholars, emotions aid individuals in focusing to what is important to them, including concerns of one’s hopes and values ( Nussbaum, 2001 ; Lemmings and Brooks, 2014 ; Vallerand, 2015 ). Relatedly, González (2016) wrote on the emotions being directed at what one care’s about. Dukes et al. (2021) furthered this point by claiming that emotions do not only play a role in focusing on what is important, but they also aid the individual in filtering out what is not important. Emotions concern themselves with what is important and what is not; worldviews, and especially religious worldviews, also concern themselves with these areas. Relying on a secular psychological approach to the emotions, or even simply approaches that are not cognisant of the metaphysics of Islam, seems ill-fitting.

Another important idea comes from Hochschild and the significance of “emotion ideologies,” wherein groups determine rules pertaining to emotions; what should be felt, what should be displayed, what emotion labels are valid, and how they should be talked about ( Bellocchi and Turner, 2019 ). Apparent here is a high level of both prescriptivity and construction. Rather than touching on the way emotions are experienced through primarily a psychological lens, the idea of emotion ideologies instead highlights the different rules groups have for emotions and their expression. Much of the cross-cultural work on emotions highlights that different emotion ideologies already exist amongst most groups ( Mesquita et al., 2016 ). What is less forthcoming is an attempt to delve into this topic in a structured way, drawing from Islamic sources. The three preceding points tie into each other; which relationships are important, what kind of things are important to the individual, and what their emotional ideologies might be, all feed into the core facets of a worldview. Different worldviews will likely have different answers to each.

As well as being experienced differently, and being composed of different dialects ( Scarantino and de Sousa, 2021 ), it is likely that the Islamic palate for emotions will differ from those of other worldviews. Going directly to the heart of the Islamic worldview—the Quran—and certain examples are forthcoming:

ثَانِىَ ٱثْنَيْنِ إِذْ هُمَا فِى ٱلْغَار إِذْ يَقُولُ لِصَـٰحِبِهِۦ ۖلَا تَحْزَنْ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ مَعَنَا فَأَنزَلَ ٱللَّهُ سَكِينَتَهُۥ عَلَيْه … and he was only one of two. While they both were in the cave, he reassured his companion, “Do not worry; Allah is certainly with us.” So Allah sent down His serenity upon him (Quran 9:40).

There is in this verse an indication of serenity/سكينته being an emotional state that not only exists, but is directly sent by God to the very heart of an individual as an aid in the face of another emotion, grief/sadness/حزن. It is not the only verse that speaks of serenity being sent to the hearts of humans (e.g., Quran 48:4, 48:26).

A further verse that suggests there is much to be mined and garnered from Islamic sources vis-à-vis emotions and an Islamic approach to them is found in chapter 53:

وَأَنَّهُۥ هُوَ أَضْحَكَ وَأَبْكَىٰ And that it is He who makes [one] laugh and weep (Quran 53:43).

Here appears to be again a direct relationship drawn between Divine Power and Action, and an individual’s emotions. While the first example could be dismissed as applicable to certain unique classes of people (i.e., prophets and their companions), this verse appears to be both general and universal.

The Quran introduced itself to the world with the instruction to “read”, followed closely with mention of the sacredness of the act of writing – two behaviours that arguably stoke cerebral chords more than emotive ones. As readers progress into the second, and lengthiest, chapter, the steady rhythm of the verses yield a repeated message that is emotionally orientated and designed to comfort and guide; no fear and no grief will be upon those who believe and act morally. Words to this effect are repeated multiple times throughout the book, and five times within that second chapter alone. The Quran depicts the story of Moses, as he embarks on his journey, during which his fears are first comforted by God directly – “do not fear” - through verbal reassurance, as well as the instilling of self-efficacy. Eventually, his conquering of his fears allows him to become in turn comforter to the fears of his flock. Implicit yet salient within the Quran’s transmission of the speech of God, dealing directly with Moses’ emotion, is a significant validation of the overall importance of emotions, and the value in attending to them. Within the Prophet Muhammad’s life, the tenderest moments serve as opportunities to break from Pre-Islamic emotional norms, and develop Islam’s own emotional ideology. These include the heart-wrenching final moments of his dying infant son, Ibrahim, or the Prophet’s instructions to a man who proclaims that he never kisses his children. These parables and the instructions within them directly challenged the emotional ideologies of the age. The Prophet’s final moments with his son and his experiential instruction to allow poignant sadness to emerge, contrast with the Quranic Jacob, his searing pain, and his almost mystical declaration of only sharing his emotional pains with his Lord. Even in the moment of triumph, the Prophet Muhammad again carves a new emotional path for this followers; humility and gratitude mark the order of the day, as riding on camelback, he slumps in submission to his Maker, drawing yet another alternate emotional path from the pride and vengefulness that would have characterised the triumphs of the monarchs of neighboring Persia and Rome. The Islamic tradition is loaded with emotive energy and instruction, yet it has not been rendered impervious to the influence of other worldviews and their respective, and all too often imposing, emotional ideologies. More research is needed, but the promise is apparent.

Another relevant issue pertains to the aversion of key thinkers to metaphysical and religious explanations. Darwin’s own aversion to seemingly more likely explanations because they would point towards a Designer should be noted. Parkinson (2005) cites the work of Fridlund in his determination that Darwin wanted to resist conceding that facial expressions were tied to emotions, because that would imply the purposeful design of a Designer. Furthermore, scholars who are not averse to religion should then wonder what other ideas have been coloured by such goals, and what steps should be taken to address such issues; conscious and unconscious biases have undoubtedly played their respective and often imposing roles.

While the jury remains out on the precise role that emotions play in moral decision making, whether they are essentially the heart of moral behavior, or they merely play a supporting role (and can often in fact be absent), most scholars agree that they are present somewhere within the equation. Even if the extreme objectivism camp is correct, emotions play a significant role in moral decision making, albeit a wholly negative one. Whether they are contributors to moral decision making or the bane of morality, they are relevant, and so are important to any worldview that concerns itself with morality.

The goal of most religions’ attempt to drive the whole moral life of the individual, and so the relationship between religion and emotion is one of significance. More broadly, the jury also remains out on what exactly constitutes an emotion ( Barrett and Russell, 2015 ). With the concept itself under scrutiny by a few, and being wrestled over by many, it would seem apt for believers in a worldview such as the Islamic to engage and contribute to the discussion. As well as challenges to the very essence of the term, Muslim scholars would be wise to note the apparent absence of God from the vast majority of conceptualizations of what emotions are and what their function is. This is surely something believers in the Islamic worldview would strive to remedy, perhaps doing the reverse of what Darwin set out to do, by a priori removing a Designer from his conception; the starting point for Muslims on every significant truth-seeking endeavour is He/ هو and according to the Islamic conception of Him, His gravitational pull is insuperable.

1.2 Psychology, science, and secularity

Moving a step back from specifically looking at the emotions, broader considerations pertaining to psychology and science also contain evidence in support of the argument of this paper. Staying in the vein of the influence of anti-religious thinkers on this area of study, Ekman (2009) cites Darwin as a key influence on his theories, while Haidt cites Richard Dawkins’ Selfish Gene ( Dawkins, 1976 ) as a significant reading in his intellectual development. Granted, Haidt also criticises certain aspects of Dawkins thinking, especially in relation to arguments made by Wilson (2002) . While these key figures within the field being influenced by such significant anti-religious thinkers is not in itself a reason to dismiss any of their ideas outright, it does hold a place within wider considerations of the field. This particular line of critique engages with a principle readily found in the humanities but is typically disregarded within the sciences; the ideology of the individual influences their craft. The claim that science is objective is increasingly challenged, especially in light of the rise of whole disciplines of psychology dedicated to the study and utilisation of human biases ( Thaler and Sunstein, 2008 ). On one side of this coin is the argument that those who harbour distinctly anti-religious worldviews play important roles in the published literature. The other side of this coin, and more positively angled, is the finding that other religions have also claimed a stake in conceptualizations of contemporary scientific psychology.

With proximity to the discussion at hand, Shweder et al.’s (1997) CAD triad hypothesis (Community, Autonomy, Divinity) of moral psychology openly cites the ideas of Hinduism in its construction, casting these as a viable alternative to contemporary American moral values. While this might be an exercise in descriptivism, the tone taken by Schweder and his colleagues at times is arguably more prescriptive than might be expected from within the secular Academy. A more distant but still pertinent example exists in the form of Gilbert’s Compassion Focused Therapy ( Gilbert, 2009 ). Gilbert’s adaptation of cognitive behavioral therapy integrates key concepts from the Buddhist religion, again, openly and unabashedly (and rightly so!). Another instantiation of this argument is a marriage of two key figures, one from the world of emotions, the other from the world of religions. Lama et al. (2008) combines the thinking and worldviews of the Daila Lama (spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism) and pioneer of the psychological study of emotions Paul Ekman, in their attempt to overcome the obstacles to psychological balance and compassion, through emotional awareness. The fourth example is both controversial but also supported by a growing body of evidence. Freud, who has already been termed by some as the “godfather of modernity,” was in fact according to some, deeply influenced by Jewish mysticism in the form of Kabbalah ( Alexander and Bakan, 1960 ), as well as his Hassidic roots ( Berke, 2015 ). Far from being merely a cultural colouring, scholars go as far as suggesting central aspects of his psychodynamic theory, such as free association, are rooted in Kabbalist practices. Other examples of religion’s blending within psychology exist too, such as Freud’s contemporary, Carl Jung and his engagement with Christianity ( Jung, 2010 ), while he was also comfortable to borrow from Hinduism and its practice of kundalini yoga ( Jung Carl et al., 2020 ). There might be merit in examining whether certain religions are seen as more malleable and unthreatening so as to borrow from for the Western Academy (e.g., Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, and Christianity) while others are seen as more threatening (e.g., Islam). Discussions around the religiosity of other pioneers in Western psychology also exist, such as BF Skinner ( Toates, 2009 ; Schlinger, 2011 ) and Carl Rogers ( Fuller, 1982 ). Josephson-Storm extends this claim to a raft of thinkers, mostly outside of the field of psychology, but hugely influential in the development of knowledge and shaping of the contemporary world, all of whom are typically believed to be secular if not atheistic ( Josephson-Storm, 2017 ). Josephson-Storm’s central thesis is that many of the thinkers who contributed significantly to the development of knowledge in the modern world are not as secular as is commonly believed.

The idea that psychology and psychiatry are effectively replacements for religion is held by some ( Fuller, 1982 ; Jung, 1985 ). In the mid 20th century, Jung wrote:

“The wave of interest in psychology which at present is sweeping over the Protestant countries of Europe is far from receding. It is coincident with the general exodus from the Church… ‘Nowadays people go to the psychotherapist rather than to the clergyman’.” ( Jung, 1985 , 31)

The apparent negatively correlated relationship between religion and psychology might seem understandable, but warrants further and fuller investigation. As well as identifying the growing discontent with the Church, Jung correctly prophesised the onset of prevalence of psychological disturbance among the “most developed” world. He warned that dominant models of psychology, such as that of his peers, Freud and Alfred Adler, were ill-equipped to handle this psycho-spiritual malaise, believing them to be “hostile to spiritual values” and as being “psychology without the psyche” ( Jung, 2007 , 31). A leitmotif from Jung’s work is of the importance of psychology being spiritually attentive, with Jung not being shy to borrow from both Western and eastern religious traditions to this end; notably he also attempted an exegesis of the famous story of Moses and Al-Khidir from the Quran ( Jung Carl et al., 2020 ). Most significant here is the epistemological rooting of Western psychology as a replacement for religion; there is an argument that this narrative does perhaps hold truth, however, it is relevant only to contemporary Western psychology, and not other psychologies.

As well as the need to add the Islamic, there is also a broader and less exclusively Islamic-specific argument on the merits of reintegrating the heart into psychology. While this is undoubtedly an Islamic endeavour, given the significance afforded to the heart within the Islamic psychological worldview, more specifically within the Quran, and within the work of classic Islamic scholars who approached psychology – what Moosa (2005) eloquently terms “pectoral psychology” – it is not only within the scope and interest of Muslims. A Prophetic injunction to “consult your heart” when faced with a moral decision highlights the central role that the organ plays within Islamic psychology ( al-Khatib, 2022 ). Steinbock’s (2014) text on the moral emotions is tellingly subtitled “reclaiming evidence of the heart.” This might be seen as a station along the path to the “re-enchantment” of psychology, and science more broadly, perhaps a short few steps from the current “rise of affectivism” ( Dukes et al., 2021 ). Taylor’s (2007) telling of the process of localisation that fuelled secularism, and more specifically, of the localising of the individual and much of reality to human minds, is worth keeping in mind. Cartesian duality marked a significant portion of this process, with the heart – once seen as of the critical components of the human – being relegated to an inert physiological organ. This relegation is in direct conflict with the Quranic worldview, and its regular, indeed dominant, addressing of individuals and their personhood as being so intimately related to their hearts. While the heart is apparently dominant, the brain is also given importance through Quranic dialogue with the عقل or intellect; tellingly, when the Quran wants to convey God’s personal intimacy to each and every human being, He tells His readers that is closer to them than their jugular vein, i.e., the connective organ between the heart and much of the head. Reintegration of the heart, and the re-enchantment of psychology, would likely entail characteristics such as a move away from scientism, a greater openness to metaphysics, and the soul/spirit, as well as literal attention to the physical heart and a redrawing of boundaries to include it within the practice of psychology. Islamic integration of the heart would also include considerations of Islamic conceptions of the human ( Rothman and Coyle, 2018 ), as well more controversial aspects like cognisance of the devil. Challenges to Cartesian dualism are also relevant, with arguments against it increasing in volume and potency ( Aungle and Langer, 2023 ).

There is of course a prevailing view that science is inherently disenchanted because it is fundamentally disenchanting. Stanley (2015) proposed a radically different telling. By juxtaposing the position of two Victorian scientists—one being “Darwin’s Bulldog,” Thomas Huxley, 1 and the other being devoted Christian, James Maxwell, Stanley sheds light on the struggle for the heart of science. At the center of this battle was theism and a secularism that can be argued to be a precursor for atheistic thinking. While the details of this struggle are fascinating and relevant to all scientists—especially scientific theists—the most significant aspects to this paper are twofold. Firstly, Stanley’s claim that the roots of Western science are firmly within theistic thought; one such example he cites is the idea of the uniformity of the universe being indicative of a Devine Designer and Caretaker. Secondly, his framing of the difference between methodological naturalists, and metaphysical naturalists. The latter poses a problem for theists, while the former poses no such problem at all. Perhaps most contentiously, Stanley claims that it was the specific goal of the metaphysical naturalists to rewrite the narrative of science within the education system so as to frame science as being inherently areligious or anti-religious. While a more precise threading of this argument falls outside the remit of this study, the idea that science is not inherently anti-religious is of relevance, while the idea that science and theism are deeply related, historically if not typically within the contemporary, is relevant too. Indeed, methodological naturalism is arguably what Islamic scientists have been doing for more than a millennium. Approaching the emotions with an Islamic lens would be a rekindling of this Islamic scientific psychological spirit; in light of Stanley’s writings, the call of this paper is then less of an argument for a new approach, and more of a call to return to the roots of science.

Taylor’s work on secularism can also be positioned to support the case for an Islamic approach. Knowledge, science, and psychology are all not produced in vacuums, and the context of their production plays a fundamental role in how they are conceptualized. Taylor makes an incisive and debatable point, challenging both secularists and Platonists, but perhaps all knowledge producers too. Secularism was framed as though it were discovered and not constructed, while in classical times, Plato believed himself to be finding reason and not making it; Taylor challenges both lines of thinking ( Taylor, 2007 ). He reinforces this position by positing that morality and ideas of personhood are ever fleeting, and are very much bound to their time periods.

“The real difficult thing is distinguishing the human universals from the historical constellations and not eliding the second into the first so that our particular way seems somehow inescapable for humans as such, as we are always tempted to do…our modern notion of the self is just as much a historically local self-interpretation which would also be opaque and perplexing to outsiders.” ( Taylor, 1989 , 112–113)

Going deeper into the notion of time itself, Taylor pays specific energy to the idea of the secularisation of time, wherein it is reduced to its horizontal and mechanistic forms. According to this telling, time itself, and more convincingly, the way it is experienced, is impacted by the worldview of its adherents. Such is the depth of the influence of ideologies on reality. An illuminating recent study exhibited the influence of thought on physical reality to the extent that perceptions of time were reported to have influenced physical healing ( Aungle and Langer, 2023 ). While the influence of cognition on perception has long been reported, this study’s extension of the power of belief into the physical is noteworthy. More still can be spoken about the “social imaginary” and the “background,” as determining the contexts within which humans are living. In short, psychology produced within secularism will be different to psychology produced within another ideology.

Support for the idea of an alternate treatment of this area comes by way of Hallaq’s (2012) critique of the modern academy as a whole. According to Hallaq, educational centres are not neutral spaces by any means, rather, they are but one aspect of state institutions that are set on inculcating specific values that serve the state, as well as producing a narrow band of knowledge that sustains the state. The produced “homo modernus” is not the liberated human as claimed by that narrative, but rather a citizen efficiently inculcated with “state interests, state priorities, state programs…and state ‘problem-solving’ ideology” ( Hallaq, 2012 , 77). Hallaq’s surgical critique amplifies ideas mentioned about the context from which psychology emerges, and the ways in which this renders it unconducive to Islamically sensitive knowledge. A further and more troubling point of caution emerges at this juncture; has the project at hand sufficiently addressed, or even at least recognised, the extent to which the researcher and their ideas are coloured by the very systems that Hallaq warns of, given their emergence from such modern centres of education.

Şentürk’s work extends Hallaq on this point; rather than merely critiquing the academy from which they came, societal sciences as a whole are reflective of a value-laden paradigm ( Şentürk, 2022 ). In Şentürk’s telling, “Islamicising” psychology, or any other social science, does not adhere to the holistic Islamic paradigm. Relying on Kuhn and Ibn Khaldun, Şentürk argues that approaches to human and social problems are fundamentally moulded by the civilisations from which they emerge. Accordingly, relying on a modern, Western branch of knowledge and attempting to “Islamicise” it risks descending into an act of optics and tokenism. A true return to the organically Islamic would involve engaging with psychology from within the Islamic paradigm by way of fiqh 2 , but not a fiqh that has been reduced into merely jurisprudence. Accordingly, a truly Islamic conception of the emotions would not be a mere Islamic dressing of a secular concept.

Speaking more to Şentürk’s writings, Islamic psychology is an active rejection of the position that religion and psychology are mutually exclusive, or even separable ( Şentürk, 2022 ). Underlying this is the rejection of intellectual secularism as a whole. The practice of religious psychology, or Islamic psychology, would not be as new as it might seem, but rather, would be a rekindling of sorts. Classical Islamic scholars were readily blending knowledge of their ages, be it Hellenic or otherwise, with Islamic insights, to formulate improved theses. The most famous of these examples in relation to psychology is that of Abu Zayd al-Balkhi, a 9th century polymath. His text, Sustenance for Bodies and Souls, is replete with psychological advice so incisive that it has been compared to and found to be aligned with the DSM-5 description of phobias ( Awaad and Ali, 2016 ). Beyond phobias, that work was laden with psychological insights that have stood the test of time, including the importance of cognitive training, socialising, and mental hygiene ( Badri, 2013 ). Explanations as to the contributive factors to the apparent decline of Islamic psychology, evidently a reality in classical times, can be found in the work of Hallaq and warrant discussions in their own right ( Hallaq, 2012 , 2018 ). The modern field of Islamic psychology has been on a path to revive this path of knowledge. The recent work of Karen Bauer has already provided significant insights into the role emotions play within Islam, and the life of Muslims ( Bauer, 2017 , 2019 ), with other scholars also having contributed to this burgeoning field; Katz (2014) and El Shamsy (2015) in relation to the moral emotion of shame, and Lumbard (2021) for the moral emotion of gratitude. The work of Keshavarzi and Keshavarzi, and their treatment of emotions through the prism of Islamic clinical psychology is also noteworthy ( Keshavarzi et al., 2020 ).

2 Conclusion

The emotions are still being understood, to the extent that a universal definition remains elusive. Given that the discussion is ongoing, and there is dearth of voices within it that are metaphysically attuned, driving a stronger religious presence within the discussion carries merit.

Setting aside deservingness of a place at the discussion, and even abandoning quests for objective truth, Muslims as an in-group, with a unique set of values and norms, would be better served by an approach to the emotions that is cognisant of their worldview. Going a step beyond, Muslims as a diverse series of in-groups likely require a number of approaches to the emotions. Emotion ideologies devised with Islam and Muslims specifically in mind appears an appropriate engagement. Relatedly, a growing number of studies support the influence of factors such as culture on emotional experience, while emotions appear to change across time too. Contemporary approaches to the emotions did not germinate in a vacuum, and have not been discovered as in the case of an objective reality, but rather, appear to have been constructed. Emotions as we have largely come to understand them from within the Academy have not been developed in a neutral way. The definitions devised, and functions proposed, are as ideologically laden as an Islamic conception of them would be. Underlying any idea about emotions, or moral emotions, or morality, or the individual, are value-laden positions that are changeable and worthy of critique. Psychology as a contemporary, modern, branch of science, is born of the Enlightenment, and is fruit of it. This manifestation of psychology is but one of many psychologies; a truly “Islamic psychology” would likely not be a mere dressing of the Enlightenment’s psychology in an Islamic coat.

A number of options seem apparent in an attempt to devise an Islamic conception of the emotions. Rather than devising an entirely independent theory (the “Islamic Psychology Approach”), they could shape conceptions of emotions to suit their needs (the “Islamic Filter Approach”); or perhaps at the very least, sifting through the theories and models that have already been proposed and determining which are in most alignment with their worldview (the “Islamic Comparison Approach”) ( Kaplick and Skinner, 2017 ). If they are being a little braver, they would play a pioneering role in the advancement of this area of study as a whole, rather than merely its Islamic derivative. Certainly, Muslim psychologists and Islamic psychologists would see value in conceptualizing the emotions in a way that is sensitive to, or perhaps even reflects, the Islamic conception of morality and conception of the human.

The apparent malleability of emotions and emotional experiences mean that the individual, the society they are in, and the culture which colours it, influence these experiences. As a commanding and dynamic worldview, with a distinct set of moral values, and a belief in a Divine Revelation that has been preserved and is accessible today, it is natural to conclude that Muslims be interested in devising their own Islamic conceptions, theories, and approaches to the emotions, and especially the moral emotions. This drive from within the worldview is compounded by the fact psychology is still in its relative infancy, with the instability and ongoing discussions around the concept of emotion itself continuing; much remains to be settled, the concrete has by no means hardened, and Islamic scholars should be claiming their place at the proverbial table. This need not be necessary an act of divorce between mainstream contemporary psychology and Islamic psychology; examples of the influence of other religions upon mainstream psychology, and towering psychologists, are ample. The healthy development of Islamic psychology, and more specifically, an Islamic analysis of the emotions, can be an important addition and enrichment to psychology as a whole, as well as a progressive move towards enriching and deepening the emotional lives of Muslims.

Author contributions

TM: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Acknowledgments

I am forever grateful to Ms. Wafa Dalati, for all she gave while seamlessly instilling within me an appreciation for reading, writing, and learning, and to Dr. Mamoun, for nurturing my love for both psychology and Islam.

Conflict of interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

1. ^ Grandfather to not one but two significant thinkers of the 20th century, Aldous and Julian Huxley.

2. ^ Fiqh is commonly translated as Islamic jurisprudence, and seen as Islamic law, however, those such as Șentürk argue that it is in fact broader and more multifaceted than these now narrowed definitions.

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Keywords: emotion, moral emotions, Islamic psychology, philosophy of psychology, moral psychology, orientalism, secularism

Citation: Mobayed T (2024) A concept in flux and starved of the metaphysical: desecularizing emotion. Front. Psychol . 15:1373443. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1373443

Received: 19 January 2024; Accepted: 21 March 2024; Published: 13 May 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Mobayed. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Tamim Mobayed, [email protected]

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