Research methodology vs. research methods
The research methodology or design is the overall strategy and rationale that you used to carry out the research. Whereas, research methods are the specific tools and processes you use to gather and understand the data you need to test your hypothesis.
To further understand research methodology, let’s explore some examples of research methodology:
a. Qualitative research methodology example: A study exploring the impact of author branding on author popularity might utilize in-depth interviews to gather personal experiences and perspectives.
b. Quantitative research methodology example: A research project investigating the effects of a book promotion technique on book sales could employ a statistical analysis of profit margins and sales before and after the implementation of the method.
c. Mixed-Methods research methodology example: A study examining the relationship between social media use and academic performance might combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches. It could include surveys to quantitatively assess the frequency of social media usage and its correlation with grades, alongside focus groups or interviews to qualitatively explore students’ perceptions and experiences regarding how social media affects their study habits and academic engagement.
These examples highlight the meaning of methodology in research and how it guides the research process, from data collection to analysis, ensuring the study’s objectives are met efficiently.
When it comes to writing your study, the methodology in research papers or a dissertation plays a pivotal role. A well-crafted methodology section of a research paper or thesis not only enhances the credibility of your research but also provides a roadmap for others to replicate or build upon your work.
Wondering how to write the research methodology section? Follow these steps to create a strong methods chapter:
At the start of a research paper , you would have provided the background of your research and stated your hypothesis or research problem. In this section, you will elaborate on your research strategy.
Begin by restating your research question and proceed to explain what type of research you opted for to test it. Depending on your research, here are some questions you can consider:
a. Did you use qualitative or quantitative data to test the hypothesis?
b. Did you perform an experiment where you collected data or are you writing a dissertation that is descriptive/theoretical without data collection?
c. Did you use primary data that you collected or analyze secondary research data or existing data as part of your study?
These questions will help you establish the rationale for your study on a broader level, which you will follow by elaborating on the specific methods you used to collect and understand your data.
Now that you have told your reader what type of research you’ve undertaken for the dissertation, it’s time to dig into specifics. State what specific methods you used and explain the conditions and variables involved. Explain what the theoretical framework behind the method was, what samples you used for testing it, and what tools and materials you used to collect the data.
Once you have explained the data collection process, explain how you analyzed and studied the data. Here, your focus is simply to explain the methods of analysis rather than the results of the study.
Here are some questions you can answer at this stage:
a. What tools or software did you use to analyze your results?
b. What parameters or variables did you consider while understanding and studying the data you’ve collected?
c. Was your analysis based on a theoretical framework?
Your mode of analysis will change depending on whether you used a quantitative or qualitative research methodology in your study. If you’re working within the hard sciences or physical sciences, you are likely to use a quantitative research methodology (relying on numbers and hard data). If you’re doing a qualitative study, in the social sciences or humanities, your analysis may rely on understanding language and socio-political contexts around your topic. This is why it’s important to establish what kind of study you’re undertaking at the onset.
Now that you have gone through your research process in detail, you’ll also have to make a case for it. Justify your choice of methodology and methods, explaining why it is the best choice for your research question. This is especially important if you have chosen an unconventional approach or you’ve simply chosen to study an existing research problem from a different perspective. Compare it with other methodologies, especially ones attempted by previous researchers, and discuss what contributions using your methodology makes.
No matter how thorough a methodology is, it doesn’t come without its hurdles. This is a natural part of scientific research that is important to document so that your peers and future researchers are aware of it. Writing in a research paper about this aspect of your research process also tells your evaluator that you have actively worked to overcome the pitfalls that came your way and you have refined the research process.
1. Remember who you are writing for. Keeping sight of the reader/evaluator will help you know what to elaborate on and what information they are already likely to have. You’re condensing months’ work of research in just a few pages, so you should omit basic definitions and information about general phenomena people already know.
2. Do not give an overly elaborate explanation of every single condition in your study.
3. Skip details and findings irrelevant to the results.
4. Cite references that back your claim and choice of methodology.
5. Consistently emphasize the relationship between your research question and the methodology you adopted to study it.
To sum it up, what is methodology in research? It’s the blueprint of your research, essential for ensuring that your study is systematic, rigorous, and credible. Whether your focus is on qualitative research methodology, quantitative research methodology, or a combination of both, understanding and clearly defining your methodology is key to the success of your research.
Once you write the research methodology and complete writing the entire research paper, the next step is to edit your paper. As experts in research paper editing and proofreading services , we’d love to help you perfect your paper!
Here are some other articles that you might find useful:
What does research methodology mean, what types of research methodologies are there, what is qualitative research methodology, how to determine sample size in research methodology, what is action research methodology.
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This is very simplified and direct. Very helpful to understand the research methodology section of a dissertation
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By: Jenna Crossley (PhD) | Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | September 2021 (Updated April 2023)
So, you’ve pinned down your research topic and undertaken a review of the literature – now it’s time to write up the methodology section of your dissertation, thesis or research paper . But what exactly is the methodology chapter all about – and how do you go about writing one? In this post, we’ll unpack the topic, step by step .
The methodology chapter is where you outline the philosophical underpinnings of your research and outline the specific methodological choices you’ve made. The point of the methodology chapter is to tell the reader exactly how you designed your study and, just as importantly, why you did it this way.
Importantly, this chapter should comprehensively describe and justify all the methodological choices you made in your study. For example, the approach you took to your research (i.e., qualitative, quantitative or mixed), who you collected data from (i.e., your sampling strategy), how you collected your data and, of course, how you analysed it. If that sounds a little intimidating, don’t worry – we’ll explain all these methodological choices in this post .
The methodology chapter plays two important roles in your dissertation or thesis:
Firstly, it demonstrates your understanding of research theory, which is what earns you marks. A flawed research design or methodology would mean flawed results. So, this chapter is vital as it allows you to show the marker that you know what you’re doing and that your results are credible .
Secondly, the methodology chapter is what helps to make your study replicable. In other words, it allows other researchers to undertake your study using the same methodological approach, and compare their findings to yours. This is very important within academic research, as each study builds on previous studies.
The methodology chapter is also important in that it allows you to identify and discuss any methodological issues or problems you encountered (i.e., research limitations ), and to explain how you mitigated the impacts of these. Every research project has its limitations , so it’s important to acknowledge these openly and highlight your study’s value despite its limitations . Doing so demonstrates your understanding of research design, which will earn you marks. We’ll discuss limitations in a bit more detail later in this post, so stay tuned!
First off, it’s worth noting that the exact structure and contents of the methodology chapter will vary depending on the field of research (e.g., humanities, chemistry or engineering) as well as the university . So, be sure to always check the guidelines provided by your institution for clarity and, if possible, review past dissertations from your university. Here we’re going to discuss a generic structure for a methodology chapter typically found in the sciences.
Before you start writing, it’s always a good idea to draw up a rough outline to guide your writing. Don’t just start writing without knowing what you’ll discuss where. If you do, you’ll likely end up with a disjointed, ill-flowing narrative . You’ll then waste a lot of time rewriting in an attempt to try to stitch all the pieces together. Do yourself a favour and start with the end in mind .
Section 1 – Introduction
As with all chapters in your dissertation or thesis, the methodology chapter should have a brief introduction. In this section, you should remind your readers what the focus of your study is, especially the research aims . As we’ve discussed many times on the blog, your methodology needs to align with your research aims, objectives and research questions. Therefore, it’s useful to frontload this component to remind the reader (and yourself!) what you’re trying to achieve.
In this section, you can also briefly mention how you’ll structure the chapter. This will help orient the reader and provide a bit of a roadmap so that they know what to expect. You don’t need a lot of detail here – just a brief outline will do.
Section 2 – The Methodology
The next section of your chapter is where you’ll present the actual methodology. In this section, you need to detail and justify the key methodological choices you’ve made in a logical, intuitive fashion. Importantly, this is the heart of your methodology chapter, so you need to get specific – don’t hold back on the details here. This is not one of those “less is more” situations.
Let’s take a look at the most common components you’ll likely need to cover.
Methodological Choice #1 – Research Philosophy
Research philosophy refers to the underlying beliefs (i.e., the worldview) regarding how data about a phenomenon should be gathered , analysed and used . The research philosophy will serve as the core of your study and underpin all of the other research design choices, so it’s critically important that you understand which philosophy you’ll adopt and why you made that choice. If you’re not clear on this, take the time to get clarity before you make any further methodological choices.
While several research philosophies exist, two commonly adopted ones are positivism and interpretivism . These two sit roughly on opposite sides of the research philosophy spectrum.
Positivism states that the researcher can observe reality objectively and that there is only one reality, which exists independently of the observer. As a consequence, it is quite commonly the underlying research philosophy in quantitative studies and is oftentimes the assumed philosophy in the physical sciences.
Contrasted with this, interpretivism , which is often the underlying research philosophy in qualitative studies, assumes that the researcher performs a role in observing the world around them and that reality is unique to each observer . In other words, reality is observed subjectively .
These are just two philosophies (there are many more), but they demonstrate significantly different approaches to research and have a significant impact on all the methodological choices. Therefore, it’s vital that you clearly outline and justify your research philosophy at the beginning of your methodology chapter, as it sets the scene for everything that follows.
Methodological Choice #2 – Research Type
The next thing you would typically discuss in your methodology section is the research type. The starting point for this is to indicate whether the research you conducted is inductive or deductive .
Inductive research takes a bottom-up approach , where the researcher begins with specific observations or data and then draws general conclusions or theories from those observations. Therefore these studies tend to be exploratory in terms of approach.
Conversely , d eductive research takes a top-down approach , where the researcher starts with a theory or hypothesis and then tests it using specific observations or data. Therefore these studies tend to be confirmatory in approach.
Related to this, you’ll need to indicate whether your study adopts a qualitative, quantitative or mixed approach. As we’ve mentioned, there’s a strong link between this choice and your research philosophy, so make sure that your choices are tightly aligned . When you write this section up, remember to clearly justify your choices, as they form the foundation of your study.
Methodological Choice #3 – Research Strategy
Next, you’ll need to discuss your research strategy (also referred to as a research design ). This methodological choice refers to the broader strategy in terms of how you’ll conduct your research, based on the aims of your study.
Several research strategies exist, including experimental , case studies , ethnography , grounded theory, action research , and phenomenology . Let’s take a look at two of these, experimental and ethnographic, to see how they contrast.
Experimental research makes use of the scientific method , where one group is the control group (in which no variables are manipulated ) and another is the experimental group (in which a specific variable is manipulated). This type of research is undertaken under strict conditions in a controlled, artificial environment (e.g., a laboratory). By having firm control over the environment, experimental research typically allows the researcher to establish causation between variables. Therefore, it can be a good choice if you have research aims that involve identifying causal relationships.
Ethnographic research , on the other hand, involves observing and capturing the experiences and perceptions of participants in their natural environment (for example, at home or in the office). In other words, in an uncontrolled environment. Naturally, this means that this research strategy would be far less suitable if your research aims involve identifying causation, but it would be very valuable if you’re looking to explore and examine a group culture, for example.
As you can see, the right research strategy will depend largely on your research aims and research questions – in other words, what you’re trying to figure out. Therefore, as with every other methodological choice, it’s essential to justify why you chose the research strategy you did.
Methodological Choice #4 – Time Horizon
The next thing you’ll need to detail in your methodology chapter is the time horizon. There are two options here: cross-sectional and longitudinal . In other words, whether the data for your study were all collected at one point in time (cross-sectional) or at multiple points in time (longitudinal).
The choice you make here depends again on your research aims, objectives and research questions. If, for example, you aim to assess how a specific group of people’s perspectives regarding a topic change over time , you’d likely adopt a longitudinal time horizon.
Another important factor to consider is simply whether you have the time necessary to adopt a longitudinal approach (which could involve collecting data over multiple months or even years). Oftentimes, the time pressures of your degree program will force your hand into adopting a cross-sectional time horizon, so keep this in mind.
Methodological Choice #5 – Sampling Strategy
Next, you’ll need to discuss your sampling strategy . There are two main categories of sampling, probability and non-probability sampling.
Probability sampling involves a random (and therefore representative) selection of participants from a population, whereas non-probability sampling entails selecting participants in a non-random (and therefore non-representative) manner. For example, selecting participants based on ease of access (this is called a convenience sample).
The right sampling approach depends largely on what you’re trying to achieve in your study. Specifically, whether you trying to develop findings that are generalisable to a population or not. Practicalities and resource constraints also play a large role here, as it can oftentimes be challenging to gain access to a truly random sample. In the video below, we explore some of the most common sampling strategies.
Methodological Choice #6 – Data Collection Method
Next up, you’ll need to explain how you’ll go about collecting the necessary data for your study. Your data collection method (or methods) will depend on the type of data that you plan to collect – in other words, qualitative or quantitative data.
Typically, quantitative research relies on surveys , data generated by lab equipment, analytics software or existing datasets. Qualitative research, on the other hand, often makes use of collection methods such as interviews , focus groups , participant observations, and ethnography.
So, as you can see, there is a tight link between this section and the design choices you outlined in earlier sections. Strong alignment between these sections, as well as your research aims and questions is therefore very important.
Methodological Choice #7 – Data Analysis Methods/Techniques
The final major methodological choice that you need to address is that of analysis techniques . In other words, how you’ll go about analysing your date once you’ve collected it. Here it’s important to be very specific about your analysis methods and/or techniques – don’t leave any room for interpretation. Also, as with all choices in this chapter, you need to justify each choice you make.
What exactly you discuss here will depend largely on the type of study you’re conducting (i.e., qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods). For qualitative studies, common analysis methods include content analysis , thematic analysis and discourse analysis . In the video below, we explain each of these in plain language.
For quantitative studies, you’ll almost always make use of descriptive statistics , and in many cases, you’ll also use inferential statistical techniques (e.g., correlation and regression analysis). In the video below, we unpack some of the core concepts involved in descriptive and inferential statistics.
In this section of your methodology chapter, it’s also important to discuss how you prepared your data for analysis, and what software you used (if any). For example, quantitative data will often require some initial preparation such as removing duplicates or incomplete responses . Similarly, qualitative data will often require transcription and perhaps even translation. As always, remember to state both what you did and why you did it.
Section 3 – The Methodological Limitations
With the key methodological choices outlined and justified, the next step is to discuss the limitations of your design. No research methodology is perfect – there will always be trade-offs between the “ideal” methodology and what’s practical and viable, given your constraints. Therefore, this section of your methodology chapter is where you’ll discuss the trade-offs you had to make, and why these were justified given the context.
Methodological limitations can vary greatly from study to study, ranging from common issues such as time and budget constraints to issues of sample or selection bias . For example, you may find that you didn’t manage to draw in enough respondents to achieve the desired sample size (and therefore, statistically significant results), or your sample may be skewed heavily towards a certain demographic, thereby negatively impacting representativeness .
In this section, it’s important to be critical of the shortcomings of your study. There’s no use trying to hide them (your marker will be aware of them regardless). By being critical, you’ll demonstrate to your marker that you have a strong understanding of research theory, so don’t be shy here. At the same time, don’t beat your study to death . State the limitations, why these were justified, how you mitigated their impacts to the best degree possible, and how your study still provides value despite these limitations .
Section 4 – Concluding Summary
Finally, it’s time to wrap up the methodology chapter with a brief concluding summary. In this section, you’ll want to concisely summarise what you’ve presented in the chapter. Here, it can be a good idea to use a figure to summarise the key decisions, especially if your university recommends using a specific model (for example, Saunders’ Research Onion ).
Importantly, this section needs to be brief – a paragraph or two maximum (it’s a summary, after all). Also, make sure that when you write up your concluding summary, you include only what you’ve already discussed in your chapter; don’t add any new information.
In the video below, we walk you through an example of a high-quality research methodology chapter from a dissertation. We also unpack our free methodology chapter template so that you can see how best to structure your chapter.
And there you have it – the methodology chapter in a nutshell. As we’ve mentioned, the exact contents and structure of this chapter can vary between universities , so be sure to check in with your institution before you start writing. If possible, try to find dissertations or theses from former students of your specific degree program – this will give you a strong indication of the expectations and norms when it comes to the methodology chapter (and all the other chapters!).
Also, remember the golden rule of the methodology chapter – justify every choice ! Make sure that you clearly explain the “why” for every “what”, and reference credible methodology textbooks or academic sources to back up your justifications.
If you need a helping hand with your research methodology (or any other component of your research), be sure to check out our private coaching service , where we hold your hand through every step of the research journey. Until next time, good luck!
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Thiel, D. V. (2014). Research methods for engineers . Cambridge University Press.
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Alley, M. (2003). The craft of scientific presentations: Critical steps to succeed and critical errors to avoid . Springer-Verlag.
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Woods, G. (2002). Research papers for dummies . Hungry Minds.
Bell, J. (2010). Doing your research project: A guide for first-time researchers in education and social science (5th ed.). Open University Press.
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The method section of a report details how the research was conducted, the research methods used and the reasons for choosing those methods. It should outline:
The methodology is a step-by-step explanation of the research process. It should be factual and is mainly written in the past tense.
The research used a quantitative methodology based on the approach advocated by Williams (2009). This study was conducted by questionnaire and investigated university teaching staff attitudes to the use of mobile phones in tutorials (see Appendix 1). The questionnaire used Likert scales to assess social attitudes (Jones 2007) to student mobile phone use and provided open-ended responses for additional comments. The survey was voluntary and anonymous. A total of 412 questionnaires were distributed online to randomly selected staff from each of the three colleges within the university. The completed questionnaires were returned by email.
[Describe: The research used a quantitative methodology based on the approach advocated by Williams (2009).] [Refer: This study was conducted by questionnaire and investigated university teaching staff attitudes to the use of mobile phones in tutorials (see Appendix 1). The questionnaire used Likert scales to assess social attitudes (Jones 2007) to student mobile phone use and provided open-ended responses for additional comments.] [Describes: The survey was voluntary and anonymous. A total of 412 questionnaires were distributed online to randomly selected staff from each of the three colleges within the university. The completed questionnaires were returned by email.]
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Research methodology 1,2 is a structured and scientific approach used to collect, analyze, and interpret quantitative or qualitative data to answer research questions or test hypotheses. A research methodology is like a plan for carrying out research and helps keep researchers on track by limiting the scope of the research. Several aspects must be considered before selecting an appropriate research methodology, such as research limitations and ethical concerns that may affect your research.
The research methodology section in a scientific paper describes the different methodological choices made, such as the data collection and analysis methods, and why these choices were selected. The reasons should explain why the methods chosen are the most appropriate to answer the research question. A good research methodology also helps ensure the reliability and validity of the research findings. There are three types of research methodology—quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method, which can be chosen based on the research objectives.
A research methodology describes the techniques and procedures used to identify and analyze information regarding a specific research topic. It is a process by which researchers design their study so that they can achieve their objectives using the selected research instruments. It includes all the important aspects of research, including research design, data collection methods, data analysis methods, and the overall framework within which the research is conducted. While these points can help you understand what is research methodology, you also need to know why it is important to pick the right methodology.
Having a good research methodology in place has the following advantages: 3
Types of research methodology.
There are three types of research methodology based on the type of research and the data required. 1
Sampling 4 is an important part of a research methodology and involves selecting a representative sample of the population to conduct the study, making statistical inferences about them, and estimating the characteristics of the whole population based on these inferences. There are two types of sampling designs in research methodology—probability and nonprobability.
In this type of sampling design, a sample is chosen from a larger population using some form of random selection, that is, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. The different types of probability sampling are:
During research, data are collected using various methods depending on the research methodology being followed and the research methods being undertaken. Both qualitative and quantitative research have different data collection methods, as listed below.
Qualitative research 5
Quantitative research 6
What are data analysis methods.
The data collected using the various methods for qualitative and quantitative research need to be analyzed to generate meaningful conclusions. These data analysis methods 7 also differ between quantitative and qualitative research.
Quantitative research involves a deductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed at the beginning of the research and precise measurement is required. The methods include statistical analysis applications to analyze numerical data and are grouped into two categories—descriptive and inferential.
Descriptive analysis is used to describe the basic features of different types of data to present it in a way that ensures the patterns become meaningful. The different types of descriptive analysis methods are:
Inferential analysis is used to make predictions about a larger population based on the analysis of the data collected from a smaller population. This analysis is used to study the relationships between different variables. Some commonly used inferential data analysis methods are:
Qualitative research involves an inductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed after data collection. The methods include:
Here are some important factors to consider when choosing a research methodology: 8
How to write a research methodology .
A research methodology should include the following components: 3,9
The methods section is a critical part of the research papers, allowing researchers to use this to understand your findings and replicate your work when pursuing their own research. However, it is usually also the most difficult section to write. This is where Paperpal can help you overcome the writer’s block and create the first draft in minutes with Paperpal Copilot, its secure generative AI feature suite.
With Paperpal you can get research advice, write and refine your work, rephrase and verify the writing, and ensure submission readiness, all in one place. Here’s how you can use Paperpal to develop the first draft of your methods section.
You can repeat this process to develop each section of your research manuscript, including the title, abstract and keywords. Ready to write your research papers faster, better, and without the stress? Sign up for Paperpal and start writing today!
Q1. What are the key components of research methodology?
A1. A good research methodology has the following key components:
Q2. Why is ethical consideration important in research methodology?
A2. Ethical consideration is important in research methodology to ensure the readers of the reliability and validity of the study. Researchers must clearly mention the ethical norms and standards followed during the conduct of the research and also mention if the research has been cleared by any institutional board. The following 10 points are the important principles related to ethical considerations: 10
Q3. What is the difference between methodology and method?
A3. Research methodology is different from a research method, although both terms are often confused. Research methods are the tools used to gather data, while the research methodology provides a framework for how research is planned, conducted, and analyzed. The latter guides researchers in making decisions about the most appropriate methods for their research. Research methods refer to the specific techniques, procedures, and tools used by researchers to collect, analyze, and interpret data, for instance surveys, questionnaires, interviews, etc.
Research methodology is, thus, an integral part of a research study. It helps ensure that you stay on track to meet your research objectives and answer your research questions using the most appropriate data collection and analysis tools based on your research design.
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BMC Medical Research Methodology volume 20 , Article number: 226 ( 2020 ) Cite this article
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Methodological studies – studies that evaluate the design, analysis or reporting of other research-related reports – play an important role in health research. They help to highlight issues in the conduct of research with the aim of improving health research methodology, and ultimately reducing research waste.
We provide an overview of some of the key aspects of methodological studies such as what they are, and when, how and why they are done. We adopt a “frequently asked questions” format to facilitate reading this paper and provide multiple examples to help guide researchers interested in conducting methodological studies. Some of the topics addressed include: is it necessary to publish a study protocol? How to select relevant research reports and databases for a methodological study? What approaches to data extraction and statistical analysis should be considered when conducting a methodological study? What are potential threats to validity and is there a way to appraise the quality of methodological studies?
Appropriate reflection and application of basic principles of epidemiology and biostatistics are required in the design and analysis of methodological studies. This paper provides an introduction for further discussion about the conduct of methodological studies.
Peer Review reports
The field of meta-research (or research-on-research) has proliferated in recent years in response to issues with research quality and conduct [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. As the name suggests, this field targets issues with research design, conduct, analysis and reporting. Various types of research reports are often examined as the unit of analysis in these studies (e.g. abstracts, full manuscripts, trial registry entries). Like many other novel fields of research, meta-research has seen a proliferation of use before the development of reporting guidance. For example, this was the case with randomized trials for which risk of bias tools and reporting guidelines were only developed much later – after many trials had been published and noted to have limitations [ 4 , 5 ]; and for systematic reviews as well [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. However, in the absence of formal guidance, studies that report on research differ substantially in how they are named, conducted and reported [ 9 , 10 ]. This creates challenges in identifying, summarizing and comparing them. In this tutorial paper, we will use the term methodological study to refer to any study that reports on the design, conduct, analysis or reporting of primary or secondary research-related reports (such as trial registry entries and conference abstracts).
In the past 10 years, there has been an increase in the use of terms related to methodological studies (based on records retrieved with a keyword search [in the title and abstract] for “methodological review” and “meta-epidemiological study” in PubMed up to December 2019), suggesting that these studies may be appearing more frequently in the literature. See Fig. 1 .
Trends in the number studies that mention “methodological review” or “meta-
epidemiological study” in PubMed.
The methods used in many methodological studies have been borrowed from systematic and scoping reviews. This practice has influenced the direction of the field, with many methodological studies including searches of electronic databases, screening of records, duplicate data extraction and assessments of risk of bias in the included studies. However, the research questions posed in methodological studies do not always require the approaches listed above, and guidance is needed on when and how to apply these methods to a methodological study. Even though methodological studies can be conducted on qualitative or mixed methods research, this paper focuses on and draws examples exclusively from quantitative research.
The objectives of this paper are to provide some insights on how to conduct methodological studies so that there is greater consistency between the research questions posed, and the design, analysis and reporting of findings. We provide multiple examples to illustrate concepts and a proposed framework for categorizing methodological studies in quantitative research.
Any study that describes or analyzes methods (design, conduct, analysis or reporting) in published (or unpublished) literature is a methodological study. Consequently, the scope of methodological studies is quite extensive and includes, but is not limited to, topics as diverse as: research question formulation [ 11 ]; adherence to reporting guidelines [ 12 , 13 , 14 ] and consistency in reporting [ 15 ]; approaches to study analysis [ 16 ]; investigating the credibility of analyses [ 17 ]; and studies that synthesize these methodological studies [ 18 ]. While the nomenclature of methodological studies is not uniform, the intents and purposes of these studies remain fairly consistent – to describe or analyze methods in primary or secondary studies. As such, methodological studies may also be classified as a subtype of observational studies.
Parallel to this are experimental studies that compare different methods. Even though they play an important role in informing optimal research methods, experimental methodological studies are beyond the scope of this paper. Examples of such studies include the randomized trials by Buscemi et al., comparing single data extraction to double data extraction [ 19 ], and Carrasco-Labra et al., comparing approaches to presenting findings in Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE) summary of findings tables [ 20 ]. In these studies, the unit of analysis is the person or groups of individuals applying the methods. We also direct readers to the Studies Within a Trial (SWAT) and Studies Within a Review (SWAR) programme operated through the Hub for Trials Methodology Research, for further reading as a potential useful resource for these types of experimental studies [ 21 ]. Lastly, this paper is not meant to inform the conduct of research using computational simulation and mathematical modeling for which some guidance already exists [ 22 ], or studies on the development of methods using consensus-based approaches.
Methodological studies occupy a unique niche in health research that allows them to inform methodological advances. Methodological studies should also be conducted as pre-cursors to reporting guideline development, as they provide an opportunity to understand current practices, and help to identify the need for guidance and gaps in methodological or reporting quality. For example, the development of the popular Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were preceded by methodological studies identifying poor reporting practices [ 23 , 24 ]. In these instances, after the reporting guidelines are published, methodological studies can also be used to monitor uptake of the guidelines.
These studies can also be conducted to inform the state of the art for design, analysis and reporting practices across different types of health research fields, with the aim of improving research practices, and preventing or reducing research waste. For example, Samaan et al. conducted a scoping review of adherence to different reporting guidelines in health care literature [ 18 ]. Methodological studies can also be used to determine the factors associated with reporting practices. For example, Abbade et al. investigated journal characteristics associated with the use of the Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe (PICOT) format in framing research questions in trials of venous ulcer disease [ 11 ].
There is no clear answer to this question. Based on a search of PubMed, the use of related terms (“methodological review” and “meta-epidemiological study”) – and therefore, the number of methodological studies – is on the rise. However, many other terms are used to describe methodological studies. There are also many studies that explore design, conduct, analysis or reporting of research reports, but that do not use any specific terms to describe or label their study design in terms of “methodology”. This diversity in nomenclature makes a census of methodological studies elusive. Appropriate terminology and key words for methodological studies are needed to facilitate improved accessibility for end-users.
Methodological studies provide information on the design, conduct, analysis or reporting of primary and secondary research and can be used to appraise quality, quantity, completeness, accuracy and consistency of health research. These issues can be explored in specific fields, journals, databases, geographical regions and time periods. For example, Areia et al. explored the quality of reporting of endoscopic diagnostic studies in gastroenterology [ 25 ]; Knol et al. investigated the reporting of p -values in baseline tables in randomized trial published in high impact journals [ 26 ]; Chen et al. describe adherence to the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) statement in Chinese Journals [ 27 ]; and Hopewell et al. describe the effect of editors’ implementation of CONSORT guidelines on reporting of abstracts over time [ 28 ]. Methodological studies provide useful information to researchers, clinicians, editors, publishers and users of health literature. As a result, these studies have been at the cornerstone of important methodological developments in the past two decades and have informed the development of many health research guidelines including the highly cited CONSORT statement [ 5 ].
Methodological studies can be found in most common biomedical bibliographic databases (e.g. Embase, MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science). However, the biggest caveat is that methodological studies are hard to identify in the literature due to the wide variety of names used and the lack of comprehensive databases dedicated to them. A handful can be found in the Cochrane Library as “Cochrane Methodology Reviews”, but these studies only cover methodological issues related to systematic reviews. Previous attempts to catalogue all empirical studies of methods used in reviews were abandoned 10 years ago [ 29 ]. In other databases, a variety of search terms may be applied with different levels of sensitivity and specificity.
In this section, we have outlined responses to questions that might help inform the conduct of methodological studies.
Q: How should I select research reports for my methodological study?
A: Selection of research reports for a methodological study depends on the research question and eligibility criteria. Once a clear research question is set and the nature of literature one desires to review is known, one can then begin the selection process. Selection may begin with a broad search, especially if the eligibility criteria are not apparent. For example, a methodological study of Cochrane Reviews of HIV would not require a complex search as all eligible studies can easily be retrieved from the Cochrane Library after checking a few boxes [ 30 ]. On the other hand, a methodological study of subgroup analyses in trials of gastrointestinal oncology would require a search to find such trials, and further screening to identify trials that conducted a subgroup analysis [ 31 ].
The strategies used for identifying participants in observational studies can apply here. One may use a systematic search to identify all eligible studies. If the number of eligible studies is unmanageable, a random sample of articles can be expected to provide comparable results if it is sufficiently large [ 32 ]. For example, Wilson et al. used a random sample of trials from the Cochrane Stroke Group’s Trial Register to investigate completeness of reporting [ 33 ]. It is possible that a simple random sample would lead to underrepresentation of units (i.e. research reports) that are smaller in number. This is relevant if the investigators wish to compare multiple groups but have too few units in one group. In this case a stratified sample would help to create equal groups. For example, in a methodological study comparing Cochrane and non-Cochrane reviews, Kahale et al. drew random samples from both groups [ 34 ]. Alternatively, systematic or purposeful sampling strategies can be used and we encourage researchers to justify their selected approaches based on the study objective.
Q: How many databases should I search?
A: The number of databases one should search would depend on the approach to sampling, which can include targeting the entire “population” of interest or a sample of that population. If you are interested in including the entire target population for your research question, or drawing a random or systematic sample from it, then a comprehensive and exhaustive search for relevant articles is required. In this case, we recommend using systematic approaches for searching electronic databases (i.e. at least 2 databases with a replicable and time stamped search strategy). The results of your search will constitute a sampling frame from which eligible studies can be drawn.
Alternatively, if your approach to sampling is purposeful, then we recommend targeting the database(s) or data sources (e.g. journals, registries) that include the information you need. For example, if you are conducting a methodological study of high impact journals in plastic surgery and they are all indexed in PubMed, you likely do not need to search any other databases. You may also have a comprehensive list of all journals of interest and can approach your search using the journal names in your database search (or by accessing the journal archives directly from the journal’s website). Even though one could also search journals’ web pages directly, using a database such as PubMed has multiple advantages, such as the use of filters, so the search can be narrowed down to a certain period, or study types of interest. Furthermore, individual journals’ web sites may have different search functionalities, which do not necessarily yield a consistent output.
Q: Should I publish a protocol for my methodological study?
A: A protocol is a description of intended research methods. Currently, only protocols for clinical trials require registration [ 35 ]. Protocols for systematic reviews are encouraged but no formal recommendation exists. The scientific community welcomes the publication of protocols because they help protect against selective outcome reporting, the use of post hoc methodologies to embellish results, and to help avoid duplication of efforts [ 36 ]. While the latter two risks exist in methodological research, the negative consequences may be substantially less than for clinical outcomes. In a sample of 31 methodological studies, 7 (22.6%) referenced a published protocol [ 9 ]. In the Cochrane Library, there are 15 protocols for methodological reviews (21 July 2020). This suggests that publishing protocols for methodological studies is not uncommon.
Authors can consider publishing their study protocol in a scholarly journal as a manuscript. Advantages of such publication include obtaining peer-review feedback about the planned study, and easy retrieval by searching databases such as PubMed. The disadvantages in trying to publish protocols includes delays associated with manuscript handling and peer review, as well as costs, as few journals publish study protocols, and those journals mostly charge article-processing fees [ 37 ]. Authors who would like to make their protocol publicly available without publishing it in scholarly journals, could deposit their study protocols in publicly available repositories, such as the Open Science Framework ( https://osf.io/ ).
Q: How to appraise the quality of a methodological study?
A: To date, there is no published tool for appraising the risk of bias in a methodological study, but in principle, a methodological study could be considered as a type of observational study. Therefore, during conduct or appraisal, care should be taken to avoid the biases common in observational studies [ 38 ]. These biases include selection bias, comparability of groups, and ascertainment of exposure or outcome. In other words, to generate a representative sample, a comprehensive reproducible search may be necessary to build a sampling frame. Additionally, random sampling may be necessary to ensure that all the included research reports have the same probability of being selected, and the screening and selection processes should be transparent and reproducible. To ensure that the groups compared are similar in all characteristics, matching, random sampling or stratified sampling can be used. Statistical adjustments for between-group differences can also be applied at the analysis stage. Finally, duplicate data extraction can reduce errors in assessment of exposures or outcomes.
Q: Should I justify a sample size?
A: In all instances where one is not using the target population (i.e. the group to which inferences from the research report are directed) [ 39 ], a sample size justification is good practice. The sample size justification may take the form of a description of what is expected to be achieved with the number of articles selected, or a formal sample size estimation that outlines the number of articles required to answer the research question with a certain precision and power. Sample size justifications in methodological studies are reasonable in the following instances:
Comparing two groups
Determining a proportion, mean or another quantifier
Determining factors associated with an outcome using regression-based analyses
For example, El Dib et al. computed a sample size requirement for a methodological study of diagnostic strategies in randomized trials, based on a confidence interval approach [ 40 ].
Q: What should I call my study?
A: Other terms which have been used to describe/label methodological studies include “ methodological review ”, “methodological survey” , “meta-epidemiological study” , “systematic review” , “systematic survey”, “meta-research”, “research-on-research” and many others. We recommend that the study nomenclature be clear, unambiguous, informative and allow for appropriate indexing. Methodological study nomenclature that should be avoided includes “ systematic review” – as this will likely be confused with a systematic review of a clinical question. “ Systematic survey” may also lead to confusion about whether the survey was systematic (i.e. using a preplanned methodology) or a survey using “ systematic” sampling (i.e. a sampling approach using specific intervals to determine who is selected) [ 32 ]. Any of the above meanings of the words “ systematic” may be true for methodological studies and could be potentially misleading. “ Meta-epidemiological study” is ideal for indexing, but not very informative as it describes an entire field. The term “ review ” may point towards an appraisal or “review” of the design, conduct, analysis or reporting (or methodological components) of the targeted research reports, yet it has also been used to describe narrative reviews [ 41 , 42 ]. The term “ survey ” is also in line with the approaches used in many methodological studies [ 9 ], and would be indicative of the sampling procedures of this study design. However, in the absence of guidelines on nomenclature, the term “ methodological study ” is broad enough to capture most of the scenarios of such studies.
Q: Should I account for clustering in my methodological study?
A: Data from methodological studies are often clustered. For example, articles coming from a specific source may have different reporting standards (e.g. the Cochrane Library). Articles within the same journal may be similar due to editorial practices and policies, reporting requirements and endorsement of guidelines. There is emerging evidence that these are real concerns that should be accounted for in analyses [ 43 ]. Some cluster variables are described in the section: “ What variables are relevant to methodological studies?”
A variety of modelling approaches can be used to account for correlated data, including the use of marginal, fixed or mixed effects regression models with appropriate computation of standard errors [ 44 ]. For example, Kosa et al. used generalized estimation equations to account for correlation of articles within journals [ 15 ]. Not accounting for clustering could lead to incorrect p -values, unduly narrow confidence intervals, and biased estimates [ 45 ].
Q: Should I extract data in duplicate?
A: Yes. Duplicate data extraction takes more time but results in less errors [ 19 ]. Data extraction errors in turn affect the effect estimate [ 46 ], and therefore should be mitigated. Duplicate data extraction should be considered in the absence of other approaches to minimize extraction errors. However, much like systematic reviews, this area will likely see rapid new advances with machine learning and natural language processing technologies to support researchers with screening and data extraction [ 47 , 48 ]. However, experience plays an important role in the quality of extracted data and inexperienced extractors should be paired with experienced extractors [ 46 , 49 ].
Q: Should I assess the risk of bias of research reports included in my methodological study?
A : Risk of bias is most useful in determining the certainty that can be placed in the effect measure from a study. In methodological studies, risk of bias may not serve the purpose of determining the trustworthiness of results, as effect measures are often not the primary goal of methodological studies. Determining risk of bias in methodological studies is likely a practice borrowed from systematic review methodology, but whose intrinsic value is not obvious in methodological studies. When it is part of the research question, investigators often focus on one aspect of risk of bias. For example, Speich investigated how blinding was reported in surgical trials [ 50 ], and Abraha et al., investigated the application of intention-to-treat analyses in systematic reviews and trials [ 51 ].
Q: What variables are relevant to methodological studies?
A: There is empirical evidence that certain variables may inform the findings in a methodological study. We outline some of these and provide a brief overview below:
Country: Countries and regions differ in their research cultures, and the resources available to conduct research. Therefore, it is reasonable to believe that there may be differences in methodological features across countries. Methodological studies have reported loco-regional differences in reporting quality [ 52 , 53 ]. This may also be related to challenges non-English speakers face in publishing papers in English.
Authors’ expertise: The inclusion of authors with expertise in research methodology, biostatistics, and scientific writing is likely to influence the end-product. Oltean et al. found that among randomized trials in orthopaedic surgery, the use of analyses that accounted for clustering was more likely when specialists (e.g. statistician, epidemiologist or clinical trials methodologist) were included on the study team [ 54 ]. Fleming et al. found that including methodologists in the review team was associated with appropriate use of reporting guidelines [ 55 ].
Source of funding and conflicts of interest: Some studies have found that funded studies report better [ 56 , 57 ], while others do not [ 53 , 58 ]. The presence of funding would indicate the availability of resources deployed to ensure optimal design, conduct, analysis and reporting. However, the source of funding may introduce conflicts of interest and warrant assessment. For example, Kaiser et al. investigated the effect of industry funding on obesity or nutrition randomized trials and found that reporting quality was similar [ 59 ]. Thomas et al. looked at reporting quality of long-term weight loss trials and found that industry funded studies were better [ 60 ]. Kan et al. examined the association between industry funding and “positive trials” (trials reporting a significant intervention effect) and found that industry funding was highly predictive of a positive trial [ 61 ]. This finding is similar to that of a recent Cochrane Methodology Review by Hansen et al. [ 62 ]
Journal characteristics: Certain journals’ characteristics may influence the study design, analysis or reporting. Characteristics such as journal endorsement of guidelines [ 63 , 64 ], and Journal Impact Factor (JIF) have been shown to be associated with reporting [ 63 , 65 , 66 , 67 ].
Study size (sample size/number of sites): Some studies have shown that reporting is better in larger studies [ 53 , 56 , 58 ].
Year of publication: It is reasonable to assume that design, conduct, analysis and reporting of research will change over time. Many studies have demonstrated improvements in reporting over time or after the publication of reporting guidelines [ 68 , 69 ].
Type of intervention: In a methodological study of reporting quality of weight loss intervention studies, Thabane et al. found that trials of pharmacologic interventions were reported better than trials of non-pharmacologic interventions [ 70 ].
Interactions between variables: Complex interactions between the previously listed variables are possible. High income countries with more resources may be more likely to conduct larger studies and incorporate a variety of experts. Authors in certain countries may prefer certain journals, and journal endorsement of guidelines and editorial policies may change over time.
Q: Should I focus only on high impact journals?
A: Investigators may choose to investigate only high impact journals because they are more likely to influence practice and policy, or because they assume that methodological standards would be higher. However, the JIF may severely limit the scope of articles included and may skew the sample towards articles with positive findings. The generalizability and applicability of findings from a handful of journals must be examined carefully, especially since the JIF varies over time. Even among journals that are all “high impact”, variations exist in methodological standards.
Q: Can I conduct a methodological study of qualitative research?
A: Yes. Even though a lot of methodological research has been conducted in the quantitative research field, methodological studies of qualitative studies are feasible. Certain databases that catalogue qualitative research including the Cumulative Index to Nursing & Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) have defined subject headings that are specific to methodological research (e.g. “research methodology”). Alternatively, one could also conduct a qualitative methodological review; that is, use qualitative approaches to synthesize methodological issues in qualitative studies.
Q: What reporting guidelines should I use for my methodological study?
A: There is no guideline that covers the entire scope of methodological studies. One adaptation of the PRISMA guidelines has been published, which works well for studies that aim to use the entire target population of research reports [ 71 ]. However, it is not widely used (40 citations in 2 years as of 09 December 2019), and methodological studies that are designed as cross-sectional or before-after studies require a more fit-for purpose guideline. A more encompassing reporting guideline for a broad range of methodological studies is currently under development [ 72 ]. However, in the absence of formal guidance, the requirements for scientific reporting should be respected, and authors of methodological studies should focus on transparency and reproducibility.
Q: What are the potential threats to validity and how can I avoid them?
A: Methodological studies may be compromised by a lack of internal or external validity. The main threats to internal validity in methodological studies are selection and confounding bias. Investigators must ensure that the methods used to select articles does not make them differ systematically from the set of articles to which they would like to make inferences. For example, attempting to make extrapolations to all journals after analyzing high-impact journals would be misleading.
Many factors (confounders) may distort the association between the exposure and outcome if the included research reports differ with respect to these factors [ 73 ]. For example, when examining the association between source of funding and completeness of reporting, it may be necessary to account for journals that endorse the guidelines. Confounding bias can be addressed by restriction, matching and statistical adjustment [ 73 ]. Restriction appears to be the method of choice for many investigators who choose to include only high impact journals or articles in a specific field. For example, Knol et al. examined the reporting of p -values in baseline tables of high impact journals [ 26 ]. Matching is also sometimes used. In the methodological study of non-randomized interventional studies of elective ventral hernia repair, Parker et al. matched prospective studies with retrospective studies and compared reporting standards [ 74 ]. Some other methodological studies use statistical adjustments. For example, Zhang et al. used regression techniques to determine the factors associated with missing participant data in trials [ 16 ].
With regard to external validity, researchers interested in conducting methodological studies must consider how generalizable or applicable their findings are. This should tie in closely with the research question and should be explicit. For example. Findings from methodological studies on trials published in high impact cardiology journals cannot be assumed to be applicable to trials in other fields. However, investigators must ensure that their sample truly represents the target sample either by a) conducting a comprehensive and exhaustive search, or b) using an appropriate and justified, randomly selected sample of research reports.
Even applicability to high impact journals may vary based on the investigators’ definition, and over time. For example, for high impact journals in the field of general medicine, Bouwmeester et al. included the Annals of Internal Medicine (AIM), BMJ, the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), Lancet, the New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM), and PLoS Medicine ( n = 6) [ 75 ]. In contrast, the high impact journals selected in the methodological study by Schiller et al. were BMJ, JAMA, Lancet, and NEJM ( n = 4) [ 76 ]. Another methodological study by Kosa et al. included AIM, BMJ, JAMA, Lancet and NEJM ( n = 5). In the methodological study by Thabut et al., journals with a JIF greater than 5 were considered to be high impact. Riado Minguez et al. used first quartile journals in the Journal Citation Reports (JCR) for a specific year to determine “high impact” [ 77 ]. Ultimately, the definition of high impact will be based on the number of journals the investigators are willing to include, the year of impact and the JIF cut-off [ 78 ]. We acknowledge that the term “generalizability” may apply differently for methodological studies, especially when in many instances it is possible to include the entire target population in the sample studied.
Finally, methodological studies are not exempt from information bias which may stem from discrepancies in the included research reports [ 79 ], errors in data extraction, or inappropriate interpretation of the information extracted. Likewise, publication bias may also be a concern in methodological studies, but such concepts have not yet been explored.
In order to inform discussions about methodological studies, the development of guidance for what should be reported, we have outlined some key features of methodological studies that can be used to classify them. For each of the categories outlined below, we provide an example. In our experience, the choice of approach to completing a methodological study can be informed by asking the following four questions:
What is the aim?
Methodological studies that investigate bias
A methodological study may be focused on exploring sources of bias in primary or secondary studies (meta-bias), or how bias is analyzed. We have taken care to distinguish bias (i.e. systematic deviations from the truth irrespective of the source) from reporting quality or completeness (i.e. not adhering to a specific reporting guideline or norm). An example of where this distinction would be important is in the case of a randomized trial with no blinding. This study (depending on the nature of the intervention) would be at risk of performance bias. However, if the authors report that their study was not blinded, they would have reported adequately. In fact, some methodological studies attempt to capture both “quality of conduct” and “quality of reporting”, such as Richie et al., who reported on the risk of bias in randomized trials of pharmacy practice interventions [ 80 ]. Babic et al. investigated how risk of bias was used to inform sensitivity analyses in Cochrane reviews [ 81 ]. Further, biases related to choice of outcomes can also be explored. For example, Tan et al investigated differences in treatment effect size based on the outcome reported [ 82 ].
Methodological studies that investigate quality (or completeness) of reporting
Methodological studies may report quality of reporting against a reporting checklist (i.e. adherence to guidelines) or against expected norms. For example, Croituro et al. report on the quality of reporting in systematic reviews published in dermatology journals based on their adherence to the PRISMA statement [ 83 ], and Khan et al. described the quality of reporting of harms in randomized controlled trials published in high impact cardiovascular journals based on the CONSORT extension for harms [ 84 ]. Other methodological studies investigate reporting of certain features of interest that may not be part of formally published checklists or guidelines. For example, Mbuagbaw et al. described how often the implications for research are elaborated using the Evidence, Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe (EPICOT) format [ 30 ].
Methodological studies that investigate the consistency of reporting
Sometimes investigators may be interested in how consistent reports of the same research are, as it is expected that there should be consistency between: conference abstracts and published manuscripts; manuscript abstracts and manuscript main text; and trial registration and published manuscript. For example, Rosmarakis et al. investigated consistency between conference abstracts and full text manuscripts [ 85 ].
Methodological studies that investigate factors associated with reporting
In addition to identifying issues with reporting in primary and secondary studies, authors of methodological studies may be interested in determining the factors that are associated with certain reporting practices. Many methodological studies incorporate this, albeit as a secondary outcome. For example, Farrokhyar et al. investigated the factors associated with reporting quality in randomized trials of coronary artery bypass grafting surgery [ 53 ].
Methodological studies that investigate methods
Methodological studies may also be used to describe methods or compare methods, and the factors associated with methods. Muller et al. described the methods used for systematic reviews and meta-analyses of observational studies [ 86 ].
Methodological studies that summarize other methodological studies
Some methodological studies synthesize results from other methodological studies. For example, Li et al. conducted a scoping review of methodological reviews that investigated consistency between full text and abstracts in primary biomedical research [ 87 ].
Methodological studies that investigate nomenclature and terminology
Some methodological studies may investigate the use of names and terms in health research. For example, Martinic et al. investigated the definitions of systematic reviews used in overviews of systematic reviews (OSRs), meta-epidemiological studies and epidemiology textbooks [ 88 ].
Other types of methodological studies
In addition to the previously mentioned experimental methodological studies, there may exist other types of methodological studies not captured here.
What is the design?
Methodological studies that are descriptive
Most methodological studies are purely descriptive and report their findings as counts (percent) and means (standard deviation) or medians (interquartile range). For example, Mbuagbaw et al. described the reporting of research recommendations in Cochrane HIV systematic reviews [ 30 ]. Gohari et al. described the quality of reporting of randomized trials in diabetes in Iran [ 12 ].
Methodological studies that are analytical
Some methodological studies are analytical wherein “analytical studies identify and quantify associations, test hypotheses, identify causes and determine whether an association exists between variables, such as between an exposure and a disease.” [ 89 ] In the case of methodological studies all these investigations are possible. For example, Kosa et al. investigated the association between agreement in primary outcome from trial registry to published manuscript and study covariates. They found that larger and more recent studies were more likely to have agreement [ 15 ]. Tricco et al. compared the conclusion statements from Cochrane and non-Cochrane systematic reviews with a meta-analysis of the primary outcome and found that non-Cochrane reviews were more likely to report positive findings. These results are a test of the null hypothesis that the proportions of Cochrane and non-Cochrane reviews that report positive results are equal [ 90 ].
What is the sampling strategy?
Methodological studies that include the target population
Methodological reviews with narrow research questions may be able to include the entire target population. For example, in the methodological study of Cochrane HIV systematic reviews, Mbuagbaw et al. included all of the available studies ( n = 103) [ 30 ].
Methodological studies that include a sample of the target population
Many methodological studies use random samples of the target population [ 33 , 91 , 92 ]. Alternatively, purposeful sampling may be used, limiting the sample to a subset of research-related reports published within a certain time period, or in journals with a certain ranking or on a topic. Systematic sampling can also be used when random sampling may be challenging to implement.
What is the unit of analysis?
Methodological studies with a research report as the unit of analysis
Many methodological studies use a research report (e.g. full manuscript of study, abstract portion of the study) as the unit of analysis, and inferences can be made at the study-level. However, both published and unpublished research-related reports can be studied. These may include articles, conference abstracts, registry entries etc.
Methodological studies with a design, analysis or reporting item as the unit of analysis
Some methodological studies report on items which may occur more than once per article. For example, Paquette et al. report on subgroup analyses in Cochrane reviews of atrial fibrillation in which 17 systematic reviews planned 56 subgroup analyses [ 93 ].
This framework is outlined in Fig. 2 .
A proposed framework for methodological studies
Methodological studies have examined different aspects of reporting such as quality, completeness, consistency and adherence to reporting guidelines. As such, many of the methodological study examples cited in this tutorial are related to reporting. However, as an evolving field, the scope of research questions that can be addressed by methodological studies is expected to increase.
In this paper we have outlined the scope and purpose of methodological studies, along with examples of instances in which various approaches have been used. In the absence of formal guidance on the design, conduct, analysis and reporting of methodological studies, we have provided some advice to help make methodological studies consistent. This advice is grounded in good contemporary scientific practice. Generally, the research question should tie in with the sampling approach and planned analysis. We have also highlighted the variables that may inform findings from methodological studies. Lastly, we have provided suggestions for ways in which authors can categorize their methodological studies to inform their design and analysis.
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.
Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials
Evidence, Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe
Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations
Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe
Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses
Studies Within a Review
Studies Within a Trial
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Lawrence Mbuagbaw, Daeria O. Lawson & Lehana Thabane
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Lawrence Mbuagbaw
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Lehana Thabane
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LM conceived the idea and drafted the outline and paper. DOL and LT commented on the idea and draft outline. LM, LP and DOL performed literature searches and data extraction. All authors (LM, DOL, LT, LP, DBA) reviewed several draft versions of the manuscript and approved the final manuscript.
Correspondence to Lawrence Mbuagbaw .
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DOL, DBA, LM, LP and LT are involved in the development of a reporting guideline for methodological studies.
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Mbuagbaw, L., Lawson, D.O., Puljak, L. et al. A tutorial on methodological studies: the what, when, how and why. BMC Med Res Methodol 20 , 226 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-020-01107-7
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How to write a project report (with steps & templates).
August 16, 2024
Juggling all the different components of a project can be quite a challenge. If that weren’t enough, you also have to write a project status report to update key stakeholders on the project’s progress. The struggle is real.
So where do you start? Fortunately, we have the answer. And that’s precisely why we put together this guide—to walk you through the process so you have a clear path from start to finish.
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A project report is a document offering a comprehensive overview of a project’s objectives, progress, team performance, and milestone accomplishments. It also gives an account of the challenges faced during a project’s execution , solutions devised to tackle them, and the lessons learned during the process.
Project managers create these reports to communicate with other project stakeholders—including team members, sponsors, clients, and other interested parties—to ensure everyone’s on the same page. The document also serves as a foundation for further evaluation and analysis to ensure the project says on track and achieves its goals. 🎯
Creating a project report doesn’t have to be a daunting task. Follow these three simple steps to create your first project report with ease.
Before you create a project report, you need to understand the purpose of the report (the “why”) and know your target audience (the “who”). This will guide the content, structure, and tone of your project report.
At this point, you need to gather project information relevant to your project report. Make sure your data is accurate, reliable, and up-to-date. Organize the gathered information in a logical and structured manner.
Ensure that your project report follows a consistent formatting style—headings, subheadings, and bullet points will make it easier to read. In addition, scan your report for spelling or grammar errors and typos.
Project reports come in diverse formats, with each serving different use cases. Here are nine of the most commonly used types of project reports.
A project status report is a document that gives a snapshot of where your project stands at any given moment. It’s like answering the question, “How’s the project doing?”
But instead of just saying “The project is fine,” you actually dive into the project goals, tasks completed, milestones achieved, challenges faced, lessons learned, potential roadblocks, and next steps.
Whether it’s a weekly project status report or a monthly status report, this documentation eliminates the need for status meetings while giving stakeholders the most recent status of the project.
A project progress report is slightly similar to a status update report, as they both discuss task progress. However, the progress report is more quantitative and zooms in on individual tasks and project milestones .
It’s like taking a magnifying glass and examining the progress of each task, one by one. For example, it could include in-depth information on the percentage of completion and current status of each task (completed, on track, delayed, etc.).
The cost-benefit analysis report is usually prepared before a project is put into motion. Of the various project reports, this one aims to answer a simple question: “Is it worth pursuing this project?”
To answer this question, the report first assesses all project costs like operational expenses, materials, salaries, equipment, and potential risks.
It then considers the projected benefits, such as increased profit margins, cost savings, improved efficiency, or happier customers. Finally, the report compares the costs to the benefits to determine if it’s time to move forward or explore other options.
A project time-tracking report is a document that records and summarizes time spent on project activities. Each project team member contributes to writing this report—they track and record the amount of time they’ve spent on tasks and submit it to the project manager. ⏰
Thankfully, the rise of project management tools has eliminated the need for paper-based time-tracking submissions. They make it easy for team members to submit accurate and detailed time reports to the project manager—while reducing the administrative burden of manual report compilation.
Project managers can see how time is spent and the overall productivity of team members. As a result, they’re able to make informed decisions, such as redistributing workload (aka workload management ), reassigning tasks, and providing feedback and support to team members.
A project resource dashboard offers a bird’s-eye view of how resources (e.g., labor, equipment, materials, budget, etc.) are allocated in a project. Think of it as a comprehensive resource inventory, listing every project task, the responsible party, and the resources being used.
Project reports like this help project managers keep track of resource availability, identify potential resource constraints or shortages, and make informed decisions about resource allocation and optimization.
A project risk report offers a comprehensive analysis of potential risks, their likelihood of occurrence, their potential impact on the project, and recommended mitigation strategies.
Rather than waiting for future events to derail the project, project reports like this one allow project managers to take a more proactive approach to risk management—thereby boosting the chances of overall project success.
A project variance report reveals the gaps or deviations between project plans and the actual performance or results achieved. It compares various factors—like budget, time, resources, and scope—and their planned values with their actual values, then computes the differences (or variances).
By analyzing these variances, project managers and stakeholders can discuss the possible reasons behind them, identify areas that need attention, and take corrective actions where necessary.
A project performance report evaluates the overall performance and achievements of a project against predetermined metrics and objectives. It includes information on project deliverables, key performance indicators (KPIs) , and stakeholder satisfaction.
This report helps project managers assess project success, identify areas for improvement, and communicate the project’s performance to stakeholders.
A project completion report marks the end of a project journey. It summarizes the entire project lifecycle, from initiation to closure. This report contains an overview of the project’s objectives, deliverables, milestones, challenges, and recommendations for future projects.
A project management report summarizes a project’s progress, status, and performance for stakeholders. It includes an overview, current status, timeline, budget, risks, resource allocation, key performance indicators (KPIs), and next steps. The report helps ensure transparency, track milestones, address issues, and guide decision-making. It provides a snapshot of where the project stands and what actions are needed to keep it on track.
Writing project reports may initially seem redundant and time-consuming. However, it plays a crucial role in achieving project success. While a few benefits were hinted at earlier, let’s get a better picture of why project reports should not be overlooked.
Creating a project report allows you to step back and reflect on the project’s progress. As you record the milestones, successes, and challenges, a wealth of insights begin to unfold—strengths, weaknesses, and areas that need attention.
This holistic view of the project’s health helps you steer it toward the desired outcomes and ensure it stays on track.
Project reports allow you to evaluate and analyze the different aspects of a project in a systematic way—gathering relevant data, analyzing them, and evaluating their significance. By giving your project a critical analysis, you can uncover valuable insights, identify patterns, draw meaningful conclusions, and take strategic action. 🛠️
Creating a project report challenges you to present the project’s progress and results to stakeholders in a clear and coherent manner. A well-written report promotes project transparency and ensures everyone is on the same page.
It also facilitates collaboration by providing a common reference point for discussions, feedback, and decision-making.
When you present a comprehensive and well-structured report, it shows that you have conducted thorough research, followed a methodical approach, and can effectively communicate complex information. This, in turn, boosts your reputation, enhances your credibility, and showcases your expertise among peers, colleagues, and potential employers.
A project report serves as a valuable reference for future research or projects. By documenting your process, methodologies, challenges, lessons, and results, you create a resource that can be consulted and built upon by others.
This contributes to the cumulative knowledge in your field and fosters a culture of collaboration and innovation.
Project reports are instrumental in enhancing team alignment. They provide a clear, concise snapshot of progress, identifying accomplishments, challenges, and next steps. This enables all team members to understand the project’s current status and their respective roles in achieving the overall objectives.
Check out these project report templates for teams:
Sure, you could write project reports from scratch and spend countless hours formatting and structuring them. But why would you when you can use free project report templates? They provide a structure and format for your report so you can simply plug in your data and customize the design to fit your needs. Not only do project report templates speed up the report creation process, but they also enhance the overall quality of your reports.
Let’s jump right in to explore our top five project report templates. 📈
A final project report is the perfect finishing touch to conclude a project and highlight its achievements. ClickUp’s Final Project Report Template provides a solid structure to help you put it together with the following key sections:
This template is built in ClickUp Docs , which means you have unlimited flexibility for customization—add extra sections and tweak the appearance to suit your taste. And guess what? The table of content updates in real-time as you add, edit, or delete multiple headers.
If you want to wow your team and clients, this project status report template will help you get the job done.
Writing a project status report is fairly straightforward. But staring at a blank document and worrying about crafting perfectly manicured sentences can make this process last a lot longer than it should.
Thankfully, ClickUp’s Project Status Report Template is here to save the day! Built inside ClickUp Whiteboards, this template provides a hassle-free method to quickly capture key project details in a visually engaging way.
Enter the details under each of these sections onto sticky notes, which’ll help you quickly pour down your thoughts without worrying about writing perfect sentences. It’s also very helpful for stakeholders as the information on sticky notes is short and straight to the point.
This template removes the pressure of creating a status report and saves valuable time—all while keeping key stakeholders informed and up to date.
After running a digital marketing campaign project, you need to gather key metrics from the campaign and present it to key stakeholders for evaluation, performance analysis, and notes for future improvements.
Sharing this info across multiple digital channels can get overwhelming but there’s no need to worry. ClickUp’s Digital Marketing Report Template has you covered with everything you need. Plus, it’s neatly broken down into the following sections:
Use this template to present the performance of your digital marketing project in a simple and visually engaging way. This makes it easy to identify trends, analyze the impact of your campaign, and make informed decisions regarding future marketing initiatives.
A key way to stay on track and guarantee overall project success is to engage team members in the process.
The Employee Daily Activity Report Template by ClickUp has a simple tabular layout that makes it easy for team members to record and keep track of:
This template encourages each team member to get work done and ask for support when needed—while allowing you to keep the project on track by providing support and maximizing team performance.
Remember the Digital Marketing Report Template we looked at earlier? You can choose to further analyze the marketing performance section, with elements from this Campaign Report Template by ClickUp .
Dive deeper into how each marketing channel contributed to overall ad cost, ad revenue, and ad conversion rate. You can further break down each channel’s performance by analyzing the metrics from each individual campaign on that channel.
There you have it—your secret sauce for creating an effective project report in a fraction of the time. And that’s only scratching the surface … working inside ClickUp unlocks a lot more perks.
Not only does ClickUp make project reporting easy and quick, but it also gives you access to free project management templates to enhance your workflow. Quickly assign tasks to your team, keep track of progress, discuss updates, and collaborate on documents and whiteboards—all in one place. ✨
Did we mention the integrations? ClickUp plays nicely with other apps, allowing you to seamlessly connect your favorite tools to supercharge your team’s productivity. And let’s not forget about the time you’ll save using ClickUp’s automations—a feature that lets you breeze through repetitive tasks that used to eat up valuable time across project management reports.
Just imagine what you can do with those extra hours—maybe enjoy a cup of coffee or catch up with your team about how best you can support them. Make project reporting a blast with ClickUp and boost your chances of a successful project.
Get started by signing up for free on ClickUp today … Ready? Set? Report!
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Lawrence mbuagbaw.
1 Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON Canada
2 Biostatistics Unit/FSORC, 50 Charlton Avenue East, St Joseph’s Healthcare—Hamilton, 3rd Floor Martha Wing, Room H321, Hamilton, Ontario L8N 4A6 Canada
3 Centre for the Development of Best Practices in Health, Yaoundé, Cameroon
Livia puljak.
4 Center for Evidence-Based Medicine and Health Care, Catholic University of Croatia, Ilica 242, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
5 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health – Bloomington, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405 USA
6 Departments of Paediatrics and Anaesthesia, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON Canada
7 Centre for Evaluation of Medicine, St. Joseph’s Healthcare-Hamilton, Hamilton, ON Canada
8 Population Health Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences, Hamilton, ON Canada
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.
Methodological studies – studies that evaluate the design, analysis or reporting of other research-related reports – play an important role in health research. They help to highlight issues in the conduct of research with the aim of improving health research methodology, and ultimately reducing research waste.
We provide an overview of some of the key aspects of methodological studies such as what they are, and when, how and why they are done. We adopt a “frequently asked questions” format to facilitate reading this paper and provide multiple examples to help guide researchers interested in conducting methodological studies. Some of the topics addressed include: is it necessary to publish a study protocol? How to select relevant research reports and databases for a methodological study? What approaches to data extraction and statistical analysis should be considered when conducting a methodological study? What are potential threats to validity and is there a way to appraise the quality of methodological studies?
Appropriate reflection and application of basic principles of epidemiology and biostatistics are required in the design and analysis of methodological studies. This paper provides an introduction for further discussion about the conduct of methodological studies.
The field of meta-research (or research-on-research) has proliferated in recent years in response to issues with research quality and conduct [ 1 – 3 ]. As the name suggests, this field targets issues with research design, conduct, analysis and reporting. Various types of research reports are often examined as the unit of analysis in these studies (e.g. abstracts, full manuscripts, trial registry entries). Like many other novel fields of research, meta-research has seen a proliferation of use before the development of reporting guidance. For example, this was the case with randomized trials for which risk of bias tools and reporting guidelines were only developed much later – after many trials had been published and noted to have limitations [ 4 , 5 ]; and for systematic reviews as well [ 6 – 8 ]. However, in the absence of formal guidance, studies that report on research differ substantially in how they are named, conducted and reported [ 9 , 10 ]. This creates challenges in identifying, summarizing and comparing them. In this tutorial paper, we will use the term methodological study to refer to any study that reports on the design, conduct, analysis or reporting of primary or secondary research-related reports (such as trial registry entries and conference abstracts).
In the past 10 years, there has been an increase in the use of terms related to methodological studies (based on records retrieved with a keyword search [in the title and abstract] for “methodological review” and “meta-epidemiological study” in PubMed up to December 2019), suggesting that these studies may be appearing more frequently in the literature. See Fig. 1 .
Trends in the number studies that mention “methodological review” or “meta-
epidemiological study” in PubMed.
The methods used in many methodological studies have been borrowed from systematic and scoping reviews. This practice has influenced the direction of the field, with many methodological studies including searches of electronic databases, screening of records, duplicate data extraction and assessments of risk of bias in the included studies. However, the research questions posed in methodological studies do not always require the approaches listed above, and guidance is needed on when and how to apply these methods to a methodological study. Even though methodological studies can be conducted on qualitative or mixed methods research, this paper focuses on and draws examples exclusively from quantitative research.
The objectives of this paper are to provide some insights on how to conduct methodological studies so that there is greater consistency between the research questions posed, and the design, analysis and reporting of findings. We provide multiple examples to illustrate concepts and a proposed framework for categorizing methodological studies in quantitative research.
Any study that describes or analyzes methods (design, conduct, analysis or reporting) in published (or unpublished) literature is a methodological study. Consequently, the scope of methodological studies is quite extensive and includes, but is not limited to, topics as diverse as: research question formulation [ 11 ]; adherence to reporting guidelines [ 12 – 14 ] and consistency in reporting [ 15 ]; approaches to study analysis [ 16 ]; investigating the credibility of analyses [ 17 ]; and studies that synthesize these methodological studies [ 18 ]. While the nomenclature of methodological studies is not uniform, the intents and purposes of these studies remain fairly consistent – to describe or analyze methods in primary or secondary studies. As such, methodological studies may also be classified as a subtype of observational studies.
Parallel to this are experimental studies that compare different methods. Even though they play an important role in informing optimal research methods, experimental methodological studies are beyond the scope of this paper. Examples of such studies include the randomized trials by Buscemi et al., comparing single data extraction to double data extraction [ 19 ], and Carrasco-Labra et al., comparing approaches to presenting findings in Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE) summary of findings tables [ 20 ]. In these studies, the unit of analysis is the person or groups of individuals applying the methods. We also direct readers to the Studies Within a Trial (SWAT) and Studies Within a Review (SWAR) programme operated through the Hub for Trials Methodology Research, for further reading as a potential useful resource for these types of experimental studies [ 21 ]. Lastly, this paper is not meant to inform the conduct of research using computational simulation and mathematical modeling for which some guidance already exists [ 22 ], or studies on the development of methods using consensus-based approaches.
Methodological studies occupy a unique niche in health research that allows them to inform methodological advances. Methodological studies should also be conducted as pre-cursors to reporting guideline development, as they provide an opportunity to understand current practices, and help to identify the need for guidance and gaps in methodological or reporting quality. For example, the development of the popular Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were preceded by methodological studies identifying poor reporting practices [ 23 , 24 ]. In these instances, after the reporting guidelines are published, methodological studies can also be used to monitor uptake of the guidelines.
These studies can also be conducted to inform the state of the art for design, analysis and reporting practices across different types of health research fields, with the aim of improving research practices, and preventing or reducing research waste. For example, Samaan et al. conducted a scoping review of adherence to different reporting guidelines in health care literature [ 18 ]. Methodological studies can also be used to determine the factors associated with reporting practices. For example, Abbade et al. investigated journal characteristics associated with the use of the Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe (PICOT) format in framing research questions in trials of venous ulcer disease [ 11 ].
There is no clear answer to this question. Based on a search of PubMed, the use of related terms (“methodological review” and “meta-epidemiological study”) – and therefore, the number of methodological studies – is on the rise. However, many other terms are used to describe methodological studies. There are also many studies that explore design, conduct, analysis or reporting of research reports, but that do not use any specific terms to describe or label their study design in terms of “methodology”. This diversity in nomenclature makes a census of methodological studies elusive. Appropriate terminology and key words for methodological studies are needed to facilitate improved accessibility for end-users.
Methodological studies provide information on the design, conduct, analysis or reporting of primary and secondary research and can be used to appraise quality, quantity, completeness, accuracy and consistency of health research. These issues can be explored in specific fields, journals, databases, geographical regions and time periods. For example, Areia et al. explored the quality of reporting of endoscopic diagnostic studies in gastroenterology [ 25 ]; Knol et al. investigated the reporting of p -values in baseline tables in randomized trial published in high impact journals [ 26 ]; Chen et al. describe adherence to the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) statement in Chinese Journals [ 27 ]; and Hopewell et al. describe the effect of editors’ implementation of CONSORT guidelines on reporting of abstracts over time [ 28 ]. Methodological studies provide useful information to researchers, clinicians, editors, publishers and users of health literature. As a result, these studies have been at the cornerstone of important methodological developments in the past two decades and have informed the development of many health research guidelines including the highly cited CONSORT statement [ 5 ].
Methodological studies can be found in most common biomedical bibliographic databases (e.g. Embase, MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science). However, the biggest caveat is that methodological studies are hard to identify in the literature due to the wide variety of names used and the lack of comprehensive databases dedicated to them. A handful can be found in the Cochrane Library as “Cochrane Methodology Reviews”, but these studies only cover methodological issues related to systematic reviews. Previous attempts to catalogue all empirical studies of methods used in reviews were abandoned 10 years ago [ 29 ]. In other databases, a variety of search terms may be applied with different levels of sensitivity and specificity.
In this section, we have outlined responses to questions that might help inform the conduct of methodological studies.
Q: How should I select research reports for my methodological study?
A: Selection of research reports for a methodological study depends on the research question and eligibility criteria. Once a clear research question is set and the nature of literature one desires to review is known, one can then begin the selection process. Selection may begin with a broad search, especially if the eligibility criteria are not apparent. For example, a methodological study of Cochrane Reviews of HIV would not require a complex search as all eligible studies can easily be retrieved from the Cochrane Library after checking a few boxes [ 30 ]. On the other hand, a methodological study of subgroup analyses in trials of gastrointestinal oncology would require a search to find such trials, and further screening to identify trials that conducted a subgroup analysis [ 31 ].
The strategies used for identifying participants in observational studies can apply here. One may use a systematic search to identify all eligible studies. If the number of eligible studies is unmanageable, a random sample of articles can be expected to provide comparable results if it is sufficiently large [ 32 ]. For example, Wilson et al. used a random sample of trials from the Cochrane Stroke Group’s Trial Register to investigate completeness of reporting [ 33 ]. It is possible that a simple random sample would lead to underrepresentation of units (i.e. research reports) that are smaller in number. This is relevant if the investigators wish to compare multiple groups but have too few units in one group. In this case a stratified sample would help to create equal groups. For example, in a methodological study comparing Cochrane and non-Cochrane reviews, Kahale et al. drew random samples from both groups [ 34 ]. Alternatively, systematic or purposeful sampling strategies can be used and we encourage researchers to justify their selected approaches based on the study objective.
Q: How many databases should I search?
A: The number of databases one should search would depend on the approach to sampling, which can include targeting the entire “population” of interest or a sample of that population. If you are interested in including the entire target population for your research question, or drawing a random or systematic sample from it, then a comprehensive and exhaustive search for relevant articles is required. In this case, we recommend using systematic approaches for searching electronic databases (i.e. at least 2 databases with a replicable and time stamped search strategy). The results of your search will constitute a sampling frame from which eligible studies can be drawn.
Alternatively, if your approach to sampling is purposeful, then we recommend targeting the database(s) or data sources (e.g. journals, registries) that include the information you need. For example, if you are conducting a methodological study of high impact journals in plastic surgery and they are all indexed in PubMed, you likely do not need to search any other databases. You may also have a comprehensive list of all journals of interest and can approach your search using the journal names in your database search (or by accessing the journal archives directly from the journal’s website). Even though one could also search journals’ web pages directly, using a database such as PubMed has multiple advantages, such as the use of filters, so the search can be narrowed down to a certain period, or study types of interest. Furthermore, individual journals’ web sites may have different search functionalities, which do not necessarily yield a consistent output.
Q: Should I publish a protocol for my methodological study?
A: A protocol is a description of intended research methods. Currently, only protocols for clinical trials require registration [ 35 ]. Protocols for systematic reviews are encouraged but no formal recommendation exists. The scientific community welcomes the publication of protocols because they help protect against selective outcome reporting, the use of post hoc methodologies to embellish results, and to help avoid duplication of efforts [ 36 ]. While the latter two risks exist in methodological research, the negative consequences may be substantially less than for clinical outcomes. In a sample of 31 methodological studies, 7 (22.6%) referenced a published protocol [ 9 ]. In the Cochrane Library, there are 15 protocols for methodological reviews (21 July 2020). This suggests that publishing protocols for methodological studies is not uncommon.
Authors can consider publishing their study protocol in a scholarly journal as a manuscript. Advantages of such publication include obtaining peer-review feedback about the planned study, and easy retrieval by searching databases such as PubMed. The disadvantages in trying to publish protocols includes delays associated with manuscript handling and peer review, as well as costs, as few journals publish study protocols, and those journals mostly charge article-processing fees [ 37 ]. Authors who would like to make their protocol publicly available without publishing it in scholarly journals, could deposit their study protocols in publicly available repositories, such as the Open Science Framework ( https://osf.io/ ).
Q: How to appraise the quality of a methodological study?
A: To date, there is no published tool for appraising the risk of bias in a methodological study, but in principle, a methodological study could be considered as a type of observational study. Therefore, during conduct or appraisal, care should be taken to avoid the biases common in observational studies [ 38 ]. These biases include selection bias, comparability of groups, and ascertainment of exposure or outcome. In other words, to generate a representative sample, a comprehensive reproducible search may be necessary to build a sampling frame. Additionally, random sampling may be necessary to ensure that all the included research reports have the same probability of being selected, and the screening and selection processes should be transparent and reproducible. To ensure that the groups compared are similar in all characteristics, matching, random sampling or stratified sampling can be used. Statistical adjustments for between-group differences can also be applied at the analysis stage. Finally, duplicate data extraction can reduce errors in assessment of exposures or outcomes.
Q: Should I justify a sample size?
A: In all instances where one is not using the target population (i.e. the group to which inferences from the research report are directed) [ 39 ], a sample size justification is good practice. The sample size justification may take the form of a description of what is expected to be achieved with the number of articles selected, or a formal sample size estimation that outlines the number of articles required to answer the research question with a certain precision and power. Sample size justifications in methodological studies are reasonable in the following instances:
For example, El Dib et al. computed a sample size requirement for a methodological study of diagnostic strategies in randomized trials, based on a confidence interval approach [ 40 ].
Q: What should I call my study?
A: Other terms which have been used to describe/label methodological studies include “ methodological review ”, “methodological survey” , “meta-epidemiological study” , “systematic review” , “systematic survey”, “meta-research”, “research-on-research” and many others. We recommend that the study nomenclature be clear, unambiguous, informative and allow for appropriate indexing. Methodological study nomenclature that should be avoided includes “ systematic review” – as this will likely be confused with a systematic review of a clinical question. “ Systematic survey” may also lead to confusion about whether the survey was systematic (i.e. using a preplanned methodology) or a survey using “ systematic” sampling (i.e. a sampling approach using specific intervals to determine who is selected) [ 32 ]. Any of the above meanings of the words “ systematic” may be true for methodological studies and could be potentially misleading. “ Meta-epidemiological study” is ideal for indexing, but not very informative as it describes an entire field. The term “ review ” may point towards an appraisal or “review” of the design, conduct, analysis or reporting (or methodological components) of the targeted research reports, yet it has also been used to describe narrative reviews [ 41 , 42 ]. The term “ survey ” is also in line with the approaches used in many methodological studies [ 9 ], and would be indicative of the sampling procedures of this study design. However, in the absence of guidelines on nomenclature, the term “ methodological study ” is broad enough to capture most of the scenarios of such studies.
Q: Should I account for clustering in my methodological study?
A: Data from methodological studies are often clustered. For example, articles coming from a specific source may have different reporting standards (e.g. the Cochrane Library). Articles within the same journal may be similar due to editorial practices and policies, reporting requirements and endorsement of guidelines. There is emerging evidence that these are real concerns that should be accounted for in analyses [ 43 ]. Some cluster variables are described in the section: “ What variables are relevant to methodological studies?”
A variety of modelling approaches can be used to account for correlated data, including the use of marginal, fixed or mixed effects regression models with appropriate computation of standard errors [ 44 ]. For example, Kosa et al. used generalized estimation equations to account for correlation of articles within journals [ 15 ]. Not accounting for clustering could lead to incorrect p -values, unduly narrow confidence intervals, and biased estimates [ 45 ].
Q: Should I extract data in duplicate?
A: Yes. Duplicate data extraction takes more time but results in less errors [ 19 ]. Data extraction errors in turn affect the effect estimate [ 46 ], and therefore should be mitigated. Duplicate data extraction should be considered in the absence of other approaches to minimize extraction errors. However, much like systematic reviews, this area will likely see rapid new advances with machine learning and natural language processing technologies to support researchers with screening and data extraction [ 47 , 48 ]. However, experience plays an important role in the quality of extracted data and inexperienced extractors should be paired with experienced extractors [ 46 , 49 ].
Q: Should I assess the risk of bias of research reports included in my methodological study?
A : Risk of bias is most useful in determining the certainty that can be placed in the effect measure from a study. In methodological studies, risk of bias may not serve the purpose of determining the trustworthiness of results, as effect measures are often not the primary goal of methodological studies. Determining risk of bias in methodological studies is likely a practice borrowed from systematic review methodology, but whose intrinsic value is not obvious in methodological studies. When it is part of the research question, investigators often focus on one aspect of risk of bias. For example, Speich investigated how blinding was reported in surgical trials [ 50 ], and Abraha et al., investigated the application of intention-to-treat analyses in systematic reviews and trials [ 51 ].
Q: What variables are relevant to methodological studies?
A: There is empirical evidence that certain variables may inform the findings in a methodological study. We outline some of these and provide a brief overview below:
Q: Should I focus only on high impact journals?
A: Investigators may choose to investigate only high impact journals because they are more likely to influence practice and policy, or because they assume that methodological standards would be higher. However, the JIF may severely limit the scope of articles included and may skew the sample towards articles with positive findings. The generalizability and applicability of findings from a handful of journals must be examined carefully, especially since the JIF varies over time. Even among journals that are all “high impact”, variations exist in methodological standards.
Q: Can I conduct a methodological study of qualitative research?
A: Yes. Even though a lot of methodological research has been conducted in the quantitative research field, methodological studies of qualitative studies are feasible. Certain databases that catalogue qualitative research including the Cumulative Index to Nursing & Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) have defined subject headings that are specific to methodological research (e.g. “research methodology”). Alternatively, one could also conduct a qualitative methodological review; that is, use qualitative approaches to synthesize methodological issues in qualitative studies.
Q: What reporting guidelines should I use for my methodological study?
A: There is no guideline that covers the entire scope of methodological studies. One adaptation of the PRISMA guidelines has been published, which works well for studies that aim to use the entire target population of research reports [ 71 ]. However, it is not widely used (40 citations in 2 years as of 09 December 2019), and methodological studies that are designed as cross-sectional or before-after studies require a more fit-for purpose guideline. A more encompassing reporting guideline for a broad range of methodological studies is currently under development [ 72 ]. However, in the absence of formal guidance, the requirements for scientific reporting should be respected, and authors of methodological studies should focus on transparency and reproducibility.
Q: What are the potential threats to validity and how can I avoid them?
A: Methodological studies may be compromised by a lack of internal or external validity. The main threats to internal validity in methodological studies are selection and confounding bias. Investigators must ensure that the methods used to select articles does not make them differ systematically from the set of articles to which they would like to make inferences. For example, attempting to make extrapolations to all journals after analyzing high-impact journals would be misleading.
Many factors (confounders) may distort the association between the exposure and outcome if the included research reports differ with respect to these factors [ 73 ]. For example, when examining the association between source of funding and completeness of reporting, it may be necessary to account for journals that endorse the guidelines. Confounding bias can be addressed by restriction, matching and statistical adjustment [ 73 ]. Restriction appears to be the method of choice for many investigators who choose to include only high impact journals or articles in a specific field. For example, Knol et al. examined the reporting of p -values in baseline tables of high impact journals [ 26 ]. Matching is also sometimes used. In the methodological study of non-randomized interventional studies of elective ventral hernia repair, Parker et al. matched prospective studies with retrospective studies and compared reporting standards [ 74 ]. Some other methodological studies use statistical adjustments. For example, Zhang et al. used regression techniques to determine the factors associated with missing participant data in trials [ 16 ].
With regard to external validity, researchers interested in conducting methodological studies must consider how generalizable or applicable their findings are. This should tie in closely with the research question and should be explicit. For example. Findings from methodological studies on trials published in high impact cardiology journals cannot be assumed to be applicable to trials in other fields. However, investigators must ensure that their sample truly represents the target sample either by a) conducting a comprehensive and exhaustive search, or b) using an appropriate and justified, randomly selected sample of research reports.
Even applicability to high impact journals may vary based on the investigators’ definition, and over time. For example, for high impact journals in the field of general medicine, Bouwmeester et al. included the Annals of Internal Medicine (AIM), BMJ, the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), Lancet, the New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM), and PLoS Medicine ( n = 6) [ 75 ]. In contrast, the high impact journals selected in the methodological study by Schiller et al. were BMJ, JAMA, Lancet, and NEJM ( n = 4) [ 76 ]. Another methodological study by Kosa et al. included AIM, BMJ, JAMA, Lancet and NEJM ( n = 5). In the methodological study by Thabut et al., journals with a JIF greater than 5 were considered to be high impact. Riado Minguez et al. used first quartile journals in the Journal Citation Reports (JCR) for a specific year to determine “high impact” [ 77 ]. Ultimately, the definition of high impact will be based on the number of journals the investigators are willing to include, the year of impact and the JIF cut-off [ 78 ]. We acknowledge that the term “generalizability” may apply differently for methodological studies, especially when in many instances it is possible to include the entire target population in the sample studied.
Finally, methodological studies are not exempt from information bias which may stem from discrepancies in the included research reports [ 79 ], errors in data extraction, or inappropriate interpretation of the information extracted. Likewise, publication bias may also be a concern in methodological studies, but such concepts have not yet been explored.
In order to inform discussions about methodological studies, the development of guidance for what should be reported, we have outlined some key features of methodological studies that can be used to classify them. For each of the categories outlined below, we provide an example. In our experience, the choice of approach to completing a methodological study can be informed by asking the following four questions:
A methodological study may be focused on exploring sources of bias in primary or secondary studies (meta-bias), or how bias is analyzed. We have taken care to distinguish bias (i.e. systematic deviations from the truth irrespective of the source) from reporting quality or completeness (i.e. not adhering to a specific reporting guideline or norm). An example of where this distinction would be important is in the case of a randomized trial with no blinding. This study (depending on the nature of the intervention) would be at risk of performance bias. However, if the authors report that their study was not blinded, they would have reported adequately. In fact, some methodological studies attempt to capture both “quality of conduct” and “quality of reporting”, such as Richie et al., who reported on the risk of bias in randomized trials of pharmacy practice interventions [ 80 ]. Babic et al. investigated how risk of bias was used to inform sensitivity analyses in Cochrane reviews [ 81 ]. Further, biases related to choice of outcomes can also be explored. For example, Tan et al investigated differences in treatment effect size based on the outcome reported [ 82 ].
Methodological studies may report quality of reporting against a reporting checklist (i.e. adherence to guidelines) or against expected norms. For example, Croituro et al. report on the quality of reporting in systematic reviews published in dermatology journals based on their adherence to the PRISMA statement [ 83 ], and Khan et al. described the quality of reporting of harms in randomized controlled trials published in high impact cardiovascular journals based on the CONSORT extension for harms [ 84 ]. Other methodological studies investigate reporting of certain features of interest that may not be part of formally published checklists or guidelines. For example, Mbuagbaw et al. described how often the implications for research are elaborated using the Evidence, Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe (EPICOT) format [ 30 ].
Sometimes investigators may be interested in how consistent reports of the same research are, as it is expected that there should be consistency between: conference abstracts and published manuscripts; manuscript abstracts and manuscript main text; and trial registration and published manuscript. For example, Rosmarakis et al. investigated consistency between conference abstracts and full text manuscripts [ 85 ].
In addition to identifying issues with reporting in primary and secondary studies, authors of methodological studies may be interested in determining the factors that are associated with certain reporting practices. Many methodological studies incorporate this, albeit as a secondary outcome. For example, Farrokhyar et al. investigated the factors associated with reporting quality in randomized trials of coronary artery bypass grafting surgery [ 53 ].
Methodological studies may also be used to describe methods or compare methods, and the factors associated with methods. Muller et al. described the methods used for systematic reviews and meta-analyses of observational studies [ 86 ].
Some methodological studies synthesize results from other methodological studies. For example, Li et al. conducted a scoping review of methodological reviews that investigated consistency between full text and abstracts in primary biomedical research [ 87 ].
Some methodological studies may investigate the use of names and terms in health research. For example, Martinic et al. investigated the definitions of systematic reviews used in overviews of systematic reviews (OSRs), meta-epidemiological studies and epidemiology textbooks [ 88 ].
In addition to the previously mentioned experimental methodological studies, there may exist other types of methodological studies not captured here.
Most methodological studies are purely descriptive and report their findings as counts (percent) and means (standard deviation) or medians (interquartile range). For example, Mbuagbaw et al. described the reporting of research recommendations in Cochrane HIV systematic reviews [ 30 ]. Gohari et al. described the quality of reporting of randomized trials in diabetes in Iran [ 12 ].
Some methodological studies are analytical wherein “analytical studies identify and quantify associations, test hypotheses, identify causes and determine whether an association exists between variables, such as between an exposure and a disease.” [ 89 ] In the case of methodological studies all these investigations are possible. For example, Kosa et al. investigated the association between agreement in primary outcome from trial registry to published manuscript and study covariates. They found that larger and more recent studies were more likely to have agreement [ 15 ]. Tricco et al. compared the conclusion statements from Cochrane and non-Cochrane systematic reviews with a meta-analysis of the primary outcome and found that non-Cochrane reviews were more likely to report positive findings. These results are a test of the null hypothesis that the proportions of Cochrane and non-Cochrane reviews that report positive results are equal [ 90 ].
Methodological reviews with narrow research questions may be able to include the entire target population. For example, in the methodological study of Cochrane HIV systematic reviews, Mbuagbaw et al. included all of the available studies ( n = 103) [ 30 ].
Many methodological studies use random samples of the target population [ 33 , 91 , 92 ]. Alternatively, purposeful sampling may be used, limiting the sample to a subset of research-related reports published within a certain time period, or in journals with a certain ranking or on a topic. Systematic sampling can also be used when random sampling may be challenging to implement.
Many methodological studies use a research report (e.g. full manuscript of study, abstract portion of the study) as the unit of analysis, and inferences can be made at the study-level. However, both published and unpublished research-related reports can be studied. These may include articles, conference abstracts, registry entries etc.
Some methodological studies report on items which may occur more than once per article. For example, Paquette et al. report on subgroup analyses in Cochrane reviews of atrial fibrillation in which 17 systematic reviews planned 56 subgroup analyses [ 93 ].
This framework is outlined in Fig. 2 .
A proposed framework for methodological studies
Methodological studies have examined different aspects of reporting such as quality, completeness, consistency and adherence to reporting guidelines. As such, many of the methodological study examples cited in this tutorial are related to reporting. However, as an evolving field, the scope of research questions that can be addressed by methodological studies is expected to increase.
In this paper we have outlined the scope and purpose of methodological studies, along with examples of instances in which various approaches have been used. In the absence of formal guidance on the design, conduct, analysis and reporting of methodological studies, we have provided some advice to help make methodological studies consistent. This advice is grounded in good contemporary scientific practice. Generally, the research question should tie in with the sampling approach and planned analysis. We have also highlighted the variables that may inform findings from methodological studies. Lastly, we have provided suggestions for ways in which authors can categorize their methodological studies to inform their design and analysis.
Abbreviations.
CONSORT | Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials |
EPICOT | Evidence, Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe |
GRADE | Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations |
PICOT | Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe |
PRISMA | Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses |
SWAR | Studies Within a Review |
SWAT | Studies Within a Trial |
LM conceived the idea and drafted the outline and paper. DOL and LT commented on the idea and draft outline. LM, LP and DOL performed literature searches and data extraction. All authors (LM, DOL, LT, LP, DBA) reviewed several draft versions of the manuscript and approved the final manuscript.
This work did not receive any dedicated funding.
Ethics approval and consent to participate.
Not applicable.
Competing interests.
DOL, DBA, LM, LP and LT are involved in the development of a reporting guideline for methodological studies.
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Methodology
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.
First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :
Second, decide how you will analyze the data .
Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.
Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.
Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.
For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .
If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .
Qualitative | to broader populations. . | |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | . |
You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).
If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.
Primary | . | methods. |
---|---|---|
Secondary |
In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .
In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .
To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.
Descriptive | . . | |
---|---|---|
Experimental |
Research method | Primary or secondary? | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|---|
Primary | Quantitative | To test cause-and-effect relationships. | |
Primary | Quantitative | To understand general characteristics of a population. | |
Interview/focus group | Primary | Qualitative | To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic. |
Observation | Primary | Either | To understand how something occurs in its natural setting. |
Secondary | Either | To situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends within a research topic. | |
Either | Either | To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group or context, or when you don’t have the resources for a large study. |
Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.
Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.
Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:
Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .
Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).
You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:
Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.
Research method | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | To analyze data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations). | |
Meta-analysis | Quantitative | To statistically analyze the results of a large collection of studies. Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner. |
Qualitative | To analyze data collected from interviews, , or textual sources. To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated. | |
Either | To analyze large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources. Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words). |
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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Research bias
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.
Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.
In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .
A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.
In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.
The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .
Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.
Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).
In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .
In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.
Other students also liked, writing strong research questions | criteria & examples.
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What is a research proposal paper, why write a research proposal paper.
Research proposal examples, help & additional resources, this resource page will help you:.
A research proposal paper:
Your instructor will provide you with assignment details that can help you determine how much information to include in your research proposal, so you should carefully check your course outline and assignment instructions.
Writing a research proposal allows you to
learn how to identify a research problem that can contribute to advancing knowledge in your field of interest;
further develop skills in finding foundational and relevant literature related to your topic;
critically review, examine, and consider the use of different methods for gathering and analyzing data related to the research problem;
see yourself as an active participant in conducting research in your field of study.
Writing a research proposal paper can help clarify questions you may have before designing your research study. It is helpful to get feedback on your research proposal and edit your work to be able to see what you may need to change in your proposal. The more diverse opinions you receive on your proposal, the better prepared you will be to design a comprehensive research study.
Before starting your research proposal, you should clarify your ideas and make a plan. Ask yourself these questions and take notes:
What do I want to study?
Why is the topic important? Why is it important to me?
How is the topic significant within the subject areas covered in my class?
What problems will it help solve?
How does it build on research already conducted on the topic?
What exactly should I plan to do to conduct a study on the topic?
It may be helpful to write down your answers to these questions and use them to tell a story about your chosen topic to your classmates or instructor. As you tell your story, write down comments or questions from your listeners. This will help you refine your proposal and research questions.
This is an example of how to start planning and thinking about your research proposal assignment. You will find a student’s notes and ideas about their research proposal topic - "Perspectives on Textual Production, Student Collaboration, and Social Networking Sites”. This example is hyperlinked in the following Resource Page:
A research proposal paper typically includes:
Start your introduction by giving the reader an overview of your study. Include:
Conclude your introduction by giving your reader a roadmap of your proposal.
To learn more about paper introductions, check How to write Introductions .
A theoretical framework refers to the theories that you will use to interpret both your own data and the literature that has come before. Think about theories as lenses that help you look at your data from different perspectives, beyond just your own personal perspective. Think about the theories that you have come across in your courses or readings that could apply to your research topic. When writing the theoretical framework, include
The literature review section should help you identify topics or issues that will help contextualize what the research has/hasn’t found and discussed on the topic so far and convince your reader that your proposed study is important. This is where you can go into more detail on the gap that your study hopes to fill. Ultimately, a good literature review helps your reader learn more about the topic that you have chosen to study and what still needs to be researched
To learn more about literature reviews check What is a Literature Review .
The methods section should briefly explain how you plan to conduct your study and why you have chosen a particular method. You may also include
You should cite relevant literature on research methods to support your choices.
The conclusion section should include a short summary about the implications and significance of your proposed study by explaining how the possible findings may change the ways educators and/or stakeholders address the issues identified in your introduction.
Depending on the assignment instructions, the conclusion can also highlight next steps and a timeline for the research process.
To learn more about paper conclusions, check How to write Conclusions .
List all references you used and format them according to APA style. Make sure that everything in your reference list is cited in the paper, and every citation in your paper is in your reference list.
To learn more about writing citations and references, check Citations & APA .
These are detailed guidelines on how to prepare a quantitative research proposal. Adapted from the course APD2293 “Interpretation of Educational Research”. These guidelines are hyperlinked in the following Resource Page:
What is a project report, how to create a project report in 5 steps, project report objectives, project report components, common project report types, project report use cases, project report examples, opening and viewing reports with microsoft , change data in your report , change the report format , make your report , share your report , choose the right program, train to become a project leader today, mastering project reports: a guide to success.
Managing a project is by no means an easy feat. Many moving parts can make it complicated to stay focused on the tasks and keep stakeholders up to date on the project status. This is why project reports are a useful tool for project managers .
These project reports can be used to provide direction for team members, offer status updates for partners or management teams, and successfully manage risk mitigation – to name just a few!
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Let’s take a closer look at how to create a project report including its many objectives, components, and examples of project reports.
A project report is a comprehensive document that provides detailed information about a specific project. It typically outlines the project's objectives, scope, methodology, progress, findings, and outcomes. A project report often includes details about the project's goals, activities, timelines, resources used, challenges faced, and the results achieved. It serves as a formal record of the project's lifecycle, serving both as a documentation of the work done and as a communication tool to convey the project's status and outcomes to stakeholders, sponsors, or interested parties. Project reports are commonly used in various fields such as business, engineering, research, and academia to assess the effectiveness and success of a project.
Creating project reports is an integral part of evaluating project success. Documenting the lessons learned and sharing them with a larger team in an organized way can help with future projects. You can use different tools to put together your project report. Here are 7 basic steps involved in creating a project report -
Sit down, evaluate your objectives, and understand what you want to describe, explain, recommend, and prove with your report. Having set goals will not only help you proceed with your project report but also help readers understand your point of view.
Your audience plays an essential role in making your project report a success. A formal annual report differs from a financial report: the language, representation of data, and analysis changes per your target audience .
The chances of you having a solid report is when data supports it. Data plays an essential role in making people believe in your derivations. Also, support your claims by citing sources such as case studies, surveys, interviews, etc.
A project report is further divided into certain sections. These 4 are the most common divisions of a project report:
Once your project report is ready, read it multiple times with some time gap. You can ask your co-workers to review it.
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Every project report starts with a solid project report objective. Your objective should provide precise direction for the rest of the report. Consider what purpose you want your project report to serve. Are you describing new risks or explaining project delays? Or will your report focus on persuading management teams or stockholders to invest additional funds into the project?
A thorough understanding of your objective will help guide you in writing the report and make the purpose of the report clear to all stakeholders.
Here are a few examples of project report objectives:
Your project report will be bursting with essential information about your project. Although the content of your report will differ depending on the type of report you’re creating, keeping your report organized will make it easy for the reader to follow along without missing any critical points. Organize your data and content into sections that allow all stakeholders to quickly reference.
Consider including some of the following project report components:
The first section of your report will likely include an executive summary. The brief overview should provide all the essential takeaways from the report, allowing the reader to understand the report's contents without having to read through all of the project details.
This component includes real metrics that track your project’s progress. It offers an overview of the project's status and budget while identifying risks or issues that may have emerged. Helping project management and other stakeholders reflect on the project schedule and make amendments as needed.
What risks have developed that may affect the quality, timeline, or budget of your project? How will you control these emerging elements? It’s inevitable that all projects will face risks, so it’s how you intend to manage those risks that’s important to the project team and stakeholders. Include a detailed analysis of the risk, your proposed solutions, and how these new elements will affect the project as a whole.
Are your financials where they need to be for the current status of your project? Will more capital be required to reach your goals effectively? Provide a detailed overview of the allocation of your budget including materials, labor, and operating costs.
Reflect on your project goals. Is the project behind, ahead, or on schedule? How will any changes to your timelines affect your budget or resources? Include an overview of tasks that have already been completed and a comprehensive schedule of remaining tasks.
Resources may include materials, machinery, or even funding required to complete your project. Provide a detailed summary of your current resource allocation. What are detrimental resources for your project running low? Are there any excess amounts?
Is your team completing tasks efficiently? Are there any skill or knowledge gaps that need to be addressed? Compare your team’s performance to your initial goals to identify the group’s progress.
A project report is a simple and detailed description of the essence of the project and its aims and aspirations. The business management team and stakeholders are kept updated on every development regarding the project; based on that, they prepare their strategy. This vital information keeps the communication line open between the management team and the stakeholders, providing them with a complete picture of every action concerning the project.
A project report includes the necessary recommendations for all types of businesses, established and start-ups. Moreover, organizations use project reports to procure financial help from institutions. Project reports can be of various types that help everyone complete a project successfully. Based on the report, your team can take up any activity that benefits the project.
It talks about the progress going on with a project. It also states various significant activities associated with the project. This status report organizes the communication medium between the team and the stakeholders. It summarizes the finished tasks on the project at hand. It includes the budgetary details and the timeline of the project. It also helps identify the risks related to the project and measures to tackle them beforehand. The status report also keeps track of the events or actions or any activity taken in the past. Status reports are carried out weekly, daily, monthly, or quarterly. They help collect and distribute information about crucial activities in a project in a smooth manner.
While executing a project, a progress report is inevitably carried out to update everything about the project. It usually includes things like if the project baseline is fulfilled. It indicates the initial plan you prepared along with your stakeholders about a project regarding the expectations, schedules, cost, deliverables , and scope of it. A progress report informs your stakeholders how much progress has been made in the above directions.
You should prepare this status report in a specific manner by stating the project title, contact information, a summary of the status, and providing all the information about the budget, timeline, and expected completion date of the project. You can take the help of several such free templates available online to make the status report.
This type of report explains the risks associated with the project in a documented form. It covers details about risks that are managed already and the emerging ones. It includes the overall risk profile of the project. Risk reports identify and state potential risks that could alter the duration of the project and tips to manage them.
An executive report is a summary of the business plan of an organization for lending partners. It enables the team members to collect and combine the results of numerous research studies to help them decide on the project. It is the starting point of arranging a dialogue with the investors. It should be written in such a way that it creates the best impression in the minds of the lenders. It should be short and precise and comprehensively analyze the project.
This kind of report helps organizations know if a particular project is possible or not. It will show you how much the project will benefit your organization against the investment. It will help you decide if a project is worth taking on for your organization and how much business profit it will get you at the end of the day. Alternatively, it will also help your organization better utilize its resources while progressing with the project. You can monitor your project expenses and spending to manage your funds better.
This report highlights the distribution of resources according to the project tasks. The team members and the investors get the necessary information by reading this report on how well the resources are distributed in the project. It will give detailed narration about which team is assigned to which task according to the date wise. This type of report is beneficial for an organization to know if there is over allocation of resources as this could harm the project. Overall allocation happens when there are insufficient resources to complete all the crucial activities of the project.
This report helps you compare your overall project plan with the project's end result. It uses metrics to inform you if your project is running according to the timeline, ahead of time, or running late. Moreover, it will streamline the data based on the comparisons you have made on the project. With the availability of various project management tools , preparing this kind of report has become easier now. It cuts down your hard work by creating the project activity report and conveying it to the stakeholders.
This report will examine the project's current status in the context of schedule, cost, and labor and, subsequently, compare the targeted status. It discovers and examines the gap between these two aspects and prepares a strategy or action plan on how to do the needful to reach the targeted objectives. Every business, whether a budding one or an established one, will need this kind of gap analysis report to perform better in terms of projects. This report will tell you how to take the successful step to graduate to the next level of your business. This will tell you whether you are fulfilling your business objectives and using your resources carefully.
There are several common use cases for project reports in project management. These include:
A project status report is used regularly throughout a project to communicate the project’s progress in conjunction with the original project plan. The status report of a project provides all stakeholders with updates on the project’s development and performance. Your status report may cover issues or risks that have emerged and include your amended project plan.
A project tracking report offers real numbers, metrics, and other key indicators that measure the project’s overarching progress. This comprehensive report covers all aspects of the project, including project status, tasks, project team performance, and how much of the project has been completed.
Performance reports provide an overview of the project’s progress, a breakdown of resource allocation, and costs to date. Your performance report will help monitor the project’s current direction and forecast how well it will perform.
A health report offers an analysis of any problem areas or risks within your project. Completing a project health report can help identify any potential issues before they occur, saving you time, money, and resources.
A project summary report provides a quick snapshot of the project’s status. Along with tasks completed and a summary of financials, the brief report should include any key highlights or milestones and a glance at upcoming scheduled tasks.
Project time tracking reports help the team and all stakeholders better understand the time allocation for each task. It’s a useful tool for project managers to gauge their teams' efficiency and identify what areas need improvement.
Not sure where to start with your next project report? Consulting the right project report example can help you gain the direction you need.
Click here for a status report example.
Using Project, one can easily create new reports or customize them for various types of project data without relying on any other application or software. MS Project offers dozens that you can use right away. You can also customize any report’s content and look or build a new one from scratch.
For instance, if you have to open the Project Overview report, navigate Report > Dashboards > Project Overview.
Reports Dashboard Option
Reports are customizable. So, you choose the data that MS Project will show in any part of a report. Follow the steps below to change the data in your report:
For instance, take the previous Project Overview report as an example. You can change the % Complete chart and display critical subtasks rather than top-level summary tasks using the below-mentioned steps:
Changes in the % Complete Chart
Using Project, you can go from monotonous black-white to vivid effects and colors. With the Split view, you will be able to view the real-time report changes while you make the changes. To change the report format, take the following steps:
Report Tools Options
Table Styles
Suppose you plan to change the % Complete chart in the Project Overview report. Click anywhere in the chart and tap on the Chart Tools Design.
% Complete Chart
Chart Styles in Chart Tools Design
Color Options for Chart
The above-stated changes will be reflected as follows.
% Complete Chart on Making the Changes
Take the following steps to create a new report.
Types of New Report Styles
Copy Report Option
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A project report summarizes a project's key aspects, including its goals, timeline, budget, progress, and outcomes. It provides project managers with critical information to monitor and evaluate the project's performance, identify potential risks and challenges, and communicate progress to stakeholders.
A project report format is completely customizable depending on the project requirements and your choices. However, it should focus on the specific objectives of the project, its methodology, major findings, and progress.
Preparing a project report is simple. Click Report > New Report and choose from the four options. Now, give a suitable name to the report and start adding information.
A project report is a document providing detail on the project’s overall status or specific aspects of its performance. Irrespective of the report type, it contains project data based on economic, financial, technical, managerial or production aspects. For example, a Cost Overview report tells the current cost status of the project. It also reveals planned costs, remaining costs, cumulative costs, actual costs, and percentage of completion to help understand if the project is within budget.
Writing a complete project report entails a proper start and closure, including
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Project management can be defined as an academic field concerned with the planning, execution, and monitoring of projects. Of these tools, the project report occupies the central role since this tool is used in the form of a report that highlights the project and its condition, problems, and results achieved by the stakeholders. It is important for project managers and any other professional seeking to become PMP certified to appreciate the purpose, types, and uses of project reports that are used in projects. These aspects will be explored in this blog on how project reports can be effectively utilized in managing projects.
A project report is a written report containing information on project aspects such as achievements, challenges, and outcomes. It represents the present state of the project and the accomplishments, issues faced, and deviations vis a vis the plan formulated earlier. Furthermore, this report is a documentary, a necessary component in project management, which contains an overall analysis that can help in the decision, thus addressing the course requirements aligned with the project goals.
Furthermore, for people who aspire to pass a PMP examination, the ability to create and analyze project reports is significant. These reports are part of the continuum of other project management knowledge known as the PMBOK , which is the basis for the PMP exam. Gathering the project reports is not only useful when preparing for the PMP exam, but also when working on actual projects.
The components of project reports are as follows:
The executive summary is the first element to be placed in a project report but the last to be composed. It is a summary of the entire report focusing on essential information about the project when it was completed, and what was discovered. Furthermore, this section facilitates immediate understanding by the stakeholders, executives, or readers at first glance without the need to scour through the document. It should capture the project goals, outcomes, conclusions, and recommendations in a very simple way. In short, this section provides critical context for the report, laying the foundation for the subsequent analysis and insights.
The introduction serves as the foundation of the project report. It explains the context of the project, including its background and rationale. This is essential in questioning why the project began in the first place. What is the problem that it is planned to solve or the opportunity it seeks to exploit? Here, you also describe the project scope management , and what is included in the work and what is not, to help the audience understand the limits of the report. Thus, by clearly setting the stage in the introduction, you align your readers with the project’s purpose.
It provides a clear and specific description of what was undertaken and achieved which represents the goals or targets in the project. These objectives must be SMART, namely Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound. For example, a measure could be to increase the levels of customer fulfillment by 15% in the next half an educational year due to the upgrade in the standards of services being offered. Thus, managers’ purpose statements help stakeholders and set goals to measure project effectiveness.
Critically important for describing how the project was implemented. It outlines how information is collected and how tasks are performed. For instance, if it involved research, one would discuss the procedures that were followed in data collection activities such as surveys, interviews, and data mining among others, and why the specific approach was embraced. Depending on the details of the case, this part may also involve aspects linked to the schedule, usage of resources, and people involved in the project. The purpose is to provide the audience with a clear understanding of the processes followed in accomplishing the findings and make the work reproducible.
Here, you describe the findings and recommendations for the data gathered in the project. Depending on the nature of the project, it may entail statistical data, surveys, or specific operation information. Moreover, they apply the results to answer the initial questions, and objectives of the work indicated in the syllabus or class guidelines. It is recommended to use charts, tables, or graphs to support the information and make it easy to understand. Additionally, the section should show achieved results and if the project met objectives with supporting evidence.
The conclusion wraps up the entire project and gives an overview of all the key results noted in the project. It should provide an analysis as to whether the set objectives were completed and assess the general implication of the results. In addition, it brings together all the aspects of the report, corroborating the assertion of the project’s value in addressing the problem stated at the onset or fulfilling the need established at the start. Also, a chance to report any unforeseen problems or new observations that emerged during the work, providing a thorough recap.
Recommendations present data analysis results and recommendations derived from the project. Closely related, they provide recommendations on how to respond to identified issues, build upon achieved accomplishments, or enhance performance outcomes. For instance, if a project report was to show that there were weaknesses in a certain process, then a suggestion could be to acquire a new software application to organize the process.
There are several types of project reports, each serving a different purpose and audience. So, Understanding these types is essential for effective project management and is a key component of the PMP certification curriculum.
Customarily floated periodically to report the updated state of the project. They identify and outline what has been done, what is being done, and the challenges or risks experienced in the process. On this same note, status reports are useful in making sure that everyone involved is up to date and on the same page regarding the project, and that any issues are corrected immediately. These may contain elements of the planned as well as actual schedules, costs, and resource utilization.
It is a more specific report on the events that have been accomplished in a given phase of the project. This identifies the tasks that have been done and which ones are still ongoing, which helps in measuring the degree of progress toward the set goals and objectives. In addition, this kind of report is commonly necessary in the middle of a large project to show that the team is working properly and to make changes if needed. It is used as a control to determine if the project management plan requires any adjustments for the project to get back on track.
Evaluates the feasibility and possibilities of a suggested plan or strategy. It looks at various factors like costs, time, resources, and risks to decide whether he or she should proceed with or support the project. Further, it is useful to decision-makers when presenting an impartial assessment of the probable results of the vs. For instance, if engaged in the development of a new product, a feasibility report would comprise an analysis of market demand, cost of production, and possible sales revenue.
The project is closed at the end of the performance and a comprehensive report on the project life cycle . It may encompass the project aim, strategies, results, and the general conclusion of the project. Therefore, this type of report is important for identifying various lessons that have been learned as well as assessing whether the project was successful or not. Furthermore, it can be used as a future resource that shows other team’s performance improvements based on their experience on the project.
Intelligently recognizes hazards that are likely to impede the realization of a given project. It captures the hazards, assesses the probability, and severity of the risk, and provides recommendations. Biweekly or weekly risk reports are crucial for project stability, allowing teams to identify and address risks before they escalate. A good risk report identifies both current and potential future risks, preparing teams for issues that may arise later.
A technical report delves into the technical aspects of the project, often focusing on methodologies, engineering processes, or scientific data. It is most common in industries such as IT, engineering, and research. Moreover, this report provides detailed insights into the technical work done during the project and is often used for documenting innovations, processes, and technical findings. It helps ensure that future teams can replicate the work or build upon it without starting from scratch
These reports are versatile in their applicability in managing projects, which makes them indispensable tools. The following are some of the key uses:
Project reports are used to monitor the actual performance of the project relative to the set goals. It is a direct comparison between how much has been done and what should have been done according to the project management plan and the project manager acts accordingly. Thus, it is especially relevant for PMP certification holders as performance measurement and tracking are among the competencies of project management.
Stakeholder communication is an important component of project management to enhance project outcomes. Project reports serve the purpose of escalating the information concerning the progress of the projects. Moreover, it assists in keeping expectations under control and retaining the stakeholders’ support during the complete life cycle of the project.
Business project reports supply the details and the findings essential for making the appropriate business decisions. In summary, project reports contain the information necessary to make strategic decisions about the project, such as when to allocate more resources, change the timing of the project, or effectively address new risks.
Risk mitigation is an important consideration when it comes to project management , and project reports are integral in this process. Also, Project managers discuss and evaluate different risks in daily reports, actively working to prevent their impact on success.
Cost reports and other financial project reports are invaluable for monitoring the project budget. Planners identify cost overruns by comparing actual expenses to the budget and adjust costs to stay within budget limits.
Resource reports assist project managers in determining the efficient and effective use of resources. Thus, the information about the actual distribution helps to determine their scarcity and to decide on further actions.
Project reports are legal documents that can provide a formal account of a project that has been implemented. Project Documentation is important not only for the particular project it is created for but also for the future. Use these reports in lessons-learned sessions, post-project evaluations, or during planning for related projects.
PMP certification candidates must learn the various types of project reports and their use across different project phases. Also, they cover the PMP certification exam and provide knowledge that will come in handy while handling projects in that field.
So, as you continue your journey in project management, whether through professional experience or PMP , remember that effective reporting is not just about filling in templates or meeting deadlines. It’s about creating meaningful, actionable documents that provide the insights needed to drive your projects to successful completion.
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The General Social Survey is recruiting individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing to participate in a brief interview study to improve the accessibility of the GSS website and the GSS Data Explorer. If you, or someone you know, is a STEM researcher who uses online survey data and/or who uses GSS data, please email GSSaccessibility@norc.org to determine your eligibility.
Articles on methodological issues in survey research specifically dealing with the GSS as well as more general problems.
Methodological Reports
Multimode data collection methodologies can help address survey challenges such as declining rates of participation, rising costs, and increasing needs for more timely data collection. However, the order of survey modes as part of a data collection protocol can have an impact on how effective a design can be. This brief explores how the sequential ordering of web and face-to-face (FTF) in a nationally representative survey may impact response rates, key trends, and overall costs. In 2022, the General Social Survey (GSS) was fielded as a multimode study where respondents were randomly assigned to one of two data collection sequences in an experimental design. The first sequence used FTF as the primary mode and then invited all nonrespondents to complete the survey on the web (FTF-first). The second sequence started with a push-to-web (PTW) methodology and then invited a subsample of nonrespondents to complete the survey in a FTF interview (Web-first). Our analyses found that both sequences produced comparable results and neither sequence achieved a better response rate. For costs, the Web-first sequencing was more cost effective per completed interview, but the PTW follow-up in the FTF-first sequence increased response rates at a lower cost and did not require subsampling of nonrespondents.
GSS years: 2022
Some longstanding questionnaire items of the GSS have gender-specific wordings, and the attitudes that they are assumed to measure could be elicited with gender-neutral wordings. This report details and evaluates a 2021 and 2022 experiment that introduces gender-neutral wording alternatives, implemented using a random half-sample assignment of two questionnaire forms. The estimated treatment effects are small, both substantively and with respect to their standard errors. The report recommends that the alternative gender-neutral wordings become the standard wordings for their respective items beginning with the 2026 GSS.
GSS years: 2021, 2022
This report details the inclusion of AmeriSpeak® panelists as an oversample population in the 2022 General Social Survey (GSS) and the implications of including Black, Hispanic, and Asian oversample from this sample source. This report provides an overview of the AmeriSpeak sample and its properties relevant for the 2022 GSS. We examine how the AmeriSpeak oversample cases compare to the baseline GSS sample and how they impact estimates at the population and oversampled group levels.
The high-level findings are as follows:
• The AmeriSpeak cases exhibit some demographic differences from their baseline counterparts, but often improve representation, particularly for racial and ethnic subgroups (e.g., South American Hispanic groups, Chinese).
• Given the AmeriSpeak sample only completed the GSS on the web, there are some differences in substantive responses consistent with previous GSS work suggesting sensitivity to mode.
• U.S. population estimates should exhibit minimal differences between the existing 2022 estimates without the AmeriSpeak oversample as with the AmeriSpeak oversample.
• Including the Black and Hispanic oversamples minimally change the overall estimates for their respective subpopulations, but including the Asian oversample does produce large estimate changes for Asian subpopulation given the oversample accounts for a majority of the total Asian sample.
The AmeriSpeak oversample offers increased sample sizes for Black, Hispanic, and Asian respondents in the 2022 GSS Cross-section. In particular, the sample size for Asian respondents more than doubles with the inclusion of the oversample given their low prevalence in the population. While the Asian subpopulation estimates see more movement than their Black and Hispanic counterparts, we see improved representation for Asian subgroups, suggesting a potential improvement in estimation more broadly given the small initial sample size. Researchers are encouraged to conduct their own research to determine additional impacts of including the AmeriSpeak oversample.
This report describes a new set of post-stratification weights available for users of the 1972-2018 General Social Survey (GSS) cross-sectional surveys to help improve nonresponse bias adjustment. The weight derivation follows the approach applied to 2021 and 2022 GSS Cross-sections. Use of these weights results in weighted totals that, for each GSS cross-sectional sample, equal marginal control totals from the U.S. Census Bureau estimates for education, sex, marital status, age, region of the country, race, U.S. born status, and Hispanic origin when available. NORC recommends that GSS data users use this new weight for all analyses in the future. These weights also: (a) correct for the form assignment errors reported in GSS Methodological Report 36 for 1978, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1984, and 1985; (b) correct for the ballot-and-form assignment errors reported in GSS Methodological Report 134 for 2002, 2010, 2012, 2016, and 2018; and (c) support person-level analyses of the combined main and Black oversamples for 1982 and 1987. Given the global trend of declining response rates over the past several years, the use of auxiliary data, such as U.S. Census totals for nonresponse adjustment, is important for improving representativeness of estimates with respect to key demographic characteristics. In addition, this report examines the impact of using the poststratification weights across all GSS cross-sections. The majority of estimate differences observed include poststratification variables and their close correlates.
GSS years: 1972-2018
Methodological Reports, NORC Working Paper
The General Social Survey (GSS), a biennial nationally representative survey of the U.S. adult population, has employed subsampling since 2004. Approximately halfway through the field period in years prior to 2020, half of the remaining cases are randomly subsampled for a more focused follow-up, while the other cases are dropped. Subsampling in the GSS has helped to improve response rates and to achieve cost and sample size efficiencies (O’Muircheartaigh and Eckman 2007). This paper explores the extent to which subsampled (or late) respondents vary from non-subsampled (or early) respondents in GSS 2014, 2016, and 2018. We first examine the demographic characteristics of early and late respondents. Second, we explore substantive differences between the two groups on key analytic variables (e.g., attitudes toward premarital sex, abortion, the death penalty, gun regulation, marijuana legalization, national spending priorities). Finally, we examine differences between early and late respondents on key GSS analytic variables controlling for demographic differences using multivariate logistic regression. Our investigations over three years of the GSS suggest that some demographic and
substantive differences between early and late respondents exist, consistent with previous GSS research (Smith 2006). Our results also suggest that most of the differences on key analytic variables do not persist after controlling for demographic characteristics in multivariate logistic regression models. This finding is consistent with past research on interviewer-administered surveys that find that late respondents are not different from early responders on most variables net of demographic characteristics (e.g., Keeter et al. 2006). Differences found between the 2014, 2016, and 2018 analyses emphasize the need for continued research related to subsampling in the GSS.
GSS years: 2014, 2016, 2018
This memo describes a new set of post-stratification weights available for users of the 2000–2018 GSS cross-sectional surveys. The weight derivation follows the approach applied to the previously released 2021 GSS Cross-section, for which post-stratification weights were developed to improve nonresponse bias adjustment, given the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on survey operations and response rate. Use of these weights results in weighted totals of each GSS cross-sectional sample that equal marginal control totals from the U.S. Census Bureau estimates for education, sex, marital status, age, region of the country, race, Hispanic origin, and U.S. born status. These weights also correct for the ballot and ballot-and-form assignment errors reported in GSS Methodological Report 134 for 2002, 2010, 2012, 2016, and 2018. The use of auxiliary data such as U.S. Census totals for nonresponse adjustment is important for improving representativeness of estimates with respect to key demographic characteristics, given the global trend of declining response rates over the past several years.
GSS years: 2002, 2010, 2012,2016, 2018
As previously reported, an unintended overlap between respondent selection and questionnaire assignment procedures in GSS surveys created an association between questionnaire version (ballot and form) and age order in some households in the historical GSS data. This assignment error occurred in data years 2002, 2010, 2012, 2016 and 2018. This methodological report describes the equivalence testing to compare original and corrected estimates for each category and each variable for all questions in the affected years. The analysis shows that the error differences due to the assignment error are overall relatively small and corrected weights have been provided for data users.
GSS years: 2002, 2010, 2012, 2016, 2018,
Long-running surveys need a systematic way to reflect social change and to keep items relevant to respondents, especially when they ask about controversial subjects, or they threaten the items’ validity. We propose a protocol for updating measures that preserves content and construct validity. First, substantive experts articulate the current and anticipated future terms of debate. Then survey experts use this substantive input and their knowledge of existing measures to develop and pilot a large battery of new items. Third, researchers analyze the pilot data to select items for the survey of record. Finally, the items appear on the survey-of-record, available to the whole user community. Surveys-of-record have procedures for changing content that determine if the new items appear just once or become part of the core. We provide the example of developing new abortion attitude measures in the General Social Survey. Current questions ask whether abortion should be legal under varying circumstances. The new abortion items ask about morality, access, state policy, and interpersonal dynamics. They improve content and construct validity and add new insights into Americans’ abortion attitudes.
In this report, we present strategies for constructing weights to adjust for attrition in the GSS treble panel. We offer Stata code for the construction of the weights that we explain, as well as data files of weights that researchers may wish to adopt for their own use.
GSS years: 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014
(no abstract provided)
GSS years: 2012, 2014, 2016, 2018
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 2019
* Please note this is an updated version of MR009 (1979). The problem of underrepresentation of males on the GSS reflects the nonresponse tendency of males, possibly exacerbated by female interviewers. Surveys using full probability sampling generally have an underrepresentation of males.
GSS years: 2016
For the 2020 GSS, a review of the free expression items suggested revisions to “a Muslim clergyman who preaches hatred of the United States,” as part of a broader effort by the GSS Board to reassess all GSS items that are gender-specific in some way. Two gender-neutral alternatives were discussed, “an Islamic cleric who preaches hatred of the United States” and “an Islamic religious leader who preaches hatred of the United States.” For the reasons detailed below, it is possible that a switch to “an Islamic cleric who preaches hatred of the United States” could prompt an undesirable discontinuity in response patterns, beyond what could be expected to result from a gender-neutral substitution. If some GSS respondents are more likely to suspect that the referenced Islamic cleric has a connection to terrorism, the elicited response may be a mixture of opposition to free expression and a perceived fear of physical violence, with more weighting on the latter. In contrast, “an Islamic religious leader who preaches hatred of the United States” may be preferable, if it is the case that GSS respondents are no more likely to infer a threat to their security than is the case for “a Muslim clergyman who preaches hatred of the United States.” In this report, I offer two sets of results to inform decisions about the questionnaire for the 2020 GSS. First, to set the background, I use GSS data from 2008 through 2018 to summarize levels and changes in attitudes toward free expression for all six existing reference individuals. Second, I offer results from a three-armed experiment that compares “Muslim clergyman” to the two alternatives of “Islamic cleric” and “Islamic religious leader.” The experimental data were collected over the web in January and February of 2019 as part of the AmeriSpeak panel.
on the 2016 General Social Survey (GSS), two question-wording experiements were conducted testing variant versions of core GSS items on job satisfaction (SATJOB) and the co-residence of adult children and their parents (AGED). This report details the findings of these experiments.
Surveys are conducted using many different modes (e.g. face-to-face, mail, telephone, Internet). Because different modes have different error structures, it is very important to understand the advanctages and disadvantages associated with each mode. In recent years there have been major changes in the mdoes typically utilized in surveys. In particular, there have been increases in the use of computers in data collection, self-administration, and mixed-mode designs. The implications of these and future changes are considered.
This paper documents an update to the Erickson, Goldthorpe & Portocarero social class schema, first proposed in 1987. Due to the backcoding of the 2010 US Census Occupational Classification, it is now possible to treat all GSS cases according to the same occupational codes, which can then be linked to updated EGP codes. Validity is ascertained using the 2012 American Community Survey’s occupational classification. Please note that this methodological report also includes a .do file for adding EGP codes to a STATA GSS datafile, as well as an OCC10 to EGP crosswalk, included below with download links
GSS years: 1972-2016
http://gss.norc.org/Documents/other/occ10-to-egp-class-crosswalk.csv http://gss.norc.org/Documents/other/code-for-egp-crosswalk.do
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC
The 2012 GSS included a popular prestige rating (Smith and Son 2014). A sample of 1,001 individuals, first interviewed in 2008 and included in the GSS panel, rated 90 occupations each; a rotation of occupations among respondents resulted in ratings for 860 occupational titles, most of which could be assigned to one of the 840 codes in the 2010 Standard Occupational Classification (SOC). This methodological report explains how we collected the ratings and converted them into prestige scores and a socioeconomic index for each of the 539 occupational categories of the Census Bureau's coding scheme now used in the GSS.
GSS years: 2012, 2014
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1, 2014
Given the magnitude and seriousness of gun violence, it is important to have accurate and reliable information on the possession and use of firearms in the United States. This report examines one crucial element, the level of and trends in household and personal gun ownership. First, the report considers methodological issues concerning the measurement of gun ownership. Second, it examines trends in gun ownership. Third, it evaluates the nexus of these two factors, the impact of methodological issues on the measurement of trends gun ownership. Finally, it considers what ancillary trend data on crime, hunting, household size, and number of guns available suggest about trends in gun ownership.
GSS years: 1972-2014
GSS years: 2012
GSS years: N/A
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 2012
Using the 40 years of the General Social Survey (GSS), we investigate the long-term trend and the correlates of family and personal income nonresponse. Family and personal income nonresponse has increased slightly by about 5 percentage points from 1974 to 2010 (9% to 13% in family income; 7% to 12% in personal income). While family income nonresponse was equivalently attributed to “Don’t Know” and “Refused,” personal income nonresponse was mainly attributed to “Refused.” We found very similar correlates of family and personal income nonresponse, such as being older, female, married, self employed, those not answering the number of earners, uncooperative respondents, people living in the East, and those surveyed in recent periods. In addition, based on the interviewer’s evaluation, uncooperative respondents are less likely to response “Don’t Know” than “Refused” and respondents with poor comprehension are more likely to respond “Don’t Know” than “Refused.” Our findings suggest that we need to distinguish “Refused” from “Don’t Know” if we aim to better understand income nonresponse and to consider paradata to evaluate the cognitive processing of income nonresponse.
GSS years: 1972-2012
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 6, 2012
We assess the reliability and stability of core items in the General Social Survey using Alwin’s (2007) implementation of Heise’s (1969) model. Of 265 core items examined we find mostly positive results. Eighty items (over 30 percent) have reliability coefficients greater than 0.85; another 84 (32 percent) have reliability coefficients between 0.70 and 0.85. Facts are generally more reliable than other items. Stability was slightly higher, overall, in the 2008-2010 period than the 2006-2008 period. The economic recession of 2007-09 and the election of Barack Obama in 2008 altered the social context in ways that may have contributed to instability.
GSS years: 2006, 2008, 2010
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 5, 2011
GSS years: 2006, 2008
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 5, 2010
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 11, 2009
GSS years: 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 2010
GSS years: 2006,2008
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC, 2009
GSS years: 2008
MR113 2006-2008 General Social Survey Panel Validation
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 2008
GSS years: 2002,2008
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 8, 2007
Social scientists in many disciplines have used the GSS's ten-item Wordsum vocabulary test to study the causes and consequences of vocabulary knowledge and related constructs. In adding up the number of correct answers to yield a test score, researchers have implicitly assumed that the ten items all reflect a single, underlying construct and that each item deserves equal weight when generating the total score. In this paper, we report evidence suggesting that extracting the unique variance associated with each word and measuring the latent construct only with the variance shared among all indicators strengthens the validity of the index. We also report evidence suggesting that Wordsum could be improved by adding words of moderate difficulty to accompany the existing questions that are either quite easy or quite difficult. Previous studies that used Wordsum should be revisited in light of these findings, because their results might change when a more optimal analytic method is used.
GSS years: 1974-2004
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 4, 2007
The new Baylor Religion Survey (BRS) is an important addition to the available data on religion in contemporary America ('American Piety,' 2006). Few national surveys have included so many valuable questions on the religious background, beliefs, and behaviors of adult Americans. The BRS is a fruitful source for expanding our knowledge about religion and the initial analysis that accompanied the release of the data last Fall has already made a major contribution to the sociology of religion ('American Piety' 2006; 'American Piety 2005,' 2006; Dougherty, Johnson, and Polson, 2006; Dougherty, Johnson, and Polson, 2007; 'Losing My Religion,' 2006).
GSS years: 2006
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 2007
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 2006
GSS years: 1984-2002
GSS years: 1984-2004
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 2005
Several probes were added to the 2004 GSS to see if the declining Protestant population was due to the data being hidden in Christian or Inter/non-denominational categories. Very few cases were found, but the 2006 GSS will attempt to resolve the status of several dozen cases.
GSS years: 1972-2004
The large rise in multiple ethnic mentions was due to the change in mode to CAPI. Although this change was noted, there was no significant change on the distribution of ethnicities.
GSS years: 2002,2004
Switching from a 4-category to 5-category health scale doesn't change explanatory power and would prohibit trends in these categories from being reliably estimated across scales. Changing from 4 to 5 also shifts distribution at the positive end, but not at the negative end.
NHIS, FQES, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey II
Using CAPI (introduced in 2002) allows researchers to compare HEF variables and reconcile conflicting information while still in the field. Cleaning and consistency checks will be made of HEF variables to obtain more accurate data.
GSS years: 1980-2004
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 2004
GSS years: 1972-2002
GSS years: 2000, 2002
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 2003
GSS years: 1984, 2000, 2002
GSS years: 2002
GSS years: 1988-2002
GSS years: 1972-2000
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 10, 2001
GSS years: 2001
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 6, 2001
Name generators, used measuring egocentric networks in surveys, are complex questions that make substantial demands on respondents and interviewers alike. They are therefore vulnerable to interviewer effects, which arise when interviewers administer questions differently in ways that affect responses-in particular, the number of names elicited. Van Tilburg (1998) found significant interviewer effects on network size in a study of elderly Dutch respondents; that study included an instrument with seven name generators, the complexity of which may have accentuated interviewer effects. This article examines a simpler single-generator elicitation instrument administered in the 1998 General Social Survey (GSS). Interviewer effects on network size as measured by this instrument are smaller than those found by Van Tilburg, but only modestly so. Variations in the network size of respondents within interviewer caseloads (estimated using a single-item "global" measure of network size and an independent sample of respondents) reduce but do not explain interviewer effects on the name generator measure. Interviewer differences remain significant after controls for between-interviewer differences in the sociodemographic composition of respondent pools. Further insight into the sources of interviewer effects may be obtained via monitoring respondent-interviewer interactions for differences in how name generators are administered.
GSS years: 2000
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 7, 2001
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1999
GSS years: 1988-1998
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 12, 2002
GSS years: 1998
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1998
The relationship between educational attainment and age/cohort is curvilinear, and not negative as the historical trend might indicate, for two reasons: the advent of associate degrees and the time required to obtain graduate degrees. Control variables (for age/cohort) straighten out otherwise confounding relationships.
GSS years: 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1996
ANES 1984-1991
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1997
GSS years: 1994, 1996
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 2, 1997
GSS years: 1996
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 2, 1996
There were few sample frame effects associated with NORC's shift from the 1980 to the 1990 Census. Also, design effects based on the 1990 sample frame are of the same nature and magnitude as indicated by previous research.
GSS years: 1993
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 12, 1995
GSS years: 1972-1994
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 6, 1995
This article reviews questions in the GSS asking a respondent's race or ethnicity and proposes several methods in which these measures could be refined.
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1995
The GSS recently shortened the length of its core and, as a result, the context of many items changed. Few context effects were caused by these shifts.
GSS years: 1994
GSS years: 1972-1993
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 8, 1994
GSS years: 1975-1993
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 3, 1994
Response differences in two GSS and one ISSP spending scale were slight, except for spending on the environment, which showed a context effect. In all, the spending scales are generally answered in a consistent and meaningful manner.
GSS years: 1990
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1980
The 1980 General Social Survey and the American National Study by SRC are compared to determine house effects. The difference on frequency of don't know categories between the two surveys is the most significant house effect. Also, the difference in time of interview and training of interviewers causes variation in data.
GSS years: 1980
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1985
Studies of voting behavior and other political matters in the fifties developed a picture of the American electorate that was startlingly at odds with the basic assumption of a rational citizenry as formulated in classic democratic theory. In general, the low or defective levels of conceptualization, information, participation, attitude constraint, and consistency were seen as indicating a very underdeveloped level of political thought and weak or disorganized political attitudes. In particular, inconsistency in attitudes over time was interpreted as indicating an abundance of non-attitudes. In this paper, we will review the literature on non-attitudes. We will examine how the concept of non-attitudes compares with rival explanations of mass belief systems and evaluate the conceptual and evaluate the conceptual and empirical appropriateness of competing formulations. We will then consider the implications of these findings on survey design and analysis in general.
GSS years: 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1982
Variations in the wording of the child qualities items were examined in order to determine the degree of male bias present. This bias is present in both variations but to a lesser degree in the child item than the he item.
Objective measures of ethnicity and nationality may be inaccurate because substantial numbers of people do not know where their ancestors were born, have multiple nationalities, or do not adopt the ethnicity suggested by place of birth. Generally a combination of behavioral, natal, and subjective approaches is most effective, and even a simple subjective measure may be more effective than an objective one.
GSS years: 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1980
Conflicts found in the work supervision and self-employment items stem from: (1) borderline cases which include both elements, (2) answering the question for one's spouse rather than self, and (3) misinterpretation of the supervision question.
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 12, 1993
Response differences in a GSS scale and the ISSP scales result from measurement differences and group descriptors. Differences in questions wording, in particular, concerning descriptors for the government, produced different responses for subjects suggesting that the two labels were connoting different meanings.
GSS years: 1991
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 7, 1993
John Brehm incorrectly weighted the data when comparing the CPS and the GSS. This article shows that the GSS, when properly weighted, is very similar to the CPS in all demographics except for gender (See also Brehm, 324).
GSS years: 1978-1988
CPS 1978, 1980, 1982, 1984, 1986, 1988; NES
Changes in the alignment of categories or the shift in scale can have significant response effects for surveys. The physical layout of surveys can also affect interviewers and hence data quality negatively through confusing skip patterns or the amount of physical space available corresponding to how much open ended detail is recorded.
ISSP 1987; Gallup 1954; Wirthlin; Gordon Black; ORC; Yankelovich and Hart-Tetter 1990; NORC 1954
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1992
GSS years: 1972-1991
Respondents with non-attitudes and middle-of-the-road attitudes are attracted to the +1 rather than the -1 response category on a ten-point scalometer. Endpoints, especially the negative endpoint, disproportionately attract responses. Changes in the scalometer, such as including 0 as a midpoint and pointing out all ten or eleven response categories, might cause fewer response effects and more accurate ratings.
GSS years: 1974-1991
Gallup 1953-1973
This article compares the differences in the respondents to the 1991 GSS and the 1992 reinterview, and describes three differences. First, respondents to the reinterview were more upscale than the original interviewees. Second, non-response was higher among those who were uncooperative in the first interview. Third, non-response was higher among non-voters.
Following Duncan's procedures new socioeconomic indexes are calculated based on the GSS/NORC study of occupational prestige.
GSS years: 1989
Census 1980
This article describes the addition of 93 variables from the HEF for all full-probability surveys from 1975-1992.
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1991
Ethno-religious composition, political composition, density, and composition of a network by friends or co-members of organizations are measured with relatively high reliability, and some, such as sex composition, remain problematic, even when the number of alters grows quite large. The sensitivity of reliability estimates to differences in instrument design is examined using design variations in the surveys studied.
GSS years: 1985, 1987, 1988
Northern California Community Study 1977-1978
Missing information is a greater problem for income than for any other demographic and non-response has increased over time. However, non-response in the GSS is less than in many other studies
Census 1960, 1970; CPS 1973; Income Survey Development Program 1978; Survey Income and Program Participation 1983; NES 1988; ISSP 1989
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1990
The authors construct a new prestige scale for the 1980 Census Occupational classification. Using 1989 GSS data, 740 occupations were ranked according to social prestige.
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 10, 1990
Prestige scores for all occupations developed from the national surveys in the 1960's have been widely used by researchers in the social sciences. The change in the 1980 Census classification of occupations necessitates updating the prestige scale accordingly. New scores can be obtained either by reworking the old scores or by collecting new data. In this paper, we argue for the latter choice based on the methodological, substantive, and theoretical considerations. The plan to collect occupational assessments from a nationally representative sample of 1500 Americans in the 1989 NORC General Social Survey will also be outlined.
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 9, 1990
GSS years: 1988, 1989
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 12, 1989
Missing data on father's occupation may have a small impact on intergenerational comparisons with intergenerational associations weaker for missing data. Possible corrections for missing data may include using mother's and spouse's work information.
GSS years: 1972-1988
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 9, 1989
Difficulty in studying order effects stems from the number of potential causal influences, competing explanations, interaction effects with question type, question specificity, question vagueness, question centrality, response type, history, administration, conflicting attitudes, and other effects. Promising solutions include split ballots, think aloud procedures, follow-up questions, probes on other dimensions, and various experimental designs.
GSS years: 1976, 1978, 1980
SRC 1979-80; NORC 1987; Greater Cincinnati Surveys 1983-84; DAS 1971
Though most of the data on sexual behavior and attitudes from the 1988 and 1989 GSS appear valid and reliable, caution still needs to be use when examining the 1988 responses of male homosexuals and the gender gap in reported number of partners. (See also No. 2954??)
GSS years: 1988, 1989, 1990
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1989
Two new GSS income measures (REALINC and RINCOME) constructed from current GSS variables for household and respondent income correct for changes in the price level across years.
BLS 1983; CPS 1980
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 2, 1989
In this paper I discuss several of the difficulties involved in estimating the reliability of survey measurement. Reliability is defined on the basis of classical true-score theory, as the correlational consistency of multiple measures of the same construct, net of true change. This concept is presented within the framework of a theoretical discussion of the sources of error in survey data and the design requirements for separating response variation into components representing such response consistency and measurement errors. Discussion focuses on the potential sources of random and nonrandom errors, including "invalidity" of measurement, the term frequently used to refer to components of method variance. Problems with the estimation of these components are enumerated and discussed with respect to both cross-sectional and panel designs. Empirical examples are given of the estimation of the quantities of interest, which are the basis of a discussion of the interpretational difficulties encountered in reliability estimation. Data are drawn from the ISR's Quality of Life surveys, the National Election Studies and the NORC's General Social Surveys. The general conclusion is that both crosssectional and panel estimates of measurement reliability are desirable, but for the purposes of isolating the random component of error, panel designs are probably the most advantageous.
GSS years: 1973, 1974
GSS years: 1973 -1988
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 12, 1988
Open ended coding errors for occupation are frequent, but fortunately mistakes do not differ from correct coding by much, and thus do not greatly affect analysis. More attention is needed in training coders and devising coding schemes.
GSS years: 1988
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 11, 1988
For the sexual behavior items on the 1988 GSS, there is little evidence of non-response bias and attitudes and behaviors appear somewhat consistent. Though reports of sexless marriages can reasonably be explained, the data on number of partners and male homosexuals is questionable. (See also No. 2953??)
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 9, 1988
By the recoding of various demographics, GSS respondents can be classified according to the government definition of poverty.
Changes in GSS measurement procedures have distorted some trends in variables across time. These effects are identified, and in cases of extreme distortion, corrections are suggested.
Gallup 1976
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 8, 1988
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 5, 1988
Past attempts at explaining the effect of question wording on responses to survey questions have stressed the ability of question wording to persuade and influence the respondent, resulting in attitude change. This paper promotes an alternative view, which is that even small changes in wording often shift the meaning of the question and thus affect the way the respondent things about the issue. Analyses of question wording experiments on the 1984, 1985, and 1986 General Social Surveys were conducted to examine the effect of wording changes on public support for various types of government spending. Consistent wording effects were found across the three years. An examination of the effects of wording changes and of their interaction with respondent individual differences led to two conclusions: (1) even minor wording changes can alter the meaning of a survey question, and (2), this effect is not limited to individuals with lower levels of education or with less stable attitudes
GSS years: 1984, 1985, 1986
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 5, 1989
Two split-ballot experiments, one on DK filtering and one on agreeing response set, were included in the GSS in 1974 and replicated in 1982. Response effects occurred in each experiment in 1974 and were generally replicated in 1982, but the effects do not interact with time.
GSS years: 1972, 1982
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 2, 1988
The GSS's switch from a rotation to a split ballot design offers advantages of maintaining one year intervals for variables, ease in judging rate of change in items, and applying econometric time series analysis and testing for context effects. Disadvantages include more sampling variability, complications in representation of time in analysis, and the possibility of introducing new context effects.
GSS years: 1984
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 8, 1987
GSS years: 1973-1987
Test/retest consistency varies by attributes of the respondent, and this variation is largely a function of reliability differentials between groups.
GSS years: 1972, 1973, 1974, 1978
The Commission's analysis of public opinion is methodologically unsound and therefore substantively suspect.
GSS years: 1972-1986
Gallup 1977, 1985; Yankelovich 1975 1976 1977 1982; Commission on Obscenity and Pornography 1970; Newsweek/Gallup 1985
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 5, 1987
Low benefit responses to the 1986 Welfare Vignette supplement are probably not due to misunderstanding the questions. It is also a mistake to assume that respondent-designated incomes were intended to be net benefits.
GSS years: 1986
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 3, 1987
Respondents often choose merely satisfactory answers to survey questions when the cognitive and motivational demands of choosing optimal answers are high. Satisficing is more prevalent among people with less cognitive sophistication, though it is no more prevalent among people for whom the topic of a question is low in salience and/or personal importance.
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1986
Disinterest, lack of reading ability, difficulty in judgment, and comprehension lead to nonresponse to the welfare vignettes. Bias was small and related to nonresponse associated variables. Respondents also made marking mistakes. Despite these problems, the vignettes worked well with a small amount of error.
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1987
This paper discusses the use of survey supplements, factors influencing supplement attrition and nonresponse bias, and attrition and nonresponse bias on the 1985 ISSP Supplement. Overall supplement attrition was moderate and not random. Attrition was higher among those who are politically uninterested and less educated, less likely to discuss problems and socialize with others, Northeasterners, isolationists, and dislike foreign countries.
GSS years: 1984, 1985
OCG I & II 1962, 1973; BSA 1983-1985; Opinion and ISV 1976; Civil Liberties Survey 1978; NORC 1964
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 6, 1987
GSS years: 1985
Building on the GSS network items, the authors propose several changes and improvements which could be used to make a standard set of network items for survey research. This set would be efficient, reliable, and valid.
DAS 1966; Northern California Communities Study 1977
The idea of structural balance is used to suggest quantitative intervals between relationship strength response categories in the GSS network data. In contrast to an assumption of equal intervals between the categories of relationship strength, the intervals appear quite uneven.
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 6, 1986
The people identified as important discussion partners in the GSS network data were cited in order of strength of relationship with respondent: the first cited person having the strongest relation, the second having the next strongest, and so on. Order effects on closeness and contact frequency are described in the context of network size and relation content.
An unintended overlap between respondent selection and form assignment procedures in GSS surveys from 1978 to 1985 created an association between form and age order in some households. This led to an association between form and various variables linked to age order. A weight was developed to compensate for the assignment bias and achieve random distribution of affected variables across forms.
GSS years: 1973-1985
Overall proxy reports for spouses were as accurate as self-reports, probably because attributes measured (religion education, occupation, etc.) were major, basic demographics. Significantly higher levels of non-response were found for proxy reports, but a level of missing data was nevertheless negligible.
GSS years: 1972-1978, 1980, 1982-1985
Alteration of the GSS content by the addition or deletion of items, by the switching of items from permanent to rotating status, or by switching items from one rotation to another hampers keeping measurement conditions constant and therefore increases the possibility that true change will be confounded with measurement effects.
GSS years: 1972-1985
The term welfare consistently produces more negative evaluations than does the term poor, illustrating the major impact different words can have on response patterns.
SRC 1972, 1974, 1976, 1982; MAP 1968, 1982; Harris 1972 1976; Gallup 1976; Yankelovich
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1984
This is an argument for obtaining network data in the General Social Survey.
This report on the 1984 GSS experiment comparing the effect of varying the number of response categories, concludes that the inter-item correlations are not appreciably different in the seven-point version of the confidence question than in the traditional three-point item.
The report is a preliminary analysis of eight methodological experiments and adaptations in the 1984 General Social Survey: New Denominational codes; intra-item order effects, child qualities; sex of child, child qualities; spend priorities; confidence variation in response categories; bible fundamentalism, two trends; Images of God, two scales; and order effect of grace.
GSS years: 1972-1984
Gallup; ANES; NORC
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 9, 1984
The purpose of these two experiments on the 1983 GSS was to determine whether U.S. and European scaling techniques could measure political ideology and social status in the U.S. in similar ways. POLVIEWS tends to have stronger correlations with political and social attitudes than does POLVIEWX (European scale). CLASS, the standard GSS question also correlates higher than the European counterpart RANK.
GSS years: 1972-1982
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1983
When question order was reversed so that questions on valued qualities of children came before those on abortion, support for abortion decreased. Although a split ballot in 1983 failed to confirm the effect of altered question order, that may be the result of lower overall support of abortion.
GSS years: 1977, 1978, 1980, 1983
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 4, 1983
Ranking and rating techniques for measuring parental socialization values are found to be similar with respect to ordering aggregate preferences. However, ranked measures account for appreciably more variance in the latent variable, self-direction versus conformity.
Durall 1946; Schuman and Presser, 1981
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 10, 1984
GSS years: 1980, 1982
Results from the 1982 GSS experiment show that non-affective dimensions such as importance, information, firmness, and open-ended questions added to issues like support/opposition to the ERA and abortion, and can discriminate the attitude constraint between two related measures.
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 6, 1983
Clustering scale items together increases inter-item correlations, but has no clear impact between the scale and independent variables.
GSS years: 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1980, 1982
GSS years: 1972, 1973, 1982
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 7, 1982
Voter turnout and candidate voted for are difficult variables to reliably measure. Voting is consistently over-reported and votes for winners are usually exaggerated.
ANES 1968, 1972, 1976, 1980; CPS 1968 1972, 1976, 1980
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 5, 1982
Order-effects are an ill-known phenomenon in survey research. There are many different types with distinct causes. Conditional order effects in which the variation occurs mostly or completely among those giving a particular response to the antecedent question are examined in depth.
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1981
Respondents who contradict themselves on abortion items actually disapprove of abortion. The approving response to the general item is best considered an error in grasping the connection between the general and the situational items.
GSS years: 1977, 1978, 1980
Ethnicity is the most difficult of all background variables to measure, as language, religion, race, nationality and culture must be pieced together. About one quarter of Americans are either over- or under-identifiers of their ancestors. The ability of ethnicity to explain attitudes drops with immigrant generation, though it remains significant even after several generations.
SRC 1978; ANES 1978; Census of Canada 1971
In general, item nonresponse is higher for the less educated. The reverse is true however on obscure and fictive questions without filters. With filters, the obscure and fictive questions show no association between item nonresponse and education.
ANES 1956, 1958, 1960, 1980
Various methods of measuring the impact of non-response bias on survey estimates are examined. It is concluded that there is no simple, general, or accurate way of measuring it. Further research is encouraged.
There is an apparent contradiction between the disapproving responses to the general hitting question and the more specific subquestions. This contradiction is due in part to differences in education and achievement.
GSS years: 1973, 1975, 1976, 1978
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1979
* Please note there is a version updated in 2009 (MR009a). The problem of underrepresentation of males on the GSS reflects the nonresponse tendency of males, possibly exacerbated by female interviewers. Surveys using full probability sampling generally have an underrepresentation of males.
Census 1970, 1972-78; CPS 1975-77; CNS 1973-74; ANES 1972-78
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1979.
The authors explain various techniques to determine measurement error in opinion surveys. Focusing on test/retest experiments, they conclude that the problems of distinguishing measurement error from true change are sufficiently fundamental and sufficiently complex that they must be attacked with various techniques.
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 4, 1979.
Probability sampling with quotas (PSQ) overrepresents large households. Both PSQ and full probability sampling (FP) underrepresent people from large households. Also, PSQ underrepresents men who are working full-time. Finally, difficult respondents may be underrepresented more seriously in the PSQ sample. However, FP underrepresents men and urbanites.
GSS years: 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 3, 1980.
Ethnicity is a difficult attribute to measure. It can be determined for about 78 percent of all non-blacks when measured subjectively and for about 85 percent when determined subjectively and natally. A lack of ethnic affiliation is related to being a member of the old stock, host culture; having low education and social standing; and poor transmission of family information between generations.
GSS years: 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977
CPS 1972; SRC 1972, 1974, 1978
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1978.
This report examines response rates of NORC and SRC and finds that on the GSS the causes of non-response are explicit refusals, unavailable, and a small residual group of sick or otherwise uninterviewable people. The mixture of non-responses appears to differ between the GSS's and SRC's surveys, although total response rates are nearly identical.
SRC 1972-78
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 4, 1984.
Review of the GSS size of place codes resolved suspected sampling frame artifact but uncovered miscoded size of place variables. Fortunately, the magnitude of the misclassifications is minimal.
Both full probability and block-quota sampling techniques overrepresent people from small households. This bias can be eliminated by weighting the number of eligible respondents per household. The distortions caused by this bias fortunately appear to be small.
While house effects are not an insurmountable and pervasive survey problem, they do affect survey response particularly in the area of the don't know response level.
Stouffer 1954; NORC 1960; Gallup 1971-76 (14); Roper 1971, 1973; SRC 1972, 1974-76
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1981.
Differences in survey procedures, i.e., format, wording placement, and order, artificially increase the variation of responses to questions on institutional confidence. Also, the concept of confidence is somewhat vague and allows for fluctuations that complicate an analysis of opinions on confidence. All in all, much of the inter- and intra-survey changes in trends are true fluctuations.
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Research methodology formats can vary depending on the specific requirements of the research project, but the following is a basic example of a structure for a research methodology section: I. Introduction. Provide an overview of the research problem and the need for a research methodology section; Outline the main research questions and ...
Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner. ... For example, a research report on a new teaching methodology could provide insights and ideas for educators to incorporate into their own ...
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Research project in engineering is usually reported, in written form or orally, using the hourglass structural model [].Like the hourglass structural outline, research project reporting starts with a broad spectrum of background to the study and review of literature for the desired information to a narrow description of the research methodology and presentation of results (like the neck of an ...
Use the section headings (outlined above) to assist with your rough plan. Write a thesis statement that clarifies the overall purpose of your report. Jot down anything you already know about the topic in the relevant sections. 3 Do the Research. Steps 1 and 2 will guide your research for this report.
Methodology section in a report - RMIT Learning Lab
Research Methodology WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT
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A tutorial on methodological studies: the what, when, how and ...
Research Methodology and Introduction to Project Report Writing Dr.N.Kesavan, Associate Professor of Commerce, Annamalai University February 2020 DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.36673.92000
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How to Write a Project Report (With Steps & Templates)
Many methodological studies use a research report (e.g. full manuscript of study, abstract portion of the study) as the unit of analysis, and inferences can be made at the study-level. However, both published and unpublished research-related reports can be studied. These may include articles, conference abstracts, registry entries etc.
It provides exposure to research methodology and an opportunity to work closely with a faculty advisor. It usually requires the use of advanced concepts, a variety of experimental ... The title should reflect the content and emphasis of the project described in the report. It should be as short as possible and include essential key words. The ...
This is to certify that the project work of "Research methodology" made by Jahanvi Mittal, B (H), 4th semester, 44524088818 is an authentic work carried out by him/her under guidance and supervision of Dr.P.K. The project report submitted has been found satisfactory for the partial fulfilment of the degree of Bachelor of Commerce (Honours).
Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples
The methods section should briefly explain how you plan to conduct your study and why you have chosen a particular method. You may also include . your overall study design (quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods) and the proposed stages ; your proposed research instruments (e.g. surveys, interviews)
How to Create a Project Report: Objectives ...
Cost reports and other financial project reports are invaluable for monitoring the project budget. Planners identify cost overruns by comparing actual expenses to the budget and adjust costs to stay within budget limits. 6. Resource Management. Resource reports assist project managers in determining the efficient and effective use of resources.
Methodological Report, Chicago, NORC , 1981. Various methods of measuring the impact of non-response bias on survey estimates are examined. It is concluded that there is no simple, general, or accurate way of measuring it. Further research is encouraged. GSS years: 1980