literature review interview questions

Common Literature Interview Questions

1. how do you approach analyzing the narrative structure of a novel.

Delving into how a novel’s story is constructed and why it impacts readers in specific ways is crucial for understanding narrative structure. It involves dissecting the framework of a story, examining how the plot unfolds, how characters develop, and the role of conflict and resolution. Analyzing narrative structure also reveals the author’s intent and the underlying themes and messages they wish to convey. This question not only assesses a candidate’s critical thinking and analytical skills but also their appreciation for the craft of writing and their ability to engage with literature on a deeper level.

When responding, it’s effective to outline a systematic approach: start by identifying the type of narrator and point of view, then move to the chronological flow of the plot, noting any use of flashbacks or non-linear progression. Discuss how you examine character arcs and their interactions with each other and the setting. Mention the importance of identifying key themes and motifs, and how they interweave with the structure to enrich the narrative. Show that you can draw insightful connections between the structure and the reader’s experience, demonstrating a thorough and nuanced engagement with the text.

Example: “ In analyzing the narrative structure of a novel, I first identify the narrator’s perspective and the implications of this choice on the story’s delivery. Whether it’s a first-person, limited third-person, or omniscient point of view, each offers distinct advantages and limitations in terms of reliability and scope. Recognizing this foundation allows me to better understand the narrative’s potential biases and how they shape the reader’s perception.

Next, I dissect the plot’s temporal structure, noting any deviations from a straightforward chronology, such as flashbacks or a fragmented timeline. This step is crucial in understanding how the author manipulates time to build suspense, develop character, or reveal key information. Simultaneously, I assess character development and their dynamics within the setting, as these interactions often underscore the novel’s central themes. By mapping out how characters evolve and how their relationships with each other and their environment progress, I can pinpoint the thematic heart of the narrative. Finally, I explore how these elements—narrative voice, time, character, and theme—converge to craft a cohesive and resonant experience for the reader, thus revealing the author’s broader intentions and the work’s place within its literary context.”

2. In what ways might post-colonial theory influence the interpretation of 19th-century literature?

With post-colonial theory, one can critically assess the power dynamics, cultural interactions, and historical contexts of colonialism. Applying this theory to 19th-century literature can reveal how narratives either supported colonial ideologies or subverted them, often providing insight into the socio-political climate of the time. It can also highlight voices and perspectives that were marginalized, offering a more nuanced understanding of the literature and its impact on both the colonizers and the colonized.

When responding to this question, it’s important to demonstrate knowledge of key post-colonial theorists and concepts, such as Edward Said’s “Orientalism” or Homi K. Bhabha’s notions of hybridity. Discuss specific examples of 19th-century works and analyze them through a post-colonial framework. This approach not only shows a grasp of literary theory but also an ability to apply it to analyze texts within their historical context, acknowledging the enduring legacy of colonialism in literature and culture.

Example: “ null”

3. Describe your method for evaluating the reliability of narrators in fiction.

A nuanced task, evaluating the reliability of narrators in fiction requires a keen understanding of literary techniques, character development, and plot structure. Authors often craft narrators with varying degrees of reliability to deepen the complexity of the narrative, challenge readers’ perceptions, and engage with broader themes of truth and subjectivity. The question seeks to assess the candidate’s analytical skills, appreciation for narrative subtlety, and ability to discern bias, perspective, and intent within a story.

When responding, begin by outlining your analytical approach, which might include examining the narrator’s consistency, cross-referencing events with other characters’ accounts, and analyzing language for signs of bias or manipulation. Discuss how you consider historical and social contexts that may influence the narrator’s perspective. Share specific examples from literature where you’ve evaluated narrator reliability to demonstrate your critical thinking and interpretive skills in action.

Example: “ In evaluating the reliability of narrators in fiction, I first scrutinize the internal consistency of their narrative. This involves tracking their recounting of events over time to detect any discrepancies that might suggest intentional deception or an unreliable memory. For instance, in “The Great Gatsby,” Nick Carraway’s selective disclosures and retrospective narrative framing invite readers to question the authenticity of his account, which I dissect by comparing his earlier and later descriptions of characters like Gatsby and Tom Buchanan.

I also cross-reference the narrator’s account with the depiction of events by other characters or external evidence within the text. This comparative analysis can reveal biases or blind spots in the narrator’s perspective. For example, in “Wuthering Heights,” Nelly Dean’s narrative is juxtaposed with other characters’ dialogues and actions, providing a multifaceted view that allows for a critical assessment of her reliability. Additionally, I consider the historical and social contexts that shape the narrator’s worldview, as in the case of the naïve governess in “The Turn of the Screw,” whose Victorian sensibilities may cloud her interpretation of events, thus affecting her reliability. These methods, applied to various texts, enable a nuanced understanding of narrative reliability that goes beyond face value, recognizing the complex interplay between narrators’ personal biases, cultural influences, and the author’s literary intentions.”

4. What criteria do you use to determine the effectiveness of satire in a literary work?

Satire is a sophisticated form of humor that often serves as social commentary, critiquing politics, society, or human behavior. Understanding satire requires a nuanced grasp of language, culture, and the underlying message the author intends to convey. The effectiveness of satire hinges on its ability to not only amuse but also to provoke thought and spark discussion. Interviewers are assessing whether candidates can discern the layers of meaning within a text and appreciate the finesse required to balance humor with critique, all while maintaining the integrity of the literary work.

When responding, it’s important to articulate a clear framework that considers several key elements: the clarity and relevance of the satirical message, its resonance with the intended audience, the use of literary devices such as irony, exaggeration, and parody, and the overall impact on the reader. Discuss how effective satire should challenge perceptions and encourage reflection without alienating the reader. Offer examples from well-known satirical works to demonstrate your understanding and analytical skills.

Example: “ To determine the effectiveness of satire in a literary work, I first assess the clarity and relevance of the satirical message. The work must convey its critique of a subject in a way that is both discernible and pertinent to contemporary issues, ensuring that the satire transcends mere humor to deliver a pointed commentary on society, politics, or human nature. For instance, Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal” remains a benchmark for its shocking yet clear-cut satirical treatment of economic disparities.

Next, I consider the resonance of the satire with its intended audience. Effective satire not only speaks to the time in which it was written but also maintains its potency across generations. This is achieved through the adept use of literary devices such as irony, which invites readers to read between the lines and engage with the underlying criticism. For example, George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” employs allegory and exaggeration to critique totalitarianism, resonating with readers who recognize similar patterns in various political contexts. Lastly, I evaluate the satire’s impact on the reader: it should challenge perceptions and encourage reflection, ideally sparking discourse and potential change without resorting to didacticism or alienation.”

5. Compare and contrast modernist and postmodernist themes in literature.

Characterized by a deliberate break from traditional styles, modernist literature searches for new forms of expression and focuses on the inner self and consciousness. Themes often revolve around the disillusionment of the early 20th century, the fragmentation of society, and the alienation of the individual. Postmodernist literature, on the other hand, arises from a skepticism of grand narratives and ideologies, playing with literary conventions through irony, pastiche, and metafiction. It often embraces the idea that reality is not mirrored in human understanding but rather constructed as the mind tries to understand its own personal reality. This question is designed to assess not only a candidate’s knowledge of literary history and theory but also their ability to engage with complex ideas and articulate the evolution of thought within the literary canon.

When responding to this question, it’s essential to highlight specific examples of modernist and postmodernist works, referencing their thematic elements and stylistic features. Show an appreciation for the historical and cultural context that shaped these movements. Demonstrate an understanding of how modernism’s focus on form and postmodernism’s play with narrative structure reflect the respective periods’ preoccupations. Discuss the influence of each movement on literature and culture, and if possible, relate their relevance to contemporary issues or personal experiences with reading such works.

Example: “ Modernist literature is characterized by a deep sense of disillusionment with the traditional narratives of society, a reaction to the chaos of World War I, and a search for meaning in a fragmented world. This is evident in works like T.S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land,” which employs a fragmented narrative structure and allusions to a vast array of texts and myths to mirror the disjointed state of post-war society. Modernist themes often revolve around the inner psyche, the exploration of consciousness, and a quest for authenticity in a rapidly changing world, as seen in the stream-of-consciousness technique used by Virginia Woolf in “Mrs. Dalloway.”

In contrast, postmodernist literature emerges from a skepticism of grand narratives and ideologies, a reaction to the rigid structures and perceived failures of modernism. It plays with metafiction and irony, challenging the very notion of objective reality. Thomas Pynchon’s “Gravity’s Rainbow,” for instance, exemplifies postmodernist themes through its parodic use of history and science, its encyclopedic scope, and its resistance to a singular interpretation. Postmodernism often blurs the lines between high and low culture and questions the authorial voice, as seen in the intertextual games of Jorge Luis Borges’ stories. Both movements, while distinct in their approaches to narrative and theme, reflect a response to the complexities and uncertainties of their respective eras, and continue to influence contemporary literature by challenging readers to question the stability of meaning and the role of narrative in shaping our understanding of the world.”

6. Identify the role of historical context in understanding Renaissance poetry.

The historical context is the lens through which we interpret the subtleties and the broader cultural, political, and social nuances of Renaissance poetry. This era was marked by a rebirth of classical learning and a shift in focus from religious to humanistic values. Understanding the historical backdrop allows readers and scholars to grasp the motivations behind the poetry, the allusions made by the poets, and the intended impact on the audience of the time. The Renaissance period was also a time of exploration and discovery, both literally and intellectually, and this adventurous spirit is often reflected in the poetry of the era.

When responding to this question, it is essential to highlight specific examples of how historical events, such as the fall of Constantinople, the discovery of the New World, or the Protestant Reformation, influenced the themes and styles of Renaissance poetry. Discussing the impact of patronage systems on the subjects poets chose, or how the revival of classical texts provided a rich source of material and inspiration, will demonstrate a deep understanding of the period. Additionally, acknowledging the importance of the human experience in Renaissance poetry, as a departure from the heavily religious medieval works, will show an appreciation for the era’s cultural significance.

Example: “ Historical context is indispensable for interpreting Renaissance poetry as it provides the backdrop against which the tapestry of themes, motifs, and linguistic innovations are woven. The fall of Constantinople, for instance, spurred a migration of Greek scholars to Italy, catalyzing the revival of classical texts and humanist thought. This intellectual resurgence is mirrored in the works of Petrarch and Spencer, whose sonnets reflect a renewed fascination with ancient forms and a human-centric worldview, a stark shift from the theocentric medieval literature.

The discovery of the New World and the Protestant Reformation also indelibly shaped Renaissance poetry. The former expanded the geographical and conceptual horizons of European poets, infusing their works with themes of exploration and cultural encounter, as seen in Marlowe’s “Hero and Leander” or Ralegh’s “The Nymph’s Reply to the Shepherd.” Meanwhile, the Reformation’s challenge to ecclesiastical authority is echoed in the subtle critiques of power and dogma in Donne’s “Holy Sonnets.” The patronage system, too, cannot be overlooked, as it often dictated the subject matter and flattery within poems, exemplified by the works commissioned by the likes of the Medici family, which both celebrated their benefactors and subtly reflected the socio-political dynamics of the time.”

7. Assess how gender theories have reshaped contemporary readings of classic texts.

The evolution of gender theories is crucial in the realm of literature, as they offer fresh lenses through which to interpret classic texts. These theories have pushed the boundaries of traditional analysis, prompting scholars and readers alike to re-evaluate characters, themes, and narratives from perspectives that challenge the status quo. The intersection of gender with class, race, and sexuality has brought to the fore the multifaceted nature of identity in literature, revealing layers of complexity previously overlooked or undervalued in canonical works. This question tests the depth of a candidate’s critical thinking and their ability to engage with literature in a way that reflects contemporary social awareness.

When responding, it’s essential to demonstrate a clear understanding of key gender theories and their historical development. Articulate how applying these theories to classic texts can reveal new meanings and resonate with modern audiences. Provide specific examples from literature to illustrate your points, showing an ability to think analytically about how gender dynamics operate within these works and the broader implications for understanding human experience through art.

Example: “ Gender theories, particularly those stemming from feminist and queer studies, have profoundly influenced our interpretation of classic texts by uncovering the often-subtle dynamics of gender and power embedded within them. For instance, applying a feminist lens to Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice” not only highlights the limited roles available to women during the Regency era but also allows us to appreciate the subversive nature of Elizabeth Bennet’s character, who navigates and occasionally subverts these constraints. This reading foregrounds the novel’s engagement with women’s agency and the critique of the marriage market, themes that continue to resonate with contemporary discussions around gender equality.

Similarly, queer theory has offered new perspectives on texts such as Herman Melville’s “Moby-Dick,” where the intense homosocial bonds and Ishmael’s intimate relationship with Queequeg can be explored through the lens of homoeroticism, challenging traditional heteronormative interpretations. These theoretical frameworks not only enrich our understanding of the characters and their interpersonal dynamics but also allow us to reflect on the fluidity of gender and sexuality, fostering a more inclusive approach to literature that aligns with modern values of diversity and representation.”

8. Outline the impact of digital media on the evolution of storytelling techniques.

Storytelling has been revolutionized by digital media, transforming it from a linear, static experience into a dynamic, interactive one. The advent of digital platforms has introduced new formats like web series, podcasts, and interactive e-books, allowing storytellers to craft narratives that engage audiences in novel ways. These platforms not only change how stories are told but also how they are consumed, enabling immediate feedback and fostering a participatory culture where audiences contribute to the narrative. Digital media compels storytellers to consider the immediacy of their content, the potential for viral spread, and the diverse multimedia elements that can be integrated into their work.

When responding to this question, highlight your awareness of the profound shift from traditional print to digital storytelling. Discuss specific examples such as the use of social media to create transmedia storytelling experiences, the impact of gaming on narrative structures, or the way virtual reality is creating immersive storytelling opportunities. Emphasize your understanding of the skills necessary to engage with these new forms of storytelling and your flexibility in adapting to these ever-changing techniques. Show your appreciation for the traditional elements of storytelling that remain relevant, such as character development and plot, while also showcasing your enthusiasm for the creative possibilities that digital media introduces.

Example: “ Digital media has fundamentally transformed storytelling by expanding the narrative landscape and altering the way audiences engage with stories. For instance, the advent of transmedia storytelling allows for a narrative to be told across multiple digital platforms, creating an ecosystem where each medium contributes uniquely to the whole. A prime example of this is the way in which a franchise like Marvel disseminates its narrative through films, comic books, and online content, each offering a different entry point into the same universe and enhancing the audience’s engagement through a multi-layered experience.

Moreover, interactive storytelling, as seen in video games and virtual reality, has introduced non-linear narrative structures that empower audiences to influence the story’s outcome. This shift not only challenges the traditional author-audience relationship but also requires a reimagining of narrative techniques to accommodate user interactivity. The skills necessary to craft such stories involve a keen understanding of branching narratives and user experience design, ensuring that the story remains coherent and compelling regardless of the audience’s choices. Despite these advancements, the core tenets of storytelling, such as character arcs and thematic resonance, continue to underpin even the most avant-garde digital narratives, attesting to the enduring power of well-crafted stories.”

9. Which metrics do you consider when judging the success of a literary adaptation into film?

In analyzing a literary adaptation’s transition to film, the evaluator must weigh both fidelity to the source material and the cinematic execution’s success. The adaptation’s effectiveness is not solely measured by how closely it follows the original narrative, but also by its ability to capture the essence and themes of the work while offering a compelling visual and emotional experience to a potentially new audience. The metrics for success include critical reception, audience response, box office performance, and the film’s ability to stand independently from the book while still honoring its spirit.

In responding to this question, one should articulate a nuanced understanding of the balance between textual loyalty and creative interpretation. Discuss the importance of preserving the heart of the literary work while also appreciating the distinct storytelling tools cinema provides. Cite specific examples of adaptations that have successfully navigated this balance and reference any industry awards or notable achievements. Highlight personal criteria used to evaluate such adaptations, demonstrating an appreciation for both the literary and film mediums.

Example: “ When evaluating the success of a literary adaptation into film, I prioritize the fidelity of the adaptation to the spirit and thematic essence of the original work, rather than a strict adherence to its plot or character details. A successful adaptation should encapsulate the core emotional and intellectual experiences that the source material provides, while also leveraging the unique capabilities of film as a visual and auditory medium to enhance or reinterpret those experiences. For instance, the film “Blade Runner” diverges significantly from Philip K. Dick’s “Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?” in terms of plot and character, yet it captures the novel’s existential musings and atmospheric tension, making it a successful adaptation in my view.

In addition, I consider the critical reception and audience engagement with the film, including accolades such as Academy Awards or BAFTA nominations, which can reflect the adaptation’s technical and artistic achievements. For example, the film adaptation of “No Country for Old Men” not only remained true to the Cormac McCarthy’s narrative but also earned widespread critical acclaim for its direction, performances, and cinematography, all of which contributed to its success as an adaptation. My personal criteria also include the adaptability of the narrative structure and themes to the cinematic form, the performance of actors in capturing the essence of the characters, and the effectiveness of the film in standing as a distinct work of art, independent of the literature that inspired it.”

10. How does intertextuality play a part in creating depth within a work of literature?

Intertextuality is the shaping of a text’s meaning by another text. It involves the interplay between current works and the vast sea of literature that has come before. In literary analysis, intertextuality allows a piece to be understood in the context of earlier texts, thus enriching its layers and nuances. It creates a dialogue between works, bringing forward themes, styles, and historical discourse, and often provides a deeper appreciation of the new work by acknowledging its place within the literary tradition.

When responding to this question, focus on specific examples from literature where intertextuality has added layers of meaning to a work. Discuss how the referencing of other texts can alter the reader’s perception and interpretation, providing a richer reading experience. Highlight your understanding of how intertextuality can offer contemporary insights into classic texts and vice versa, illustrating the dynamic and evolving conversation within literature.

Example: “ Intertextuality serves as a literary mosaic, where the incorporation of one text within another enriches the narrative fabric, inviting readers to engage in a deeper dialogue with the work. Take, for instance, James Joyce’s “Ulysses,” which weaves a complex web of allusions to Homer’s “Odyssey.” This intertextual strategy not only recontextualizes the plot in a modern Dublin setting but also layers the characters’ experiences with mythic dimensions, challenging readers to consider the universality of human endeavors across time and space.

Similarly, T.S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land” exemplifies intertextuality by stitching together a tapestry of quotations and literary echoes ranging from Shakespeare to the Upanishads. This density of references transforms the poem into a meditation on cultural disintegration and the search for meaning, illustrating how the past informs the present. In both cases, intertextuality not only deepens the thematic resonance but also underscores the fluidity of literary influence, showcasing how texts converse across the ages, continually reshaping our understanding of the human condition.”

11. What strategies would you employ to teach symbolism in literature to students?

For students to grasp the deeper meanings and themes within literature, understanding symbolism is essential. It requires a level of abstract thinking and interpretation that is not always intuitive. A teacher needs to have a variety of strategies in their arsenal to help students bridge the gap between the literal and the symbolic, ensuring that students can both recognize symbols and also articulate their significance within a text. This question is posed to evaluate a candidate’s creativity, understanding of literary analysis, and their ability to make complex concepts accessible to a diverse range of learners.

When responding, it’s essential to outline specific, actionable teaching methods. You might discuss introducing symbolism through familiar objects and concepts before connecting these to literature. Use of comparative exercises, where students draw parallels between symbols in different texts, can also be effective. Interactive activities like group discussions, symbol hunting assignments, and the use of multimedia resources can engage students and solidify their understanding. It’s crucial to show you can scaffold learning from recognition to in-depth analysis, and adapt your strategies to suit various learning styles and abilities.

Example: “ To effectively teach symbolism in literature, I would begin by grounding the concept in everyday symbols that students already understand and interact with, such as signs, emojis, or national flags. This familiar territory provides a foundation for discussing the more complex symbols authors use to imbue their texts with deeper meaning. From this starting point, I would introduce literary symbols through carefully chosen texts that exemplify clear instances of symbolism.

Once students have a grasp of basic symbols, I would employ comparative exercises to highlight how similar symbols can carry different meanings across texts, cultures, or historical periods. This not only reinforces their understanding of symbolism but also encourages critical thinking and the development of analytical skills. To deepen their engagement, I would integrate interactive activities, such as symbol hunting assignments within a text, and group discussions to facilitate peer learning and multiple perspectives analysis. Additionally, multimedia resources like film clips or visual art can be powerful tools to illustrate the pervasive nature of symbols in all forms of storytelling. Throughout this process, I would scaffold learning to progress from recognition of symbols to an in-depth analysis of their significance and function within literature, ensuring that my teaching methods are adaptable to accommodate diverse learning styles and abilities.”

12. Evaluate the significance of magical realism as a tool for political commentary.

Authors use magical realism as a powerful literary device to explore and critique political realities within a framework that is not bound by the conventions of traditional realism. By blending the fantastic with the mundane, writers can highlight the absurdities and injustices of political systems, often in a way that resonates more deeply with readers due to its imaginative and emotionally evocative nature. The surreal elements often act as metaphors or allegories, giving voice to marginalized perspectives and questioning the status quo without the constraints of literal representation.

When responding to this question, it is important to articulate an understanding of how magical realism can be used to illuminate and challenge political issues. You might discuss specific examples from literature where magical elements underscore themes of power, corruption, resistance, or the impact of colonialism. Emphasize the efficacy of this narrative strategy in engaging readers and providing a unique, often subversive, commentary on political matters. Show appreciation for the genre’s capacity to reveal deeper truths about society through its imaginative approach.

Example: “ Magical realism serves as a potent narrative strategy for political commentary by embedding the extraordinary within the mundane to expose the surreal and often grotesque realities of political systems. This genre allows authors to transcend conventional limitations of time and space, creating a canvas where the real and the fantastical coalesce to reveal the complexities of power dynamics and social structures. For instance, Gabriel García Márquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude” employs magical realism to critique the perpetual cycle of political violence in Latin America, with its intergenerational tale reflecting the region’s turbulent history. The magical elements, such as levitating priests and prophetic manuscripts, are not mere embellishments but integral to understanding the cyclical nature of oppression and the blurred lines between myth and history in postcolonial societies.

The efficacy of magical realism in political commentary lies in its ability to engage readers on both an emotional and intellectual level. It challenges the reader’s perception of reality, compelling them to question the status quo by presenting an altered reality that highlights the absurdities and injustices of political systems. Salman Rushdie’s “Midnight’s Children,” for example, uses the fantastical story of children born at the moment of India’s independence with extraordinary abilities to explore the impacts of colonialism and the chaotic fragmentation of post-independence identities. Through such narratives, magical realism becomes a subversive tool that can critique power structures while avoiding direct confrontation, often bypassing censorship and engaging readers in a deeper dialogue about societal issues.”

13. Consider the importance of folklore in shaping national literatures.

Folklore serves as the collective memory and cultural DNA that informs a nation’s stories, providing a shared context from which authors can draw. The tapestry upon which national literatures often find their deepest colors and textures, folklore is not just relics of the past but is actively reinterpreted and woven into contemporary literature, reflecting and shaping the nation’s values, struggles, and identity. When discussing the importance of folklore in national literatures, one is recognizing the perpetual dialogue between ancient tradition and modern expression, a conversation that ensures the continuity and evolution of a culture’s narrative voice.

When responding to this question, it is crucial to refer to specific examples from the literature of the nation in question, illustrating how folklore themes and characters are adapted and reimagined to resonate with contemporary issues and audiences. Discuss the interplay between folklore and national literature in terms of themes such as morality, justice, and heroism, and consider how these traditional stories offer a sense of belonging and historical continuity. Reflect on your own experience with national literature and how folklore has shaped your understanding of the cultural and social fabric of the nation.

Example: “ Folklore serves as the bedrock upon which many national literatures are constructed, offering a repository of motifs, archetypes, and narratives that have been intricately woven into the fabric of cultural identity. For example, the Finnish national epic, “The Kalevala,” is a compendium of oral folklore and mythology that has profoundly influenced Finnish literature, contributing to the nation’s sense of identity and inspiring writers such as J.R.R. Tolkien. Similarly, the Brothers Grimm’s collection of Germanic folktales has not only preserved cultural heritage but also provided a framework for contemporary German literature to explore themes of morality and justice through a familiar yet adaptable lens.

In my engagement with Irish literature, the imprints of folklore are unmistakable, with texts often invoking characters like the púca and banshee or the mythic hero Cú Chulainn to navigate modern issues. This interplay is evident in the works of Yeats, whose poetry intertwines with Celtic mythology to address the quest for national identity amidst the tumult of the early 20th century. Through these narratives, folklore transcends its traditional boundaries, offering readers a sense of belonging while simultaneously challenging and redefining notions of heroism and morality in a contemporary context.”

14. Argue the merit of studying lesser-known authors alongside canonical writers.

Exploring literature from both celebrated authors and those less recognized offers a more comprehensive understanding of the literary landscape and its evolution. Studying a range of writers encourages critical thinking and challenges the established canon, potentially revealing biases and gaps in literary history. It also enriches students’ perspectives by exposing them to diverse voices and styles, which can foster empathy and a deeper appreciation for storytelling’s multifaceted nature. This question assesses the candidate’s appreciation for literary diversity and their approach to inclusivity in curriculum planning.

When responding, articulate your belief in a holistic literary education that values a spectrum of voices. Highlight how integrating lesser-known authors can illuminate themes and narratives that resonate with a wider array of students, thereby enhancing engagement. Emphasize your commitment to creating a dynamic and inclusive learning environment that not only respects the canon but also broadens it, preparing students to think critically about literature and its role in society.

Example: “ Studying lesser-known authors alongside canonical writers is essential for a comprehensive understanding of literature and its cultural contexts. The canon, while foundational, often represents a narrow and homogenous selection that overlooks the rich diversity of human experience. By incorporating works by lesser-known authors, we gain access to a multitude of voices and perspectives that challenge and enrich traditional narratives. This not only broadens the literary landscape but also encourages critical thinking as students examine why certain works have been historically marginalized and what this reveals about the society that produced them.

Integrating these authors provides a more accurate representation of the literary world, fostering inclusivity and engagement. When students see themselves and their experiences reflected in the curriculum, their connection to the material deepens, and literature becomes a more relevant and powerful tool for understanding the complexities of the human condition. Moreover, by expanding the canon, we prepare students to become more discerning readers and thinkers, capable of recognizing the value of diverse literary contributions and their impact on shaping a more inclusive and nuanced societal narrative.”

15. Propose methods by which translation can preserve poetic qualities across languages.

Translating poetry is an art that requires not only linguistic dexterity but also a deep understanding of culture, context, and the myriad subtleties that give poetry its power. The challenge lies in maintaining the original poem’s rhythm, structure, imagery, and emotional resonance, all while navigating the intricacies of linguistic idiosyncrasies. Effective translation goes beyond mere word-for-word conversion; it involves interpreting and conveying the poet’s voice, tone, and intent, which often demands creative solutions and a willingness to diverge from the literal to preserve the spirit of the piece.

When responding to this question, emphasize the importance of a holistic approach to translation. Discuss the need to first immerse oneself in the source material, understanding the poem’s themes, cultural nuances, and emotional undertones. Highlight the value of preserving literary devices such as meter, rhyme, and alliteration, even if that means deviating from the text to capture the essence of the poem’s sound and rhythm in the target language. Speak about collaborating with poets and literary experts, if possible, to gain insights into the intended impact of the original work. Finally, stress the significance of multiple revisions and feedback from native speakers to refine the translation and ensure it resonates with the new audience as deeply as the original did with its own.

Example: “ In approaching the translation of poetry, it is crucial to maintain the delicate balance between fidelity to the source text and the conveyance of its aesthetic qualities. To preserve the poetic qualities across languages, one must first deeply understand the interplay of form and content in the original work. This involves a comprehensive analysis of the poem’s structure, rhythm, and sound patterns, as well as its thematic depth and cultural context. Only with this foundation can a translator begin to recreate the poem’s essence in another language.

The translation process should be dynamic, allowing for creative solutions that honor the poem’s original music. This might involve employing analogous literary devices in the target language that evoke a similar sensory experience, even if they are not direct translations of the original. For example, if a direct translation of a rhyme scheme is impossible without sacrificing meaning, an alternative scheme that provides a comparable auditory effect may be used. Collaboration with poets and literary scholars can offer valuable insights into the nuances of the original work, ensuring that the translation resonates with the same emotional and intellectual impact. Iterative revisions, informed by feedback from native speakers, are essential to refine the translation, ensuring that it stands on its own as a work of art in the target language.”

16. How would you integrate reader-response criticism into a literature curriculum?

Reader-response criticism emphasizes the reader’s role in interpreting texts, acknowledging that readers bring their own experiences, emotions, and imagination to their understanding of literature. It’s a valuable tool in literature education because it encourages active engagement and personal connection to the text, fostering a more immersive and meaningful learning experience. This approach can help students develop critical thinking skills and a deeper appreciation for literature as they explore how their interpretations can vary from those of their peers.

When responding to this question, focus on practical strategies for incorporating reader-response criticism into the curriculum. Discuss creating assignments that ask students to relate their personal experiences to the text, facilitating classroom discussions that explore different interpretations, and encouraging reflective writing that allows students to delve into their subjective responses. Highlight how these methods not only make the learning process more student-centered but also help learners see the relevance of literature in their own lives.

Example: “ Integrating reader-response criticism into a literature curriculum can be accomplished by designing activities that prioritize students’ personal engagement with texts. For instance, I would implement reflective journals where students articulate their emotional and intellectual reactions to readings, thereby foregrounding their subjective experiences. This practice not only validates individual interpretations but also fosters a deeper connection between the student and the literature.

In classroom discussions, I would encourage a multiplicity of perspectives by posing open-ended questions that prompt students to consider how their backgrounds and identities shape their understanding of a text. This approach not only democratizes the interpretive process but also illuminates the text’s multifaceted nature. Moreover, by assigning comparative analysis essays, students can juxtapose their responses with critical perspectives, thereby situating personal engagement within a broader literary discourse. These strategies collectively ensure that reader-response criticism is not just an abstract theory but a lived practice that enhances students’ appreciation of literature’s relevance to their own lives.”

17. What are the challenges in interpreting allegorical content in medieval texts?

Allegorical interpretation requires a deep understanding of the cultural, religious, and philosophical context of the period in which a text was written. Medieval texts are often densely layered with symbolism that reflects the prevailing ideologies and cosmologies of the time. A challenge arises from the need to transcend modern perspectives and biases to truly grasp the intended messages and lessons that medieval authors embedded in their allegories. Additionally, the linguistic evolution over centuries can obscure the original meanings and nuances, making it essential for the interpreter to have not only linguistic proficiency but also historical insight.

When responding, demonstrate your knowledge of medieval history and your ability to consider multiple interpretations of a text. Show your familiarity with the original language of the text, if applicable, and describe your approach to researching and understanding the context in which the work was created. Highlight your critical thinking skills and your willingness to engage with complex, multifaceted material. Provide examples of your past experiences with interpreting allegorical content and discuss the strategies you use to ensure a faithful rendering of the author’s original intent.

Example: “ Interpreting allegorical content in medieval texts presents a unique set of challenges, primarily due to the cultural, historical, and linguistic distance from the modern reader. One must navigate the intricate web of symbolism that medieval authors employed, which often reflects a worldview steeped in religious and philosophical ideas that are foreign or obsolete today. For instance, the allegorical figures in Dante’s “Divine Comedy” or the dream visions in Chaucer’s “The Canterbury Tales” require a deep understanding of Christian theology, medieval cosmology, and the societal norms of the period.

To address these challenges, I engage in a rigorous examination of the historical context, drawing upon contemporaneous theological, philosophical, and literary works to inform my interpretation. This involves a thorough analysis of the original language, as nuances in Middle English or medieval Italian can significantly alter the meaning of allegorical references. I also cross-reference interpretations from different periods to understand how readings have evolved over time. In my experience with texts like “Piers Plowman” and “The Book of the City of Ladies,” I’ve found that a multidisciplinary approach, incorporating perspectives from history, art, and theology, is essential to unraveling the layers of meaning and ensuring a faithful rendering of the author’s intent.”

18. Determine the influence of psychoanalytic theory on character development analysis.

Applying psychoanalytic theory to character development offers a profound layer of depth to literary analysis, revealing the subconscious motivations and conflicts that drive characters’ actions. This approach, rooted in the works of Freud, Jung, and their successors, allows for an exploration of the human psyche’s complexities as reflected in literature. The theory posits that characters, much like real people, have desires, fears, and internal struggles that are often hidden beneath the surface of their conscious actions. An interviewer posing this question is looking for your ability to apply this nuanced perspective to character analysis, which can be particularly insightful when discussing themes of identity, memory, and desire in literature.

When responding, articulate your understanding of key psychoanalytic concepts such as the id, ego, and superego, and how they might manifest in a character’s behavior. Use examples from literary texts where psychoanalytic theory provided a unique insight into character development. Show how this approach has enriched your interpretation of characters’ actions and growth throughout a story, potentially uncovering thematic elements that might not be immediately apparent through other analytical lenses.

Example: “ Psychoanalytic theory, particularly the concepts of the id, ego, and superego, offers profound insights into character development by revealing the inner conflicts and motivations that drive a character’s actions. For instance, Dostoevsky’s Raskolnikov in “Crime and Punishment” embodies the tumultuous struggle between his id, which urges him towards the transgressive act of murder, and his superego, which manifests in his guilt and eventual confession. The ego’s attempt to reconcile these opposing forces is evident throughout his psychological turmoil, illuminating the character’s complexity and the novel’s exploration of moral and existential themes.

In Shakespeare’s “Hamlet,” the prince’s procrastination and erratic behavior can be viewed through the lens of a conflicted ego, caught between an id that demands vengeance and a superego that imposes moral and ethical considerations. This psychoanalytic perspective enriches our understanding of Hamlet’s indecision and the play’s broader commentary on the human condition. By applying such theories to character analysis, we uncover deeper thematic layers and appreciate the subtleties of human psychology that drive narrative progression.”

19. Analyze the ethical implications of writing autobiographical fiction.

Autobiographical fiction often leads to ethical dilemmas regarding privacy, consent, and the potential misrepresentation of events or characters based on real people, as it blurs the line between fact and imagination. Authors who tread this path must carefully navigate the responsibility they have toward those who may recognize themselves or their experiences in the narrative. The ethical implications extend to the readers as well, who might struggle to discern truth from embellishment, thereby influencing their perception of the characters and events portrayed.

When responding to this question, it’s essential to convey an understanding of the delicate balance between artistic freedom and ethical considerations. One might discuss the importance of respecting the privacy and integrity of real individuals while also exploring the ways in which personal experiences can enrich and inform one’s writing. It could be helpful to mention any personal strategies for addressing these ethical concerns, such as altering identifying details or discussing the work with those who might be affected before publication.

Example: “ Autobiographical fiction occupies a unique space where the personal and the invented coalesce, creating a narrative that resonates with authenticity while allowing for creative liberty. The ethical implications of this genre hinge on the author’s responsibility towards the truth and the individuals who inhabit their real world. While the genre permits a reimagining of events and characters, it is incumbent upon the writer to navigate the fine line between artistic expression and potential harm or misrepresentation of real people. This becomes particularly complex when the narrative intersects with contentious or traumatic events, where the portrayal may have real-world repercussions for the individuals involved.

To ethically engage with autobiographical fiction, I employ strategies such as altering distinguishing characteristics and obtaining consent where possible, ensuring that my narratives, while inspired by true events, do not impinge on the privacy or agency of real individuals. Additionally, I consider the broader social implications of my work, recognizing that fiction often contributes to societal discourse and thus carries a weight of responsibility. In crafting these narratives, I aim to maintain a balance between the integrity of the depicted experiences and the creative embellishments that serve the story, all the while adhering to a core ethical framework that respects the people and relationships that have shaped my life.”

20. Examine the relationship between epistolary form and emotional authenticity in novels.

The epistolary form, which involves the use of letters or diary entries in novels, allows for a profound exploration of characters’ intimate thoughts and feelings, unmediated by a narrator’s interpretation. This format provides readers with direct access to a character’s emotions, fostering a sense of authenticity and immediacy. Authors leverage this to create a powerful connection between the reader and the character, making the emotional landscape of the novel more compelling and believable. The question invites an analysis of how this narrative technique impacts the reader’s perception of characters’ sincerity and the overall emotional resonance of the work.

When responding to this question, focus on specific examples from literature where the epistolary form amplifies the emotional stakes of the narrative. Discuss how the direct expression of a character’s thoughts and feelings in letters or diary entries establishes a personal connection with the reader. Highlight the way this form can both enhance the realism of a character’s psychological state and manipulate the reader’s emotional response. It’s important to articulate how this form allows for an exploration of multiple perspectives, and how it can add layers of complexity to the understanding of character motivations and relationships within the novel.

Example: “ The epistolary form, by its very nature, lends a veneer of intimacy and immediacy to a narrative, often heightening the emotional authenticity of a novel. Take, for instance, the raw emotional landscape charted in Alice Walker’s “The Color Purple.” Through Celie’s letters to God and her sister Nettie, readers are privy to the unfiltered internal struggles and triumphs of the protagonist. This direct access to Celie’s voice fosters a deep empathetic connection, as the reader is not merely an observer but a confidante.

In contrast, the use of letters in “Les Liaisons Dangereuses” by Choderlos de Laclos showcases the potential for manipulation inherent in the epistolary form. The characters’ letters are strategic, often crafted to deceive one another or to present a facade to the reader. This manipulation of the reader’s trust and emotions underscores the novel’s themes of seduction and betrayal. The epistolary form, therefore, not only serves to convey emotional authenticity but can also be a tool for characters to wield influence, thereby adding a layer of psychological complexity to the narrative.”

5 Steps to Begin the Literature Review

There are five steps that one should follow before preparing to conduct the literature review :

Identify all the literature relevant to your topic of interest. Explore all the different types of literature including theoretical literature, applied literature, literature that talks about research methods, or a combination thereof.
Using multiple keywords and strategies capture the most accurate and relevant data. Conduct an extensive search in multi-disciplinary databases.
Group your findings into a detailed summary of what is known and what needs to be explored.
Identify existing gaps or any unresolved issues
Formulate broad questions that warrant further research

How to Best Critique a Research paper

For extracting maximum information from a research paper , researchers must ask the following questions!

Has the author formulated an appropriate research question based on the problem/issue?
Is the research question clearly defined in terms of its scope and relevance?
Was there an alternative or better perspective to approach the research question?
What is the author’s orientation towards the research problem – is it a critical analysis or interpretation based?
Has the author extensively evaluated the literature considering both latest and relevant articles?
How has the author defined the basic components (population, interventions, outcomes) of the study? Are the measurements valid, accurate and statistically significant? Are the conclusions based accurate interpretations of the data?
Is there an objective based, unbiased reasoning provided for the problem statement or is the author merely attempting to prove his/her preconceived beliefs and opinions?
How does this article contribute to your understanding of the research problem?
What are the strengths, limitations and shortcomings of the study?

10 Questions for a Comprehensive Literature Review

1. Do I have clearly defined research aims prior to commencing the review?

It is important to choose a focused question that can efficiently direct your search. It can assist you to create a list of keywords related to your research problem. Furthermore, it helps in identifying relevant databases to search for related journals and articles.

2. Have I correctly identified all the sources that will help me define my problem statement or research question?

Literature is not limited to journal articles, thesis, and dissertations. One should also refer to credible internet sources, conference proceedings that provide latest unpublished papers, as well as government and corporate reports. Books, although do not have latest information, can serve as a good starting point to read background information.

3. Have I considered all kinds of literature – including both qualitative and quantitative research articles?

An exhaustive literature survey helps you position your research within the context of existing literature effectively creating a case as to why further study is necessary. Your search has to be robust enough to ensure that you have browsed through all the relevant and latest articles. Rather than reading everything, researchers must refer and follow the most relevant work!

4. Do I have enough empirical or theoretical evidence to support my hypothesis?

Discovering new patterns and trends becomes easy if you gather credible evidence from earlier works. Furthermore, it helps in rationalizing the significance of your study.

5. Have I identified all the major inconsistencies or other shortcomings related to my research topic?

Researchers should not only refer to articles that present supporting evidence but also focus on those that provide inconclusive or contradictory information. It helps to identify any open questions left by researchers in previous studies.

6. Is my relationship diagram ready?

A relationship diagram is an effective way of recognizing links between different elements of a complex research topic. It is an immensely important tool that helps in clarifying and structuring research specific findings and interpretations at various stages of the project. It is an effective way of representing your current understanding of the research topic. In addition, a good relationship diagram can help you find new insights owing to a clear picture of all the probable relationships between key concepts, variables and key factors.

7. Have I gathered sufficient evidence from the literature about the accuracy and validity of the designs or methods that I plan to use in my experiments?

It is paramount to use methodologies and research techniques that have scientific reliability. Moreover, since methods especially used in qualitative research are often more subjective, it becomes crucial for researchers to reflect on the approach and explain the criteria for selecting a particular method.

8. Have I identified the purpose for which articles have been shortlisted for literature review?

You can expedite your literature writing process if you tag your articles based on its purpose of inclusion in the review report. Following are the tags that can be added to articles:

Show how latest developments or develop a theoretical base to your study
Demonstrate limitations, inconsistencies or shortcomings of previous studies
Critique or support certain methods or findings
Replicate the study in a different setting (region/population)
Indicate how the study supports or contradicts your findings
Use it as a reference to further build your research
Provide a general understanding of concerns relevant to your research topic

9. Have I recorded all the bibliographic information regarding my information sources?

Recording and cataloguing your bibliographical details and references is absolutely crucial for every researcher. You may use commercial software such as Reference manager, End Note, and Pro Cite to manage your references. Furthermore, you may also keep a record of keyword searches that you have performed.

10. Will my literature review reflect a report that is created after a through critical analysis of the literature?

An excellent literature review must be structured, logical, and coherent. It is a great opportunity to demonstrate that you have critically analyzed and understood the relevant body of literature underpinning your research. It is important to structure your literature into appropriate sections that discuss themes or presents trends. Grouping your literature helps in indicating relationships and making comparisons.

Still have more queries related to literature review and synthesis? Post your queries here and our experts will be happy to answer them! You can also visit our Q&A forum for frequently asked questions related to research writing and publishing answered by our team that comprises subject-matter experts, eminent researchers, and publication experts.

Rate this article Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published.

Enago Academy's Most Popular Articles

Old Webinars
Webinar Mobile App

Improving Research Manuscripts Using AI-Powered Insights: Enago reports for effective research communication

Language Quality Importance in Academia AI in Evaluating Language Quality Enago Language Reports Live Demo…

Reporting Research

AI Assistance in Academia for Searching Credible Scholarly Sources

The journey of academia is a grand quest for knowledge, more specifically an adventure to…

Beyond spellcheck- How Copyediting guarantees an error-free submission

Beyond Spellcheck: How copyediting guarantees error-free submission

Submitting a manuscript is a complex and often an emotional experience for researchers. Whether it’s…

How to Find the Right Journal and Fix Your Manuscript Before Submission

Selection of right journal Meets journal standards Plagiarism free manuscripts Rated from reviewer's POV

Manuscripts & Grants

Research Aims and Objectives: The dynamic duo for successful research

Picture yourself on a road trip without a destination in mind — driving aimlessly, not…

Writing a Research Literature Review? — Here are tips to guide you through!

Sign-up to read more

Subscribe for free to get unrestricted access to all our resources on research writing and academic publishing including:

2000+ blog articles
50+ Webinars
10+ Expert podcasts
50+ Infographics
10+ Checklists
Research Guides

We hate spam too. We promise to protect your privacy and never spam you.

Industry News
Publishing Research
AI in Academia
Promoting Research
Career Corner
Diversity and Inclusion
Infographics
Expert Video Library
Other Resources
Enago Learn
Upcoming & On-Demand Webinars
Open Access Week 2024
Peer Review Week 2024
Conference Videos
Enago Report
Journal Finder
Enago Plagiarism & AI Grammar Check
Editing Services
Publication Support Services
Research Impact
Translation Services
Publication solutions
AI-Based Solutions
Thought Leadership
Call for Articles
Call for Speakers
Author Training
Edit Profile

I am looking for Editing/ Proofreading services for my manuscript Tentative date of next journal submission:

What factors would influence the future of open access (OA) publishing?

Chapter 9. Reviewing the Literature

What is a “literature review”.

No researcher ever comes up with a research question that is wholly novel. Someone, somewhere, has asked the same thing. Academic research is part of a larger community of researchers, and it is your responsibility, as a member of this community, to acknowledge others who have asked similar questions and to put your particular research into this greater context. It is not simply a convention or custom to begin your study with a review of previous literature (the “ lit review ”) but an important responsibility you owe the scholarly community.

Too often, new researchers pursue a topic to study and then write something like, “No one has ever studied this before” or “This area is underresearched.” It may be that no one has studied this particular group or setting, but it is highly unlikely no one has studied the foundational phenomenon of interest. And that comment about an area being underresearched? Be careful. The statement may simply signal to others that you haven’t done your homework. Rubin ( 2021 ) refers to this as “free soloing,” and it is not appreciated in academic work:

The truth of the matter is, academics don’t really like when people free solo. It’s really bad form to omit talking about the other people who are doing or have done research in your area. Partly, I mean we need to cite their work, but I also mean we need to respond to it—agree or disagree, clarify for extend. It’s also really bad form to talk about your research in a way that does not make it understandable to other academics.…You have to explain to your readers what your story is really about in terms they care about . This means using certain terminology, referencing debates in the literature, and citing relevant works—that is, in connecting your work to something else. ( 51–52 )

A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic. It includes both articles and books—and in some cases reports—relevant to a particular area of research. Ideally, one’s research question follows from the reading of what has already been produced. For example, you are interested in studying sports injuries related to female gymnasts. You read everything you can find on sports injuries related to female gymnasts, and you begin to get a sense of what questions remain open. You find that there is a lot of research on how coaches manage sports injuries and much about cultures of silence around treating injuries, but you don’t know what the gymnasts themselves are thinking about these issues. You look specifically for studies about this and find several, which then pushes you to narrow the question further. Your literature review then provides the road map of how you came to your very specific question, and it puts your study in the context of studies of sports injuries. What you eventually find can “speak to” all the related questions as well as your particular one.

In practice, the process is often a bit messier. Many researchers, and not simply those starting out, begin with a particular question and have a clear idea of who they want to study and where they want to conduct their study but don’t really know much about other studies at all. Although backward, we need to recognize this is pretty common. Telling students to “find literature” after the fact can seem like a purposeless task or just another hurdle for completing a thesis or dissertation. It is not! Even if you were not motivated by the literature in the first place, acknowledging similar studies and connecting your own research to those studies are important parts of building knowledge. Acknowledgment of past research is a responsibility you owe the discipline to which you belong.

Literature reviews can also signal theoretical approaches and particular concepts that you will incorporate into your own study. For example, let us say you are doing a study of how people find their first jobs after college, and you want to use the concept of social capital . There are competing definitions of social capital out there (e.g., Bourdieu vs. Burt vs. Putnam). Bourdieu’s notion is of one form of capital, or durable asset, of a “network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance or recognition” ( 1984:248 ). Burt emphasizes the “brokerage opportunities” in a social network as social capital ( 1997:355 ). Putnam’s social capital is all about “facilitating coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit” ( 2001:67 ). Your literature review can adjudicate among these three approaches, or it can simply refer to the one that is animating your own research. If you include Bourdieu in your literature review, readers will know “what kind” of social capital you are talking about as well as what kind of social scientist you yourself are. They will likely understand that you are interested more in how some people are advantaged by their social capital relative to others rather than being interested in the mechanics of how social networks operate.

The literature review thus does two important things for you: firstly, it allows you to acknowledge previous research in your area of interest, thereby situating you within a discipline or body of scholars, and, secondly, it demonstrates that you know what you are talking about. If you present the findings of your research study without including a literature review, it can be like singing into the wind. It sounds nice, but no one really hears it, or if they do catch snippets, they don’t know where it is coming from.

Examples of Literature Reviews

To help you get a grasp of what a good literature review looks like and how it can advance your study, let’s take a look at a few examples.

Reader-Friendly Example: The Power of Peers

The first is by Janice McCabe ( 2016 ) and is from an article on peer networks in the journal Contexts . Contexts presents articles in a relatively reader-friendly format, with the goal of reaching a large audience for interesting sociological research. Read this example carefully and note how easily McCabe is able to convey the relevance of her own work by situating it in the context of previous studies:

Scholars who study education have long acknowledged the importance of peers for students’ well-being and academic achievement. For example, in 1961, James Coleman argued that peer culture within high schools shapes students’ social and academic aspirations and successes. More recently, Judith Rich Harris has drawn on research in a range of areas—from sociological studies of preschool children to primatologists’ studies of chimpanzees and criminologists’ studies of neighborhoods—to argue that peers matter much more than parents in how children “turn out.” Researchers have explored students’ social lives in rich detail, as in Murray Milner’s book about high school students, Freaks, Geeks, and Cool Kids , and Elizabeth Armstrong and Laura Hamilton’s look at college students, Paying for the Party . These works consistently show that peers play a very important role in most students’ lives. They tend, however, to prioritize social over academic influence and to use a fuzzy conception of peers rather than focusing directly on friends—the relationships that should matter most for student success. Social scientists have also studied the power of peers through network analysis, which is based on uncovering the web of connections between people. Network analysis involves visually mapping networks and mathematically comparing their structures (such as the density of ties) and the positions of individuals within them (such as how central a given person is within the network). As Nicholas Christakis and James Fowler point out in their book Connected , network structure influences a range of outcomes, including health, happiness, wealth, weight, and emotions. Given that sociologists have long considered network explanations for social phenomena, it’s surprising that we know little about how college students’ friends impact their experiences. In line with this network tradition, I focus on the structure of friendship networks, constructing network maps so that the differences we see across participants are due to the underlying structure, including each participant’s centrality in their friendship group and the density of ties among their friends. ( 23 )

What did you notice? In her very second sentence, McCabe uses “for example” to introduce a study by Coleman, thereby indicating that she is not going to tell you every single study in this area but is going to tell you that (1) there is a lot of research in this area, (2) it has been going on since at least 1961, and (3) it is still relevant (i.e., recent studies are still being done now). She ends her first paragraph by summarizing the body of literature in this area (after giving you a few examples) and then telling you what may have been (so far) left out of this research. In the second paragraph, she shifts to a separate interesting focus that is related to the first but is also quite distinct. Lit reviews very often include two (or three) distinct strands of literature, the combination of which nicely backgrounds this particular study . In the case of our female gymnast study (above), those two strands might be (1) cultures of silence around sports injuries and (2) the importance of coaches. McCabe concludes her short and sweet literature review with one sentence explaining how she is drawing from both strands of the literature she has succinctly presented for her particular study. This example should show you that literature reviews can be readable, helpful, and powerful additions to your final presentation.

Authoritative Academic Journal Example: Working Class Students’ College Expectations

The second example is more typical of academic journal writing. It is an article published in the British Journal of Sociology of Education by Wolfgang Lehmann ( 2009 ):

Although this increase in post-secondary enrolment and the push for university is evident across gender, race, ethnicity, and social class categories, access to university in Canada continues to be significantly constrained for those from lower socio-economic backgrounds (Finnie, Lascelles, and Sweetman 2005). Rising tuition fees coupled with an overestimation of the cost and an underestimation of the benefits of higher education has put university out of reach for many young people from low-income families (Usher 2005). Financial constraints aside, empirical studies in Canada have shown that the most important predictor of university access is parental educational attainment. Having at least one parent with a university degree significantly increases the likelihood of a young person to attend academic-track courses in high school, have high educational and career aspirations, and ultimately attend university (Andres et al. 1999, 2000; Lehmann 2007a). Drawing on Bourdieu’s various writing on habitus and class-based dispositions (see, for example, Bourdieu 1977, 1990), Hodkinson and Sparkes (1997) explain career decisions as neither determined nor completely rational. Instead, they are based on personal experiences (e.g., through employment or other exposure to occupations) and advice from others. Furthermore, they argue that we have to understand these decisions as pragmatic, rather than rational. They are pragmatic in that they are based on incomplete and filtered information, because of the social context in which the information is obtained and processed. New experiences and information can, however, also be allowed into one’s world, where they gradually or radically transform habitus, which in turn creates the possibility for the formation of new and different dispositions. Encountering a supportive teacher in elementary or secondary school, having ambitious friends, or chance encounters can spark such transformations. Transformations can be confirming or contradictory, they can be evolutionary or dislocating. Working-class students who enter university most certainly encounter such potentially transformative situations. Granfield (1991) has shown how initially dislocating feelings of inadequacy and inferiority of working-class students at an elite US law school were eventually replaced by an evolutionary transformation, in which the students came to dress, speak and act more like their middle-class and upper-class peers. In contrast, Lehmann (2007b) showed how persistent habitus dislocation led working-class university students to drop out of university. Foskett and Hemsley-Brown (1999) argue that young people’s perceptions of careers are a complex mix of their own experiences, images conveyed through adults, and derived images conveyed by the media. Media images of careers, perhaps, are even more important for working-class youth with high ambitions as they offer (generally distorted) windows into a world of professional employment to which they have few other sources of access. It has also been argued that working-class youth who do continue to university still face unique, class-specific challenges, evident in higher levels of uncertainty (Baxter and Britton 2001; Lehmann 2004, 2007a; Quinn 2004), their higher education choices (Ball et al. 2002; Brooks 2003; Reay et al. 2001) and fears of inadequacy because of their cultural outsider status (Aries and Seider 2005; Granfield 1991). Although the number of working-class university students in Canada has slowly increased, that of middle-class students at university has risen far more steeply (Knighton and Mizra 2002). These different enrolment trajectories have actually widened the participation gap, which in tum explains our continued concerns with the potential outsider status Indeed, in a study comparing first-generation working-class and traditional students who left university without graduating, Lehmann (2007b) found that first-generation working-class students were more likely to leave university very early in some cases within the first two months of enrollment. They were also more likely to leave university despite solid academic performance. Not “fitting in,” not “feeling university,” and not being able to “relate to these people” were key reasons for eventually withdrawing from university. From the preceding review of the literature, a number of key research questions arise: How do working-class university students frame their decision to attend university? How do they defy the considerable odds documented in the literature to attend university? What are the sources of information and various images that create dispositions to study at university? What role does their social-class background- or habitus play in their transition dispositions and how does this translate into expectations for university? ( 139 )

What did you notice here? How is this different from (and similar to) the first example? Note that rather than provide you with one or two illustrative examples of similar types of research, Lehmann provides abundant source citations throughout. He includes theory and concepts too. Like McCabe, Lehmann is weaving through multiple literature strands: the class gap in higher education participation in Canada, class-based dispositions, and obstacles facing working-class college students. Note how he concludes the literature review by placing his research questions in context.

Find other articles of interest and read their literature reviews carefully. I’ve included two more for you at the end of this chapter . As you learned how to diagram a sentence in elementary school (hopefully!), try diagramming the literature reviews. What are the “different strands” of research being discussed? How does the author connect these strands to their own research questions? Where is theory in the lit review, and how is it incorporated (e.g., Is it a separate strand of its own or is it inextricably linked with previous research in this area)?

One model of how to structure your literature review can be found in table 9.1. More tips, hints, and practices will be discussed later in the chapter.

Table 9.1. Model of Literature Review, Adopted from Calarco (2020:166)

Embracing Theory

A good research study will, in some form or another, use theory. Depending on your particular study (and possibly the preferences of the members of your committee), theory may be built into your literature review. Or it may form its own section in your research proposal/design (e.g., “literature review” followed by “theoretical framework”). In my own experience, I see a lot of graduate students grappling with the requirement to “include theory” in their research proposals. Things get a little squiggly here because there are different ways of incorporating theory into a study (Are you testing a theory? Are you generating a theory?), and based on these differences, your literature review proper may include works that describe, explain, and otherwise set forth theories, concepts, or frameworks you are interested in, or it may not do this at all. Sometimes a literature review sets forth what we know about a particular group or culture totally independent of what kinds of theoretical framework or particular concepts you want to explore. Indeed, the big point of your study might be to bring together a body of work with a theory that has never been applied to it previously. All this is to say that there is no one correct way to approach the use of theory and the writing about theory in your research proposal.

Students are often scared of embracing theory because they do not exactly understand what it is. Sometimes, it seems like an arbitrary requirement. You’re interested in a topic; maybe you’ve even done some research in the area and you have findings you want to report. And then a committee member reads over what you have and asks, “So what?” This question is a good clue that you are missing theory, the part that connects what you have done to what other researchers have done and are doing. You might stumble upon this rather accidentally and not know you are embracing theory, as in a case where you seek to replicate a prior study under new circumstances and end up finding that a particular correlation between behaviors only happens when mediated by something else. There’s theory in there, if you can pull it out and articulate it. Or it might be that you are motivated to do more research on racial microaggressions because you want to document their frequency in a particular setting, taking for granted the kind of critical race theoretical framework that has done the hard work of defining and conceptualizing “microaggressions” in the first place. In that case, your literature review could be a review of Critical Race Theory, specifically related to this one important concept. That’s the way to bring your study into a broader conversation while also acknowledging (and honoring) the hard work that has preceded you.

Rubin ( 2021 ) classifies ways of incorporating theory into case study research into four categories, each of which might be discussed somewhat differently in a literature review or theoretical framework section. The first, the least theoretical, is where you set out to study a “configurative idiographic case” ( 70 ) This is where you set out to describe a particular case, leaving yourself pretty much open to whatever you find. You are not expecting anything based on previous literature. This is actually pretty weak as far as research design goes, but it is probably the default for novice researchers. Your committee members should probably help you situate this in previous literature in some way or another. If they cannot, and it really does appear you are looking at something fairly new that no one else has bothered to research before, and you really are completely open to discovery, you might try using a Grounded Theory approach, which is a methodological approach that foregrounds the generation of theory. In that case, your “theory” section can be a discussion of “Grounded Theory” methodology (confusing, yes, but if you take some time to ponder, you will see how this works). You will still need a literature review, though. Ideally one that describes other studies that have ever looked at anything remotely like what you are looking at—parallel cases that have been researched.

The second approach is the “disciplined configurative case,” in which theory is applied to explain a particular case or topic. You are not trying to test the theory but rather assuming the theory is correct, as in the case of exploring microaggressions in a particular setting. In this case, you really do need to have a separate theory section in addition to the literature review, one in which you clearly define the theoretical framework, including any of its important concepts. You can use this section to discuss how other researchers have used the concepts and note any discrepancies in definitions or operationalization of those concepts. This way you will be sure to design your study so that it speaks to and with other researchers. If everyone who is writing about microaggressions has a different definition of them, it is hard for others to compare findings or make any judgments about their prevalence (or any number of other important characteristics). Your literature review section may then stand alone and describe previous research in the particular area or setting, irrespective of the kinds of theory underlying those studies.

The third approach is “heuristic,” one in which you seek to identify new variables, hypotheses, mechanisms, or paths not yet explained by a theory or theoretical framework. In a way, you are generating new theory, but it is probably more accurate to say that you are extending or deepening preexisting theory. In this case, having a single literature review that is focused on the theory and the ways the theory has been applied and understood (with all its various mechanisms and pathways) is probably your best option. The focus of the literature reviewed is less on the case and more on the theory you are seeking to extend.

The final approach is “theory testing,” which is much rarer in qualitative studies than in quantitative, where this is the default approach. Theory-testing cases are those where a particular case is used to see if an existing theory is accurate or accurate under particular circumstances. As with the heuristic approach, your literature review will probably draw heavily on previous uses of the theory, but you may end up having a special section specifically about cases very close to your own . In other words, the more your study approaches theory testing, the more likely there is to be a set of similar studies to draw on or even one important key study that you are setting your own study up in parallel to in order to find out if the theory generated there operates here.

If we wanted to get very technical, it might be useful to distinguish theoretical frameworks properly from conceptual frameworks. The latter are a bit looser and, given the nature of qualitative research, often fit exploratory studies. Theoretical frameworks rely on specific theories and are essential for theory-testing studies. Conceptual frameworks can pull in specific concepts or ideas that may or may not be linked to particular theories. Think about it this way: A theory is a story of how the world works. Concepts don’t presume to explain the whole world but instead are ways to approach phenomena to help make sense of them. Microaggressions are concepts that are linked to Critical Race Theory. One could contextualize one’s study within Critical Race Theory and then draw various concepts, such as that of microaggressions from the overall theoretical framework. Or one could bracket out the master theory or framework and employ the concept of microaggression more opportunistically as a phenomenon of interest. If you are unsure of what theory you are using, you might want to frame a more practical conceptual framework in your review of the literature.

Helpful Tips

How to maintain good notes for what your read.

Over the years, I have developed various ways of organizing notes on what I read. At first, I used a single sheet of full-size paper with a preprinted list of questions and points clearly addressed on the front side, leaving the second side for more reflective comments and free-form musings about what I read, why it mattered, and how it might be useful for my research. Later, I developed a system in which I use a single 4″ × 6″ note card for each book I read. I try only to use the front side (and write very small), leaving the back for comments that are about not just this reading but things to do or examine or consider based on the reading. These notes often mean nothing to anyone else picking up the card, but they make sense to me. I encourage you to find an organizing system that works for you. Then when you set out to compose a literature review, instead of staring at five to ten books or a dozen articles, you will have ten neatly printed pages or notecards or files that have distilled what is important to know about your reading.

It is also a good idea to store this data digitally, perhaps through a reference manager. I use RefWorks, but I also recommend EndNote or any other system that allows you to search institutional databases. Your campus library will probably provide access to one of these or another system. Most systems will allow you to export references from another manager if and when you decide to move to another system. Reference managers allow you to sort through all your literature by descriptor, author, year, and so on. Even so, I personally like to have the ability to manually sort through my index cards, recategorizing things I have read as I go. I use RefWorks to keep a record of what I have read, with proper citations, so I can create bibliographies more easily, and I do add in a few “notes” there, but the bulk of my notes are kept in longhand.

What kinds of information should you include from your reading? Here are some bulleted suggestions from Calarco ( 2020:113–114 ), with my own emendations:

Citation . If you are using a reference manager, you can import the citation and then, when you are ready to create a bibliography, you can use a provided menu of citation styles, which saves a lot of time. If you’ve originally formatted in Chicago Style but the journal you are writing for wants APA style, you can change your entire bibliography in less than a minute. When using a notecard for a book, I include author, title, date as well as the library call number (since most of what I read I pull from the library). This is something RefWorks is not able to do, and it helps when I categorize.

I begin each notecard with an “intro” section, where I record the aims, goals, and general point of the book/article as explained in the introductory sections (which might be the preface, the acknowledgments, or the first two chapters). I then draw a bold line underneath this part of the notecard. Everything after that should be chapter specific. Included in this intro section are things such as the following, recommended by Calarco ( 2020 ):

Key background . “Two to three short bullet points identifying the theory/prior research on which the authors are building and defining key terms.”
Data/methods . “One or two short bullet points with information about the source of the data and the method of analysis, with a note if this is a novel or particularly effective example of that method.” I use [M] to signal methodology on my notecard, which might read, “[M] Int[erview]s (n-35), B[lack]/W[hite] voters” (I need shorthand to fit on my notecard!).
Research question . “Stated as briefly as possible.” I always provide page numbers so I can go back and see exactly how this was stated (sometimes, in qualitative research, there are multiple research questions, and they cannot be stated simply).
Argument/contributions . “Two to three short bullet points briefly describing the authors’ answer to the central research question and its implication for research, theory, and practice.” I use [ARG] for argument to signify the argument, and I make sure this is prominently visible on my notecard. I also provide page numbers here.

For me, all of this fits in the “intro” section, which, if this is a theoretically rich, methodologically sound book, might take up a third or even half of the front page of my notecard. Beneath the bold underline, I report specific findings or particulars of the book as they emerge chapter by chapter. Calarco’s ( 2020 ) next step is the following:

Key findings . “Three to four short bullet points identifying key patterns in the data that support the authors’ argument.”

All that remains is writing down thoughts that occur upon finishing the article/book. I use the back of the notecard for these kinds of notes. Often, they reach out to other things I have read (e.g., “Robinson reminds me of Crusoe here in that both are looking at the effects of social isolation, but I think Robinson makes a stronger argument”). Calarco ( 2020 ) concludes similarly with the following:

Unanswered questions . “Two to three short bullet points that identify key limitations of the research and/or questions the research did not answer that could be answered in future research.”

As I mentioned, when I first began taking notes like this, I preprinted pages with prompts for “research question,” “argument,” and so on. This was a great way to remind myself to look for these things in particular. You can do the same, adding whatever preprinted sections make sense to you, given what you are studying and the important aspects of your discipline. The other nice thing about the preprinted forms is that it keeps your writing to a minimum—you cannot write more than the allotted space, even if you might want to, preventing your notes from spiraling out of control. This can be helpful when we are new to a subject and everything seems worth recording!

After years of discipline, I have finally settled on my notecard approach. I have thousands of notecards, organized in several index card filing boxes stacked in my office. On the top right of each card is a note of the month/day I finished reading the item. I can remind myself what I read in the summer of 2010 if the need or desire ever arose to do so…those invaluable notecards are like a memento of what my brain has been up to!

Where to Start Looking for Literature

Your university library should provide access to one of several searchable databases for academic books and articles. My own preference is JSTOR, a service of ITHAKA, a not-for-profit organization that works to advance and preserve knowledge and to improve teaching and learning through the use of digital technologies. JSTOR allows you to search by several keywords and to narrow your search by type of material (articles or books). For many disciplines, the “literature” of the literature review is expected to be peer-reviewed “articles,” but some disciplines will also value books and book chapters. JSTOR is particularly useful for article searching. You can submit several keywords and see what is returned, and you can also narrow your search by a particular journal or discipline. If your discipline has one or two key journals (e.g., the American Journal of Sociology and the American Sociological Review are key for sociology), you might want to go directly to those journals’ websites and search for your topic area. There is an art to when to cast your net widely and when to refine your search, and you may have to tack back and forth to ensure that you are getting all that is relevant but not getting bogged down in all studies that might have some marginal relevance.

Some articles will carry more weight than others, and you can use applications like Google Scholar to see which articles have made and are continuing to make larger impacts on your discipline. Find these articles and read them carefully; use their literature review and the sources cited in those articles to make sure you are capturing what is relevant. This is actually a really good way of finding relevant books—only the most impactful will make it into the citations of journals. Over time, you will notice that a handful of articles (or books) are cited so often that when you see, say, Armstrong and Hamilton ( 2015 ), you know exactly what book this is without looking at the full cite. This is when you know you are in the conversation.

You might also approach a professor whose work is broadly in the area of your interest and ask them to recommend one or two “important” foundational articles or books. You can then use the references cited in those recommendations to build up your literature. Just be careful: some older professors’ knowledge of the literature (and I reluctantly add myself here) may be a bit outdated! It is best that the article or book whose references and sources you use to build your body of literature be relatively current.

Keep a List of Your Keywords

When using searchable databases, it is a good idea to keep a list of all the keywords you use as you go along so that (1) you do not needlessly duplicate your efforts and (2) you can more easily adjust your search as you get a better sense of what you are looking for. I suggest you keep a separate file or even a small notebook for this and you date your search efforts.

Here’s an example:

Table 9.2. Keep a List of Your Keywords

Think Laterally

How to find the various strands of literature to combine? Don’t get stuck on finding the exact same research topic you think you are interested in. In the female gymnast example, I recommended that my student consider looking for studies of ballerinas, who also suffer sports injuries and around whom there is a similar culture of silence. It turned out that there was in fact research about my student’s particular questions, just not about the subjects she was interested in. You might do something similar. Don’t get stuck looking for too direct literature but think about the broader phenomenon of interest or analogous cases.

Read Outside the Canon

Some scholars’ work gets cited by everyone all the time. To some extent, this is a very good thing, as it helps establish the discipline. For example, there are a lot of “Bourdieu scholars” out there (myself included) who draw ideas, concepts, and quoted passages from Bourdieu. This makes us recognizable to one another and is a way of sharing a common language (e.g., where “cultural capital” has a particular meaning to those versed in Bourdieusian theory). There are empirical studies that get cited over and over again because they are excellent studies but also because there is an “echo chamber effect” going on, where knowing to cite this study marks you as part of the club, in the know, and so on. But here’s the problem with this: there are hundreds if not thousands of excellent studies out there that fail to get appreciated because they are crowded out by the canon. Sometimes this happens because they are published in “lower-ranked” journals and are never read by a lot of scholars who don’t have time to read anything other than the “big three” in their field. Other times this happens because the author falls outside of the dominant social networks in the field and thus is unmentored and fails to get noticed by those who publish a lot in those highly ranked and visible spaces. Scholars who fall outside the dominant social networks and who publish outside of the top-ranked journals are in no way less insightful than their peers, and their studies may be just as rigorous and relevant to your work, so it is important for you to take some time to read outside the canon. Due to how a person’s race, gender, and class operate in the academy, there is also a matter of social justice and ethical responsibility involved here: “When you focus on the most-cited research, you’re more likely to miss relevant research by women and especially women of color, whose research tends to be under-cited in most fields. You’re also more likely to miss new research, research by junior scholars, and research in other disciplines that could inform your work. Essentially, it is important to read and cite responsibly, which means checking that you’re not just reading and citing the same white men and the same old studies that everyone has cited before you” ( Calarco 2020:112 ).

Consider Multiple Uses for Literature

Throughout this chapter, I’ve referred to the literature of interest in a rather abstract way, as what is relevant to your study. But there are many different ways previous research can be relevant to your study. The most basic use of the literature is the “findings”—for example, “So-and-so found that Canadian working-class students were concerned about ‘fitting in’ to the culture of college, and I am going to look at a similar question here in the US.” But the literature may be of interest not for its findings but theoretically—for example, employing concepts that you want to employ in your own study. Bourdieu’s definition of social capital may have emerged in a study of French professors, but it can still be relevant in a study of, say, how parents make choices about what preschools to send their kids to (also a good example of lateral thinking!).

If you are engaged in some novel methodological form of data collection or analysis, you might look for previous literature that has attempted that. I would not recommend this for undergraduate research projects, but for graduate students who are considering “breaking the mold,” find out if anyone has been there before you. Even if their study has absolutely nothing else in common with yours, it is important to acknowledge that previous work.

Describing Gaps in the Literature

First, be careful! Although it is common to explain how your research adds to, builds upon, and fills in gaps in the previous research (see all four literature review examples in this chapter for this), there is a fine line between describing the gaps and misrepresenting previous literature by failing to conduct a thorough review of the literature. A little humility can make a big difference in your presentation. Instead of “This is the first study that has looked at how firefighters juggle childcare during forest fire season,” say, “I use the previous literature on how working parents juggling childcare and the previous ethnographic studies of firefighters to explore how firefighters juggle childcare during forest fire season.” You can even add, “To my knowledge, no one has conducted an ethnographic study in this specific area, although what we have learned from X about childcare and from Y about firefighters would lead us to expect Z here.” Read more literature review sections to see how others have described the “gaps” they are filling.

Use Concept Mapping

Concept mapping is a helpful tool for getting your thoughts in order and is particularly helpful when thinking about the “literature” foundational to your particular study. Concept maps are also known as mind maps, which is a delightful way to think about them. Your brain is probably abuzz with competing ideas in the early stages of your research design. Write/draw them on paper, and then try to categorize and move the pieces around into “clusters” that make sense to you. Going back to the gymnasts example, my student might have begun by jotting down random words of interest: gymnasts * sports * coaches * female gymnasts * stress * injury * don’t complain * women in sports * bad coaching * anxiety/stress * careers in sports * pain. She could then have begun clustering these into relational categories (bad coaching, don’t complain culture) and simple “event” categories (injury, stress). This might have led her to think about reviewing literature in these two separate aspects and then literature that put them together. There is no correct way to draw a concept map, as they are wonderfully specific to your mind. There are many examples you can find online.

Ask Yourself, “How Is This Sociology (or Political Science or Public Policy, Etc.)?”

Rubin ( 2021:82 ) offers this suggestion instead of asking yourself the “So what?” question to get you thinking about what bridges there are between your study and the body of research in your particular discipline. This is particularly helpful for thinking about theory. Rubin further suggests that if you are really stumped, ask yourself, “What is the really big question that all [fill in your discipline here] care about?” For sociology, it might be “inequality,” which would then help you think about theories of inequality that might be helpful in framing your study on whatever it is you are studying—OnlyFans? Childcare during COVID? Aging in America? I can think of some interesting ways to frame questions about inequality for any of those topics. You can further narrow it by focusing on particular aspects of inequality (Gender oppression? Racial exclusion? Heteronormativity?). If your discipline is public policy, the big questions there might be, How does policy get enacted, and what makes a policy effective? You can then take whatever your particular policy interest is—tax reform, student debt relief, cap-and-trade regulations—and apply those big questions. Doing so would give you a handle on what is otherwise an intolerably vague subject (e.g., What about student debt relief?).

Sometimes finding you are in new territory means you’ve hit the jackpot, and sometimes it means you’ve traveled out of bounds for your discipline. The jackpot scenario is wonderful. You are doing truly innovative research that is combining multiple literatures or is addressing a new or under-examined phenomenon of interest, and your research has the potential to be groundbreaking. Congrats! But that’s really hard to do, and it might be more likely that you’ve traveled out of bounds, by which I mean, you are no longer in your discipline . It might be that no one has written about this thing—at least within your field— because no one in your field actually cares about this topic . ( Rubin 2021:83 ; emphases added)

Don’t Treat This as a Chore

Don’t treat the literature review as a chore that has to be completed, but see it for what it really is—you are building connections to other researchers out there. You want to represent your discipline or area of study fairly and adequately. Demonstrate humility and your knowledge of previous research. Be part of the conversation.

Supplement: Two More Literature Review Examples

Elites by harvey ( 2011 ).

In the last two decades, there has been a small but growing literature on elites. In part, this has been a result of the resurgence of ethnographic research such as interviews, focus groups, case studies, and participant observation but also because scholars have become increasingly interested in understanding the perspectives and behaviors of leaders in business, politics, and society as a whole. Yet until recently, our understanding of some of the methodological challenges of researching elites has lagged behind our rush to interview them.

There is no clear-cut definition of the term elite, and given its broad understanding across the social sciences, scholars have tended to adopt different approaches. Zuckerman (1972) uses the term ultraelites to describe individuals who hold a significant amount of power within a group that is already considered elite. She argues, for example, that US senators constitute part of the country’s political elite but that among them are the ultraelites: a “subset of particularly powerful or prestigious influentials” (160). She suggests that there is a hierarchy of status within elite groups. McDowell (1998) analyses a broader group of “professional elites” who are employees working at different levels for merchant and investment banks in London. She classifies this group as elite because they are “highly skilled, professionally competent, and class-specific” (2135). Parry (1998:2148) uses the term hybrid elites in the context of the international trade of genetic material because she argues that critical knowledge exists not in traditional institutions “but rather as increasingly informal, hybridised, spatially fragmented, and hence largely ‘invisible,’ networks of elite actors.” Given the undertheorization of the term elite, Smith (2006) recognizes why scholars have shaped their definitions to match their respondents . However, she is rightly critical of the underlying assumption that those who hold professional positions necessarily exert as much influence as initially perceived. Indeed, job titles can entirely misrepresent the role of workers and therefore are by no means an indicator of elite status (Harvey 2010).

Many scholars have used the term elite in a relational sense, defining them either in terms of their social position compared to the researcher or compared to the average person in society (Stephens 2007). The problem with this definition is there is no guarantee that an elite subject will necessarily translate this power and authority in an interview setting. Indeed, Smith (2006) found that on the few occasions she experienced respondents wanting to exert their authority over her, it was not from elites but from relatively less senior workers. Furthermore, although business and political elites often receive extensive media training, they are often scrutinized by television and radio journalists and therefore can also feel threatened in an interview, particularly in contexts that are less straightforward to prepare for such as academic interviews. On several occasions, for instance, I have been asked by elite respondents or their personal assistants what they need to prepare for before the interview, which suggests that they consider the interview as some form of challenge or justification for what they do.

In many cases, it is not necessarily the figureheads or leaders of organizations and institutions who have the greatest claim to elite status but those who hold important social networks, social capital, and strategic positions within social structures because they are better able to exert influence (Burt 1992; Parry 1998; Smith 2005; Woods 1998). An elite status can also change, with people both gaining and losing theirs over time. In addition, it is geographically specific, with people holding elite status in some but not all locations. In short, it is clear that the term elite can mean many things in different contexts, which explains the range of definitions. The purpose here is not to critique these other definitions but rather to highlight the variety of perspectives.

When referring to my research, I define elites as those who occupy senior-management- and board-level positions within organizations. This is a similar scope of definition to Zuckerman’s (1972) but focuses on a level immediately below her ultraelite subjects. My definition is narrower than McDowell’s (1998) because it is clear in the context of my research that these people have significant decision-making influence within and outside of the firm and therefore present a unique challenge to interview. I deliberately use the term elite more broadly when drawing on examples from the theoretical literature in order to compare my experiences with those who have researched similar groups.

”Changing Dispositions among the Upwardly Mobile” by Curl, Lareau, and Wu ( 2018 )

There is growing interest in the role of cultural practices in undergirding the social stratification system. For example, Lamont et al. (2014) critically assess the preoccupation with economic dimensions of social stratification and call for more developed cultural models of the transmission of inequality. The importance of cultural factors in the maintenance of social inequality has also received empirical attention from some younger scholars, including Calarco (2011, 2014) and Streib (2015). Yet questions remain regarding the degree to which economic position is tied to cultural sensibilities and the ways in which these cultural sensibilities are imprinted on the self or are subject to change. Although habitus is a core concept in Bourdieu’s theory of social reproduction, there is limited empirical attention to the precise areas of the habitus that can be subject to change during upward mobility as well as the ramifications of these changes for family life.

In Bourdieu’s (1984) highly influential work on the importance of class-based cultural dispositions, habitus is defined as a “durable system of dispositions” created in childhood. The habitus provides a “matrix of perceptions” that seems natural while also structuring future actions and pathways. In many of his writings, Bourdieu emphasized the durability of cultural tastes and dispositions and did not consider empirically whether these dispositions might be changed or altered throughout one’s life (Swartz 1997). His theoretical work does permit the possibility of upward mobility and transformation, however, through the ability of the habitus to “improvise” or “change” due to “new experiences” (Friedman 2016:131). Researchers have differed in opinion on the durability of the habitus and its ability to change (King 2000). Based on marital conflict in cross-class marriages, for instance, Streib (2015) argues that cultural dispositions of individuals raised in working-class families are deeply embedded and largely unchanging. In a somewhat different vein, Horvat and Davis (2011:152) argue that young adults enrolled in an alternative educational program undergo important shifts in their self-perception, such as “self-esteem” and their “ability to accomplish something of value.” Others argue there is variability in the degree to which habitus changes dependent on life experience and personality (Christodoulou and Spyridakis 2016). Recently, additional studies have investigated the habitus as it intersects with lifestyle through the lens of meaning making (Ambrasat et al. 2016). There is, therefore, ample discussion of class-based cultural practices in self-perception (Horvat and Davis 2011), lifestyle (Ambrasat et al. 2016), and other forms of taste (Andrews 2012; Bourdieu 1984), yet researchers have not sufficiently delineated which aspects of the habitus might change through upward mobility or which specific dimensions of life prompt moments of class-based conflict.

Bourdieu (1999:511; 2004) acknowledged simmering tensions between the durable aspects of habitus and those aspects that have been transformed—that is, a “fractured” or “cleft” habitus. Others have explored these tensions as a “divided” or “fragmented” habitus (Baxter and Britton 2001; Lee and Kramer 2013). Each of these conceptions of the habitus implies that changes in cultural dispositions are possible but come with costs. Exploration of the specific aspects of one’s habitus that can change and generate conflict contributes to this literature.

Scholars have also studied the costs associated with academic success for working-class undergraduates (Hurst 2010; Lee and Kramer 2013; London 1989; Reay 2017; Rondini 2016; Stuber 2011), but we know little about the lasting effects on adults. For instance, Lee and Kramer (2013) point to cross-class tensions as family and friends criticize upwardly mobile individuals for their newly acquired cultural dispositions. Documenting the tension many working-class students experience with their friends and families of origin, they find that the source of their pain or struggle is “shaped not only by their interactions with non-mobile family and friends but also within their own minds, by their own assessments of their social positions, and by how those positions are interpreted by others” (Lee and Kramer 2013:29). Hurst (2010) also explores the experiences of undergraduates who have been academically successful and the costs associated with that success. She finds that decisions about “class allegiance and identity” are required aspects of what it means to “becom[e] educated” (4) and that working-class students deal with these cultural changes differently. Jack (2014, 2016) also argues that there is diversity among lower-income students, which yields varied college experiences. Naming two groups, the “doubly disadvantaged” and the “privileged poor,” he argues that previous experience with “elite environments” (2014:456) prior to college informs students’ ability to take on dominant cultural practices, particularly around engagement, such as help seeking or meeting with professors (2016). These studies shed light on the role college might play as a “lever for mobility” (2016:15) and discuss the pain and difficulty associated with upward mobility among undergraduates, but the studies do not illuminate how these tensions unfold in adulthood. Neither have they sufficiently addressed potential enduring tensions with extended family members as well as the specific nature of the difficulties.

Some scholars point to the positive outcomes upwardly mobile youth (Lehmann 2009) and adults (Stuber 2005) experience when they maintain a different habitus than their newly acquired class position, although, as Jack (2014, 2016) shows, those experiences may vary depending on one’s experience with elite environments in their youth. Researchers have not sufficiently explored the specific aspects of the habitus that upwardly mobile adults change or the conflicts that emerge with family and childhood friends as they reach adulthood and experience colliding social worlds. We contribute to this scholarship with clear examples of self-reported changes to one’s cultural dispositions in three specific areas: “horizons,” food and health, and communication. We link these changes to enduring tension with family members, friends, and colleagues and explore varied responses to this tension based on race.

Writing a Literature Review

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

A literature review is a document or section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and discusses those sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis ). The lit review is an important genre in many disciplines, not just literature (i.e., the study of works of literature such as novels and plays). When we say “literature review” or refer to “the literature,” we are talking about the research ( scholarship ) in a given field. You will often see the terms “the research,” “the scholarship,” and “the literature” used mostly interchangeably.

Where, when, and why would I write a lit review?

There are a number of different situations where you might write a literature review, each with slightly different expectations; different disciplines, too, have field-specific expectations for what a literature review is and does. For instance, in the humanities, authors might include more overt argumentation and interpretation of source material in their literature reviews, whereas in the sciences, authors are more likely to report study designs and results in their literature reviews; these differences reflect these disciplines’ purposes and conventions in scholarship. You should always look at examples from your own discipline and talk to professors or mentors in your field to be sure you understand your discipline’s conventions, for literature reviews as well as for any other genre.

A literature review can be a part of a research paper or scholarly article, usually falling after the introduction and before the research methods sections. In these cases, the lit review just needs to cover scholarship that is important to the issue you are writing about; sometimes it will also cover key sources that informed your research methodology.

Lit reviews can also be standalone pieces, either as assignments in a class or as publications. In a class, a lit review may be assigned to help students familiarize themselves with a topic and with scholarship in their field, get an idea of the other researchers working on the topic they’re interested in, find gaps in existing research in order to propose new projects, and/or develop a theoretical framework and methodology for later research. As a publication, a lit review usually is meant to help make other scholars’ lives easier by collecting and summarizing, synthesizing, and analyzing existing research on a topic. This can be especially helpful for students or scholars getting into a new research area, or for directing an entire community of scholars toward questions that have not yet been answered.

What are the parts of a lit review?

Most lit reviews use a basic introduction-body-conclusion structure; if your lit review is part of a larger paper, the introduction and conclusion pieces may be just a few sentences while you focus most of your attention on the body. If your lit review is a standalone piece, the introduction and conclusion take up more space and give you a place to discuss your goals, research methods, and conclusions separately from where you discuss the literature itself.

Introduction:

An introductory paragraph that explains what your working topic and thesis is
A forecast of key topics or texts that will appear in the review
Potentially, a description of how you found sources and how you analyzed them for inclusion and discussion in the review (more often found in published, standalone literature reviews than in lit review sections in an article or research paper)
Summarize and synthesize: Give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
Analyze and interpret: Don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
Critically Evaluate: Mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
Write in well-structured paragraphs: Use transition words and topic sentence to draw connections, comparisons, and contrasts.

Conclusion:

Summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance
Connect it back to your primary research question

How should I organize my lit review?

Lit reviews can take many different organizational patterns depending on what you are trying to accomplish with the review. Here are some examples:

Chronological : The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time, which helps familiarize the audience with the topic (for instance if you are introducing something that is not commonly known in your field). If you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze the patterns, turning points, and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred (as mentioned previously, this may not be appropriate in your discipline — check with a teacher or mentor if you’re unsure).
Thematic : If you have found some recurring central themes that you will continue working with throughout your piece, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about women and religion, key themes can include the role of women in churches and the religious attitude towards women.
Qualitative versus quantitative research
Empirical versus theoretical scholarship
Divide the research by sociological, historical, or cultural sources
Theoretical : In many humanities articles, the literature review is the foundation for the theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You can argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach or combine various theorical concepts to create a framework for your research.

What are some strategies or tips I can use while writing my lit review?

Any lit review is only as good as the research it discusses; make sure your sources are well-chosen and your research is thorough. Don’t be afraid to do more research if you discover a new thread as you’re writing. More info on the research process is available in our "Conducting Research" resources .

As you’re doing your research, create an annotated bibliography ( see our page on the this type of document ). Much of the information used in an annotated bibliography can be used also in a literature review, so you’ll be not only partially drafting your lit review as you research, but also developing your sense of the larger conversation going on among scholars, professionals, and any other stakeholders in your topic.

Usually you will need to synthesize research rather than just summarizing it. This means drawing connections between sources to create a picture of the scholarly conversation on a topic over time. Many student writers struggle to synthesize because they feel they don’t have anything to add to the scholars they are citing; here are some strategies to help you:

It often helps to remember that the point of these kinds of syntheses is to show your readers how you understand your research, to help them read the rest of your paper.
Writing teachers often say synthesis is like hosting a dinner party: imagine all your sources are together in a room, discussing your topic. What are they saying to each other?
Look at the in-text citations in each paragraph. Are you citing just one source for each paragraph? This usually indicates summary only. When you have multiple sources cited in a paragraph, you are more likely to be synthesizing them (not always, but often
Read more about synthesis here.

The most interesting literature reviews are often written as arguments (again, as mentioned at the beginning of the page, this is discipline-specific and doesn’t work for all situations). Often, the literature review is where you can establish your research as filling a particular gap or as relevant in a particular way. You have some chance to do this in your introduction in an article, but the literature review section gives a more extended opportunity to establish the conversation in the way you would like your readers to see it. You can choose the intellectual lineage you would like to be part of and whose definitions matter most to your thinking (mostly humanities-specific, but this goes for sciences as well). In addressing these points, you argue for your place in the conversation, which tends to make the lit review more compelling than a simple reporting of other sources.

COMMENTS

Top 20 Literature Interview Questions & Answers
Master your responses to Literature related interview questions with our example questions and answers. Boost your chances of landing the job by learning how to effectively communicate your Literature capabilities.
Top 10 Questions for a Complete Literature Review - Enago
10 Questions for a Comprehensive Literature Review. 1. Do I have clearly defined research aims prior to commencing the review? It is important to choose a focused question that can efficiently direct your search. It can assist you to create a list of keywords related to your research problem.
How to Conduct a Literature Review for an Interview - LinkedIn
Learn how to showcase your research skills by conducting a literature review for an interview. Find out how to choose, organize, synthesize, practice, and present your literature review.
Chapter 9. Reviewing the Literature – Introduction to ...
Chapter 9. Reviewing the Literature. What is a “Literature Review”? No researcher ever comes up with a research question that is wholly novel. Someone, somewhere, has asked the same thing.
Writing a Literature Review - Purdue OWL® - Purdue University
Critically Evaluate: Mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources. Write in well-structured paragraphs: Use transition words and topic sentence to draw connections, comparisons, and contrasts. Conclusion: Summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.
Conducting Your Literature Review
Each chapter introduces you ﬁrst to the general ideas or concepts that are important for the step in the literature review. It then explains the procedure and its purpose and outlines the ways to operationalize the step, that is, how you can translate it into conducting your literature review.

Top 20 Literature Interview Questions & Answers