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The Complete IB Extended Essay Guide: Examples, Topics, and Ideas

International Baccalaureate (IB)

IB students around the globe fear writing the Extended Essay, but it doesn't have to be a source of stress! In this article, I'll get you excited about writing your Extended Essay and provide you with the resources you need to get an A on it.

If you're reading this article, I'm going to assume you're an IB student getting ready to write your Extended Essay. If you're looking at this as a potential future IB student, I recommend reading our introductory IB articles first, including our guide to what the IB program is and our full coverage of the IB curriculum .

IB Extended Essay: Why Should You Trust My Advice?

I myself am a recipient of an IB Diploma, and I happened to receive an A on my IB Extended Essay. Don't believe me? The proof is in the IBO pudding:

If you're confused by what this report means, EE is short for Extended Essay , and English A1 is the subject that my Extended Essay topic coordinated with. In layman's terms, my IB Diploma was graded in May 2010, I wrote my Extended Essay in the English A1 category, and I received an A grade on it.

What Is the Extended Essay in the IB Diploma Programme?

The IB Extended Essay, or EE , is a mini-thesis you write under the supervision of an IB advisor (an IB teacher at your school), which counts toward your IB Diploma (learn more about the major IB Diploma requirements in our guide) . I will explain exactly how the EE affects your Diploma later in this article.

For the Extended Essay, you will choose a research question as a topic, conduct the research independently, then write an essay on your findings . The essay itself is a long one—although there's a cap of 4,000 words, most successful essays get very close to this limit.

Keep in mind that the IB requires this essay to be a "formal piece of academic writing," meaning you'll have to do outside research and cite additional sources.

The IB Extended Essay must include the following:

• A title page
• Contents page
• Introduction
• Body of the essay
• References and bibliography

Additionally, your research topic must fall into one of the six approved DP categories , or IB subject groups, which are as follows:

• Group 1: Studies in Language and Literature
• Group 2: Language Acquisition
• Group 3: Individuals and Societies
• Group 4: Sciences
• Group 5: Mathematics
• Group 6: The Arts

Once you figure out your category and have identified a potential research topic, it's time to pick your advisor, who is normally an IB teacher at your school (though you can also find one online ). This person will help direct your research, and they'll conduct the reflection sessions you'll have to do as part of your Extended Essay.

As of 2018, the IB requires a "reflection process" as part of your EE supervision process. To fulfill this requirement, you have to meet at least three times with your supervisor in what the IB calls "reflection sessions." These meetings are not only mandatory but are also part of the formal assessment of the EE and your research methods.

According to the IB, the purpose of these meetings is to "provide an opportunity for students to reflect on their engagement with the research process." Basically, these meetings give your supervisor the opportunity to offer feedback, push you to think differently, and encourage you to evaluate your research process.

The final reflection session is called the viva voce, and it's a short 10- to 15-minute interview between you and your advisor. This happens at the very end of the EE process, and it's designed to help your advisor write their report, which factors into your EE grade.

Here are the topics covered in your viva voce :

• A check on plagiarism and malpractice
• Your reflection on your project's successes and difficulties
• Your reflection on what you've learned during the EE process

Your completed Extended Essay, along with your supervisor's report, will then be sent to the IB to be graded. We'll cover the assessment criteria in just a moment.

We'll help you learn how to have those "lightbulb" moments...even on test day!  

What Should You Write About in Your IB Extended Essay?

You can technically write about anything, so long as it falls within one of the approved categories listed above.

It's best to choose a topic that matches one of the IB courses , (such as Theatre, Film, Spanish, French, Math, Biology, etc.), which shouldn't be difficult because there are so many class subjects.

Here is a range of sample topics with the attached extended essay:

• Biology: The Effect of Age and Gender on the Photoreceptor Cells in the Human Retina
• Chemistry: How Does Reflux Time Affect the Yield and Purity of Ethyl Aminobenzoate (Benzocaine), and How Effective is Recrystallisation as a Purification Technique for This Compound?
• English: An Exploration of Jane Austen's Use of the Outdoors in Emma
• Geography: The Effect of Location on the Educational Attainment of Indigenous Secondary Students in Queensland, Australia
• Math: Alhazen's Billiard Problem
• Visual Arts: Can Luc Tuymans Be Classified as a Political Painter?

You can see from how varied the topics are that you have a lot of freedom when it comes to picking a topic . So how do you pick when the options are limitless?

How to Write a Stellar IB Extended Essay: 6 Essential Tips

Below are six key tips to keep in mind as you work on your Extended Essay for the IB DP. Follow these and you're sure to get an A!

#1: Write About Something You Enjoy

You can't expect to write a compelling essay if you're not a fan of the topic on which you're writing. For example, I just love British theatre and ended up writing my Extended Essay on a revolution in post-WWII British theatre. (Yes, I'm definitely a #TheatreNerd.)

I really encourage anyone who pursues an IB Diploma to take the Extended Essay seriously. I was fortunate enough to receive a full-tuition merit scholarship to USC's School of Dramatic Arts program. In my interview for the scholarship, I spoke passionately about my Extended Essay; thus, I genuinely think my Extended Essay helped me get my scholarship.

But how do you find a topic you're passionate about? Start by thinking about which classes you enjoy the most and why . Do you like math classes because you like to solve problems? Or do you enjoy English because you like to analyze literary texts?

Keep in mind that there's no right or wrong answer when it comes to choosing your Extended Essay topic. You're not more likely to get high marks because you're writing about science, just like you're not doomed to failure because you've chosen to tackle the social sciences. The quality of what you produce—not the field you choose to research within—will determine your grade.

Once you've figured out your category, you should brainstorm more specific topics by putting pen to paper . What was your favorite chapter you learned in that class? Was it astrophysics or mechanics? What did you like about that specific chapter? Is there something you want to learn more about? I recommend spending a few hours on this type of brainstorming.

One last note: if you're truly stumped on what to research, pick a topic that will help you in your future major or career . That way you can use your Extended Essay as a talking point in your college essays (and it will prepare you for your studies to come too!).

#2: Select a Topic That Is Neither Too Broad nor Too Narrow

There's a fine line between broad and narrow. You need to write about something specific, but not so specific that you can't write 4,000 words on it.

You can't write about WWII because that would be a book's worth of material. You also don't want to write about what type of soup prisoners of war received behind enemy lines, because you probably won’t be able to come up with 4,000 words of material about it. However, you could possibly write about how the conditions in German POW camps—and the rations provided—were directly affected by the Nazis' successes and failures on the front, including the use of captured factories and prison labor in Eastern Europe to increase production. WWII military history might be a little overdone, but you get my point.

If you're really stuck trying to pinpoint a not-too-broad-or-too-narrow topic, I suggest trying to brainstorm a topic that uses a comparison. Once you begin looking through the list of sample essays below, you'll notice that many use comparisons to formulate their main arguments.

I also used a comparison in my EE, contrasting Harold Pinter's Party Time with John Osborne's Look Back in Anger in order to show a transition in British theatre. Topics with comparisons of two to three plays, books, and so on tend to be the sweet spot. You can analyze each item and then compare them with one another after doing some in-depth analysis of each individually. The ways these items compare and contrast will end up forming the thesis of your essay!

When choosing a comparative topic, the key is that the comparison should be significant. I compared two plays to illustrate the transition in British theatre, but you could compare the ways different regional dialects affect people's job prospects or how different temperatures may or may not affect the mating patterns of lightning bugs. The point here is that comparisons not only help you limit your topic, but they also help you build your argument.

Comparisons are not the only way to get a grade-A EE, though. If after brainstorming, you pick a non-comparison-based topic and are still unsure whether your topic is too broad or narrow, spend about 30 minutes doing some basic research and see how much material is out there.

If there are more than 1,000 books, articles, or documentaries out there on that exact topic, it may be too broad. But if there are only two books that have any connection to your topic, it may be too narrow. If you're still unsure, ask your advisor—it's what they're there for! Speaking of advisors...

Don't get stuck with a narrow topic!

#3: Choose an Advisor Who Is Familiar With Your Topic

If you're not certain of who you would like to be your advisor, create a list of your top three choices. Next, write down the pros and cons of each possibility (I know this sounds tedious, but it really helps!).

For example, Mr. Green is my favorite teacher and we get along really well, but he teaches English. For my EE, I want to conduct an experiment that compares the efficiency of American electric cars with foreign electric cars.

I had Ms. White a year ago. She teaches physics and enjoyed having me in her class. Unlike Mr. Green, Ms. White could help me design my experiment.

Based on my topic and what I need from my advisor, Ms. White would be a better fit for me than would Mr. Green (even though I like him a lot).

The moral of my story is this: do not just ask your favorite teacher to be your advisor . They might be a hindrance to you if they teach another subject. For example, I would not recommend asking your biology teacher to guide you in writing an English literature-based EE.

There can, of course, be exceptions to this rule. If you have a teacher who's passionate and knowledgeable about your topic (as my English teacher was about my theatre topic), you could ask that instructor. Consider all your options before you do this. There was no theatre teacher at my high school, so I couldn't find a theatre-specific advisor, but I chose the next best thing.

Before you approach a teacher to serve as your advisor, check with your high school to see what requirements they have for this process. Some IB high schools require your IB Extended Essay advisor to sign an Agreement Form , for instance.

Make sure that you ask your IB coordinator whether there is any required paperwork to fill out. If your school needs a specific form signed, bring it with you when you ask your teacher to be your EE advisor.

#4: Pick an Advisor Who Will Push You to Be Your Best

Some teachers might just take on students because they have to and aren't very passionate about reading drafts, only giving you minimal feedback. Choose a teacher who will take the time to read several drafts of your essay and give you extensive notes. I would not have gotten my A without being pushed to make my Extended Essay draft better.

Ask a teacher that you have experience with through class or an extracurricular activity. Do not ask a teacher that you have absolutely no connection to. If a teacher already knows you, that means they already know your strengths and weaknesses, so they know what to look for, where you need to improve, and how to encourage your best work.

Also, don't forget that your supervisor's assessment is part of your overall EE score . If you're meeting with someone who pushes you to do better—and you actually take their advice—they'll have more impressive things to say about you than a supervisor who doesn't know you well and isn't heavily involved in your research process.

Be aware that the IB only allows advisors to make suggestions and give constructive criticism. Your teacher cannot actually help you write your EE. The IB recommends that the supervisor spends approximately two to three hours in total with the candidate discussing the EE.

#5: Make Sure Your Essay Has a Clear Structure and Flow

The IB likes structure. Your EE needs a clear introduction (which should be one to two double-spaced pages), research question/focus (i.e., what you're investigating), a body, and a conclusion (about one double-spaced page). An essay with unclear organization will be graded poorly.

The body of your EE should make up the bulk of the essay. It should be about eight to 18 pages long (again, depending on your topic). Your body can be split into multiple parts. For example, if you were doing a comparison, you might have one third of your body as Novel A Analysis, another third as Novel B Analysis, and the final third as your comparison of Novels A and B.

If you're conducting an experiment or analyzing data, such as in this EE , your EE body should have a clear structure that aligns with the scientific method ; you should state the research question, discuss your method, present the data, analyze the data, explain any uncertainties, and draw a conclusion and/or evaluate the success of the experiment.

#6: Start Writing Sooner Rather Than Later!

You will not be able to crank out a 4,000-word essay in just a week and get an A on it. You'll be reading many, many articles (and, depending on your topic, possibly books and plays as well!). As such, it's imperative that you start your research as soon as possible.

Each school has a slightly different deadline for the Extended Essay. Some schools want them as soon as November of your senior year; others will take them as late as February. Your school will tell you what your deadline is. If they haven't mentioned it by February of your junior year, ask your IB coordinator about it.

Some high schools will provide you with a timeline of when you need to come up with a topic, when you need to meet with your advisor, and when certain drafts are due. Not all schools do this. Ask your IB coordinator if you are unsure whether you are on a specific timeline.

Below is my recommended EE timeline. While it's earlier than most schools, it'll save you a ton of heartache (trust me, I remember how hard this process was!):

• January/February of Junior Year: Come up with your final research topic (or at least your top three options).
• February of Junior Year: Approach a teacher about being your EE advisor. If they decline, keep asking others until you find one. See my notes above on how to pick an EE advisor.
• April/May of Junior Year: Submit an outline of your EE and a bibliography of potential research sources (I recommend at least seven to 10) to your EE advisor. Meet with your EE advisor to discuss your outline.
• Summer Between Junior and Senior Year: Complete your first full draft over the summer between your junior and senior year. I know, I know—no one wants to work during the summer, but trust me—this will save you so much stress come fall when you are busy with college applications and other internal assessments for your IB classes. You will want to have this first full draft done because you will want to complete a couple of draft cycles as you likely won't be able to get everything you want to say into 4,000 articulate words on the first attempt. Try to get this first draft into the best possible shape so you don't have to work on too many revisions during the school year on top of your homework, college applications, and extracurriculars.
• August/September of Senior Year: Turn in your first draft of your EE to your advisor and receive feedback. Work on incorporating their feedback into your essay. If they have a lot of suggestions for improvement, ask if they will read one more draft before the final draft.
• September/October of Senior Year: Submit the second draft of your EE to your advisor (if necessary) and look at their feedback. Work on creating the best possible final draft.
• November-February of Senior Year: Schedule your viva voce. Submit two copies of your final draft to your school to be sent off to the IB. You likely will not get your grade until after you graduate.

Remember that in the middle of these milestones, you'll need to schedule two other reflection sessions with your advisor . (Your teachers will actually take notes on these sessions on a form like this one , which then gets submitted to the IB.)

I recommend doing them when you get feedback on your drafts, but these meetings will ultimately be up to your supervisor. Just don't forget to do them!

The early bird DOES get the worm!

How Is the IB Extended Essay Graded?

Extended Essays are graded by examiners appointed by the IB on a scale of 0 to 34 . You'll be graded on five criteria, each with its own set of points. You can learn more about how EE scoring works by reading the IB guide to extended essays .

• Criterion A: Focus and Method (6 points maximum)
• Criterion B: Knowledge and Understanding (6 points maximum)
• Criterion C: Critical Thinking (12 points maximum)
• Criterion D: Presentation (4 points maximum)
• Criterion E: Engagement (6 points maximum)

How well you do on each of these criteria will determine the final letter grade you get for your EE. You must earn at least a D to be eligible to receive your IB Diploma.

Although each criterion has a point value, the IB explicitly states that graders are not converting point totals into grades; instead, they're using qualitative grade descriptors to determine the final grade of your Extended Essay . Grade descriptors are on pages 102-103 of this document .

Here's a rough estimate of how these different point values translate to letter grades based on previous scoring methods for the EE. This is just an estimate —you should read and understand the grade descriptors so you know exactly what the scorers are looking for.

Here is the breakdown of EE scores (from the May 2021 bulletin):

How Does the Extended Essay Grade Affect Your IB Diploma?

The Extended Essay grade is combined with your TOK (Theory of Knowledge) grade to determine how many points you get toward your IB Diploma.

To learn about Theory of Knowledge or how many points you need to receive an IB Diploma, read our complete guide to the IB program and our guide to the IB Diploma requirements .

This diagram shows how the two scores are combined to determine how many points you receive for your IB diploma (3 being the most, 0 being the least). In order to get your IB Diploma, you have to earn 24 points across both categories (the TOK and EE). The highest score anyone can earn is 45 points.

Let's say you get an A on your EE and a B on TOK. You will get 3 points toward your Diploma. As of 2014, a student who scores an E on either the extended essay or TOK essay will not be eligible to receive an IB Diploma .

Prior to the class of 2010, a Diploma candidate could receive a failing grade in either the Extended Essay or Theory of Knowledge and still be awarded a Diploma, but this is no longer true.

Figuring out how you're assessed can be a little tricky. Luckily, the IB breaks everything down here in this document . (The assessment information begins on page 219.)

40+ Sample Extended Essays for the IB Diploma Programme

In case you want a little more guidance on how to get an A on your EE, here are over 40 excellent (grade A) sample extended essays for your reading pleasure. Essays are grouped by IB subject.

• Business Management 1
• Chemistry 1
• Chemistry 2
• Chemistry 3
• Chemistry 4
• Chemistry 5
• Chemistry 6
• Chemistry 7
• Computer Science 1
• Economics 1
• Design Technology 1
• Design Technology 2
• Environmental Systems and Societies 1
• Geography 1
• Geography 2
• Geography 3
• Geography 4
• Geography 5
• Geography 6
• Literature and Performance 1
• Mathematics 1
• Mathematics 2
• Mathematics 3
• Mathematics 4
• Mathematics 5
• Philosophy 1
• Philosophy 2
• Philosophy 3
• Philosophy 4
• Philosophy 5
• Psychology 1
• Psychology 2
• Psychology 3
• Psychology 4
• Psychology 5
• Social and Cultural Anthropology 1
• Social and Cultural Anthropology 2
• Social and Cultural Anthropology 3
• Sports, Exercise and Health Science 1
• Sports, Exercise and Health Science 2
• Visual Arts 1
• Visual Arts 2
• Visual Arts 3
• Visual Arts 4
• Visual Arts 5
• World Religion 1
• World Religion 2
• World Religion 3

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IB Extended Essay: Past Essays

• Research Questions
• Past Essays
• Notes & Outlines
• Works Cited Page
• In-Text Citations
• Assessment Criteria
• Reflections
• Supervisor Info
• Net Valley Library This link opens in a new window

Check these CAREFULLY to be sure your topic fits with IB expectations!

• Language & literature (language A)
• Language acquisition (language B)
• Mathematics
• Visual Arts
• World Studies

Business Management

English a & b ee examples.

• English A EE Example
• English A EE Example 1
• English A EE Example 2
• English A EE Example 3
• English B EE Example
• English B EE Example 1
• English B EE Example 2
• English B EE Example 3
• English B EE Example 4
• English B EE Example 5
• English B EE Example 6

Philosophy EE Examples

• Philosophy Example 1
• Philosophy Example 2
• Philosophy Example 3
• Philosophy Example 4

Economics EE Examples

• Econ Example 1
• Econ Example 2
• Econ Example 3
• Econ Example 4
• Econ Example 5
• Econ Example 6
• Econ Example 7
• Econ Example 8

Review Past Papers

• From the IB:  papers from other students and how they scored
• Renaissance Library Past Essays :  Links to all subject area examples

Music EE Examples

• Music EE Example 1
• Music EE Example 2
• Music EE Example 3
• Music EE Example 4

Psychology EE Examples

• Psych EE Example 1
• Psych EE Example 2
• Psych EE Example 3

Chinese EE Examples

• Chinese EE Example 1
• Chinese EE Example 2
• Chinese EE Example 3
• Chinese A EE Cat 1
• Chinese A EE Cat 2
• Chinese A EE Cat 3
• Chinese B EE Example 1
• Chinese B EE Example 2
• Chinese B Example 3
• Business EE Example 1
• Business EE Example 2
• Business EE Example 3

Visual Arts EE Examples

• Visual Arts EE Example 1
• Visual Arts EE Example 2
• Visual Arts EE Example 3
• Visual Arts EE Example 4

Film EE Examples

• Film Example 1
• Film Example 2

Chemistry EE Examples

• Chemistry EE Example

Biology EE Examples

• Biology EE Example
• Biology EE Example 1
• Biology EE Example 2
• Biology EE Example 3

Physics EE Examples

• Physics EE Example
• Physics EE Example 1
• Physics EE Example 2
• Physics EE Example 3
• Physics EE Example 4
• Physics EE Example 5

Math EE Examples

• Math EE Example 1
• Math EE Example 2
• Math EE Example 3
• Math EE Example 4
• Math EE Example 5
• Math EE Example 6

World Studies EE Examples

• World Studies Example 1
• World Studies Example 2
• World Studies Example 3
• World Studies Example 4
• World Studies Example 5
• World Studies Example 6
• World Studies Example 7
• World Studies Example 8
• World Studies Example 9
• World Studies Example 10
• World Studies Example 11
• World Studies Example 12
• World Studies Example 13
• World Studies Example 14
• World Studies Example 15
• World Studies Example 16
• World Studies Example 17
• World Studies Example 18
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• Last Updated: Apr 9, 2024 9:39 AM
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• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates, and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
• Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models, and methods?
• Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

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See an example

To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

• Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

Open Google Slides Download PowerPoint

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, September 11). How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved August 21, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature-review/

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IB Extended Essay: A Step-by-Step Guide

The International Baccalaureate (IB) Extended Essay is a substantial research project that challenges high school students to explore a topic of personal interest within one of the IB's six subject areas. This extended essay, typically around 4,000 words in length, allows students to engage in independent research and develop critical thinking and writing skills. In this step-by-step guide, we will walk you through the process of completing your IB Extended Essay successfully.

1. Choose Your Subject Area and Topic

- Subject Area: First, select one of the six IB subject areas that you're passionate about and in which you have a strong academic background. These areas include Language and Literature, Language Acquisition, Individuals and Societies, Sciences, Mathematics, and the Arts.

- Topic: Narrow down your subject area to a specific topic or research question that genuinely interests you. Your topic should be neither too broad nor too narrow, allowing for in-depth exploration within the word limit.

2. Develop a Research Question

- Research Question: Create a clear and focused research question that guides your investigation. Your research question should be specific, open-ended, and relevant to your chosen subject area.

3. Conduct Preliminary Research

- Literature Review: Start with preliminary research to gain an understanding of the existing scholarship and literature related to your topic. This will help you refine your research question and identify gaps in the current knowledge.

4. Create a Research Plan

- Timeline: Develop a timeline that outlines key milestones and deadlines for your extended essay. This plan should include research, data collection (if applicable), writing, and revision phases.

5. Collect and Analyze Data (if applicable)

- If your extended essay requires data collection (e.g., experiments, surveys, interviews), conduct this research following ethical guidelines. Ensure that your data collection is well-documented and relevant to your research question.

6. Outline Your Essay

- Structure: Create a clear and organized outline for your extended essay. Typically, your essay will include an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The body should be divided into sections or chapters that address different aspects of your research.

- Thesis Statement: Develop a strong thesis statement that presents your main argument or hypothesis.

7. Write Your Extended Essay

- Introduction: Start with a compelling introduction that introduces your research question and provides context for your study.

- Body: Present your research findings and analysis in a logical and structured manner. Ensure that each paragraph contributes to your argument and supports your thesis.

- Citations: Properly cite all sources using a consistent citation style (e.g., MLA, APA). Be diligent in avoiding plagiarism.

- Conclusion: Summarize your main findings, restate your thesis, and discuss the significance of your research.

8. Revise and Edit

- Review: Take time to review and revise your extended essay. Check for clarity, coherence, grammar, spelling, and formatting errors.

- Peer Review: Consider having a peer or teacher review your essay for feedback and suggestions.

9. Create Citations and Bibliography

- Generate a comprehensive bibliography that includes all the sources you used in your research. Ensure that your citations are accurate and properly formatted.

10. Submit Your Extended Essay

- Follow your school's guidelines for submission, including deadlines and formatting requirements.

11. Reflect on the Process

- After completing your extended essay, take some time to reflect on your research journey. Consider what you learned, the challenges you faced, and the skills you developed.

12. Celebrate Your Achievement

- Completing an IB Extended Essay is a significant accomplishment. Celebrate your hard work and the knowledge you've gained throughout the process.

The IB Extended Essay is an opportunity for high school students to engage in independent research and develop essential academic skills. By following this step-by-step guide and staying committed to your research and writing, you can successfully complete your extended essay and present a well-researched and well-structured project that demonstrates your academic abilities and passion for your chosen subject area.

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Free Resources

IB DP Extended Essay: Lit Reviews

• Define Topic & Develop Research Questions
• Locate Resources
• Lit Reviews
• Integrating Quotes & Paraphrasing
• Citations & Referencing
• Back to Secondary
• Back to BIS Library Home

What is a Literature ("Lit") Review?

A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within a larger field of study.

Fink, Arlene.  Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . Fourth edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014.

The Importance of a Good Literature Review

A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a literature review   usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories . A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:

• Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
• Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
• Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant research, or
• Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a problem has been researched to date.

The purpose of a literature review is to:

• Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem being studied.
• Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
• Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].

Fink, Arlene.  Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper.  2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris.  Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill.  Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2011; Knopf, Jeffrey W. "Doing a Literature Review."  PS: Political Science and Politics  39 (January 2006): 127-132; Ridley, Diana.  The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012.

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• Last Updated: Mar 26, 2024 9:57 AM
• URL: https://bishanoi.libguides.com/EE/resources

Extended Essay: Extended Essay

• Extended Essay

ASK ICSZ Secondary Library about the EXTENDED ESSAY!

• Extended Essay-The Basics
• 1.Read key EE documents
• 2.Record your thoughts@RRS
• 3.Choose Subject & Supervisor
• 4.Formulate a Topic
• 5.Formulate a Research Question
• 6.Identify Sources
• 7.Plan a Research Outline
• 8.Decide on Reference Style
• 9.Commence research/reading
• 10.Writing your Essay
• Presentation
• Extended Essay Exemplars
• Student's Role
• Supervisor's Role
• Online Courses for EE Preparation

Extended Essay The E xtended Essay  (EE) is a mandatory core component of the IB Diploma Programme. It is a research paper of up to 4,000 words giving students an opportunity to conduct independent research or investigation on a topic that demonstrates their passion, enthusiasm, intellectual initiative and/or creative approach for their chosen topic. Like the  theory of knowledge  (ToK) essay, ToK presentation, and participation in the CAS (creativity, activity, service) activities, submitting an extended essay is a prerequisite to award of the Diploma.

Common EE terminologies

• Topic:  The topic of the extended essay is the subject, issue or theme that you are investigating within a specific DP subject or world studies area of study. 
• Title:   A title of an EE is a clear, summative statement that specifically focuses the topic being researched. It appears on the title page. 
• Research Question (RQ):  A research question is a clear and focused question  centred  on a research topic. It derives from the title and is expressed as a question that is intended to be answered through researching and writing the EE (IB EE guide, pp. 74-75). 
• Check-in sessions:  Informal short meeting with a supervisor for about 10 minutes to discuss a timeline or clarification of a comment made by the supervisor (IB EE guide, p. 58).
• Reflection sessions: These are the mandatory sessions that must be recorded  on  the Reflections on planning and progress form ( RPPF ). IB recommended that these sessions last 20–30 minutes (IB EE guide, p. 58).
• RRS:  The RRS is a personal learning environment that can be either a physical or virtual support tool.  It is like a daily diary or research or process journal in MYP Personal Project. 
• RPPF:  Reflections on planning and progress form is known as RPPF of which candidates write their formal reflections. Completing the Reflections on planning and progress form (RPPF) is a requirement for the submission of the extended essay. Note that the maximum total word limit for the three reflections on the RPPF is 500 and it must be completed in the language of the student’s extended essay submission. At ICS, candidates are encouraged to record their formal reflections on ManageBac. 
• Supervisor: An appropriately qualified member of staff within the school which should be guided through the process of EE. 

What is the significance of the extended essay?

Ultimately, the point of the EE is to prepare you in a very practical, hands-on way for research and academic writing at college or university. In addition, it is   an opportunity for students to investigate a topic of special interest to them, which is also related to one of the student’s six DP subjects.

Through the research process for the extended essay, students develop skills in:

• formulating an appropriate research question
• engaging in a personal exploration of the  topic
• communicating ideas
• developing an argument.

To sum, participation in this process develops the capacity to analyze, synthesize and evaluate knowledge.  An extended essay can also be undertaken in  world studies , where students carry out an in-depth interdisciplinary study of an issue of contemporary global significance, across two IB diploma disciplines. For more information, see pages 360-369 in the Extended Essay Guide .

Further Information is on the IBO  website

To determine the EE subject and topic, educate yourself with the following materials: 

• IB Extended Essay website
• IB Extended Essay guide ( pdf )
• The EE assessment criteria
• Relevant subject-specific guide from the IB EE guide
• Extended Essay exemplars 
• Academic honesty and required citation and referencing styles
• The IB's ethical guidelines and other associated policies where relevant, such as those relating to animal experiments
• Studies in language and literature (1)
• Studies in language and literature (2)
• History  (1)
• History  (2)
• Mathematics
• World studies

Tips on choosing a supervisor...

Tip #1: Choose a supervisor who is familiar with your topic 

If you are not certain of who you would like to be your advisor, I would start by creating a list of your top three choices.  Next, create a list of pros and cons (I know this sounds tedious, but it really helps!).

For example, Mr. Green is my favorite teacher, and we get along really well, but he teaches English, and I want to conduct an experiment to compare the efficiency of American Hybrid Cars to Foreign Hybrid Cars. Ms. White teaches Physics, I had her a year ago, and she liked me. She could help me design my experiment. I am going to ask Ms. White! 

Do NOT just ask your favorite teacher to be your advisor.  They may be a hindrance to you if they teach another subject. I would not suggest asking your Biology teacher to guide you in writing your English EE.

EXCEPTION:  If you have a teacher who is passionate and knowledgeable about your topic (as my English teacher was about my Theater topic), you can ask that instructor. Consider all of your options first before you do. There was no theater teacher at my school, so I could not find a theater-specific advisor, but I chose the next best thing.

Some IB high schools require your IB Extended Essay advisor to sign an Agreement Form.  Make sure you ask your IB coordinator if there is any required paperwork. IBO does not require any paperwork. If your school needs a Form signed, make sure you bring it with you when you ask a teacher to be your EE advisor. 

Tip #2: Choose a supervisor who will push you to be your best

Some teachers may just take on students because they have to and may not be passionate about reading drafts and may not give you a lot of feedback.  Choose a teacher who will take the time to read several drafts and give you extensive notes.  I would not have gotten my A without being pushed to make the draft better.

Ask a teacher that you have experience with through class or an extracurricular activity.  Do not ask a teacher that you have no connection to; a teacher who does not know you is unlikely to push you. 

Note:  The IBO only allows advisors to suggest improvements to the EE, but they may not be engaged in writing the EE. The IBO recommends that the supervisor spends approximately 3-5 hours in total with the candidate discussing the EE.

Source: PrepScholar, available at https://blog.prepscholar.com/complete-guide-to-ib-extended-essay-tips-grading-guideline-and-sample-essays 

After choosing the subject for your extended essay, the next step in the research process is to define what your research is going to focus on - the topic.

At this stage you need to explore:

• What are your personal interests?
• what are my possible topics?
• what do I know about those topics?
• which words would be good search terms and keywords?
• What speakers have you heard that were interesting?
• What novels are you reading?
• What is in your CAS portfolio?
• What scientific experiments have you heard of that interest you?
• Are there any historical events that have caught your imagination?
• Are there any innovations, phenomena or theorems you have heard of lately?

Your research topic:

• Must  fall into  one  of the approved IB categories
• Must   NOT  be from a TOK subject area
• Should  be an area in which there is data and material to support your research
• Should  be manageable  with 4,000 words within  40 hours of work.  

Tips to choose a research topic:

• Preliminary reading of academic journals and reputable scholarly e-resources, e.g. conference papers, essays, book chapters or journal articles (school librarian can advise on this).
• Read the local newspaper/magazine and identify any issues that interest you!
• Do conversations with teachers, fellow students and librarians.

Details tips on how to choose a Research Topic

• Find a subject area that interests and challenges you. You might have studied a certain topic in class that you would like to research further or you may be able to research and write about something you are particularly interested in. Writing about what you know can help you throughout the entire researching and writing process.
• If you are having trouble finding a suitable topic that interests you, read through some current newspapers and magazines or you may search online. You might find a news story or a subject area that you would like to research further.
• You can also use the  Questia Topic Finder  listing to help select your topic. You can also use  Questia Topic Generator .
• Once you have chosen a topic, decide whether you need to narrow or broaden its focus. If your topic is too broad, you might become overwhelmed by the number of resources available on the subject and your research paper may prove almost impossible to write. On the other hand, if your topic is too narrow, you might have trouble finding resources and your paper might not be long enough. For example, writing about the Internet is too broad. Writing about publishing on the Internet is narrower. Writing about one document published on the Internet might be too narrow!
• Ask yourself some questions about the topic. These questions will help you to focus on a certain issue or problem. One of these questions will form your research question, which your thesis statement will answer. For example, if you chose to write about publishing on the Internet, your research question might be “Has the fact that it is so easy to publish on the Internet made it difficult for students to find reliable information?”

[Developing a Topic video by Oregon School Library Information System]

[“Writing a Research Paper.” World News Digest. Infobase Learning, n.d. Web. 15 Feb. 2017. ]

The research question (RQ) derives from the title and is expressed as a question that is intended to be answered through researching and writing the EE. It appears on the title page and could also be visible as a header throughout the essay. It should: 

• be clear and focused 

• provide a path through which you can undertake achievable research 

• use keywords that connect with the topic, the title, and the DP subject or world studies area of study 

• support the development of an argument

Qualities of a good research question:

1. Cannot Google the answer!

2. It should be broad enough to explore (40 hours) and narrow enough to be manageable (4000 words)

3. It does not repeat what is already known

4. It adds value to the existing knowledge

5. It expands on existing knowledge or frames it in a new context

Sample Research Questions 

Five steps to developing a research question 

1. Choose a topic within a subject that is of interest

2. Carry out preliminary reading.

• what has already been written about this topic?
• was it easy to find sources of information?
• is there a range of different sources available?
• is there a range of views or perspectives on the topic?
• what  interesting questions have started to emerge from this reading? 

3. Consider the emerging questions

•  These questions will usually be framed using the terms “how”, “why” or “to what extent”.

4. Evaluate the question

• Clear: Will the reader understand the nature of my research? Will it direct the research being undertaken?
• Focused: Will the research question be specific enough to allow for exploration within the scope of the task (that is, the number of words and time available)?
• Arguable : Does the research question allow for analysis, evaluation and the development of a reasoned argument?

5. Consider research outcomes

• suggesting possible outcomes of the research
• outlining the kind of argument they might make and how the research might support this
• considering options if the research available is not sufficient to support a sustained argument

Note: Sometimes students may need to revise their research question; therefore, a research question should always be considered provisional until they have enough research data to make a reasoned argument. 

The following video and pictorial presentations may guide you on how to formulate a research question: 

Lekanides , Kosta . Extended Essay Course Book: Oxford IB Diploma Programme . OUP, 2016.

Working on a specific area of research and engaging with different sources of information and data, you may expose to different and new perspectives on issues and topics. At this stage, you need to construct a r esource  Plan,  identifying  all the  resources  needed to complete the essay. You should also produce a schedule indicating when  each resource  will be used and note any assumptions and constraints made during the  resource  planning process.   IB suggested that students should use both primary and secondary sources for their research. However, students should use secondary data as the basis of their EE, supported where appropriate by primary research. The sole use of secondary sources is permitted and will allow students access to all levels of the EE assessment criteria (IB EEG, p.146). 

Primary vs Secondary Sources

Whether conducting research in the social sciences, humanities (especially history), arts, or natural sciences, the ability to distinguish between  primary  and  secondary source material  is essential. 

Note:  Often secondary and primary sources are relative concepts.  Typical secondary sources may be primary sources depending on the research topic.

• Intellectual history topics For example, although scholarly journal articles are usually considered secondary sources, if one's topic is the history of human rights, then journal articles on human rights will be primary sources in this instance.  Similarly, research on the thinking of a scholar will include her published journal articles as primary sources.  
• Historical topics Magazine articles are secondary sources, but for someone researching the view of judicial punishment in the 1920s, magazines from that time period are primary sources.  Indeed, any older publication, such as those prior to the 20th century, is very often automatically considered a primary source.  
• Newspapers may be either primary or secondary Most articles in newspapers are secondary, but reporters may be considered as witnesses to an event.  Any topic on the media coverage of an event or phenomenon would treat newspapers as a primary source.  There are so many articles and types of articles in newspapers that they can often be considered both primary and secondary.

How can I find and identify scholarly sources/resources?

Not very easy! but following some strategies/ methods, one can justify the scholarly resources. The following presentation may guide you on how to search and justify scholarly resources online!

Subscribed Dat abases at ICS, Zurich

Open Access Dat abases at ICS, Zurich

These are highly recommended Open Access databases. To search your desired resource click on the selected database and explore…

DOAJ (Directory of Open Access Journals)

ScholarWorks (Indiana University)

HighWire (Stanford University)

BASE ( Bielefeld University Library, Germany)

Google Scholar

IB Research Database

Digital Common Networks

World Digital Library

CORE (Open Access Research Papers) 

FreeFullpdf

List of Digitized Magazines

It is recommended that the student sends their supervisor an outline of their research proposal ahead of the meeting in order to give the supervisor the opportunity to review their work. Therefore, plan a Research Outline is crucial for the EE...

• The outline serves as a type of roadmap for your research project. It lists in order each of the main points you wish to argue in your paper. As you write your paper, it will serve as a reminder of the points you want to make and will help you avoid writing about irrelevant information.
• Begin by reading through your notes. Then write your * thesis statement at the top of the page. Underneath the statement, write down each of the main points you want to make in your paper (leave some space between each point). Underneath each point, write down about three facts or pieces of information that support that point.
• Examine the outline. Could some related points be grouped together? Do any of your points appear to be weak? If so, you may need to conduct some extra research on that point. Do the points support your thesis statement? If they do not, you may need to revise your statement.
• Decide the order in which your points will be argued. Arrange your points in the way that best fits your research paper. Remember to include a sentence at the end of each point that shows how the point and facts or pieces of information support your thesis statement.

Steps to creating an outline

• Organize your notes and research to group similar material together.
• Review your thesis statement - is it still what you want to say? If not, change it.
• Identify the main points of your arguments that support your thesis.
• Identify the ideas that support your main points.
• Match your research to your points.
• Order your ideas in a logical flow.
• Identify where you need more research, where your thoughts need more development, and where you have the information that is no longer needed.

*Your thesis statement is the foundation of your research paper and is an answer to the research question that you formulated. Your thesis statement is not the title of your paper; it is a single sentence that summarizes the argument you intend to make or the point you want to prove throughout your paper.

Students should use their chosen style of academic referencing as soon as they start writing. That way they are less likely to forget to include a citation. It is also easier than trying to add references at a later stage. Regardless of the reference style adopted by the student/school for a given subject, it is expected that the minimum information given includes (IB EEG, p.81):

• name of author

• date of publication

• title of source

• page numbers as applicable

• date of access (electronic sources)

Please, educate yourself with the IB Effective citing and referencing documents !

What to Cite and How to Cite

For the In-text citation and bibliography, follow the minimum requirements as summarized in this presentation. 

More resources

• ICS, Zurich MLA style guide

Commence Reading

It is important to adapt how you read to suit the material and your purpose for reading. Depending on what you are reading and why, you will find some of the following strategies useful. The following are the effective reading strategies adapted from Charles Darwin University: 

Skimming  ( click and scroll down)

Keyword Spotting@Key information

Analytical Reading

Critical Reading

Reading Difficult Texts

Commence Research

If you are undertaking an Extended Essay  on  any subject you are required to complete some research. Research generally involves two different types: primary and secondary research.  Once students have identified their topic and written their research question, they can decide how to research their answer.  Consider your research goals, and whether they can be met by secondary research, or require primary research. The definition of “research” and terms such as “primary data” and “secondary data” varies from subject to subject. In some subjects, students must use both primary and secondary data. In others, students may, or even must, rely exclusively on secondary data.

Primary vs Secondary Research

 Considering the complexity of research, all students must carry out secondary research in terms of a literature review for their topic (IB, EEG, p. 111).  The purpose of secondary research is to: 

• provide context for your own area of research within its wider discipline and/or issue
• give you ideas for refining your proposed research topic and/or question
• give you evidence of why your research is worthy of investigation
• provide material you can use when you analyze and evaluate your research data

How to Conduct an Effective Research?

Use of Scholarly resources

It is also important that you consult relevant and reliable scholarly and peer-reviewed sources in your research. You need to evaluate all the sources that you use for your secondary research. The authority and credibility evident in scholarly sources will improve the quality of your paper or research project. Moreover, the use of scholarly sources is an expected attribute of academic coursework.

How can I tell if a source is scholarly?

Not very easy but following some strategies/ methods such as ABCDE, CRAAP, CRAB methods, one can justify the scholarly resources. The following presentation may guide you on how to search and justify scholarly resources online!

Research Skills Guide: Brought to you by...

Oregon School Library Information System@  Learn how to do Research 

State Library of Victoria@  Research Skills

Kentucky Virtual Library@ How to do Research

Writing the extended essay

The structure of the essay is very important. It helps students to organize the argument, making the best use of the evidence collected. Six required elements of the extended essay:

Title page Contents page Introduction Body of the essay Conclusion References and bibliography

Integrate others' ideas through Paraphrasing, Summarizing and Quieting

In academic writing, we have to incorporate other ideas and research findings to our research. Now the question is how do we do that? Quoting, paraphrasing and summarizing are the three main ways of integrating others’ ideas in your academic work.

Writing Tips: Brought to you by...

Purdue University-OWL@ Academic Writing

Cambridge Rindge & Latin School@  Writing an Introduction  

Cambridge  Rindge  & Latin School@  Writing a Conclusion

Plagiarism Tutorials: Brought to you by...

University of Sydney Library

Vaughan Memorial Library

Plagiarism Quizzes: B rought to you by...

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Staffordshire University

You are highly encouraged to read the document "How to Write a Research Paper" at Research Guide . <https://icsz.libapps.com/libguides/admin_c.php?g=664309&p=4700645>

The length of the extended essay

The extended essay should be written in a clear, correct and formal academic style, appropriate to the subject from which the topic is drawn. Given that the extended essay is a formally written research paper, it should strive to maintain a professional, academic look.

To help achieve this, the following formatting is suggested:

• the use of 12-point, readable font

• double spacing

• page numbering

• no candidate or school name on the title page or page headers

• the  essay should be a maximum of 4 000 words (the examiner won’t read anything past this cut off point!)

• the file size must not be more than 10 MB.

Note that the RPPF is uploaded separately and is not part of the overall file size of the essay!

Word counts

The upper limit is 4,000 words for all extended essays. Examiners are instructed not to read or assess any material in excess of the word limit. Please refer to the following guidance on what content should be included in the word count (IB EEG, pp. 82-83): 

Exception:  Students writing their extended essay in Japanese or Chinese should use the following conversions:

• Japanese: 1 word = approximately 2 Japanese characters (upper limit 8,000 characters)

• Chinese: 1 word = approximately 1.2 Chinese characters (upper limit 4,800 characters) 

• Sample EE from IB

There are two types of assessment identified by the IB:

• Formative assessment informs both teaching and learning. It is concerned with providing accurate and helpful feedback to students and teachers on the kind of learning taking place and the nature of students’ strengths and weaknesses in order to help develop students’ understanding and capabilities. Formative assessment can also help to improve teaching quality, as it can provide information to monitor progress towards meeting the course aims and objectives.

• Summative assessment gives an overview of previous learning and is concerned with measuring student achievement. 

Assessment of the extended essay is a combination of formative assessment (the Reflections on planning and progress form) and summative assessment (the extended essay itself). However, generic assessment criteria are used with subject-specific interpretations. 

What are the criteria to assess the Extended Essay?

There are five (A-E) criterion to assess the EE and each criterion is organized at three levels of information. Firstly, the  markband , which relates to the mark range available; secondly,  the strand , which relates to what is being assessed; and, thirdly,  the indicators , which are the demonstration of the strands within a markband.

Criterion A: Focus and method –  This criterion focuses on the topic, the research question and the methodology. Criterion B: Knowledge and understanding –  This criterion assesses the extent to which the research relates to the subject area/discipline used to explore the research question. Criterion C: Critical thinking –  This criterion assesses the extent to which critical-thinking skills have been used to analyse and evaluate the research undertaken. Criterion D: Presentation –  This criterion assesses the extent to which the presentation follows the standard format expected for academic writing and the extent to which this aids effective communication. Criterion E: Engagement –  This criterion assesses the student’s engagement with their research focus and the research process.

Overview of the Criteria

How is the Extended Essay assessed? All extended essays are externally assessed by examiners appointed by the IB. They are marked on a scale from 0 to 34. The score a student receives relates to a band. The bands are:

• A – work of an excellent standard.
• B – work of a good standard.
• C –work of a satisfactory standard.
• D – work of a mediocre standard.
• E – work of an elementary standard.

As the extended essay is an important component of the Diploma Programme, and a substantial piece of work, students need to ensure that they understand the expectations of the task and manage their time and workload effectively. The following suggestions are given as guidance to help with the process.

Students are strongly recommended to: 

• develop a Researcher’s reflection space as a planning tool

• use the Researcher’s reflection space to prepare for reflection sessions

• share excerpts from the Researcher’s reflection space with the supervisor during the reflection sessions

• choose a subject, followed by a topic, and then think carefully about the research question for their essay

• plan how, when and where they will find material and sources for their essay before deciding on the final topic and research question

• plan a schedule for both the researching and writing of their extended essay, including extra time for delays and unforeseen problems

• record sources as their research progress using their Researcher’s reflection space rather than trying to reconstruct a list at the end

• make the most of their supervision and reflection sessions by arriving prepared to discuss their work

• have a clear structure for the essay before beginning to write

• check and proofread the final version of their extended essay

• make sure that the version they submit for assessment is the final version with all sources correctly and consistently referenced

• ensure that all requirements are met

Adapted from IB EE Guide, pp.48-49.

At ICS, Zurich students are required to:

• Observe the regulations related to the EE
• write 3 Reflections (150+150+200) on ManageBac
• meet internal school deadlines
• treat your supervisor/ EE coordinator  appropriately according to IBO guidelines
• read EE Libgides for EE direction or consult with the responsible  Teacher-Librarians
• attend the DP Core Lessons & EE Sessions

Supervisor's support: 

You should think of your EE supervisor as a resource for general feedback, but do not rely on them to hold your hand through this process. You must take the initiative on all fronts, from choosing your subject to writing a plan and setting internal deadlines for yourself so that you can meet school deadlines! You will edit your EE on your own; do not expect your EE Supervisor to read, edit, or mark up your drafts in any way.

Think of it this way: The IB’s general EE guidelines require you to spend at least forty hours researching and writing your Extended Essay. In contrast, your EE Supervisor should spend no more than about 3-5 hours advising your work along the way.

That said, your supervisor can be a valuable support to you through this process - someone to bounce ideas off, clarify your understanding and support your time-management. Make them your first point of call if you have difficulties…do n't suffer in silence, they are there to help!

The supervisor-student working relationship is probably the most important one in the Extended Essay process. The EE supervisor will advise students during the entire process such as confirm research questions, read final draft and give comments for revising it and submit a predicted grade to the IBO. Supervisors must ensure that they understand the important role they play in supporting students in this process.

Supervisors are required to:

• undertake three mandatory reflection sessions with each student they are supervising
• initial and date each reflection summarized on the Reflections on planning and progress form and provide comments at the end of the process. If the form and essay are submitted via the eCoursework system, then it is deemed signed and authenticated. An RPPF that is blank, unsubmitted, or written in a language other than that of the essay, will be awarded a 0 for criterion E
• provide students with advice and guidance in the skills of undertaking research
• encourage and support students throughout the research and writing of the extended essay
• discuss the choice of topic with each student and, in particular, help to formulate a well-focused research question which is suitable to the subject of registration and ensure that the chosen research question satisfies appropriate legal and ethical standards with regard to health and safety, confidentiality, human rights, animal welfare and environmental issues
• familiar with the regulations governing the extended essay and the assessment criteria, and gives copies of these to students • monitor the progress of the extended essay to offer guidance and to ensure that the essay is the student’s own work (this may include presenting a section of the essay for supervisor comment)
• read and comment on one draft only of the extended essay (but do not edit the draft); this should take place after the interim reflection session, but before the final reflection session, the viva voce
• ensure that the final version of the essay is handed in before the final reflection session (viva voce) takes place, and that no changes are made to it subsequently
• read the final version and, in conjunction with the viva voce, confirm its authenticity

Supervisors are strongly recommended to:

• read recent extended essay reports for the subject
• spend between three and five hours with each student, including the time spent on the three mandatory reflection sessions
• encourage the development of a Researcher’s reflection space for students
• set a clear schedule for the reflection sessions
• ensure that the chosen research question is appropriate for the subject
•  access to appropriate resources (such as people, a library, a laboratory)
• research methods
• how to cite and reference

Adapted from IB Extended Essay Guide, pp.46-47.

The following FREE online courses may guide you throughout your extended essay (click on the course image): 

1. Developing Your Research Project

What topics will this course cover?

Academic research: principles and definition

Drafting and developing research proposals

Gathering information from literature and from findings

Research methods: choosing an appropriate methodology

Academic reading and note taking

Referencing, plagiarism, and academic integrity

Academic writing: organising sources, structuring essays

Academic writing: summarising a research project into an abstract

Academic presentations: preparation and delivery

2. Information & Digital Literacy for University Success

• Referencing, Incorporating Sources & Avoiding Plagiarism
• Demonstrate awareness of ethical issues related to academic integrity surrounding the access and use of information
• Know where to look for information from various sources 
• Define the characteristics of different kinds of information
• Develop a search strategy and filter large numbers of search results effectively 
• Critically Evaluating, Filtering & Managing Information
• Understand how to  incorporate  ideas from sources into your work

3. Research Writing: How to Do a Literature Review

• Understanding the literature review as a genre, and its fundamental role in all serious investigations and research projects
• Developing a useful list of search terms and understanding where to use them to find the most relevant literature available
• Developing a professional bibliography and annotating it with critical evaluations of readings
• Asking good questions to guide the reading and writing process
• Planning a critical discussion in response to specific questions and based on evidence from the published literature
• Is it compulsory to write the extended essay? 

Yes. If you do not complete the extended essay (or it does not meet minimum standards) you will be deemed ineligible to receive your IB Diploma. 

• Should my extended essay be written in one of my examination subjects?

No. However, it is strongly recommended that you select a topic from one of your Higher Level (HL) subjects. Other subject areas may be chosen; however, that will only be allowed if there is a qualified staff member to help so that you have every opportunity to do well in that area. If you are not currently enrolled in a course in the subject area from which you choose your EE topic, you must have a solid knowledge base in that subject area. In general, you are ‘wisest’ to choose a topic in an area that you are passionate about and currently studying at the HL.

• I don’t understand. What is the Student / EE Supervisor relationship supposed to be?

Unlike most student/teacher relationships, for the Extended Essay, you are the one in the driver’s seat. Yes, there are deadlines and guidelines and you must meet them, but you choose your topic and you plan your research on your own and you write and edit the essay on your own. Your EE Supervisor is there as a resource if you need help, or if your essay is heading in the wrong direction or stalled. Think of your EE Supervisor as a backseat driver - you may hear “Watch out!” or “Go [write] faster!” but, ultimately, you are the one responsible for putting your foot on the pedal and making sure you are in good shape coming down the home stretch of the Extended Essay process.

• Help! I’m used to teachers reading my drafts and telling me what to fix. What do I do for the Extended Essay?

Learning how to edit your own work is an invaluable skill, though it may be painful at first. Some tried-and-true tips for copy-editing as you go along:

• Print out a draft and mark it up by hand, with colored pens or a pencil - write on your paper liberally. Circle phrases that just sound “funny”, put question marks or “awk” (short for awkward) when a sentence construction is particularly gawky, write “w.c.” when you need to reconsider your word choice, and play around with chopping sentences down in size (this one would be a good example!) or changing around the order of your paragraphs or arguments. For some reason, it is often a lot easier to see these mistakes and visualize changes when you are looking at a printed sheet of paper rather than scrolling down a computer screen.
• When you think you have your final draft, print it out and read the entire thing out loud to yourself, pen in hand. Yes, this is tedious. But it is absolutely worth it! I guarantee you; you’ll hear subtle mistakes even when the same text you just read a moment ago appeared fine. It’s not just that your eyes may be tired… After all, punctuation in writing exists to imitate the natural inflections and intonation we have when speaking. Converting your essay back into oral form is the best litmus test for the integrity of your tone and grammar! Try it out!
• I have no idea how to write an academic paper. Where do I start?

Relax. Many students are overly worried about writing academic papers simply because they may not be able to visualize what exactly an academic paper will entail, and how it differs from the school papers they have been writing in one form or another since elementary school.

Here is the quick definition: an academic paper is a piece of formal writing (i.e., unlike a conversational tone such as what I am using now, you will most likely be using the third person voice, and should avoid colloquialisms and unfounded generalizations). At the heart of most academic papers is the thesis statement, which describes what you believe and what you are trying to prove, out of all the research and analysis you have done. All the other points in the paper will go towards supporting your thesis statement.

You will write the Extended Essay to emulate an academic journal article. Because these journal articles are published, there is often a very strict methodology for how you go about writing them. This is great for you because it means there are a lot of resources, both online and off, available to teach you about these methodologies!  Good luck, and happy writing!

• What will I learn from writing the extended essay?

You will have the opportunity to explore an interesting self-selected topic in-depth. You will develop your research skills and, if applicable to your subject area, your investigative skills. As well, you will improve your presentation skills, as you will be required to use MLA/APA as a citation format and to prepare an annotated bibliography. These skills will be extremely useful in your post-secondary studies.

• Is my extended essay ‘worth’ anything?

Yes! As noted above, if you do not submit an extended essay, or if your extended essay does not meet the minimum requirements, you will not receive your diploma. As well, your assessment on your extended essay and your ToK essay and project are combined into a point matrix. You may qualify for up to three additional points which are added to your total IB Diploma score. 

EE@Steps to follow...

Step -1: Read the key EE documents

Step -2: Record your thoughts@RRS

Step -3: Choose a subject & supervisor

Step -4: Confirm a research topic & title

Step -5: Formulate a research question

Step -6: Identify sources

Step -7: Plan a research outline

Step -8: Decide on reference style 

Step -9: Commence research/reading

Step -10: Writing the essay

*Write 3 reflections according to the ICS timeline

IB EE Poster

Acknowledgement

Susan Trower from West Sound Academy

• Next: Research >>
• Last Updated: May 16, 2024 3:52 PM
• URL: https://icsz.libguides.com/extendedessay

Extended Essay: Step 12. Do the Research

• Extended Essay- The Basics
• Step 1. Choose a Subject
• Step 2. Educate yourself!
• Using Brainstorming and Mind Maps
• Identify Keywords
• Do Background Reading
• Define Your Topic
• Conduct Research in a Specific Discipline
• Step 5. Draft a Research Question
• Step 6. Create a Timeline
• Find Articles
• Find Primary Sources
• Get Help from Experts
• Search Engines, Repositories, & Directories
• Databases and Websites by Subject Area
• Create an Annotated Bibliography
• Advice (and Warnings) from the IB
• Chicago Citation Syle
• MLA Works Cited & In-Text Citations
• Step 9. Set Deadlines for Yourself
• Step 10. Plan a structure for your essay
• Evaluate & Select: the CRAAP Test
• Conducting Secondary Research
• Conducting Primary Research
• Formal vs. Informal Writing
• Presentation Requirements
• Evaluating Your Work

Time to do the research!

Primary and Secondary Research: What's the Difference?

Videos:  'Primary and Secondary Research' and 'Primary and Secondary Sources' 

See other pages in this section for information on:

Conducting Secondary Research Conducting Primary Research

Primary and Secondary Research: What's the Difference?

During the initial inquiry stage of your research, you're collecting information from a range of sources to help formulate your research question. This may involve talking to people as well as reading.   You should be trying to read as much as you can of what has already been written about your topic. This is called a “literature review” or “secondary research” .

Secondary sources may include:

• printed works —books, journals, newspapers, magazines
• Internet sources —websites, articles, journals and so on, available only online
• other media sources —films, TV and radio programmes
• any other published information containing ideas and information relating to your choice of topic

Then, i t's time to formulate your research question and undertake further research to answer it. This may be further secondary research or your own primary research . 

When you carry out primary research you collect your own data. Taking into consideration your findings from the secondary research, you gather the additional information you have identified as required to help you answer your research question. 

Primary research techniques include:

• setting up experiments
• extracting information from original documents
• interviewing experts
• conducting formal surveys
• gathering information by other methods from primary sources

Whether you're undertaking primary or secondary research, or a combination, reflection plays a key role in evaluating your findings and formulating a reasoned argument that answers the research question.

What exactly is the distinction between these two types of research, and when do we use the first and when the latter?  This clip is part of an 8 weeks free online course 'Introduction to Communication Science' given by the University of Amsterdam.

MOOC ICS. Primary and secondary research. 17 October 2013. YouTube, https://youtu.be/kX4KQ3h7o0s. Accessed January 2017.

Primary & Secondary Sources from Imagine Easy Solutions on Vimeo .

This video explains the characteristics of and differences between primary and secondary sources.

Imagine Easy Solutions. Primary & secondary sources. 18 February 2014. Vimeo, https://vimeo.com/87001150. Accessed January 2017. 

Twelve-step Plan for Researching the Extended Essay - Step 12

12.  Carry out the research.  The material collected should be assembled in a logical order, linked to the structure of the essay and clearly focused on the research question posed.  Only then will you know that you have enough evidence for each stage of the argument so that you can proceed to the next.  

• << Previous: Purpose
• Next: Conducting Secondary Research >>
• Last Updated: Aug 18, 2024 2:36 PM
• URL: https://libguides.westsoundacademy.org/ee

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Writing a Literature Review

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A literature review is a document or section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and discusses those sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis ). The lit review is an important genre in many disciplines, not just literature (i.e., the study of works of literature such as novels and plays). When we say “literature review” or refer to “the literature,” we are talking about the research ( scholarship ) in a given field. You will often see the terms “the research,” “the scholarship,” and “the literature” used mostly interchangeably.

Where, when, and why would I write a lit review?

There are a number of different situations where you might write a literature review, each with slightly different expectations; different disciplines, too, have field-specific expectations for what a literature review is and does. For instance, in the humanities, authors might include more overt argumentation and interpretation of source material in their literature reviews, whereas in the sciences, authors are more likely to report study designs and results in their literature reviews; these differences reflect these disciplines’ purposes and conventions in scholarship. You should always look at examples from your own discipline and talk to professors or mentors in your field to be sure you understand your discipline’s conventions, for literature reviews as well as for any other genre.

A literature review can be a part of a research paper or scholarly article, usually falling after the introduction and before the research methods sections. In these cases, the lit review just needs to cover scholarship that is important to the issue you are writing about; sometimes it will also cover key sources that informed your research methodology.

Lit reviews can also be standalone pieces, either as assignments in a class or as publications. In a class, a lit review may be assigned to help students familiarize themselves with a topic and with scholarship in their field, get an idea of the other researchers working on the topic they’re interested in, find gaps in existing research in order to propose new projects, and/or develop a theoretical framework and methodology for later research. As a publication, a lit review usually is meant to help make other scholars’ lives easier by collecting and summarizing, synthesizing, and analyzing existing research on a topic. This can be especially helpful for students or scholars getting into a new research area, or for directing an entire community of scholars toward questions that have not yet been answered.

What are the parts of a lit review?

Most lit reviews use a basic introduction-body-conclusion structure; if your lit review is part of a larger paper, the introduction and conclusion pieces may be just a few sentences while you focus most of your attention on the body. If your lit review is a standalone piece, the introduction and conclusion take up more space and give you a place to discuss your goals, research methods, and conclusions separately from where you discuss the literature itself.

Introduction:

• An introductory paragraph that explains what your working topic and thesis is
• A forecast of key topics or texts that will appear in the review
• Potentially, a description of how you found sources and how you analyzed them for inclusion and discussion in the review (more often found in published, standalone literature reviews than in lit review sections in an article or research paper)
• Summarize and synthesize: Give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: Don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically Evaluate: Mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: Use transition words and topic sentence to draw connections, comparisons, and contrasts.

Conclusion:

• Summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance
• Connect it back to your primary research question

How should I organize my lit review?

Lit reviews can take many different organizational patterns depending on what you are trying to accomplish with the review. Here are some examples:

• Chronological : The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time, which helps familiarize the audience with the topic (for instance if you are introducing something that is not commonly known in your field). If you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze the patterns, turning points, and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred (as mentioned previously, this may not be appropriate in your discipline — check with a teacher or mentor if you’re unsure).
• Thematic : If you have found some recurring central themes that you will continue working with throughout your piece, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about women and religion, key themes can include the role of women in churches and the religious attitude towards women.
• Qualitative versus quantitative research
• Empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the research by sociological, historical, or cultural sources
• Theoretical : In many humanities articles, the literature review is the foundation for the theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You can argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach or combine various theorical concepts to create a framework for your research.

What are some strategies or tips I can use while writing my lit review?

Any lit review is only as good as the research it discusses; make sure your sources are well-chosen and your research is thorough. Don’t be afraid to do more research if you discover a new thread as you’re writing. More info on the research process is available in our "Conducting Research" resources .

As you’re doing your research, create an annotated bibliography ( see our page on the this type of document ). Much of the information used in an annotated bibliography can be used also in a literature review, so you’ll be not only partially drafting your lit review as you research, but also developing your sense of the larger conversation going on among scholars, professionals, and any other stakeholders in your topic.

Usually you will need to synthesize research rather than just summarizing it. This means drawing connections between sources to create a picture of the scholarly conversation on a topic over time. Many student writers struggle to synthesize because they feel they don’t have anything to add to the scholars they are citing; here are some strategies to help you:

• It often helps to remember that the point of these kinds of syntheses is to show your readers how you understand your research, to help them read the rest of your paper.
• Writing teachers often say synthesis is like hosting a dinner party: imagine all your sources are together in a room, discussing your topic. What are they saying to each other?
• Look at the in-text citations in each paragraph. Are you citing just one source for each paragraph? This usually indicates summary only. When you have multiple sources cited in a paragraph, you are more likely to be synthesizing them (not always, but often
• Read more about synthesis here.

The most interesting literature reviews are often written as arguments (again, as mentioned at the beginning of the page, this is discipline-specific and doesn’t work for all situations). Often, the literature review is where you can establish your research as filling a particular gap or as relevant in a particular way. You have some chance to do this in your introduction in an article, but the literature review section gives a more extended opportunity to establish the conversation in the way you would like your readers to see it. You can choose the intellectual lineage you would like to be part of and whose definitions matter most to your thinking (mostly humanities-specific, but this goes for sciences as well). In addressing these points, you argue for your place in the conversation, which tends to make the lit review more compelling than a simple reporting of other sources.

IB English A (Lang & Lit) EE examples

Filter exemplars, how effectively do the dystopian fiction novels, divergent by veronica roth and the hunger games by suzanne collins present the themes of power and control, how is femininity portrayed in confessional poetry of sylvia plath and anne sexton, want to get full marks for your ee allow us to review it for you 🎯, how does the representation of women in texts carmilla and twelfth night challenge the restrictive characterization of binary archetypes, how does the color purple challenge negative traditional gender roles through a third wave feminist analysis of the female bildungsroman, how does tyler durden use rhetoric to romanticise violence, masculinity and primality in david fincher’s fight club, fast track your coursework with mark schemes moderated by ib examiners. upgrade now 🚀, in what ways has language practice related to dying and the deathbed changed between the late medieval period and modernity, to what extent has language in american advertising slogans changed from the 1900s to the 21st century in the food and beverage industry to target cultural changes, to what extent does mulan represent a feminist narrative, and how does it fit into broader feminist discourses, to what extent have the styles of advertisements of coca-cola changed from the print culture of the 1950s in comparison to digitalised advertisements on instagram in the use of visuals and text to promote the product, how does italo calvino's use of metafictional techniques, through language and structure in 'if on a winter’s night a traveler' affect reader engagement and their understanding of postmodern literature, to what extent do family relationships in 'arcane' shape the identities of individual characters, influencing their values, decisions, and personal growth, how does langton hughes’ reflection of the african american identity during the harlem renaissance empower the works “the negro artist and the racial mountain” and “theme for english b”, how does sylvia plath use esther's character in the novel, the bell jar to illustrate the journey into depression and the fragility of mental health, to what extent do the characters in the picture of dorian gray subvert gender expectations according to judith butler’s theory of performative gender, how ostracization of women is portrayed in lev tolstoy's anna karenina and nathaniel hawthorne's the scarlet letter, how does kanye west use religion in the songs black skinhead, i am a god, on sight and i’m in it from the album yeezus to defy racial dilemmas and limiting norms of the music industry through stylistic features, how does good omens by terry pratchett and neil gaiman discuss moral absolutism and moral relativism through its character designs, how does neal shusterman portray the difference between good and evil in scythe, how does eva khatchadourian’s narration in ‘we need to talk about kevin’ portray the unfair societal expectations of motherhood and its consequences, investigating societal and political issues in american society by analyzing david horsey's political cartoons, how is the american dream reflected in the main characters of the great gatsby and what purpose do they serve in its critique, how does the rejection of religious expectations by esther greenwood in sylvia plath’s the bell jar reflect a broader critique of organized religion's role in shaping women's lives in the 1950s, how and to what effect do sylvia plath and charlotte perkins gilman reveal the theme of existential freedom in the bell jar and the yellow wallpaper, respectively, how does everything everywhere all at once explore the impact of generational trauma on the expression of individuality using stylistic devices, how are the revolutionaries and aristocracy of the french revolution characterised through shared symbolism in charles dickens’ a tale of two cities and baroness orzcy’s the scarlet pimpernel, to represent their differing social perceptions, how does carol ann duffy construct the female voice in “mrs. quasimodo”, “pilate’s wife”, and “medusa” in her anthology “the world’s wife”, how does jeffrey eugenides explore the theme of decay in the virgin suicides, how is visual imagery used to portray the black women experience in the poetry of audre lorde and maya angelou, how do symbolism and dystopian atmosphere communicate john wyndham’s fear in ‘the day of the triffids, how do martin luther king jr’s eulogy for the martyred children and queen elizabeth i’s speech at tilbury compare in the methods used to achieve their respective purposes, to what extent does the author’s perception of reality affect the portrayal of the american dream’s futility in death of a salesman and of mice and men, to what extent do the contrasting themes of feminism and power intersect throughout the literary texts of macbeth and the handmaid’s tale, how is art portrayed as a coping mechanism in emily st. john mandel’s station eleven, how does george r.r. martin use the characters sansa and arya stark to represent the outcomes of challenging or aligning with gender-based societal norms in westerosi society, gender: the skinning of identity how is the characterization of clarice and buffalo bill in “silence of the lambs” used to critique societal perspectives and expectations of gender identity, how and why do albert camus in the outsider and john barth in lost in the funhouse explore absurdist themes through characterization and narrative perspective to comment upon humans’ reactions to societal turning points, how and to what effect do patterns in speech and behavior demonstrate internalized misogyny in season 4 of bravo’s reality tv show the real housewives of beverly hills, how does the recurring motif of absence in integral traditional customs of society impact the treatment of morality in “oryx and crake”, how does lewis carroll portray the theme of growing up through the perspective of the child protagonist, alice, in through the looking-glass, in what ways do heathcliff from wuthering heights conform or differ from the aristotelian depiction of a tragic hero.

Extended Essay: Language and Literature

• Step 1 - Choosing a Subject
• Step 2 - Choosing a Topic
• Step 3 - Draft a Research Question
• Step 4 - Finding Sources
• Step 5 - Evaluating Information
• Step 6 - Bibliography & Citation
• Step 7 - Organizing Information
• The Arts: Visual Arts
• Individuals & Societies: Business Management
• Individuals & Societies: History
• Individuals & Societies: Psychology
• Language Acquisition

Language and Literature

• Sciences: Biology
• Sciences: Sports, Exercise, and Health Sciences
• Interdisciplinary Papers: World Studies
• Assessment Criteria
• Research Questions
• Investigation

Extended Essays in Language and Literature

Choosing a topic.

• Categories 1 & 2

Categories 1 & 2

***Category 2 essays are the same as category 1, but they analyze works not written in English***

Language and Literature papers in categories 1 and 2 are focused on one or more literary works and can focus on original literary analysis, a particular literary topic, and/or established literary criticism.  

NB: When investigating a film in category 2, the film must be analyzed for its literary value, not filmic. Filmic analysis is allowed in category 3.

Category 3 papers also analyze works, however they are not restricted to literary works! Topics in Category 3 emphasize the production and reception of texts in social, historical and/or cultural contexts. Essays that simply offer a general overview of a topic are not appropriate.

Approaches to Research

Categories 1 and 2

**Category 2 essays are the same as category 1, but analyze works not written in English**

Primary research in Language and Literature may require close reading of one or more texts. Secondary research may also be necessary for information like historical context, biographical information,  and established literary criticism. Students should consider things like the effect of the work, the devices it uses, or the way it is written.

Students should give a focused analysis of the texts being considered. The approach should be balanced, coherently argued, use relevant examples to illustrated the point.

Examples of language in a cultural context

Examples of language and mass communication

Language and Literature Sources

Even students doing primary research will still need to reference secondary sources. These may include established literary interpretations or criticisms, biographical and/or historical information.

Essay Types

An extended essay in language and literature gives students an opportunity to do independent research into a topic of special interest to them within the subject. It is intended to promote advanced research and writing skills, intellectual discovery and creativity.

The essay is open to students who are writing in a language that they would be capable of offering as a language A

Studies in language and literature EEs are divided into three categories:

Assessed Student Work

• An exploration of an aspect of the narrative voice in Vladimir Nabokov’s Lolita
• How did the World State government in Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World impact the individuality of the citizens residing in it?
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  Literature Review and Annotated Bibliography 

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW?

The literature review enables you to say “Evans and Adams have found this’ or ‘There’s a gap here’, or “Bloggs is disagreeing with Smith; I wonder why that is’, or ‘Brown and Jones both say this, but it disagrees with the general scientific view’, or public opinion is disputed by Davies, who says … ‘ … or something else like this.

Before writing about any topic it is useful to find out what has already been said about the topic.

This allows you to:

Better understand the topic

Make a link between your ideas (or methods) and those of others

Consider whether your ideas challenge or support an existing consensus

Situate your views within a context of existing viewpoints

Track any major trends or patterns in terms of interpretation

Allow you to identify the value and limitations of source material

As you do your literature review, you will certainly think about changing your initial research question. This is normal; don’t worry about it.

Lekanides (58)

Writing Literature Review   (Academic Skills, The University of Melbourne)

3 steps to write Literature Review (Scribbr)

Structure and Support for the Literature Review 

Annotated Bibliography

What is an Annotated Biblography ( Purdue Writing Lab )

What is Annoted Biblography 

Example of Annoted Biblography (Subject specific)

How to write an Annoted Biblography (McMaster Libraries)

Extended Essay Guide: Criteria, Format, Sample EEs

• Criteria, Format, Sample EEs
• Annotated Bibliographies
• DP Research Process
• Databases & Academic Journals
• Evaluate Sources
• Academic Integrity
• MLA Citation Format
• CSE Citation Format (Science & Math)
• Video Tutorials 2024

The Assessment Crtiteria in Detail!

• Criterion A: Focus and method
• Criterion B: Knowledge and understanding
• Criterion C: Critical Thinking
• Criterion D: Presentation
• Criterion E: Engagement
• EE_How to maximize marks for different subjects?

• Criterion C: Critical thinking

Notes from the IB

RE: Research Question and Title of Extended Essay

Please note the statement below from the EE curriculum manager regarding the need to have both a title and a RQ for all subjects. Previous versions of the EE Guide indicated that the title and the RQ should be the same for History, Business Management and Mathematics. This is no longer the case.  All essays, regardless of the subject, need to have both a RQ and a title.

Hi Kathy, 

To answer your question, I am going to quote directly from a response John Royce provided, on this forum, in October in response to a very similar question: (it was a question about using Spanish sources - hence the mention of Spanish)

It is certainly  permissible to use sources which are not in the language of the essay, but translation into the target language is required , one cannot assume that the reader understands the original language.

It is usual to quote the original as well as presenting the translation.  [Do not put quotation marks around your translation, just around the original]

Umberto Eco argues ("in Mouse or rat?") that direct translation may lose meaning, paraphrase or use of different idioms may be required to get the ideas across. Paul Bellos ("Is that a fish in your ear?") makes a similar argument - direct translation may confound meaning... Direct translation may not be ideal - meaning and understanding are preferred - so, not to worry that your student with her good Spanish cannot present a direct translation.

What  must be made clear is that the translations are those of the student;  these are her understandings. Readers can make of that what they will - and if unsure, are presented with the original - they can seek another translation.  A note in the acknowledgements and/or in the introduction to the effect that all translations are those of the writer is ... essential.

In response to the question about the  Bibliography/Works cited, my preference would be to list the source in its original Thai version, but perhaps with the English in brackets, to help the examiner.

Your bibliography will have the entries in Thai characters first in the document. Any in-text citation to Thai sources will be in (Thai characters [English translation]).

Citation in Thai [English translation]

Works Cited Example:

วงษ์ปัญญา, ธนกร [Wongpunya, Thanakorn]. “โรงงานยาสูบรวยแค่ไหน และเอาเงินไปทำอะไรบ้าง.”  [How rich is the Thailand Tobacco Monopoly and where does the money go?] (candidate translation). The Standard, The Standard, 30 Aug. 2018, thestandard.co/thailand-tobacco-monopoly/.

Format of the Extended Essay

Required Formatting

The extended essay should be written in a clear, correct and formal academic style, appropriate to the subject from which the topic is drawn. Given that the extended essay is a formally written research paper, it should strive to maintain a professional, academic look. 

To help achieve this, the following formatting is  required:

• 12-point, readable font (Calibri or Times New Roman);
• double spacing throughout entire Essay;
• page numbering - top right corner;
• no candidate or school name or supervisor name on the title page or page headers.

Submitting the extended essay in the required format will help set the tone of the essay and will aid readability for on-screen assessment by examiners.

Required S tructure

The structure of the essay is very important. It helps students to organize the argument, making the best use of the evidence collected. 

There are six required elements of the final work to be submitted. More details about each element are given in the  “Presentation”  section. Please note that the order in which these elements are presented here is not necessarily the order in which they should be written. 

Six required elements of the extended essay:

• Contents page
• Introduction
• Body of the essay
• References and bibliography -- if MLA "Works Cited" if CSE "References"

1. Required Title Page  

The title page should include  only  the following information: 

• the title of the essay
• the research question
• the subject the essay is registered in (if it is a language essay also state which category it falls into; if a world studies essay also state the theme and the two subjects utilized) 

The upper limit is 4,000 words for all extended essays. 

2. Required Contents Page

A contents page must be provided at the beginning of the extended essay and all pages should be numbered. Please note that an index page is not required and if included will be treated as if it is not present.

3. Required Introduction

The introduction should tell the reader what to expect in the essay. The introduction should make clear to the reader the focus of the essay, the scope of the research, in particular an indication of the sources to be used, and an insight into the line of argument to be taken. 

While students should have a sense of the direction and key focus of their essay, it is sometimes advisable to finalize the introduction once the body of the essay is complete.

4. Required Body of the Essay  (research, analysis, discussion, and evaluation)

The main task is writing the body of the essay, which should be presented in the form of a reasoned argument. The form of this varies with the subject of the essay but as the argument develops it should be clear to the reader what relevant evidence has been discovered, where/how it has been discovered and how it supports the argument. In some subjects, for example, the sciences, sub-headings within the main body of the essay will help the reader to understand the argument (and will also help the student to keep on track). In structuring their extended essay, students must take into consideration the expected conventions of the subject in which their extended essay is registered. 

Once the main body of the essay is complete, it is possible to finalize the introduction (which tells the reader what to expect) and the conclusion (which says what has been achieved, including notes of any limitations and any questions that have not been resolved). 

Any information that is important to the argument  must not  be included in appendices or footnotes/endnotes. The examiner  will not  read notes or appendices, so an essay that is not complete in itself will be compromised across the assessment criteria.

5. Required Conclusion

The conclusion says what has been achieved, including notes of any limitations and any questions that have not been resolved. While students might draw conclusions throughout the essay based on their findings, it is important that there is a final, summative conclusion at the end. This conclusion(s) must relate to the research question posed.

6.  Required References & Bibliography

Students should use their chosen style of academic referencing as soon as they start writing. That way they are less likely to forget to include a citation. It is also easier than trying to add references at a later stage. For more information on this, refer to the guidelines in the IB document  Effective citing and referencing.

Writing the essay takes time but if students have used their Researcher's reflection space and reflection sessions in a meaningful way they should be well prepared to develop their arguments.

Extended Essay - Examples & Exemplars

• Essays from May 2018 with IB marks and commentaries
• Assessed Student Work & Commentary IB-provided. "Student sample extended essays, corresponding marks and comments from senior examiners are available for the following Diploma Programme disciplines. Please note that in light of not having authentic RPPFs to accompany these essays, they are marked against criteria A – D only, for a total of 28 possible marks. Following the first assessment session in 2018, exemplars will be refreshed with authentic sample material." more... less... Biology English Economics History Studies in language and literature Language acquisition Mathematics Psychology Visual arts World studies extended essay (WSEE)
• Excellenet Extended Essays Concordian GoogleDoc
• EngA1_Othello EE Othello 2018 From inThinking.net Click the link to see the score and evaluation.
• Fifty (50) More Excellent Extended Essays DVD by International Baccalaureate Call Number: HS DVD 808.4 ISBN: 9781906345600 Publication Date: 2011 1 DVD-ROM (1:33 min.)

Past CIS Extended Essays

Available in the library behind the desk are file folders of past Extended Essays by Concordian students and IB EE Exemplars. Feel free to browse the papers which must be kept in the library.

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On Literature Reviews

On this page....

you will understand the importance of carrying out a literature review

you are given a template to organise your learning

you are given some quotes from the IB EE guide about literature reviews

Literature reviews are relevant to all EE subject areas

University of melbourne.

Useful Templates and Examples

The Blind Men and the Elephant

The importance of studying the whole picture, cross referencing, and having an open yet critical mind. This famous metaphor helps students grasp the importance of thorough research and the usefulness of a complete literature review.

Useful videos

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Ten Simple Rules for Writing a Literature Review

Marco pautasso.

1 Centre for Functional and Evolutionary Ecology (CEFE), CNRS, Montpellier, France

2 Centre for Biodiversity Synthesis and Analysis (CESAB), FRB, Aix-en-Provence, France

Literature reviews are in great demand in most scientific fields. Their need stems from the ever-increasing output of scientific publications [1] . For example, compared to 1991, in 2008 three, eight, and forty times more papers were indexed in Web of Science on malaria, obesity, and biodiversity, respectively [2] . Given such mountains of papers, scientists cannot be expected to examine in detail every single new paper relevant to their interests [3] . Thus, it is both advantageous and necessary to rely on regular summaries of the recent literature. Although recognition for scientists mainly comes from primary research, timely literature reviews can lead to new synthetic insights and are often widely read [4] . For such summaries to be useful, however, they need to be compiled in a professional way [5] .

When starting from scratch, reviewing the literature can require a titanic amount of work. That is why researchers who have spent their career working on a certain research issue are in a perfect position to review that literature. Some graduate schools are now offering courses in reviewing the literature, given that most research students start their project by producing an overview of what has already been done on their research issue [6] . However, it is likely that most scientists have not thought in detail about how to approach and carry out a literature review.

Reviewing the literature requires the ability to juggle multiple tasks, from finding and evaluating relevant material to synthesising information from various sources, from critical thinking to paraphrasing, evaluating, and citation skills [7] . In this contribution, I share ten simple rules I learned working on about 25 literature reviews as a PhD and postdoctoral student. Ideas and insights also come from discussions with coauthors and colleagues, as well as feedback from reviewers and editors.

Rule 1: Define a Topic and Audience

How to choose which topic to review? There are so many issues in contemporary science that you could spend a lifetime of attending conferences and reading the literature just pondering what to review. On the one hand, if you take several years to choose, several other people may have had the same idea in the meantime. On the other hand, only a well-considered topic is likely to lead to a brilliant literature review [8] . The topic must at least be:

• interesting to you (ideally, you should have come across a series of recent papers related to your line of work that call for a critical summary),
• an important aspect of the field (so that many readers will be interested in the review and there will be enough material to write it), and
• a well-defined issue (otherwise you could potentially include thousands of publications, which would make the review unhelpful).

Ideas for potential reviews may come from papers providing lists of key research questions to be answered [9] , but also from serendipitous moments during desultory reading and discussions. In addition to choosing your topic, you should also select a target audience. In many cases, the topic (e.g., web services in computational biology) will automatically define an audience (e.g., computational biologists), but that same topic may also be of interest to neighbouring fields (e.g., computer science, biology, etc.).

Rule 2: Search and Re-search the Literature

After having chosen your topic and audience, start by checking the literature and downloading relevant papers. Five pieces of advice here:

• keep track of the search items you use (so that your search can be replicated [10] ),
• keep a list of papers whose pdfs you cannot access immediately (so as to retrieve them later with alternative strategies),
• use a paper management system (e.g., Mendeley, Papers, Qiqqa, Sente),
• define early in the process some criteria for exclusion of irrelevant papers (these criteria can then be described in the review to help define its scope), and
• do not just look for research papers in the area you wish to review, but also seek previous reviews.

The chances are high that someone will already have published a literature review ( Figure 1 ), if not exactly on the issue you are planning to tackle, at least on a related topic. If there are already a few or several reviews of the literature on your issue, my advice is not to give up, but to carry on with your own literature review,

The bottom-right situation (many literature reviews but few research papers) is not just a theoretical situation; it applies, for example, to the study of the impacts of climate change on plant diseases, where there appear to be more literature reviews than research studies [33] .

• discussing in your review the approaches, limitations, and conclusions of past reviews,
• trying to find a new angle that has not been covered adequately in the previous reviews, and
• incorporating new material that has inevitably accumulated since their appearance.

When searching the literature for pertinent papers and reviews, the usual rules apply:

• be thorough,
• use different keywords and database sources (e.g., DBLP, Google Scholar, ISI Proceedings, JSTOR Search, Medline, Scopus, Web of Science), and
• look at who has cited past relevant papers and book chapters.

Rule 3: Take Notes While Reading

If you read the papers first, and only afterwards start writing the review, you will need a very good memory to remember who wrote what, and what your impressions and associations were while reading each single paper. My advice is, while reading, to start writing down interesting pieces of information, insights about how to organize the review, and thoughts on what to write. This way, by the time you have read the literature you selected, you will already have a rough draft of the review.

Of course, this draft will still need much rewriting, restructuring, and rethinking to obtain a text with a coherent argument [11] , but you will have avoided the danger posed by staring at a blank document. Be careful when taking notes to use quotation marks if you are provisionally copying verbatim from the literature. It is advisable then to reformulate such quotes with your own words in the final draft. It is important to be careful in noting the references already at this stage, so as to avoid misattributions. Using referencing software from the very beginning of your endeavour will save you time.

Rule 4: Choose the Type of Review You Wish to Write

After having taken notes while reading the literature, you will have a rough idea of the amount of material available for the review. This is probably a good time to decide whether to go for a mini- or a full review. Some journals are now favouring the publication of rather short reviews focusing on the last few years, with a limit on the number of words and citations. A mini-review is not necessarily a minor review: it may well attract more attention from busy readers, although it will inevitably simplify some issues and leave out some relevant material due to space limitations. A full review will have the advantage of more freedom to cover in detail the complexities of a particular scientific development, but may then be left in the pile of the very important papers “to be read” by readers with little time to spare for major monographs.

There is probably a continuum between mini- and full reviews. The same point applies to the dichotomy of descriptive vs. integrative reviews. While descriptive reviews focus on the methodology, findings, and interpretation of each reviewed study, integrative reviews attempt to find common ideas and concepts from the reviewed material [12] . A similar distinction exists between narrative and systematic reviews: while narrative reviews are qualitative, systematic reviews attempt to test a hypothesis based on the published evidence, which is gathered using a predefined protocol to reduce bias [13] , [14] . When systematic reviews analyse quantitative results in a quantitative way, they become meta-analyses. The choice between different review types will have to be made on a case-by-case basis, depending not just on the nature of the material found and the preferences of the target journal(s), but also on the time available to write the review and the number of coauthors [15] .

Rule 5: Keep the Review Focused, but Make It of Broad Interest

Whether your plan is to write a mini- or a full review, it is good advice to keep it focused 16 , 17 . Including material just for the sake of it can easily lead to reviews that are trying to do too many things at once. The need to keep a review focused can be problematic for interdisciplinary reviews, where the aim is to bridge the gap between fields [18] . If you are writing a review on, for example, how epidemiological approaches are used in modelling the spread of ideas, you may be inclined to include material from both parent fields, epidemiology and the study of cultural diffusion. This may be necessary to some extent, but in this case a focused review would only deal in detail with those studies at the interface between epidemiology and the spread of ideas.

While focus is an important feature of a successful review, this requirement has to be balanced with the need to make the review relevant to a broad audience. This square may be circled by discussing the wider implications of the reviewed topic for other disciplines.

Rule 6: Be Critical and Consistent

Reviewing the literature is not stamp collecting. A good review does not just summarize the literature, but discusses it critically, identifies methodological problems, and points out research gaps [19] . After having read a review of the literature, a reader should have a rough idea of:

• the major achievements in the reviewed field,
• the main areas of debate, and
• the outstanding research questions.

It is challenging to achieve a successful review on all these fronts. A solution can be to involve a set of complementary coauthors: some people are excellent at mapping what has been achieved, some others are very good at identifying dark clouds on the horizon, and some have instead a knack at predicting where solutions are going to come from. If your journal club has exactly this sort of team, then you should definitely write a review of the literature! In addition to critical thinking, a literature review needs consistency, for example in the choice of passive vs. active voice and present vs. past tense.

Rule 7: Find a Logical Structure

Like a well-baked cake, a good review has a number of telling features: it is worth the reader's time, timely, systematic, well written, focused, and critical. It also needs a good structure. With reviews, the usual subdivision of research papers into introduction, methods, results, and discussion does not work or is rarely used. However, a general introduction of the context and, toward the end, a recapitulation of the main points covered and take-home messages make sense also in the case of reviews. For systematic reviews, there is a trend towards including information about how the literature was searched (database, keywords, time limits) [20] .

How can you organize the flow of the main body of the review so that the reader will be drawn into and guided through it? It is generally helpful to draw a conceptual scheme of the review, e.g., with mind-mapping techniques. Such diagrams can help recognize a logical way to order and link the various sections of a review [21] . This is the case not just at the writing stage, but also for readers if the diagram is included in the review as a figure. A careful selection of diagrams and figures relevant to the reviewed topic can be very helpful to structure the text too [22] .

Rule 8: Make Use of Feedback

Reviews of the literature are normally peer-reviewed in the same way as research papers, and rightly so [23] . As a rule, incorporating feedback from reviewers greatly helps improve a review draft. Having read the review with a fresh mind, reviewers may spot inaccuracies, inconsistencies, and ambiguities that had not been noticed by the writers due to rereading the typescript too many times. It is however advisable to reread the draft one more time before submission, as a last-minute correction of typos, leaps, and muddled sentences may enable the reviewers to focus on providing advice on the content rather than the form.

Feedback is vital to writing a good review, and should be sought from a variety of colleagues, so as to obtain a diversity of views on the draft. This may lead in some cases to conflicting views on the merits of the paper, and on how to improve it, but such a situation is better than the absence of feedback. A diversity of feedback perspectives on a literature review can help identify where the consensus view stands in the landscape of the current scientific understanding of an issue [24] .

Rule 9: Include Your Own Relevant Research, but Be Objective

In many cases, reviewers of the literature will have published studies relevant to the review they are writing. This could create a conflict of interest: how can reviewers report objectively on their own work [25] ? Some scientists may be overly enthusiastic about what they have published, and thus risk giving too much importance to their own findings in the review. However, bias could also occur in the other direction: some scientists may be unduly dismissive of their own achievements, so that they will tend to downplay their contribution (if any) to a field when reviewing it.

In general, a review of the literature should neither be a public relations brochure nor an exercise in competitive self-denial. If a reviewer is up to the job of producing a well-organized and methodical review, which flows well and provides a service to the readership, then it should be possible to be objective in reviewing one's own relevant findings. In reviews written by multiple authors, this may be achieved by assigning the review of the results of a coauthor to different coauthors.

Rule 10: Be Up-to-Date, but Do Not Forget Older Studies

Given the progressive acceleration in the publication of scientific papers, today's reviews of the literature need awareness not just of the overall direction and achievements of a field of inquiry, but also of the latest studies, so as not to become out-of-date before they have been published. Ideally, a literature review should not identify as a major research gap an issue that has just been addressed in a series of papers in press (the same applies, of course, to older, overlooked studies (“sleeping beauties” [26] )). This implies that literature reviewers would do well to keep an eye on electronic lists of papers in press, given that it can take months before these appear in scientific databases. Some reviews declare that they have scanned the literature up to a certain point in time, but given that peer review can be a rather lengthy process, a full search for newly appeared literature at the revision stage may be worthwhile. Assessing the contribution of papers that have just appeared is particularly challenging, because there is little perspective with which to gauge their significance and impact on further research and society.

Inevitably, new papers on the reviewed topic (including independently written literature reviews) will appear from all quarters after the review has been published, so that there may soon be the need for an updated review. But this is the nature of science [27] – [32] . I wish everybody good luck with writing a review of the literature.

Acknowledgments

Many thanks to M. Barbosa, K. Dehnen-Schmutz, T. Döring, D. Fontaneto, M. Garbelotto, O. Holdenrieder, M. Jeger, D. Lonsdale, A. MacLeod, P. Mills, M. Moslonka-Lefebvre, G. Stancanelli, P. Weisberg, and X. Xu for insights and discussions, and to P. Bourne, T. Matoni, and D. Smith for helpful comments on a previous draft.

Funding Statement

This work was funded by the French Foundation for Research on Biodiversity (FRB) through its Centre for Synthesis and Analysis of Biodiversity data (CESAB), as part of the NETSEED research project. The funders had no role in the preparation of the manuscript.