essay question about genetic engineering

Genetic Engineering Essay Guide With 70 Hot Topics

Genetic engineering has been a subject of heated debate. You will find many essays on genetic engineering, asking you to debate for or against, discuss its ethical implications, or emerging congenital disease.

With all these at hand, you may be tempted to opt-out immediately. However, this top-notch guide seeks to make genetics essay writing as fun and as straightforward as possible. Ride along to see the magic!

What Is An Essay on Genetic Engineering?

Now, genetic engineering in itself is the use of biotechnology to manipulate an organism’s genes directly. Therefore, essays on genetics will require students to explore the set of technologies used to change cells’ genetic makeup. These include the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce novel or improved organisms.

We have various areas of genetic engineering, such as:

• Human genetic engineering definition: Deals with genetic engineering techniques applied to humans
• Genetic engineering in plants: Concentrates on genetically modified plant species

Genetic engineering is mostly applied in medicine and thus its technicality. I know this is a field that most students approach with reverence and uttermost humility. Nonetheless, it doesn’t have to be that way. The next few lines might change your opinion on genetic engineering forever!

Why is genetic engineering necessary?

Importance of Genetic Engineering

It is essential in the following ways:

• Ensures that seed companies can protect modified seed varieties as intellectual property.
• Leads to production o organisms with better traits
• Helps maintain the ecosystem

You can see why this field is unavoidable regardless of the negative talk behind it.

Genetically Engineering Plants and Animals – Essay Sample

Young in practice, a little over forty years old, genetic engineering has provided the scientific community with an abundance of knowledge once thought absurd. Genetic engineering means deliberately changing the genome of an organism to acquire some desired traits during its cultivation. On the whole, genetic engineering has a multitude of advantages and disadvantages when it comes to using it on animals and plants; the most prominent advantages include disease resistance, increased crop yields, and a decrease in need for pesticides and antibiotics, whereas disadvantages include the potential for emergence of stronger pathogens, as well as various unexpected consequences. This current paper discusses the pros and cons of using genetic engineering on plants, animals, and provides a synthesis, arguing that, despite its disadvantages, it still serves as a pivotal advantage not only within the scientific community, but also society.

The Advantages of Using Genetic Engineering

The impact of genetic engineering on society can be seen at various aspects, affecting various aspects of social and physical organic life, especially in terms of human beings. The practice consists of the specific selection and removal of genes from organic organisms and inserting them into another. The practice, though still young in practice and not yet deemed completely socially acceptable, makes the possibility of curing diseases once thought incurable a reality, thereby inherently improving the life of both humans and non-human animals. It has many positive effects on society, an example being in Uganda bananas, a main source of caloric intake, are susceptible to the emergence of new diseases that affects their production because of the disease’s potency. Ugandan scientists have successfully used a genetic modification, inserting a pepper gene into bananas, which prevents the fruit from getting the disease (Bohanec, 2015). Furthermore, through genetic engineering, tissue, skin cells, and other forms of organic matter can be grown and used in replacing damaged, worn, or malfunctioning organs and tissues thereby prolonging human life and benefiting their quality of life. The practice helps better advance both the scientific and medical field, both of which are essential in discovering how to better life on Earth.

Genetic engineering, as previously mentioned, can be used to grow and replace damaged tissue or organs, aiding in the betterment and prolonging of human life; it can cure diseases once though incurable, an example being AIDS and cancer. Millions of people around the world suffer from AIDS and cancer, both posing a severe risk to the overall health of the person. More than 900,000 lives were taken by AIDS in 2017 (UNAIDS, 2018). Similarly, over 600,000 were taken by cancer in the following year (NIH, 2018). Genetic engineering makes the possibility of eradicating these diseases a reality. In theory, genetic engineering can help those who suffer from these diseases live longer, healthier, fuller lives by eradicating the disease in its entirety. Though it would not be an easy feat, nor a cheap one, it could still help further advance and better human life and prolong the human life span. People would no longer live in fear of dying from these prolific diseases. Furthermore, genetic engineering, despite the naysayers and opposers of the practice, is another step in organic evolution. From plants to animals, the practice has the chance to achieve strides within scientific history that can greatly benefit the planet in its entirety. From eliminating hunger, to eradicating once prolific diseases, genetic engineering can provide a better, longer, and higher quality of life and tackle bounds once thought impossible the scientific community.

Genetically engineered plants and animals may provide a wide array of benefits that might be pivotal for humanity in the modern world. These benefits include the possibility of developing such plant cultivars that would be resistant to a wide variety of pathogens and diseases caused by microorganisms such as viruses (Ginn, Alexander, Edelstein, Abedi, & Wixon, 2013). If such plant cultivars are created, it might become unnecessary to use chemicals in order to battle these plant diseases. This is clearly a major benefit, since it means better preserving the natural environment and avoiding the use of chemicals that may contaminate soils and waters, as well as kill wildlife.

The Disadvantages of Using Genetic Engineering

The use of genetic engineering to alter plants and animals used in agriculture and husbandry may also have a variety of adverse consequences. For instance, it should be noted that high rates of resistance to disease might have a serious flip side. More specifically, the pathogenic microorganisms (such as bacteria and viruses) can usually mutate quickly in order to adapt to the new conditions. This means that if new cultivars or breeds of plants or animals with high resistance to diseases are created, the pathogens may adapt to these changes in their “hosts” and turn stronger, thus becoming capable of infecting the new cultivars or breeds (Ayres, n.d.). This might again necessitate the use of chemicals or antibiotics; only now stronger drugs or pesticides would be needed. In addition, the old cultivars or breeds may also become infected by the new microorganism strains, and these strains will probably cause more severe diseases in the “original” plants and animals and will be more difficult to cure or prevent.

Another negative possibility is accidentally creating some invasive species that may harm the local ecosystems. For instance, if new plants are made in such a manner that the local species of animals cannot eat them, and then humans lose control over their growth, the new plants may pose a danger to the original plants growing in the given ecosystem, therefore disrupting the ecosystem. For example, in 1984 a patch of seaweed labelled as Caulerpa taxifolia was bred with another robust strain of seaweed identified by scientists as Caulerpa taxifolia (Vahl) C. Agandh . The initial objective was to breed an aquarium plant, however, after a sample escaped in 1984 into the Mediterranean Sea, being found off the coast of both the United States and Australia in 2000, it was found that the strain’s taste was subpar to marine wild life. It was eventually poisoned by the California state government to avoid further damage to marine life and the marine ecosystem and was consequently outlawed by hundreds of countries. The World Conservation Union named it one of the 100 World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species, despite it being manmade (Cellania, 2008).

Finally, there is always the risk of “going too far” when practicing genetic engineering (Bruce & Bruce, 2013). Indeed, it should be noted that the humanity has used various methods of cultivation for millennia in order to breed for specific traits. For example, in 1956, Warwick Kerr, a Brazilian geneticist, imported an aggressive breed of African honeybee to breed with a European species to aid in the decreasing bee population epidemic. Provoked by even the smallest of instigation, after over 26 swarms of the aggressive bee escaped from the apiary in Sao Paulo, they wreaked havoc in North and South America, found in the United States in the early 90s. Nevertheless, genetic engineering is a fast and radical method to change organisms, and very little, if any, data is available to predict the potential adverse impacts of its utilization. It may be difficult to tell when (if at any point) one must stop the process of genetic engineering to avoid unexpected adverse influences of its utilization.

Genetic engineering, despite its disadvantages, can help progress humanity in ways that once seemed impossible. With the environmental and physical epidemics surrounding the planet, the practice can serve as a benefit to resolving the hunger crisis, the preservation of endangered plant and animal species, bringing certain species back from extinction, and so much more. It should be stressed that the utilization of biotechnology and genetic engineering may bring a wide array of significant benefits, which may be of great use to the humanity nowadays. The creation of breeds and cultivars which are immune to disease, resistant to harsh environmental conditions, are cheap to grow, and provide better nutritional value for people might be extremely helpful in reducing the amount of chemicals, pesticides, and antibiotics needed to grow these animals or plants, and, consequently, to help preserve the environment. However, it should also be remembered that genetic engineering might have a wide array of adverse impacts, such as the emergence of new, stronger pathogens, the creation of invasive species, and a multitude of negative consequences that no one knew to expect.

Genetic Engineering Essay Structure

A top-rated genetic engineering essay comes in the manner outlined below:

• Genetic engineering essay introduction: Provide context for your paper by giving a well-researched background on the subject of discussion. Include the thesis statement which will provide the direction of your writing.
• Body: Discuss the main points in detail with relevant examples and evidence from authentic and reliable sources. You can use diagrams or illustrations to support your argument if need be.
• Genetic engineering conclusion: Finalize your paper with a summative statement and a restatement of the thesis statement while showing the genetic engineering process’s implication. Does it add any value to society?

Armed with this great treasure of knowledge, you are good to begin writing your paper. However, we have quality genetic engineering essay topics from expert writers to start you off:

Interesting Genetic Engineering Persuasive Essay Topics

• How human curiosity has led to new advancements and technologies in genetics
• History of genetically modified food
• Discuss the process of genetic engineering in crops
• Evaluate the acceptance of genetically modified crops worldwide
• Analyze the leading countries implementing genetic engineering
• Does genetic engineering produce a desired characteristic?
• What are the legal implications of genetic engineering
• The role of scientists in making the world a better place
• Why coronavirus is a game-changer in the field of genetic engineering
• The effectiveness of genetic engineering as a course in college

Great Topics on the Disadvantages of Genetic Engineering in Humans

• Why changing the sequence of nucleotides of the DNA affects human code structure
• Impact of genetic engineering human lifespans
• Genetic engineering and population control
• Ethical questions to consider in human genetic engineering
• Unintended side effects on humans
• Increasing the risk of allergies
• The foundation of new weapon technologies
• Disadvantages of trait selection before birth
• The greater risk of stillbirth
• Why ladies are at risk with genetic engineering

Why is Genetic Engineering Good Essay Topics

• Genetic engineering and disease prevention
• The creation of a healthy and better society
• Production of drought-resistant crops
• Crop pollen spreads further than expected
• Survival of human species
• Birth of healthy children with desirable traits
• Solving food insecurity problems globally
• Elimination of fertility issues for couples
• Medical advancements as a result of genetic engineering
• Reducing the prevalence of schizophrenia and depression

Good Genetic Engineering Topics

• The development of genetic engineering in the modern world
• Application of ethics in genetic engineering
• Societal class versus genetic engineering
• Impact of genetic engineering on natural selection and adaptation
• Detection of toxins from GMO foods
• Social effects of genetic engineering
• Why people are becoming increasingly resistant to antibiotics
• How gene editing affects the human germline
• Medical treatment opportunities in genetic engineering
• The relationship between molecular cloning and genetic engineering

Impressive Genetic Engineering Research Paper Topics

• Impact of genetic engineering on food supply
• The taste of GMO food versus ordinary food
• GMOs and their need for environmental resources
• Why genetic engineering may face out the use of pesticides
• Reduced cost of living and longer shelf life.
• Growth rates of plants and animals
• Application of genetic engineering on soil bacteria
• New allergens in the food supply
• Production of new toxins
• Enhancement of the environment for toxic fungi

Latest Genetic Engineering Ideas

• The discovery of vaccines through genetic engineering
• Biological warfare on the rise
• Change in herbicide use patterns
• Mutation effects in plants and animals
• Impact of gene therapies
• Does genetic engineering always lead to the desired phenotype?
• Genetic engineering in mass insulin production
• Role of genetic engineering in human growth hormones
• Treating infertility
• Development of monoclonal antibodies

Pro and Cons of Genetic Engineering in Humans Topic Ideas

• Possibility of increased economic inequality
• Increased human suffering
• The emergence of large-scale eugenic programmes
• Rise of totalitarian control over human lives
• The concentration of toxic metals in genetic engineering
• Creation of animal models of human diseases
• Using somatic gene therapy on Parkinson’s disease
• Production of allergens in the food supply
• Redesigning the world through genetic engineering
• Bioterrorism: A study of the issue of emerging infectious diseases

I believe that by now explain genetic engineering in a sentence and write an essay on it effortlessly. If this still seems complicated for you, we have professional essay writers at your disposal.

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102 Genetic Engineering Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Genetic engineering is a rapidly advancing field that holds great potential for solving numerous challenges facing humanity today. From developing new medical treatments to improving crop yields, the possibilities are endless. However, with great power comes great responsibility, and genetic engineering also raises ethical and social concerns. If you're looking for essay topics on genetic engineering, here are 102 ideas and examples to get you started.

• The ethical implications of designer babies
• The use of genetic engineering in agriculture
• The potential risks of gene editing in humans
• The role of genetic engineering in personalized medicine
• The impact of genetic engineering on biodiversity
• The future of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
• The ethical considerations of editing the human germline
• The use of genetic engineering in combating genetic diseases
• The potential for genetic engineering to address food security issues
• The implications of gene editing in non-human organisms
• The intersection of genetic engineering and artificial intelligence
• The role of genetic engineering in environmental conservation
• The ethical considerations of gene editing in animals
• The impact of genetic engineering on society
• The potential for genetic engineering to enhance human performance
• The use of genetic engineering in forensic science
• The implications of genetic engineering on human evolution
• The role of genetic engineering in synthetic biology
• The ethical considerations of gene editing in sports
• The potential for genetic engineering to address climate change
• The impact of genetic engineering on animal welfare
• The use of genetic engineering in developing new drugs
• The implications of gene editing in the military
• The ethical considerations of gene editing in the criminal justice system
• The potential risks of genetic engineering in warfare
• The role of genetic engineering in space exploration
• The impact of genetic engineering on privacy rights
• The use of genetic engineering in creating biofuels
• The implications of gene editing in the fashion industry
• The ethical considerations of gene editing in the entertainment industry
• The potential for genetic engineering to create new materials
• The impact of genetic engineering on the economy
• The role of genetic engineering in education
• The use of genetic engineering in disaster response
• The implications of gene editing in the legal system
• The ethical considerations of gene editing in the arts
• The potential for genetic engineering to revolutionize transportation
• The impact of genetic engineering on social justice
• The role of genetic engineering in urban planning
• The use of genetic engineering in public health
• The implications of gene editing in mental health
• The ethical considerations of gene editing in the workplace
• The potential for genetic engineering to improve communication technologies
• The impact of genetic engineering on global politics
• The role of genetic engineering in international relations
• The use of genetic engineering in disaster recovery
• The implications of gene editing in conflict resolution
• The ethical considerations of gene editing in humanitarian aid
• The potential for genetic engineering to address human rights issues
• The impact of genetic engineering on cultural heritage
• The role of genetic engineering in addressing inequality
• The use of genetic engineering in promoting diversity
• The implications of gene editing in promoting peace
• The ethical considerations of gene editing in promoting democracy
• The potential for genetic engineering to promote sustainability
• The impact of genetic engineering on promoting social cohesion
• The role of genetic engineering in promoting human dignity
• The use of genetic engineering in promoting human flourishing
• The implications of gene editing in promoting human rights
• The ethical considerations of gene editing in promoting social justice
• The potential for genetic engineering to promote global citizenship
• The impact of genetic engineering on promoting intercultural understanding
• The role of genetic engineering in promoting social responsibility
• The use of genetic engineering in promoting environmental sustainability
• The implications of gene editing in promoting economic development
• The ethical considerations of gene editing in promoting human well-being
• The potential for genetic engineering to promote peacebuilding
• The impact of genetic engineering on promoting cultural diversity
• The role of genetic engineering in promoting social inclusion
• The use of genetic engineering in promoting social cohesion
• The implications of gene editing in promoting gender equality
• The ethical considerations of gene editing in promoting social equity
• The potential for genetic engineering to promote social justice
• The impact of genetic engineering on promoting environmental justice
• The role of genetic engineering in promoting global justice
• The use of genetic engineering in promoting social sustainability
• The implications of gene editing in promoting economic justice
• The ethical considerations of gene editing in promoting human dignity
• The potential for genetic engineering to promote social equity

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Home — Essay Samples — Science — Technology & Engineering — Genetic Engineering

Essays on Genetic Engineering

What makes a good genetic engineering essay topic.

When it comes to writing a captivating genetic engineering essay, the topic you choose is paramount. It not only grabs the reader's attention but also allows for effective exploration of the subject matter. So, how can you brainstorm and select a standout essay topic? Here are some recommendations:

• Brainstorm: Kickstart your ideas by brainstorming topics related to genetic engineering. Consider the latest advancements, ethical concerns, controversial issues, or potential future applications. Jot down any ideas that come to mind.
• Research: Once you have a list of potential topics, conduct thorough research to gather relevant information and understand different perspectives. This will help you evaluate the feasibility and depth of each topic.
• Consider Interest: Choose a topic that genuinely piques your interest. Writing about something you are passionate about will make the entire process more enjoyable and motivate you to delve deeper into the subject matter.
• Relevance: Ensure that the chosen topic is relevant to genetic engineering. It should align with the scope of the subject and allow you to explore various aspects related to it.
• Uniqueness: Strive for a unique and imaginative topic that stands out from the ordinary. Steer clear of generic subjects and instead focus on specific areas or emerging trends within genetic engineering.
• Controversy: Controversial topics often generate more interest and discussion. Consider exploring ethical dilemmas, potential risks, or societal impacts of genetic engineering to add a thought-provoking element to your essay.
• Depth and Scope: Assess the depth and scope of each topic. Make sure it provides enough material for a comprehensive essay without being too broad or too narrow.
• Audience Appeal: Keep your target audience in mind. Choose a topic that would captivate readers, whether they are experts in the field or individuals with limited knowledge about genetic engineering.
• Originality: Strive for originality in your topic selection. Look for unique angles, lesser-known areas, or innovative applications of genetic engineering that can make your essay stand out.
• Personal Connection: If possible, choose a topic that connects with your personal experiences or future aspirations. This will enhance your engagement and make your essay more meaningful.

Igniting Thought: The Finest Genetic Engineering Essay Topics

Below are some of the most captivating genetic engineering essay topics to consider:

• Genetic Engineering and the Future of Human Evolution
• The Ethical Dilemmas of Designer Babies
• Genetic Engineering in Agriculture: Balancing Benefits and Concerns
• CRISPR-Cas9: Unleashing Revolutionary Potential in Genetic Engineering
• The Potential of Genetic Engineering in Cancer Treatment
• Genetic Engineering's Role in Creating Sustainable Food Sources
• Genetic Engineering and Animal Welfare: Navigating Ethical Considerations
• Genetic Engineering and its Impact on Biodiversity
• The Social and Economic Implications of Genetic Engineering
• Genetic Engineering's Influence on Human Longevity
• Enhancing Athletic Performance: The Power of Genetic Engineering
• Genetic Engineering Techniques for Disease Prevention and Treatment
• Genetic Engineering's Role in Environmental Conservation
• Genetic Engineering and the Preservation of Endangered Species
• The Psychological and Societal Effects of Genetic Engineering
• The Pros and Cons of Genetic Engineering for Non-Medical Purposes
• Exploring the Potential Risks and Benefits of Genetic Engineering in Space Exploration
• Genetic Engineering and the Creation of Biofuels
• The Morality of Genetic Engineering: Insights from Religious and Philosophical Perspectives
• Genetic Engineering's Role in Combating Climate Change

Thought-Provoking Genetic Engineering Essay Questions

Consider these stimulating questions for your genetic engineering essay:

• How does genetic engineering impact the concept of natural selection?
• What are the potential consequences of genetic engineering on human genetic diversity?
• Is it ethically justifiable to use genetic engineering for cosmetic purposes?
• How does genetic engineering contribute to the development of personalized medicine?
• What are the social implications of genetically modifying animals for human consumption?
• How does the use of genetic engineering in agriculture affect food security?
• Should genetic engineering be used to resurrect extinct species?
• What are the potential risks and benefits of genetically modifying viruses for medical purposes?
• How does genetic engineering influence the balance between individual rights and societal well-being?
• Can genetic engineering be the solution to eradicating genetic diseases?

Provocative Genetic Engineering Essay Prompts

Here are some imaginative and engaging prompts for your genetic engineering essay:

• Imagine a world where genetic engineering has eliminated all hereditary diseases. Discuss the potential benefits and drawbacks of such a scenario.
• You have been granted the ability to genetically engineer one aspect of yourself. What would you choose and why?
• Write a fictional story set in a future where genetic engineering is widespread and explore the consequences it has on society.
• Reflect on the ethical considerations of genetically modifying animals for entertainment purposes, such as creating glow-in-the-dark pets.
• Create a persuasive argument for or against the use of genetic engineering in enhancing human intelligence.

Answering Your Genetic Engineering Essay Queries

Q: Can I write about the history of genetic engineering?

A: Absolutely! Exploring the historical context of genetic engineering can provide valuable insights and set the foundation for your essay.

Q: How can I make my genetic engineering essay engaging for readers with limited scientific knowledge?

A: Simplify complex concepts and terminologies, provide relevant examples, and use relatable analogies to help readers grasp the information more easily.

Q: Can I express my personal opinion in a genetic engineering essay?

A: Yes, expressing your personal opinion is encouraged as long as you support it with logical reasoning and evidence from reputable sources.

Q: Are there any potential risks associated with genetic engineering that I should discuss in my essay?

A: Yes, incorporating a discussion on the potential risks and ethical concerns surrounding genetic engineering is essential to provide a balanced perspective.

Q: Can I include interviews or case studies in my genetic engineering essay?

A: Absolutely! Interviews or case studies can add depth and real-life examples to support your arguments and make your essay more compelling.

Remember, when writing your genetic engineering essay, let your creativity shine through while maintaining a formal and engaging tone.

The Ethics of Genetic Engineering in Human Enhancement

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The Use and Ethics of Genetic Engineering

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Genetic Engineering: an Overview of The Dna/rna and The Crispr/cas9 Technology

Review of human germline engineering, positional cloning of genetic disorders, engineering american society: the lesson of eugenics, bioethical issues related to genetic engineering, cloning and ethical controversies related to it, genetic editing as a possibility of same-sex parents to have children, adhering to natural processes retains the integrity of a natural human race  , genetically modified organisms: soybeans, gene silencing to produce milk with reduced blg proteins, the role of crispr-cas9 gene drive in mosquitoes, the life of gregor mendel and his contributions to science, eugenics, its history and modern development, morphological operation hsv color space tree detetction, cytogenetics: analysis of comparative genomic hybridization and its implications, genetically engineered eucalyptus tree and crispr, review of the process of dna extraction, review of the features of the process of cloning, heterologous gene expression as an approach for fungal secondary metabolite discovery, review of the genetic algorithm searches.

Genetic engineering (also called genetic modification) is a process that uses laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA makeup of an organism.

Genetic engineering as the direct manipulation of DNA by humans outside breeding and mutations has only existed since the 1970s. In 1972, Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecules by combining DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda virus. The first field trials of genetically engineered plants occurred in France and the US in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant to herbicides.

It is a set of technologies used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms. New DNA is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using recombinant DNA methods or by artificially synthesising the DNA. Used in research and industry, genetic engineering has been applied to the production of cancer therapies, brewing yeasts, genetically modified plants and livestock, and more.

Relevant topics

• Engineering
• Space Exploration
• Natural Selection
• Charles Darwin
• Mathematics in Everyday Life
• Time Travel
• Stephen Hawking

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Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Transgenic Crops and Recombinant DNA Technology

People have been altering the genomes of plants and animals for many years using traditional breeding techniques. Artificial selection for specific, desired traits has resulted in a variety of different organisms, ranging from sweet corn to hairless cats. But this artificial selection , in which organisms that exhibit specific traits are chosen to breed subsequent generations, has been limited to naturally occurring variations. In recent decades, however, advances in the field of genetic engineering have allowed for precise control over the genetic changes introduced into an organism . Today, we can incorporate new genes from one species into a completely unrelated species through genetic engineering, optimizing agricultural performance or facilitating the production of valuable pharmaceutical substances. Crop plants, farm animals, and soil bacteria are some of the more prominent examples of organisms that have been subject to genetic engineering.

Current Use of Genetically Modified Organisms

Table 1: Examples of GMOs Resulting from Agricultural Biotechnology

The pharmaceutical industry is another frontier for the use of GMOs. In 1986, human growth hormone was the first protein pharmaceutical made in plants (Barta et al ., 1986), and in 1989, the first antibody was produced (Hiatt et al ., 1989). Both research groups used tobacco, which has since dominated the industry as the most intensively studied and utilized plant species for the expression of foreign genes (Ma et al ., 2003). As of 2003, several types of antibodies produced in plants had made it to clinical trials. The use of genetically modified animals has also been indispensible in medical research. Transgenic animals are routinely bred to carry human genes, or mutations in specific genes, thus allowing the study of the progression and genetic determinants of various diseases.

Potential GMO Applications

Many industries stand to benefit from additional GMO research. For instance, a number of microorganisms are being considered as future clean fuel producers and biodegraders. In addition, genetically modified plants may someday be used to produce recombinant vaccines. In fact, the concept of an oral vaccine expressed in plants (fruits and vegetables) for direct consumption by individuals is being examined as a possible solution to the spread of disease in underdeveloped countries, one that would greatly reduce the costs associated with conducting large-scale vaccination campaigns. Work is currently underway to develop plant-derived vaccine candidates in potatoes and lettuce for hepatitis B virus (HBV), enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC), and Norwalk virus. Scientists are also looking into the production of other commercially valuable proteins in plants, such as spider silk protein and polymers that are used in surgery or tissue replacement (Ma et al ., 2003). Genetically modified animals have even been used to grow transplant tissues and human transplant organs, a concept called xenotransplantation. The rich variety of uses for GMOs provides a number of valuable benefits to humans, but many people also worry about potential risks.

Risks and Controversies Surrounding the Use of GMOs

Despite the fact that the genes being transferred occur naturally in other species, there are unknown consequences to altering the natural state of an organism through foreign gene expression . After all, such alterations can change the organism's metabolism , growth rate, and/or response to external environmental factors. These consequences influence not only the GMO itself, but also the natural environment in which that organism is allowed to proliferate. Potential health risks to humans include the possibility of exposure to new allergens in genetically modified foods, as well as the transfer of antibiotic-resistant genes to gut flora.

Horizontal gene transfer of pesticide, herbicide, or antibiotic resistance to other organisms would not only put humans at risk , but it would also cause ecological imbalances, allowing previously innocuous plants to grow uncontrolled, thus promoting the spread of disease among both plants and animals. Although the possibility of horizontal gene transfer between GMOs and other organisms cannot be denied, in reality, this risk is considered to be quite low. Horizontal gene transfer occurs naturally at a very low rate and, in most cases, cannot be simulated in an optimized laboratory environment without active modification of the target genome to increase susceptibility (Ma et al ., 2003).

In contrast, the alarming consequences of vertical gene transfer between GMOs and their wild-type counterparts have been highlighted by studying transgenic fish released into wild populations of the same species (Muir & Howard, 1999). The enhanced mating advantages of the genetically modified fish led to a reduction in the viability of their offspring . Thus, when a new transgene is introduced into a wild fish population, it propagates and may eventually threaten the viability of both the wild-type and the genetically modified organisms.

Unintended Impacts on Other Species: The Bt Corn Controversy

One example of public debate over the use of a genetically modified plant involves the case of Bt corn. Bt corn expresses a protein from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis . Prior to construction of the recombinant corn, the protein had long been known to be toxic to a number of pestiferous insects, including the monarch caterpillar, and it had been successfully used as an environmentally friendly insecticide for several years. The benefit of the expression of this protein by corn plants is a reduction in the amount of insecticide that farmers must apply to their crops. Unfortunately, seeds containing genes for recombinant proteins can cause unintentional spread of recombinant genes or exposure of non-target organisms to new toxic compounds in the environment.

The now-famous Bt corn controversy started with a laboratory study by Losey et al . (1999) in which the mortality of monarch larvae was reportedly higher when fed with milkweed (their natural food supply) covered in pollen from transgenic corn than when fed milkweed covered with pollen from regular corn. The report by Losey et al . was followed by another publication (Jesse & Obrycki, 2000) suggesting that natural levels of Bt corn pollen in the field were harmful to monarchs.

Debate ensued when scientists from other laboratories disputed the study, citing the extremely high concentration of pollen used in the laboratory study as unrealistic, and concluding that migratory patterns of monarchs do not place them in the vicinity of corn during the time it sheds pollen. For the next two years, six teams of researchers from government, academia, and industry investigated the issue and concluded that the risk of Bt corn to monarchs was "very low" (Sears et al ., 2001), providing the basis for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to approve Bt corn for an additional seven years.

Unintended Economic Consequences

Another concern associated with GMOs is that private companies will claim ownership of the organisms they create and not share them at a reasonable cost with the public. If these claims are correct, it is argued that use of genetically modified crops will hurt the economy and environment, because monoculture practices by large-scale farm production centers (who can afford the costly seeds) will dominate over the diversity contributed by small farmers who can't afford the technology. However, a recent meta-analysis of 15 studies reveals that, on average, two-thirds of the benefits of first-generation genetically modified crops are shared downstream, whereas only one-third accrues upstream (Demont et al ., 2007). These benefit shares are exhibited in both industrial and developing countries. Therefore, the argument that private companies will not share ownership of GMOs is not supported by evidence from first-generation genetically modified crops.

GMOs and the General Public: Philosophical and Religious Concerns

In a 2007 survey of 1,000 American adults conducted by the International Food Information Council (IFIC), 33% of respondents believed that biotech food products would benefit them or their families, but 23% of respondents did not know biotech foods had already reached the market. In addition, only 5% of those polled said they would take action by altering their purchasing habits as a result of concerns associated with using biotech products.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, public acceptance trends in Europe and Asia are mixed depending on the country and current mood at the time of the survey (Hoban, 2004). Attitudes toward cloning, biotechnology, and genetically modified products differ depending upon people's level of education and interpretations of what each of these terms mean. Support varies for different types of biotechnology; however, it is consistently lower when animals are mentioned.

Furthermore, even if the technologies are shared fairly, there are people who would still resist consumable GMOs, even with thorough testing for safety, because of personal or religious beliefs. The ethical issues surrounding GMOs include debate over our right to "play God," as well as the introduction of foreign material into foods that are abstained from for religious reasons. Some people believe that tampering with nature is intrinsically wrong, and others maintain that inserting plant genes in animals, or vice versa, is immoral. When it comes to genetically modified foods, those who feel strongly that the development of GMOs is against nature or religion have called for clear labeling rules so they can make informed selections when choosing which items to purchase. Respect for consumer choice and assumed risk is as important as having safeguards to prevent mixing of genetically modified products with non-genetically modified foods. In order to determine the requirements for such safeguards, there must be a definitive assessment of what constitutes a GMO and universal agreement on how products should be labeled.

These issues are increasingly important to consider as the number of GMOs continues to increase due to improved laboratory techniques and tools for sequencing whole genomes, better processes for cloning and transferring genes, and improved understanding of gene expression systems. Thus, legislative practices that regulate this research have to keep pace. Prior to permitting commercial use of GMOs, governments perform risk assessments to determine the possible consequences of their use, but difficulties in estimating the impact of commercial GMO use makes regulation of these organisms a challenge.

History of International Regulations for GMO Research and Development

In 1971, the first debate over the risks to humans of exposure to GMOs began when a common intestinal microorganism, E. coli , was infected with DNA from a tumor-inducing virus (Devos et al ., 2007). Initially, safety issues were a concern to individuals working in laboratories with GMOs, as well as nearby residents. However, later debate arose over concerns that recombinant organisms might be used as weapons. The growing debate, initially restricted to scientists, eventually spread to the public, and in 1974, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) established the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee to begin to address some of these issues.

In the 1980s, when deliberate releases of GMOs to the environment were beginning to occur, the U.S. had very few regulations in place. Adherence to the guidelines provided by the NIH was voluntary for industry. Also during the 1980s, the use of transgenic plants was becoming a valuable endeavor for production of new pharmaceuticals, and individual companies, institutions, and whole countries were beginning to view biotechnology as a lucrative means of making money (Devos et al ., 2007). Worldwide commercialization of biotech products sparked new debate over the patentability of living organisms, the adverse effects of exposure to recombinant proteins, confidentiality issues, the morality and credibility of scientists, the role of government in regulating science, and other issues. In the U.S., the Congressional Office of Technology Assessment initiatives were developed, and they were eventually adopted worldwide as a top-down approach to advising policymakers by forecasting the societal impacts of GMOs.

Then, in 1986, a publication by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), called "Recombinant DNA Safety Considerations," became the first intergovernmental document to address issues surrounding the use of GMOs. This document recommended that risk assessments be performed on a case-by-case basis. Since then, the case-by-case approach to risk assessment for genetically modified products has been widely accepted; however, the U.S. has generally taken a product-based approach to assessment, whereas the European approach is more process based (Devos et al ., 2007). Although in the past, thorough regulation was lacking in many countries, governments worldwide are now meeting the demands of the public and implementing stricter testing and labeling requirements for genetically modified crops.

Increased Research and Improved Safety Go Hand in Hand

Proponents of the use of GMOs believe that, with adequate research, these organisms can be safely commercialized. There are many experimental variations for expression and control of engineered genes that can be applied to minimize potential risks. Some of these practices are already necessary as a result of new legislation, such as avoiding superfluous DNA transfer (vector sequences) and replacing selectable marker genes commonly used in the lab (antibiotic resistance) with innocuous plant-derived markers (Ma et al ., 2003). Issues such as the risk of vaccine-expressing plants being mixed in with normal foodstuffs might be overcome by having built-in identification factors, such as pigmentation, that facilitate monitoring and separation of genetically modified products from non-GMOs. Other built-in control techniques include having inducible promoters (e.g., induced by stress, chemicals, etc.), geographic isolation, using male-sterile plants, and separate growing seasons.

GMOs benefit mankind when used for purposes such as increasing the availability and quality of food and medical care, and contributing to a cleaner environment. If used wisely, they could result in an improved economy without doing more harm than good, and they could also make the most of their potential to alleviate hunger and disease worldwide. However, the full potential of GMOs cannot be realized without due diligence and thorough attention to the risks associated with each new GMO on a case-by-case basis.

References and Recommended Reading

Barta, A., et al . The expression of a nopaline synthase-human growth hormone chimaeric gene in transformed tobacco and sunflower callus tissue. Plant Molecular Biology 6 , 347–357 (1986)

Beyer, P., et al . Golden rice: Introducing the β-carotene biosynthesis pathway into rice endosperm by genetic engineering to defeat vitamin A deficiency. Journal of Nutrition 132 , 506S–510S (2002)

Demont, M., et al . GM crops in Europe: How much value and for whom? EuroChoices 6 , 46–53 (2007)

Devlin, R., et al . Extraordinary salmon growth. Nature 371 , 209–210 (1994) ( link to article )

Devos, Y., et al . Ethics in the societal debate on genetically modified organisms: A (re)quest for sense and sensibility. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 21 , 29–61 (2007) doi:10.1007/s10806-007-9057-6

Guerrero-Andrade, O., et al . Expression of the Newcastle disease virus fusion protein in transgenic maize and immunological studies. Transgenic Research 15 , 455–463(2006) doi:10.1007/s11248-006-0017-0

Hiatt, A., et al . Production of antibodies in transgenic plants. Nature 342 , 76–79 (1989) ( link to article )

Hoban, T. Public attitudes towards agricultural biotechnology. ESA working papers nos. 4-9. Agricultural and Development Economics Division, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (2004)

Jesse, H., & Obrycki, J. Field deposition of Bt transgenic corn pollen: Lethal effects on the monarch butterfly. Oecologia 125 , 241–248 (2000)

Losey, J., et al . Transgenic pollen harms monarch larvae. Nature 399 , 214 (1999) doi:10.1038/20338 ( link to article )

Ma, J., et al . The production of recombinant pharmaceutical proteins in plants. Nature Reviews Genetics 4 , 794–805 (2003) doi:10.1038/nrg1177 ( link to article )

Muir, W., & Howard, R. Possible ecological risks of transgenic organism release when transgenes affect mating success: Sexual selection and the Trojan gene hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 96 , 13853–13856 (1999)

Sears, M., et al . Impact of Bt corn on monarch butterfly populations: A risk assessment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98 , 11937–11942 (2001)

Spurgeon, D. Call for tighter controls on transgenic foods. Nature 409 , 749 (2001) ( link to article )

Takeda, S., & Matsuoka, M. Genetic approaches to crop improvement: Responding to environmental and population changes. Nature Reviews Genetics 9 , 444–457 (2008) doi:10.1038/nrg2342 ( link to article )

United States Department of Energy, Office of Biological and Environmental Research, Human Genome Program. Human Genome Project information: Genetically modified foods and organisms, (2007)

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Arguing For and Against Genetic Engineering

Harvard philosopher Michael Sandel recently spoke at Stanford on the subject of his new book, The Case against Perfection: Ethics in the Age of Genetic Engineering. He focused on the “ethical problems of using biomedical technologies to determine and choose from the genetic material of human embryos,” an issue that has inspired much debate.

Having followed Sandel’s writings on genetic enhancement for several years, I think that this issue deserves special thought. For many years, the specter of human genetic engineering has haunted conservatives and liberals alike. Generally, their main criticisms run thus:

First, genetic engineering limits children’s autonomy to shape their own destinies. Writer Dinesh D’Souza articulates this position in a 2001 National Review Online article: “If parents are able to remake a child’s genetic makeup, they are in a sense writing the genetic instructions that shape his entire life. If my parents give me blue eyes instead of brown eyes, if they make me tall instead of medium height, if they choose a passive over an aggressive personality, their choices will have a direct, lifelong effect on me.” In other words, genetic enhancement is immoral because it artificially molds people’s lives, often pointing their destinies in directions that they themselves would not freely choose. Therefore, it represents a fundamental violation of their rights as human beings.

Second, some fear that genetic engineering will lead to eugenics. In a 2006 column, writer Charles Colson laments: “British medical researchers recently announced plans to use cutting-edge science to eliminate a condition my family is familiar with: autism. Actually, they are not ‘curing’ autism or even making life better for autistic people. Their plan is to eliminate autism by eliminating autistic people. There is no in utero test for autism as there is for Down syndrome…[Prenatal] testing, combined with abortion-on-demand, has made people with Down syndrome an endangered population…This utilitarian view of life inevitably leads us exactly where the Nazis were creating a master race. Can’t we see it?” The logic behind this argument is that human genetic enhancement perpetuates discrimination against the disabled and the “genetically unfit,” and that this sort of discrimination is similar to the sort that inspired the eugenics of the Third Reich.

A third argument is that genetic engineering will lead to vast social inequalities. This idea is expressed in the 1997 cult film Gattaca, which portrays a society where the rich enjoy genetic enhancements—perfect eyesight, improved height, higher intelligence—that the poor cannot afford. Therefore, the main character Vincent, a man from a poor background who aspires to be an astronaut, finds it difficult to achieve his goal because he is short-sighted and has a “weak heart.” This discrepancy is exacerbated by the fact that his brother, who is genetically-engineered, enjoys perfect health and is better able to achieve his dreams. To many, Gattaca is a dystopia where vast gaps between the haves and have-nots will become intolerable, due to the existence of not just material, but also genetic inequalities.

The critics are right that a world with genetic engineering will contain inequalities. On the other hand, it is arguable that a world without genetic engineering, like this one, is even more unequal. In Gattaca, a genetically “fit” majority of people can aspire to be astronauts, but an unfortunate “unfit” minority cannot. In the real world, the situation is the other way round: the majority of people don’t have the genes to become astronauts, and only a small minority with perfect eyesight and perfect physical fitness—the Neil Armstrong types—would qualify.

The only difference is that in the real world, we try to be polite about the unpleasant realities of life by insisting that the Average Joe has, at least theoretically, a Rocky-esque chance of becoming an astronaut. In that sense, our covert discrimination is much more polite than the overt discrimination of the Gattaca variety. But it seems that our world, where genetic privilege exists naturally among a tiny minority, could conceivably be less equal (and less socially mobile) than a world with genetic engineering, where genetic enhancements would be potentially available to the majority of people, giving them a chance to create better futures for themselves. Supporters of human genetic engineering thus ask the fair question: Are natural genetic inequalities, doled out randomly and sometimes unfairly by nature, more just than engineered ones, which might be earned through good old fashioned American values like hard work, determination, and effort?

“But,” the critics ask, “wouldn’t genetic engineering lead us to eugenics?” The pro-genetic engineering crowd thinks not. They suggest that genetic engineering, if done on a purely decentralized basis by free individuals and couples, will not involve any form of coercion. Unlike the Nazi eugenics program of the 1930s, which involved the forced, widespread killing of “unfit” peoples and disabled babies, the de facto effect of genetic engineering is to cure disabilities, not kill the disabled. This is a key moral difference. As pointed out by biologist Robert Sinsheimer, genetic engineering would “permit in principle the conversion of all the ‘unfit’ to the highest genetic level.” Too often, women choose to abort babies because pre-natal testing shows that they have Down syndrome or some other ailment. If anything, genetic engineering should be welcomed by pro-life groups because by converting otherwise-disabled babies into normal, healthy ones, it would reduce the number of abortions.

In addition, the world of Gattaca, for all its faults, features a world that, far from being defined along Hitler-esque racial lines, has in fact transcended racism. Being blond-haired and blue-eyed loses its racially elitist undertones because such traits are easily available on the genetic supermarket. Hair color, skin color, and eye color become a subjective matter of choice, no more significant than the color of one’s clothes. If anything, genetic engineering will probably encourage, not discourage, racial harmony and diversity.

It is true that genetic engineering may limit children’s autonomy to shape their own destinies. But it is equally true that all people’s destinies are already limited by their natural genetic makeup, a makeup that they are born with and cannot change. A short person, for example, would be unlikely to join the basketball team because his height makes it difficult for him to compete with his tall peers. An ugly person would be unable to achieve her dream of becoming a famous actress because the lead roles are reserved for the beautiful. A myopic kid who wears glasses will find it difficult to become a pilot. A student with an IQ of 75 will be unlikely to get into Harvard however hard he tries. In some way or another, our destinies are limited by the genes we are born with.

In this sense, it is arguable that genetic engineering might help to level the playing field. Genetic engineering could give people greater innate capacity to fulfill their dreams and pursue their own happiness. Rather than allow peoples’ choices to be limited by their genetic makeup, why not give each person the capability of becoming whatever he or she wants to, and let his or her eventual success be determined by effort, willpower, and perseverance? America has long represented the idea that people can shape their own destinies. To paraphrase Dr. King, why not have a society where people are judged not by the genes they inherit, but by the content of their character?

Looking at both sides, the genetic engineering controversy does raise questions that should be answered, not shouted down. Like all major scientific advances, it probably has some negative effects, and steps must be taken to ameliorate these outcomes. For example, measures should also be taken to ensure that genetic engineering’s benefits are, at least to some extent, available to the poor. As ethicists Maxwell Mehlman and Jeffrey Botkin suggest in their book Access to the Genome: The Challenge to Equality, the rich could be taxed on genetic enhancements, and the revenue from these taxes could be used to help pay for the genetic enhancement of the poor. To some extent, this will help to ameliorate the unequal effects of genetic engineering, allowing its benefits to be more equitably distributed. In addition, caution must be taken in other areas, such as ensuring that the sanctity of human life is respected at all times. In this respect, pro-life groups like Focus on the Family can take a leading role in ensuring that scientific advances do not come at the expense of moral ethics.

At the same time, we should not allow our fear of change to prevent our society from exploring this promising new field of science, one that promises so many medical and social benefits. A strategy that defines itself against the core idea of scientific progress cannot succeed. Instead of attempting to bury our heads in the sand, we should seek to harness genetic engineering for its positive benefits, even as we take careful steps to ameliorate its potential downsides.

204 Genetics Research Topics & Essay Questions for College and High School

Genetics studies how genes and traits pass from generation to generation. It has practical applications in many areas, such as genetic engineering, gene therapy, gene editing, and genetic testing. If you’re looking for exciting genetics topics for presentation, you’re at the right place! Here are genetics research paper topics and ideas for different assignments.

🧬 TOP 7 Genetics Topics for Presentation 2024

🏆 best genetics essay topics, ❓ genetics research questions, 👍 good genetics research topics & essay examples, 🌟 cool genetics topics for presentation, 🌶️ hot genetics topics to write about, 🔎 current genetic research topics, 🎓 most interesting genetics topics.

• Advantages and Disadvantages of Genetic Testing
• Should Parents Have the Right to Choose Their Children Based on Genetics?
• Genetically Modified Pineapples and Their Benefits
• The Potential Benefits of Genetic Engineering
• Link Between Obesity and Genetics
• Genetic and Social Behavioral Learning Theories
• The Importance of Heredity and Genetics
• Genetic and Environmental Impacts on Teaching Work If students do not adopt learning materials and the fundamentals of the curriculum well, this is a reason for reviewing the current educational regimen.
• Cause and Effect of Genetically Modified Food The paper states that better testing should be done on GMOs. It would lead to avoiding catastrophic health issues caused by these foods.
• Simulating the Natural Selection and Genetic Drift This lab was aimed at simulating the natural selection and genetic drift as well as predicting their frequency of evolution change.
• Ban on Genetically Modified Foods Genetically modified (GM) foods are those that are produced with the help of genetic engineering. Such foods are created from organisms with changed DNA.
• Family Pedigree, Human Traits, and Genetic Testing Genetic testing allows couples to define any severe genes in eight-cell embryos and might avoid implanting the highest risk-rated ones.
• Genetically Modified Organisms: Pros and Cons Genetically modified organisms are organisms that are created after combining DNA from a different species into an organism to come up with a transgenic organism.
• Human Genetics: Multifactorial Traits This essay states that multifactorial traits in human beings are essential for distinguishing individual characteristics in a population.
• Genetic and Environmental Factors Causing Alcoholism and Effects of Alcohol Abuse The term alcoholism may be used to refer to a wide range of issues associated with alcohol. Simply put, it is a situation whereby an individual cannot stay without alcohol.
• Technology of Synthesis of Genetically Modified Insulin The work summarizes the technology for obtaining genetically modified insulin by manipulating the E. coli genome.
• A Career in Genetics: Required Skills and Knowledge A few decades ago, genetics was mostly a science-related sphere of employment. People with a degree in genetics can have solid career prospects in medicine and even agriculture.
• Genetics of Developmental Disabilities The aim of the essay is to explore the genetic causes of DDs, especially dyslexia, and the effectiveness of DNA modification in the treatment of these disorders.
• Ethical Concerns on Genetic Engineering The paper discusses Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats technology. It is a biological system for modifying DNA.
• Mendelian Genetics and Chlorophyll in Plants This paper investigates Mendelian genetics. This lab report will examine the importance of chlorophyll in plants using fast plants’ leaves and stems.
• Benefits of Genetic Engineering The potential increase of people’s physical characteristics and lifespan may be regarded as another advantage of genetic engineering.
• Genetically Modified Foods: How Safe are they? This paper seeks to address the question of whether genetically modified plants meant for food production confer a threat to human health and the environment.
• Genetic Engineering in Food and Freshwater Issues The technology of bioengineered foods, genetically modified, genetically engineered, or transgenic crops, will be an essential element in meeting the challenging population needs.
• Behavioral Genetics in “Harry Potter” Books The reverberations of the Theory of Behavioral Genetics permeate the Harry Potter book series, enabling to achieve the comprehension of characters and their behaviors.
• Genetics of Personality Disorders The genetics of different psychological disorders can vary immensely; for example, the genetic architecture of schizophrenia is quite perplexing and complex.
• Medicine Is Not a Genetic Supermarket Together with the development of society, medicine also develops, but some people are not ready to accept everything that science creates.
• Plant Genetic Engineering: Genetic Modification Genetic engineering is the manipulation of the genes of an organism by completely altering the structure of the organism.
• Genetic Testing and Privacy & Discrimination Issues Genetic testing is fraught with the violation of privacy and may result in discrimination in employment, poor access to healthcare services, and social censure.
• Advantages of Using Genetically Modified Foods Genetic modifications of traditional crops have allowed the expansion of agricultural land in areas with adverse conditions.
• Genetically Modified Food as a Current Issue GM foods are those kinds of food items that have had their DNA changed by usual breeding; this process is also referred to as Genetic Engineering.
• Genomics, Genetics, and Nursing Involvement The terms genomics and genetics refer to the study of genetic material. In many cases, the words are erroneously used interchangeably.
• Medical and Psychological Genetic Counseling Genetic counseling is defined as the process of helping people understand and adapt to the medical, psychological, and familial implications of genetic contributions to disease.
• Genetic Engineering: Gene Therapy The purpose of the present study is to discover just what benefits gene therapy might have to offer present and future generations.
• Genetically Modified Foods and Their Impact on Human Health Genetically modified food has become the subject of discussion. There are numerous benefits and risks tied to consumption of genetically modified foods.
• Genetic Engineering: Cloning With Pet-28A Embedding genes into plasmid vectors is an integral part of molecular cloning as part of genetic engineering. An example is the cloning of the pectate lyase gene.
• Literature Review: Acceptability of Genetic Engineering The risks and benefits of genetic engineering must be objectively evaluated so that modern community could have a better understanding of this problem
• Genetic and Genomic Healthcare: Nurses Ethical Issues Genomic medicine is one of the most significant ways of tailoring healthcare at a personal level. This paper will explore nursing ethics concerning genetic information.
• GMO: Some Peculiarities and Associated Concerns Genetically modified organisms are created through the insertion of genes of other species into their genetic codes.
• How Much Do Genetics Affect Us?
• What Can Livestock Breeders Learn From Conservation Genetics and Vice Versa?
• How Do Genetics Affect Caffeine Tolerance?
• How Dolly Sheep Changed Genetics Forever?
• What Is the Nature and Function of Genetics?
• What Are the Five Branches of Genetics?
• How Does Genetics Affect the Achievement of Food Security?
• Are Owls and Larks Different in Genetics When It Comes to Aggression?
• How Do Neuroscience and Behavioral Genetics Improve Psychiatric Assessment?
• How Does Genetics Influence Human Behavior?
• What Are Three Common Genetics Disorders?
• Can Genetics Cause Crime or Are We Presupposed?
• What Are Examples of Genetics Influences?
• How Do Genetics Influence Psychology?
• What Traits Are Influenced by Genetics?
• Why Tampering With Our Genetics Will Be Beneficial?
• How Genetics and Environment Affect a Child’s Behaviors?
• Which Country Is Best for Genetics Studies?
• How Does the Environment Change Genetics?
• Can Crop Models Identify Critical Gaps in Genetics, Environment, and Management Interactions?
• How Can Drug Metabolism and Transporter Genetics Inform Psychotropic Prescribing?
• Can You Change Your Genetics?
• How Old Are European Genetics?
• Will Benchtop Sequencers Resolve the Sequencing Trade-off in Plant Genetics?
• What Can You Study in Genetics?
• What Are Some Genetic Issues?
• Does Genetics Matter for Disease-Related Stigma?
• How Did the Drosophila Melanogaster Impact Genetics?
• What Is a Genetics Specialist?
• Will Genetics Destroy Sports?
• Genetic Engineering: Dangers and Opportunities Genetic engineering can be defined as: “An artificial modification of the genetic code of an organism. It changes radically the physical nature of the being in question.
• Is ADHD Genetically Passed Down to Family Members? Genetic correlations between such qualities as hyperactivity and inattention allowed us to define ADHD as a spectrum disorder rather than a unitary one.
• Alzheimer’s Disease: Genetic Risk and Ethical Considerations Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease that causes brain shrinkage and the death of brain cells. It is the most prevalent form of dementia.
• Environmental Impact of Genetically Modified Crop In 1996, the commercial use of genetically modified (GM) crop production techniques had increasingly been accepted by many farmers.
• Gene Transfer and Genetic Engineering Mechanisms This paper discusses gene transfer mechanisms and the different genetic engineering mechanisms. Gene transfer, a natural process, can cause variation in biological features.
• Nutrition: Obesity Pandemic and Genetic Code The environment in which we access the food we consume has changed. Unhealthy foods are cheaper, and there is no motivation to eat healthily.
• Relation Between Genetics and Intelligence Intelligence is a mental ability to learn from experience, tackle issues and use knowledge to adapt to new situations and the factor g may access intelligence of a person.
• Genetics in Diagnosis of Diseases Medical genetics aims to study the role of genetic factors in the etiology and pathogenesis of various human diseases.
• The Morality of Selective Abortion and Genetic Screening The paper states that the morality of selective abortion and genetic screening is relative. This technology should be made available and legal.
• Environmental Ethics in Genetically Modified Organisms The paper discusses genetically modified organisms. Environmental ethics is centered on the ethical dilemmas arising from human interaction with the nonhuman domain.
• Does Genetic Predisposition Affect Learning in Other Disciplines? This paper aims to examine each person’s ability to study a discipline for which there is no genetic ability and to understand how effective it is.
• Detection of Genetically Modified Products Today, people are becoming more concerned about the need to protect themselves from the effects of harmful factors and to buy quality food.
• Genetically Modified Organisms Solution to Global Hunger It is time for the nations to work together and solve the great challenge of feeding the population by producing sufficient food and using fewer inputs.
• Restricting the Volume of Sale of Fast Foods and Genetically Modified Foods The effects of fast foods and genetically modified foods on the health of Arizona citizens are catastrophic. The control of such outlets and businesses is crucial.
• Researching of Genetic Engineering DNA technology entails the sequencing, evaluation and cut-and-paste of DNA. The following paper analyzes the historical developments, techniques, applications, and controversies.
• Genetically Modified Crops: Impact on Human Health The aim of this paper is to provide some information about genetically modified crops as well as highlight the negative impacts of genetically modified soybeans on human health.
• Genetic Engineering Biomedical Ethics Perspectives Diverse perspectives ensure vivisection, bio, and genetic engineering activities, trying to deduce their significance in evolution, medicine, and society.
• Down Syndrome: The Genetic Disorder Down syndrome is the result of a glandular or chemical disbalance in the mother at the time of gestation and of nothing else whatsoever.
• Genetic Modifications: Advantages and Disadvantages Genetic modifications of fruits and vegetables played an important role in the improvement process of crops and their disease resistance, yields, eating quality and shelf life.
• Labeling of Genetically Modified Products Regardless of the reasoning behind the labeling issue, it is ethical and good to label the food as obtained from genetically modified ingredients for the sake of the consumers.
• Convergent Evolution, Genetics and Related Structures This paper discusses the concept of convergent evolution and related structures. Convergent evolution describes the emergence of analogous or similar traits in different species.
• Genetic Technologies in the Healthcare One area where genetic technology using DNA works for the benefit of society is medicine, as it will improve the treatment and management of genetic diseases.
• Are Genetically Modified Organisms Really That Bad? Almost any food can be genetically modified: meat, fruits, vegetables, etc. Many people argue that consuming products, which have GMOs may cause severe health issues.
• Type 1 Diabetes in Children: Genetic and Environmental Factors The prevalence rate of type 1 diabetes in children raises the question of the role of genetic and environmental factors in the increasing cases of this illness.
• Discussion of Genetic Testing Aspects The primary aim of the adoption process is to ensure that the children move into a safe and loving environment.
• The Normal Aging Process and Its Genetic Basis Various factors can cause some genetic disorders linked to premature aging. The purpose of this paper is to talk about the genetic basis of the normal aging process.
• Defending People’s Rights Through GMO Labels Having achieved mandatory labeling of GMOs, the state and other official structures signal manufacturers of goods about the need to respect customers’ rights.
• Epigenetics: Definition and Family History Epigenetics refers to the learning of fluctuations in creatures induced by gene expression alteration instead of modification of the ‘genetic code itself.
• Genetically Modified Organisms in Aquaculture Genetically Modified Organisms are increasingly being used in aquaculture. They possess a unique genetic combination that makes them uniquely suited to their environment.
• Genetic Modification of Organisms to Meet Human Needs Genetic modification of plants and animals for food has increased crop yields as the modified plants and animals have more desirable features such as better production.
• Discussion of Epigenetics Meanings and Aspects The paper discusses epigenetics – the study of how gene expression takes place without changing the sequence of DNA.
• Genetic Testing and Bill of Rights and Responsibilities Comparing the Patient Bill of Rights or Patient Rights and Responsibilities of UNMC and the Nebraska Methodist, I find that the latter is much broader.
• Genetically Modified Products: Positive and Negative Sides This paper considers GMOs a positive trend in human development due to their innovativeness and helpfulness in many areas of life, even though GMOs are fatal for many insects.
• Overview of African Americans’ Genetic Diseases African Americans are more likely to suffer from certain diseases than white Americans, according to numerous studies.
• Genetically Modified Fish: The Threats and Benefits This article’s purpose is to evaluate possible harm and advantages of genetically modified fish. For example, the GM fish can increase farms’ yield.
• DNA and the Birth of Molecular Genetics Molecular genetics is critical in studying traits that are passed through generations. The paper analyzes the role of DNA to provide an ample understanding of molecular genetics.
• Genetic Linkage Disorders: An Overview A receptor gene in the human chromosome 9 is the causative agent of most blood vessel disorders. Moreover, blood vessel disorders are the major cause of heart ailments.
• Natural Selection and Genetic Variation The difference in the genetic content of organisms is indicative that certain group of organisms will stay alive, and effectively reproduce than other organisms residing in the same environment.
• The role of genes in our food preferences.
• The molecular mechanisms of aging and longevity.
• Genomic privacy: ways to protect genetic information.
• The effects of genes on athletic performance.
• CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing: current applications and future perspectives.
• Genetic underpinnings of human intelligence.
• The genetic foundations of human behavior.
• The role of DNA analysis in criminal justice.
• The influence of genetic diversity on a species’ fate.
• Genetic ancestry testing: the process and importance.
• The Genetic Material Sequencing This experiment is aimed at understanding the real mechanism involved in genetic material sequencing through nucleic acid hybridization.
• Genetically Modified Organisms in Human Food This article focuses on Genetically Modified Organisms as they are used to produce human food in the contemporary world.
• Genetics and Public Health: Disease Control and Prevention Public health genomics may be defined as the field of study where gene sequences can be used to benefit society.
• Genetic Disorder Cystic Fibrosis Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder. The clinical presentation of the disease is evident in various organs of the body as discussed in this paper.
• The Study of the Epigenetic Variation in Monozygotic Twins The growth and development of an organism result in the activation and deactivation of different parts due to chemical reactions at strategic periods and locations
• Human Genome and Application of Genetic Variations Human genome refers to the information contained in human genes. The Human Genome Project (HGP) focused on understanding genomic information stored in the human DNA.
• Genetic Alterations and Cancer The paper will discuss cancer symptoms, causes, diagnosis, treatment, side-effects of treatment, and also its link with a genetic alteration.
• Saudi Classic Aniridia Genetic and Genomic Analysis This research was conducted in Saudi Arabia to determine the genetic and genomic alterations that underlie classic anirida.
• What Makes Humans Mortal Genetically? The causes of aging have been studied and debated about by various experts for centuries, there multiple views and ideas about the reasons of aging and.
• Decision Tree Analysis and Genetic Algorithm Methods Application in Healthcare The paper investigates the application of such methods of data mining as decision tree analysis and genetic algorithm in the healthcare setting.
• Genetic Screening and Testing The provided descriptive report explains how genetic screening and testing assists clinicians in determining cognitive disabilities in babies.
• Neurobiology: Epigenetics in Cocaine Addiction Studies have shown that the addiction process is the interplay of many factors that result in structural modifications of neuronal pathways.
• Genetic (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms) Analysis of Genome The advancement of the SNP technology in genomic analysis has made it possible to achieve cheap, effective, and fast methods for analyzing personal genomes.
• Darwin’s Theory of Evolution: Impact of Genetics New research proved that genetics are the driving force of evolution which causes the revision of some of Darwin’s discoveries.
• Genetic Tests: Pros and Cons Genetic testing is still undergoing transformations and further improvements, so it may be safer to avoid such procedures under certain circumstances.
• Case on Preserving Genetic Mutations in IVF In the case, a couple of a man and women want to be referred to an infertility specialist to have a procedure of in vitro fertilization (IVF).
• Race: Genetic or Social Construction One of the most challenging questions the community faces today is the following: whether races were created by nature or society or not.
• Huntington’s Chorea Disease: Genetics, Symptoms, and Treatment Huntington’s chorea disease is a neurodegenerative heritable disease of the central nervous system that is eventually leading to uncontrollable body movements and dementia.
• Genetics: A Frameshift Mutation in Human mc4r This article reviews the article “A Frameshift Mutation in Human mc4r Is Associated With Dominant Form of Obesity” published by C. Vaisse, K. Clement, B. Guy-Grand & P. Froguel.
• DNA Profiling: Genetic Variation in DNA Sequences The paper aims to determine the importance of genetic variation in sequences in DNA profiling using specific techniques.
• Genetic Diseases: Hemophilia This article focuses on a genetic disorder such as hemophilia: causes, symptoms, history, diagnosis, and treatment.
• Genetics: Gaucher Disease Type 1 The Gaucher disease type 1 category is a genetically related complication in which there is an automatic recession in the way lysosomes store some important gene enzymes.
• Genetic Science Learning Center This paper shall seek to present an analysis of sorts of the website Learn Genetics by the University of Utah.
• What Is Silencer Rna in Genetics RNA silencing is an evolutionary conserved intracellular surveillance system based on recognition. RNA silencing is induced by double-stranded RNA sensed by the enzyme Dicer.
• Cystic Fibrosis: Genetic Disorder Cystic fibrosis, also referred to as CF, is a genetic disorder that can affect the respiratory and digestive systems.
• Genetics or New Pharmaceutical Article Within the Last Year Copy number variations (CNVs) have more impacts on DNA sequence within the human genome than single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).
• Genetic Disorders: Diagnosis, Screening, and Treatment Chorionic villus is a test of sampling done especially at the early stages of pregnancy and is used to identify some problems which might occur to the fetus.
• Research of Genetic Disorders Types This essay describes different genetic disorders such as hemophilia, turner syndrome and sickle cell disease (SCD).
• Genetic Mechanism of Colorectal Cancer Colorectal Cancer (CRC) occurrence is connected to environmental factors, hereditary factors, and individual ones.
• Isolated by Genetics but Longing to Belong The objective of this paper is to argue for people with genetic illnesses to be recognized and appreciated as personages in all institutions.
• Genetic Association and the Prognosis of Phenotypic Characters The article understudy is devoted to the topic of genetic association and the prognosis of phenotypic characters. The study focuses on such a topic as human iris pigmentation.
• The Concept of Epigenetics Epigenetics is a study of heritable phenotypic changes or gene expression in cells that are caused by mechanisms other than DNA sequence.
• PiggyBac Transposon System in Genetics Ideal delivery systems for gene therapy should be safe and efficient. PB has a high transposition efficiency, stability, and mutagenic potential in most mammalian cell lines.
• Genetic Factors as the Cause of Anorexia Nervosa Genetic predisposition currently seems the most plausible explanation among all the proposed etiologies of anorexia.
• Bioethical Issues in Genetic Analysis and Manipulations We are currently far from a point where we can claim that we should be providing interventions to some and not others due to their genetic makeup.
• GMO Use in Brazil and Other Countries The introduction of biotechnology into food production was a milestone. Brazil is one of the countries that are increasingly using GMOs for food production.
• Personality Is Inherited Principles of Genetics The present articles discusses the principles of genetics, and how is human temperament and personality formed.
• Impacts of Genetic Engineering of Agricultural Crops In present days the importance of genetic engineering grew due to the innovations in biotechnologies and Sciences.
• Genetic foundations of rare diseases.
• Genetic risk factors for neurodegenerative disorders.
• Inherited cancer genes and their impact on tumor development.
• Genetic variability in drug metabolism and its consequences.
• The role of genetic and environmental factors in disease development.
• Genomic cancer medicine: therapies based on tumor DNA sequencing.
• Non-invasive prenatal testing: benefits and challenges.
• Genetic basis of addiction.
• The origins of domestication genes in animals.
• How can genetics affect a person’s injury susceptibility?
• The Effects of Genetic Modification of Agricultural Products Discussion of the threat to the health of the global population of genetically modified food in the works of Such authors as Jane Brody and David Ehrenfeld.
• Genetic Engineering and Religion: Designer Babies The current Pope has opposed any scientific procedure, including genetic engineering, in vitro fertilization, and diagnostic tests to see if babies have disabilities.
• Op-ED Genetic Engineering: The Viewpoint The debate about genetic engineering was started more than twenty years ago and since that time it has not been resolved
• All About the Role of Genetic Engineering and Biopiracy The argument whether genetically engineered seeds have monopolized the market in place of the contemporary seeds has been going on for some time now.
• Genetic Engineering and Cloning Controversy Genetic engineering and cloning are the most controversial issues in modern science. The benefits of cloning are the possibility to treat incurable diseases and increase longevity.
• Biotechnology: Methodology in Basic Genetics The material illustrates the possibilities of ecological genetics, the development of eco-genetical models, based on the usage of species linked by food chain as consumers and producers.
• Genetics Impact on Health Care in the Aging Population This paper briefly assesses the impact that genetics and genomics can have on health care costs and services for geriatric patients.
• Concerns Regarding Genetically Modified Food It is evident that genetically modified food and crops are potentially harmful. Both humans and the environment are affected by consequences as a result of their introduction.
• Family Genetic History and Planning for Future Wellness The patient has a family genetic history of cardiac arrhythmia, allergy, and obesity. These diseases might lead to heart attacks, destroy the cartilage and tissue around the joint.
• Personal Genetics and Risks of Diseases Concerning genetics, biographical information includes data such as ethnicity. Some diseases are more frequent in specific populations as compared to others.
• Genetic Predisposition to Alcohol Dependence and Alcohol-Related Diseases The subject of genetics in alcohol dependence deserves additional research in order to provide accurate results.
• Genetically-Modified Fruits, Pesticides, or Biocontrol? The main criticism of GMO foods is the lack of complete control and understanding behind GMO processes in relation to human consumption and long-term effects on human DNA.
• Genetic Variants Influencing Effectiveness of Exercise Training Programmes “Genetic Variants Influencing Effectiveness of Exercise Training Programmes” studies the influence of most common genetic markers that indicate a predisposition towards obesity.
• Eugenics, Human Genetics and Their Societal Impact Ever since the discovery of DNA and the ability to manipulate it, genetics research has remained one of the most controversial scientific topics of the 21st century.
• Genetic Interference in Caenorhabditis Elegans The researchers found out that the double-stranded RNA’s impact was not only the cells, it was also on the offspring of the infected animals.
• Genetics and Autism Development Autism is associated with a person’s genetic makeup. This paper gives a detailed analysis of this condition and the role of genetics in its development.
• Genetically Modified Food Safety and Benefits Today’s world faces a problem of the shortage of food supplies to feed its growing population. The adoption of GM foods can solve the problem of food shortage in several ways.
• Start Up Company: Genetically Modified Foods in China The aim of establishing the start up company is to develop the scientific idea of increasing food production using scientific methods.
• Community Health Status: Development, Gender, Genetics Stage of development, gender and genetics appear to be the chief factors that influence the health status of the community.
• Homosexuality as a Genetic Characteristic The debate about whether homosexuality is an inherent or social parameter can be deemed as one of the most thoroughly discussed issues in the contemporary society.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in Twins: Genetics Study Autism spectrum disorder is a behavioral condition caused by genetic and environmental factors. Twin studies have been used to explain the hereditary nature of this condition.
• Why Is the Concept of Epigenetics So Fascinating? Epigenetics has come forward to play a significant role in the modern vision of the origin of illnesses and methods of their treatment, which results in proving to be fascinating.
• Epigenetics and Its Effect on Physical and Mental Health This paper reviews a research article and two videos on epigenetics to developing an understanding of the phenomenon and how it affects individuals’ physical and mental health.
• Genetic Counseling for Cystic Fibrosis Some of the inherited genes may predispose individuals to specific health conditions like cystic fibrosis, among other inheritable diseases.
• Patent on Genetic Discoveries and Supreme Court Decision Supreme Court did not recognize the eligibility of patenting Myriad Genetics discoveries due to the natural existence of the phenomenon.
• Genetic Testing, Its Background and Policy Issues This paper will explore the societal impacts of genetic research and its perceptions in mass media, providing argumentation for support and opposition to the topic.
• Genetically Modified Organisms and Future Farming There are many debates about benefits and limitations of GMOs, but so far, scientists fail to prove that the advantages of these organisms are more numerous than the disadvantages.
• Mitosis, Meiosis, and Genetic Variation According to Mendel’s law of independent assortment, alleles for different characteristics are passed independently from each other.
• Genetic Counseling and Hypertension Risks This paper dwells upon the peculiarities of genetic counseling provided to people who are at risk of developing hypertension.
• The Perspectives of Genetic Engineering in Various Fields Genetic engineering can be discussed as having such potential benefits for the mankind as improvement of agricultural processes, environmental protection, resolution of the food problem.
• Labeling Food With Genetically Modified Organisms The wide public has been concerned about the issue of whether food products with genetically modified organisms should be labeled since the beginning of arguments on implications.
• Diabetes Genetic Risks in Diagnostics The introduction of the generic risks score in the diagnosis of diabetes has a high potential for use in the correct classification based on a particular type of diabetes.
• Residence and Genetic Predisposition to Diseases The study on the genetic predisposition of people to certain diseases based on their residence places emphasizes the influence of heredity.
• Eugenics, Human Genetics and Public Policy Debates Ethical issues associated with human genetics and eugenics have been recently brought to public attention, resulting in the creation of peculiar public policy.
• Value of the Epigenetics Epigenetics is a quickly developing field of science that has proven to be practical in medicine. It focuses on changes in gene activity that are not a result of DNA sequence mutations.
• Genetics Seminar: The Importance of Dna Roles DNA has to be stable. In general, its stability becomes possible due to a large number of hydrogen bonds which make DNA strands more stable.
• Genetically Modified Organisms: Position Against Genetically modified organisms are organisms that are created after combining DNAs of different species to come up with a transgenic organism.
• Genetically Modified Organisms and Their Benefits Scientists believe GMOs can feed everyone in the world. This can be achieved if governments embrace the use of this new technology to create genetically modified foods.
• Food Science and Technology of Genetic Modification Genetically modified foods have elicited different reactions all over the world with some countries banning its use while others like the United States allowing its consumption.
• How Much can We Control Our Genetics, at What Point do We Cease to be Human? The branch of biology that deals with variation, heredity, and their transmission in both animals and the plant is called genetics.

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• Introduction to Genetic Engineering and Its Applications

Lesson Introduction to Genetic Engineering and Its Applications

Grade Level: 9 (9-12)

(Consider adding 30 minutes for a thorough ethics discussion.)

Lesson Dependency: None

Subject Areas: Biology

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Genetic engineers have developed genetic recombination techniques to manipulate gene sequences in plants, animals and other organisms to express specific traits. Applications for genetic engineering are increasing as engineers and scientists work together to identify the locations and functions of specific genes in the DNA sequence of various organisms. Once each gene is classified, engineers develop ways to alter them to create organisms that provide benefits such as cows that produce larger volumes of meat, fuel- and plastics-generating bacteria, and pest-resistant crops.

After this lesson, students should be able to:

• List several present day applications of genetic engineering.
• Describe general techniques used by genetic engineers to modify DNA.
• Analyze the benefits and drawbacks of manipulating an organism's DNA.

Educational Standards Each TeachEngineering lesson or activity is correlated to one or more K-12 science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) educational standards. All 100,000+ K-12 STEM standards covered in TeachEngineering are collected, maintained and packaged by the Achievement Standards Network (ASN) , a project of D2L (www.achievementstandards.org). In the ASN, standards are hierarchically structured: first by source; e.g. , by state; within source by type; e.g. , science or mathematics; within type by subtype, then by grade, etc .

Ngss: next generation science standards - science, international technology and engineering educators association - technology.

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State Standards

Texas - science.

A basic understanding of protein synthesis and DNA's role in the cell/body is helpful so students can follow how changes in DNA result in major changes in the characteristics of organisms.

(Make copies of the Genetic Engineering Flow Chart , one per student. Hand out the blank flow charts for students to fill in during the presentation and lecture. Then show the class the 16-slide Genetic Engineering Presentation , a PowerPoint® file. Open with two images of the same organism: one that has been genetically engineered and one that has not. Examples: two ears of corn in which the non-modified one is diseased; two cows in which the modified one is larger; or, since students really respond to bioluminescent organisms, show two mice in which one has been modified to glow green. Slide 2 shows two examples of modified versus non-modified mice. Another idea is to show two organisms that look the same even though one has been modified as an example of how most modifications are not visible.)

What is the difference between these two organisms? (Answers will vary, depending on the image shown.) Even though they are the same organism, why are they are different? (Answer: Genetic engineering. Some students may not come to this answer on their own. Expect some to suggest mutations.) The difference is due to genetic engineering. The animal (or plant) that has been changed is called a genetically modified organism, or GMO.

How do engineers change the traits of organisms? (Listen to student ideas.) DNA contains all of the genetic information to determine an organism's traits or characteristics. By modifying the DNA, engineers are able to determine which traits an organism will possess.

(Continue through the presentation: What is genetic engineering? History of GMO Development, What is the GMO process? Then starting with slide 6 , go through the provided examples of GMO bacteria, plants and animals. Emphasize the reasons for modifying each organism [ slide 10 ].)

(Show the slide 14 picture of a man and spider.) Can anyone guess what would happen if we combined the DNA from these two creatures? (Expect students to enthusiastically answer "spiderman.") Could engineers create a "spiderman" in the lab today? (Expect some yes responses, while most students answer no.) Not quite. However, in 2000, engineers created the first goat able to produce spider silk proteins (an amazingly strong and elastic fiber with futuristic benefits in construction [bridge suspension cables, airbags that are gentler for passengers], medicine [artificial skin to heal burns, artificial ligaments, thread for stitching wounds] and the military [body armor] if sufficient quantities could be generated), so maybe it is not too far away.

(Show slide 15 .) Genetic engineering is so new and astonishing that people are still trying to figure out the pros and cons. We saw some examples of the benefits from genetically modified organisms, what about the disadvantages and harm caused by genetic engineering? (After listening to student ideas, go through the concerns listed on the slide. Alternatively, go through the contents of this slide and background information as a class discussion during the Lesson Closure, extending the lesson time as necessary.)

(Continue on to present students with the content in the Lesson Background section, and then a class review of the completed flow charts.)

Lesson Background and Concepts for Teachers

What is DNA?

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a large biomolecule that contains the complete genetic information for an organism. Every cell of living organisms and many viruses, contains DNA. The basic building block of a DNA molecule is called a nucleotide , and a single strand of DNA may contain billions of nucleotides. (Refer to Figure 1 to see the DNA structure with labeled parts.) Although each DNA molecule contains many of these building blocks, only four unique nucleotides are used to create the entire DNA sequence; these are written as A, G, C and T. Analogous to how the 26 letters of the alphabet can be arranged to create words with different meanings, these four nucleotides can be arranged in sequences to "spell" the genetic instructions to create all of the different proteins organisms need to live.

Why are proteins important?

Proteins perform all of the work in organisms. Some functions of proteins include:

• Serving as catalysts for reactions
• Performing cell signaling
• Transporting molecules across membranes
• Creating structures

When a protein is created by its gene, it is said that the gene is "expressed," or used. Most gene expressions do not produce results visible to the unaided eye. However some genes, such as those that code for proteins responsible for pigment, do have visual expression. The expression of a gene in an observable manner is called a phenotypic trait ; one example is an organism's hair color. In fact, everything you can see in an organism is a result of proteins or protein actions.

How is DNA used in genetic engineering?

By definition, genetic engineering is the direct altering of an organism's genome. This is achieved through manipulation of the DNA. Doing this is possible because DNA is like a universal language; all DNA for all organisms is made up of the same nucleotide building blocks. Thus, it is possible for genes from one organism to be read by another organism. In the cookbook analogy, this equates to taking a recipe from one organism's cookbook and putting into another cookbook. Now imagine that all cookbooks are written in the same language; thus, any recipe can be inserted and used in any other cookbook.

In practice, since DNA contains the genes to build certain proteins, by changing the DNA sequence, engineers are able to provide a new gene for a cell/organism to create a different protein. The new instructions may supplement the old instructions such that an extra trait is exhibited, or they may completely replace the old instructions such that a trait is changed.

Genetic Engineering Technique

The process for genetic engineering begins the same for any organism being modified (see Figure 3 for an example of this procedure).

• Identify an organism that contains a desirable gene.
• Extract the entire DNA from the organism.
• Remove this gene from the rest of the DNA. One way to do this is by using a restriction enzyme . These enzymes search for specific nucleotide sequences where they will "cut" the DNA by breaking the bonds at this location.
• Insert the new gene to an existing organism's DNA. This may be achieved through a number of different processes.

Once the recombinant DNA has been built, it can be passed to the organism to be modified. If modifying bacteria, this process is quite simple. The plasmid can be easily inserted into the bacteria where the bacteria treat it as their own DNA. For plant modification, certain bacteria such as Agrobacterium tumefaciens may be used because these bacteria permit their plasmids to be passed to the plant's DNA.

Applications and Economics

The number of applications for genetic engineering are increasing as more and more is learned about the genomes of different organisms. A few interesting or notable application areas are described below.

How many of today's crops are genetically modified? As of 2010, in the U.S., 86% of corn produced was genetically modified. Bt -corn is a common GMO that combines a gene from the Bt bacteria with corn DNA to produce a crop that is insect-resistant. The bacteria gene used contains a recipe for a protein that is toxic when consumed by insects, but safe when consumed by humans.

A number of other genes can be combined with crops to produce desirable properties such as:

• Herbicide-, drought-, freeze- or disease-resistance
• Higher yield
• Faster growth
• Improved nutrition
• Longer shelf life

The creation of genetically modified crops provides many incentives for farmers and businesses. When farmers are able to plant a crop that has a higher yield per acre, they can significantly increase production, and thus sales, with minimal cost. Disease, pest and other resistances reduce crop loss, which also helps to increase profits. Besides farmers, other benefactors from modified crops include seed, agrochemical and agriculture equipment companies as well as distributors and universities that are involved in GMO research. In 2011, the value of genetically modified seed was $13.2 billion in the U.S. alone. The value of the end products produced from these seeds topped $160 billion.

Due to their simple structures, the most commonly modified organisms are bacteria. The first modified bacteria were created in 1973. Bacteria can be modified to produce desirable proteins that can be harvested and used. One example is insulin or spider silk, which is difficult to gather naturally. Other modifications to bacteria include making changes to the cellular respiration process to alter the byproducts; typically CO 2 is produced, however engineers have made modifications so that hydrocarbon byproducts such as diesel and polyethylene (a fuel and a plastic) are produced.

(The 30-minute lesson time leaves a fair amount of time for discussion, but since class participation will vary, you may want to extend the lesson another 30-minutes to allow for a thorough discussion of the ethical implications of genetic engineering. This makes a good student research and debate topic, too.)

The main reason genetically modified organisms are not more widely used is due to ethical concerns. Nearly 50 countries around the world, including Australia, Japan and all of the countries in the European Union, have enacted significant restrictions or full bans on the production and sale of genetically modified organism food products, and 64 countries have GMO labeling requirements. Some issues to consider when deciding whether to create and/or use GMOs include:

Safety: This generally arises in the case of GMO foods. Are the foods safe for human consumption? Is GMO feed healthy for animals? Many opponents of GMO foods say not enough independent testing is done before the food is approved for sale to consumers. In general, research has shown that GMO foods are safe for humans. Another safety consideration is the health of farmers and their families, animals and communities who are put at risk with exposure to chemicals used in tandem with GMO seeds.

Environmental Impact: Consider that genetic engineers have the ability to create trees that grow faster than their unmodified counterparts. This seems like a great deal for the lumber industry, but might some unintended consequences result? Being outdoors and grown in large quantities, the modified trees may cross-pollinate with unmodified trees to form hybrids outside of designated growing areas. This in return could create trees that could disrupt the ecosystem. For example, they could overpopulate the area or grow so large that they smother other plant life. This same scenario has unintended and undesirable consequences when the pollen from GMO crops drifts into non-GMO fields.

Humans: Should humans be genetically engineered? Doing so could have medical applications that reduce or prevent genetic disorders such as Down's syndrome. However, the bigger question is where should engineering humans stop? Should parents be allowed to decide their children's eye colors, heights or even genders before birth?

Watch this activity on YouTube

What part of an organism contains all of the information needed for it to function? (Answer: DNA) When genes are expressed, what is the final product made? (Answer: Proteins) Does anyone know why bacteria are modified more than other organisms? (Answer: With their very simple structures and ability to use plasmids, bacteria are much easier and less costly to modify.)

What are some ethical and moral concerns that genetic engineers must consider? Does anyone think it is a good idea to genetically modify people? Some researchers say this could be an approach to cure diseases such as Down's syndrome and other genetic defects. Superficial changes could also be made, such as determining a person's height, eye color or gender, by making changes to embryos in the mothers' wombs. But just because something can be done, does that make it a good idea? (Answer: No. This is a good topic for an extended discussion.)

DNA: Acronym for deoxyribonucleic acid, which is a molecule that contains an organism's complete genetic information.

gene: The molecular unit of an organism that contains information for a specific trait (specific DNA sequence).

genome: An entire set of genes for an organism.

GMO: Acronym for genetically modified organism.

nucleotide: The building block of DNA.

plasmid: The circular DNA structure used by bacteria.

protein: Large biomolecules used by an organism for a number of purposes; in this context, to express a desired trait.

recombinant DNA: DNA to which a section has been removed and replaced (recombined) with a new sequence.

restriction enzyme: An enzyme that "cuts" DNA when specific base pair sequences are present.

trait: A distinguishing characteristic.

Pre-Lesson Assessment

Discussion Questions: Initiate a brief discussion to gauge whether students have heard of or know anything about genetics. Ask questions such as:

• Why are your eyes the color that they are?
• Would anyone like to be taller (or shorter)?
• Is there any way to make these changes?

Post-Introduction Assessment

Flow Chart: Have students complete the Genetic Engineering Flow Chart during the course of the lesson. After delivering the presentation and lecture, go through the flow chart as a class, so that students can complete anything they missed and check their flow charts for accuracy. Answers are provided on the Genetic Engineering Flow Chart Answer Key .

Lesson Summary Assessment

Recombinant Creature Design : Have students in pairs (or individually) create their own recombinant organisms. Direct students to pick any organism and decide what gene they would like to add. If desired, provide a list of genes from which they can choose (such as genes that makes an organism smarter, bigger, faster, grow extra limbs, etc.). To encourage critical thinking, require students to write down a potential use for the resulting creatures. Finally, have students sketch what their recombinant creatures would look like.

View some genetic engineering examples (with photographs) at: http://www.mnn.com/green-tech/research-innovations/photos/12-bizarre-examples-of-genetic-engineering/

Show students some applications of spider silk at Popular Mechanics' "6 Spider-Silk Superpowers" slide show at http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/health/med-tech/6-spider-silk-superpowers#slide-1

As a class, students work through an example showing how DNA provides the "recipe" for making human body proteins. They see how the pattern of nucleotide bases (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine) forms the double helix ladder shape of DNA, and serves as the code for the steps required to make gene...

Students learn about mutations to both DNA and chromosomes, and uncontrolled changes to the genetic code. They are introduced to small-scale mutations (substitutions, deletions and insertions) and large-scale mutations (deletion duplications, inversions, insertions, translocations and nondisjunction...

Students reinforce their knowledge that DNA is the genetic material for all living things by modeling it using toothpicks and gumdrops that represent the four biochemicals (adenine, thiamine, guanine, and cytosine) that pair with each other in a specific pattern, making a double helix. Student teams...

Students construct paper recombinant plasmids to simulate the methods genetic engineers use to create modified bacteria. They learn what role enzymes, DNA and genes play in the modification of organisms.

12 Bizarre Examples of Genetic Engineering. Posted October 27, 2010. MNN Holdings, Mother Nature Network. Accessed December 8, 2013. http://www.mnn.com/green-tech/research-innovations/photos/12-bizarre-examples-of-genetic-engineering

Biello, David. Turning Bacteria into Plastic Factories. Posted September 16, 2008. Scientific American. Accessed December 11, 2013. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=turning-bacteria-into-plastic-factories-replacing-fossil-fuels

DNA. Updated June 7, 2014. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Accessed June 16, 2014. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA

Emspak, Jesse. Gut Bacteria Make Diesel Fuel. Posted April 23, 2013. Discovery Communications. Accessed December 11, 2013. http://news.discovery.com/tech/biotechnology/gut-bacteria-make-diesel-fuel-130423.htm

Genetic engineering. Updated December 7, 2013. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Accessed December 9, 2013. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering

Genetically modified crops. Updated June 12, 2014. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Accessed June 16, 2014. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_crops

Straley, Regan. GMO Food Concerns. Posted August 29, 2014. Lancaster Online, Lancaster, PA. Accessed August 31, 2014. http://lancasteronline.com/opinion/gmo-food-concerns/article_3c5092ba-2ed0-11e4-ab00-001a4bcf6878.html

Vierra, Craig, et al. The Future of Biomaterial Manufacturing: Spider Silk Production from Bacteria. Posted July 17, 2012. Journal of Visualized Experiments (JoVE). Accessed December 11, 2013. http://www.jove.com/about/press-releases/39/the-future-biomaterial-manufacturing-spider-silk-production-from

What is genetic engineering and how does it work? Updated 2005. University of Nebraska. Accessed December 10, 2013. http://agbiosafety.unl.edu/basic_genetics.shtml

Other Related Information

(optional: Show students the What Is Engineering? video)

Contributors

Supporting program, acknowledgements.

This digital library content was developed by the University of Houston's College of Engineering under National Science Foundation GK-12 grant number DGE 0840889. However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policies of the NSF and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government.

Last modified: May 12, 2021

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Ielts writing task 2 sample 1079 - genetic engineering is an important issue, ielts writing task 2/ ielts essay:, genetic engineering is an important issue in modern society. some people think that it will improve people's lives in many ways. others feel that it may be a threat to life on earth..

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Ethical considerations of gene editing and genetic selection

Jodie rothschild.

1 Rothschild Biomedical Communications, Seattle WA, USA

For thousands of years, humans have felt the need to understand the world around them—and ultimately manipulate it to best serve their needs. There are always ethical questions to address, especially when the manipulation involves the human genome. There is currently an urgent need to actively pursue those conversations as commercial gene sequencing and editing technologies have become more accessible and affordable. This paper explores the ethical considerations of gene editing (specifically germline) and genetic selection—including the hurdles researchers will face in trying to develop new technologies into viable therapeutic options.

1. BACKGROUND

1.1. gene editing.

Artificial manipulation of genes is a relatively new science, and a number of watershed moments have provided the foundation for the current state of genetic engineering. Researchers first discovered that nonspecific alterations to Drosophila DNA could be introduced using radiation 1 and chemicals 2 in 1927 and 1947, respectively. Greater understanding of the structure of the DNA molecule (such as the work of Watson, Crick, and Franklin, leading to the discovery of DNA’s double‐helix structure 3 ) and the cellular processes that govern its transcription, translation, replication, and repair (such as the function of ligases 4 and restriction enzymes 5 ) led to the first splicing experiments 6 and, ultimately, the first recombinant DNA 7 in the early 1970s. DNA recombination techniques were used extensively in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae 8 , 9 beginning in the early 1980s, allowing researchers to study functional eukaryotic genomics. And in a significant advancement, the development of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) allowed scientists to amplify DNA, producing millions of copies from a single strand. 10

Around the same time, a number of laboratories created the first transgenic mice, 11 and about five years later, the first knockout mice were created. 12 Targeted gene editing was further advanced by the discovery that engineered endonucleases could create site‐specific double‐stranded breaks (DSBs), which in turn induce homologous recombination (HR), 13 , 15 the most common type of homology‐directed repair (HDR). When the Human Genome Project was declared complete in 2003, 15 it became possible to identify (and thus, theoretically, target) any human gene of interest.

The three main techniques for gene editing involve molecules that recognize and bind to specific DNA sequences; researchers can use custom molecules to affect genetic and epigenetic changes on essentially any gene. For example, these molecules can be combined with endonucleases, creating DSBs which can be repaired using either nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ), which often results in small random indel mutations, or HDR, which, when donor DNA with homology to either side of the cleavage site is present, can be used to create new or “repaired” versions of a target gene. The site‐specific DNA recognition molecule can also be combined with an effector molecule to up‐ or downregulate gene expression.

1.1.1. ZFPs/ZFNs

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, there was a large focus on understanding transcription factor IIIA (TFIIIA), the first eukaryotic transcription factor to be described. In 1983, researchers determined that zinc is required for TFIIIA function, 16 and in 1985 came the discovery that the zinc‐binding portions of the proteins are actually repeating motifs, independently folded to create finger‐like domains that grip the DNA. 17 This class of proteins is now referred to as zinc finger proteins (ZFPs), and several similar proteins have been discovered in the proteomes of a number of different organisms. Because each zinc finger recognizes three base pairs, 18 , 19 , 20 a peptide can be created to recognize a target gene by joining the appropriate zinc fingers in a linear fashion.

A 1994 paper describes a ZFP that was engineered to recognize and suppress an oncogene, as well as a ZFP that acted (in a different cell system) as a promoter of another gene by recognizing its activation domain. 21 The same paper suggests that ZFPs can be bound to effector proteins as a means of controlling gene expression.

Building on this idea, researchers fused a ZFP to the nonspecific cleavage domain of the Fok1 restriction enzyme. 22 The resulting heterodimer, known as a zinc finger nuclease (ZFN), can recognize a specific DNA sequence and produce a targeted DSB. As previously mentioned, these DSB can either be repaired via NHEJ, resulting in small indels, or HDR, which can be harnessed to insert an alternate or repaired gene. Fok1 must dimerize, so ZFNs must be created in pairs (one targeting the 3’ strand and the other targeting the 5’ strand) which improves target specificity—though efficiency remains relatively low (G‐rich sequences are especially difficult to target).

Ex vivo and in vivo delivery of ZFNs is relatively easy given their small size and the small size of the ZFN cassettes (which allows for the use of a variety of vectors). However, while ZFNs were certainly novel at the time they were developed, they are incredibly difficult and expensive to engineer, making them less practical in general than newer technologies.

1.1.2. TALEs/TALENs

In 2009, two different laboratories described a newly identified DNA‐binding motif: the transcription activator‐like effector (TALE), a protein secreted by the plant pathogen Xanthomonas . 23 , 24 Each TALE includes a DNA‐binding region composed of tandem repeats with repeat‐variable diresidues (RVDs) at positions 12 and 13; each RVD recognizes an individual nucleotide.

Like ZFPs, synthetic TALEs can be designed to affect gene regulation, 25 combined with effector proteins, or fused to endonucleases 26 , 27 , 28 to create TALE nucleases (TALENs); as with ZFNs, because Fok1 is the endonuclease used, TALENs must be created in pairs.

TALE nucleases are much larger than ZFNs, and so can be more difficult to deliver efficiently (especially in vivo). However, for myriad reasons (including the nature of their relative interactions with the DNA and the fact that each RVD recognizes a single base), TALE‐based chimeras (especially TALENs) can be built with higher specificity and greater targeting capacity than ZFP‐based chimeras. In addition, TALENs can be produced significantly more cheaply, easily, and with greater efficiency than ZFNs.

1.1.3. CRISPR‐Cas

In 1987, a laboratory in Osaka accidentally discovered an unusual palindromic repeat sequence in the E. coli genome they were studying, unique in that it was regularly interspaced. 29 These DNA motifs were further identified in various bacterial genomes by multiple laboratories over the next 20 years; their function, however, was still unknown. By 2005, three groups had independently determined that the spacer sequences were actually derived from phage DNA, 30 , 31 , 32 and the possibility of the genes playing a role in bacterial immunity was first suggested. 30 , 33 By this time, the scientific community referred to this unusual array as clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats, or CRISPR. Meanwhile, researchers in the Netherlands had identified several other genes located near the CRISPR locus that appeared to be functionally associated with the CRISPR genes; 34 these would turn out to be the CRISPR associated proteins (Cas) that make up an integral part of the CRISPR‐Cas system.

In 2007, the CRISPR‐Cas system was identified as being a prokaryotic defense against pathogens. 35 As a part of a self‐/non–self‐determination mechanism of adaptive immunity, prokaryotes integrate a segment (generally 32‐38 base pairs) of phage DNA into their own genome, creating the spacers in the CRISPR arrays. After the CRISPR genes are transcribed, endoribonucleases cleave the resulting CRISPR RNA (pre‐crRNA), resulting in shorter RNA units composed of a single spacer sequence and the palindromic repeat (crRNA); depending on the organism, a trans‐activating crRNA (tracrRNA) may also be transcribed. The RNA forms a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex with the associated Cas proteins; any phage DNA containing the spacer sequence will be identified by the guiding RNA and cleaved by the endonuclease function of the Cas protein(s). The protospacer is the homologous sequence in the invading DNA, and is followed by a short protospacer adjacent motif (PAM); because the PAM is not incorporated in the CRISPR array, the CRISPR‐Cas complex is able to recognize the foreign DNA as non‐self (and thus will not cleave the prokaryotic cell's own DNA). 36

In 2012, Jennifer Doudna, Emmanuelle Charpentier, and others on their team engineered a synthetic chimera of the tracrRNA and crRNA (now known as single guide RNA, or sgRNA), which was able to direct Cas9 to create a targeted, site‐specific double‐stranded break. 37 By 2013, investigators had established that the CRISPR‐Cas9 was an effective, facile, and multiplexable method of editing the human genome. 38 , 39 , 40 , 41

Newer CRISPR‐based editing methods do not reply on unpredictable NHEJ or donor DNA. For example, endonuclease‐deficient Cas proteins can be fused to base‐editing enzymes; 42 first described in 2016, researchers have recently reported a high‐fidelity base editor with no off‐target mutations (OTMs). 43 Epigenetic techniques are also being explored using CRISPR‐Cas technology, 44 , 45 including linking endonuclease‐deficient Cas proteins to effector molecules. And prime editing addresses genetic disorders caused by multibase variances (such as sickle‐cell and Tay‐Sachs); in this case, the impaired Cas9 is fused to an engineered reverse transcriptase. 46

ZFNs and TALENs do maintain some advantages: CRISPR requires a PAM sequence, and sgRNA spacer sequences are usually only about 20 base pairs, meaning an inherently reduced targeting capacity (though researchers have recently begun exploring the effects of increased sgRNA length on cleavage efficiency and target specificity 47 ). CRISPR vectors are also necessary larger, making delivery more difficult. Overall, however, CRISPR is generally the preferred method of genetic and epigenetic manipulation, especially as improvements are made to the technology. CRISPR’s main advantage over its predecessors lies in the fact that rather than a complex protein as the DNA recognition molecule, the CRISPR system relies on a guide RNA. CRISPR kits are thus significantly cheaper, easier, and more efficiently produced than either ZFNs or TALENs.

1.2. Gene selection

Genetic selection happens in nature—natural selection is the mechanism that drives Darwinian evolution. Humans have also been practicing artificial selection for thousands of years, selecting for phenotypic traits when breeding plants and animals. New technologies have been developed over the last 53 years that allow selection of an embryo based on various criteria such as sex, ploidy, and polymorphisms.

1.2.1. Preimplantation genetic testing

Preimplantation genetic testing (PGT) encompasses various techniques used to screen embryos prior to transfer. Originally all referred to as preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), there are actually three types of PGT: aneuploidy detection, now called PGT‐A; monogenic disorder detection, now called PGT‐M; and structural rearrangement detection, now called PGT‐SR.

Preimplantation genetic testing was ideated eleven years before the birth of the first in vitro fertilization (IVF) baby in 1978. Rabbit blastocysts were stained and observed using a fluorescence microscope; screening for sex chromatin allowed for the identification of the female embryos. 48 Because of the mutagenic potential of the preparation, the embryos were not implanted; a year later, cells from the trophoblasts of rabbit blastocysts were stained and sorted for sex, and the biopsied embryos transferred and allowed to grow to full term (at which point sex was confirmed). 49

Researchers then began to explore various methods of extracting a single embryonic cell for PGT: a blastomere biopsy (BB) removed during cleavage stage, 50 trophectoderm biopsy (TB), 51 and polar body biopsy. 52 Meanwhile, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was developed in 1985 and quickly recognized as a potential tool for PGT when it was used to amplify the portion of the β‐globin locus that includes the Dde I site (absence of which is diagnostic for sickle‐cell anemia). 53 The blastomere biopsy technique and PCR were brought together in 1990 when two human pregnancies were established using sex selected embryos to eliminate the risk of inheriting recessive x‐linked conditions. 54

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) was the first cytogenetic technique to be used for PGT. Fluorochrome‐labeled site‐specific probes were hybridized to sample DNA, revealing aneuploidy and translocations; in 1993, two laboratories used FISH to identify X‐chromosomes, Y‐chromosomes, and aneuploidy. 55 , 56 However, the technique was limited by the number of chromosomes that could be assessed and by its inability to detect monogenic disorders.

Researchers then turned to comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) in 1999. 57 , 58 CGH can be thought of as competitive FISH: Sample and reference DNA are each labeled with a different color fluorophore, denatured, and allowed to hybridize to a metaphase spread. The DNA is then microscopically analyzed for differences in fluorescence intensity, indicating copy‐number variation (CNV).

While it was a vast improvement over its predecessor, CGH was time‐consuming (requiring embryos to be freeze‐thawed), labor‐intensive, and limited in its sensitivity. The next generation of CGH technology, array CGH (aCGH), addressed these limitations. 59 Like traditional CGH, aCGH allows for 24‐chromosome analysis; however, rather than human observation, fluorescence intensity evaluation is performed by a computer, locus by locus, with high specificity and resolution.

A number of other cytogenetic techniques for comprehensive chromosome screening (CCS) have since been developed: digital PCR (or dPCR, wherein a sample‐containing PCR solution is separated into tens of thousands of droplets and the reaction occurs separately in each partition), which can detect CNV, aneuploidy, mutations, and rare sequences; quantitative real‐time PCR (qPCR), in which a preamplification step prior to real‐time PCR allows for rapid detection of aneuploidy in all 24 chromosomes; single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array (which involves hybridizing fluorescent nucleotide probes to sample DNA and comparing the resulting fluorescence to a bioinformatic reference), which can detect imbalanced translocation, aneuploidy, and monogenic (and some multifactorial) disease; and next‐generation sequencing (NGS), the high‐throughput, massively parallel DNA sequencing technologies that allow for significantly quicker and cheaper sequencing than the Sanger method and make it possible to screen for everything from SNPs to aneuploidy.

Researchers and IVF laboratories use different combinations of FISH and/or the various CCS techniques.

1.2.2. Other prenatal testing

Often, IVF is not feasible, necessitating postimplantation prenatal testing (when indicated by family history and other risk factors). Amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling (CVS), and percutaneous umbilical cord sampling (PUBS) were initially paired with karyotyping, which can detect sex, aneuploidy, and some types of structural chromosomal disorders. Karyotyping was superseded by chromosomal microarray techniques (aCGH and SNP array) and, more recently, low‐pass genome sequencing, as these technologies allow detection of CNVs as well as aneuploidy. 60

Amniocentesis is a procedure in which an ultrasound‐guided needle is inserted transabdominally in order to aspirate amniotic fluid. Applications of amniocentesis extend beyond genetic testing, such as assessment of fetal lung maturity, detection of Rh incompatibility, and decompression of polyhydramnios (accumulation of amniotic fluids).

Prior to 15 weeks’ gestation, the prenatal testing method of choice is CVS, a technique that involves analysis of samples taken from placental tissue. The CVS procedure is ultrasound‐guided and can be performed either transabdominally or transcervically (associated with higher miscarriage rates). CVS carries the risks of miscarriage, amniotic fluid leakage, and limb reduction defects and is limited by the possibility of placental mosaicism and maternal cell contamination.

Percutaneous umbilical cord sampling is a rarely used procedure, performed between 24 and 32 weeks’ gestation, in which fetal blood from the umbilical cord is obtained. Because of the high potential for complications, PUBS is generally reserved for cases in which the pregnancy is deemed high‐risk for genetic disorders and other testing methods (amniocentesis, CVS, and ultrasound) are unable to provide the needed information or have been inconclusive. PUBS is also used to provide more information about fetal health (such as blood gas levels and infection).

In 1997, the presence of cell‐free fetal DNA (cffDNA) in maternal blood was established using PCR amplification with Y‐chromosome probes. 61 This led to the development of noninvasive prenatal testing (NIPT) of cffDNA. NIPT has been shown to be an accurate and sensitive technique for the detection of some aneuploidies (such as trisomy 21 62 ), less so for others. 63 Because cffDNA comes from the placenta, placental mosaicism can result in inaccurate results. Further, NIPT detects all cell‐free DNA in the mother's blood, including her own; maternal mosaicism or malignancies can also contribute to inaccuracies. As such, NIPT is considered a screening test, rather than a diagnostic test.

2. ETHICS OF GENE EDITING

On November 25, 2018, news broke that Jiankui He of Southern University of Science and Technology in Shenzhen, China had registered a clinical trial in which he planned to implant human embryos which had been modified using CRISPR‐Cas9. 64 Within days, the world learned that not only had edited embryos been implanted, two baby girls, Lulu and Nana, had already been born. 65

He used CRISPR‐Cas9 to create a nonspecific sequence alteration in the CCR5 gene. CCR5 is a seven‐transmembrane–spanning G protein–coupled CC chemokine (β chemokine) receptor. When expressed on the surface of a human T cell, CCR5 is the main coreceptor (along with CD4) for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). A naturally occurring 32–base pair deletion (with heterozygote allele frequencies of about 10% in people with European origin), known as CCR5∆32 , has been shown to disable the protein; 66 heterozygosity of the CCR5∆32 allele has been shown to slow disease progression, while homozygosity significantly increases disease resistance. He's goal was to knock out CCR5 , with the desired outcome of creating HIV‐resistant babies (it should be noted that HIV infection in CCR5∆32 +/+ individuals has been increasingly reported, associated with X4‐trophic HIV strains—that is, strains that rely exclusively on coreceptor CXCR4 for endocytosis, rather than CCR5 67 ).

He presented the details of his investigation 68 at the Second International Summit on Human Genome Editing, being held “to discuss scientific, medical, ethical, and governance issues associated with recent advances in human gene‐editing research.” 69 While his manuscript describing the trial was not accepted by any publications, excerpts are available to the public, and various media outlets (and some experts) have been able to view the paper and supplementary data in their entirety. Enough is now known about He's work that it can serve as the basis of a conversation about the ethics surrounding germline gene editing. There are a number of issues—those inherent in the technologies themselves, as well as scientific hurdles that need to be overcome—before initiating clinical trials, to ensure that they are carried out as ethically as possible.

2.1. Not all sequence variations are created equally

CCR5∆32 has been researched extensively, but is one of only a few CCR5 variants studied. In his abstract, He claims that his team has reproduced this natural variant, but this is not the case: Two embryos were implanted, one of which (Nana) had frameshift mutations on both alleles (a 1–base pair insertion and a 4–base pair deletion, respectively) and the other of which (Lulu) showed a 15–base pair deletion on only one allele. Frameshift mutations have a high probability of disrupting protein structure (and thus function). The 15–base pair deletion, however, will result in five missing amino acids when the protein is translated, and its effect on the protein's function is unknown. He's team could have frozen the embryos, duplicated the sequence alterations in other cell lines, and tested whether or not the genetic changes actually conferred disease resistance, before actually implanting the embryos, but it does not appear that they made an effort to fully understand the actual effect of the alterations they had made. 64 With all of the risks associated with the CRISPR editing process, embryos should not be implanted if the scientists are unsure of the effects.

2.2. Mosaicism

A CRISPR‐Cas vector is inserted into a zygote soon after fertilization. If the CRISPR‐induced mutagenesis only occurred during the single‐cell stage, each successive round of cleavage would yield genetically identical cells. However, while the half‐life of the Cas proteins themselves may not be long, the vectors will remain and continue to be transcribed for days. During this time, the embryo will continue to divide, eventually forming a blastocyst of a few hundred cells. Uneven distribution of the plasmid and the RNPs means that there is a significant potential for mosaicism.

In He's laboratory, three to five cells were removed from each blastocyst, and their genomes sequenced. If Lulu's embryo were made up of identical cells (with one wild type allele and one with a 15–base pair deletion) as He had reported, the Sanger chromatogram should have shown two sets of peaks, approximately the same height. However, it appears likely that there were actually three different combinations of alleles: two normal copies, one normal copy and one with a 15–base pair deletion, and one normal copy and an unknown large insertion. Similarly, while Nana's embryo should have shown two alterations, the Sanger chromatogram revealed three. 70

The suspicion of mosaicism is borne out when sequencing of samples from the cord blood, umbilical cords, and placentas are reviewed. Just as with the embryo sequencing, rampant mosaicism is evident. It is reasonable to assume that the girls’ bodies are mosaic as well, but for an unknown reason, He's team did not test any cells from the girls themselves. 70 There is therefore the possibility that not all of the cells in Nana's body will have modifications to both CCR5 alleles, meaning it is possible that Nana is not actually resistant to HIV.

Mosaicism can have myriad effects: Even a few mutated cells in an organ can cause disease, a single cell can develop into a tumor, and any allelic variation in germ cells will be inherited by the following generation. There is no way to sequence a cell's genome without destroying the cell itself; as such, it is currently impossible to rule out mosaicism in a blastocyst.

2.3. Off‐target effects

As efficient as CRISPR is, there is a high probability of OTMs. He's team reported that in addition to the CCR5 gene edits, there was only one OTM, a 1–base pair insertion in a noncoding region of Chromosome 1 in Lulu's genome. This was based on their relatively limited sequencing, however; as noted above, mosaicism cannot be ruled out. (It should also be noted that there were flaws in the sequencing itself, so there may be other alterations that were missed in the screening, on top of the mosaicism. 70 )

2.4. Other consequences of target gene modification

When undertaking to knock out a gene in an embryo, it is vital to understand all of the functions of that gene.

CCR5 is a chemokine receptor that mediates leukocyte chemotaxis, and thus helps mount immune response. It is therefore unsurprising that homozygosity for the CCR5∆32 variant has been shown to be significantly correlated with more symptomatic infection and higher mortality rates in patients with West Nile virus, 71 influenza A, 71 , 72 and tick‐borne encephalitis. 73 It has also been shown to be associated with upregulation of certain CC chemokine ligands, and in turn associated with progressive reduction in survival time for patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). 74 Is it ethical to create a sequence variation that confers resistance to one illness, while increasing the likelihood of succumbing to another?

Public health conversations will need to change as well. It is possible, for example, that some with a CCR5 edit will engage in riskier sexual practices, or that some with a PCSK9 edit (which is associated with decreased levels of low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol, or LDL, in the blood 75 , 76 ) will be less likely to make behavioral changes such as increased exercise and diet modification.

2.5. Which genes/diseases to target?

Many who have viewed He's work have questioned why he chose to focus on CCR5 and HIV resistance. HIV prevalence in China is relatively low, 77 and current treatments can keep viral loads at almost undetectable levels. He stated that his research could help tamp down the HIV/AIDS epidemic; the most hard‐hit areas (such as Africa), however, would likely not gain much benefit from gene‐editing technologies.

Per a December 2018 poll, 78 Americans draw the line at so‐called enhancement, but favor the use of genetic engineering to address disease and disability. Which diseases and disabilities to target, however, is still an open discussion. Some questions that may help inform that decision: Should there be a focus on infectious disease resistance? Only fatal conditions? Will we decide that there is a need to quantify the degree of suffering? If an effective treatment already exists, should we still seek prevention through genetic modification? Is childhood versus adulthood onset of illness an important factor? Not all sequence variants are guaranteed to cause disease (eg, BRCA genes); should they be considered? What about orphan diseases? And should certain types of disabilities be prioritized over others?

2.6. OTHER ISSUES

2.6.1. clinical research ethics.

The history of research using human subjects has been blemished by unethical treatment of the subjects themselves. From Imperial Japan to the Tuskegee Institute, examples of atrocities committed in the name of medical science can be found across the world. As a result, a number of guidelines have been developed to facilitate ethical research going forward. 79 Nazi Germany engaged in abominable human experimentation during World War II; in 1947, the Nuremberg Military Tribunal (during which Nazi physicians and administrators were tried for war crimes and crimes against humanity) resulted in the Nuremberg Code, a statement aimed at preventing such abuses in the future. Stemming from a reaction to the same offenses, the World Medical Association produced Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects —known as the Declaration of Helsinki—in 1964 (it has been modified a few times since), which in 1982 was adapted by the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences into a manual, Proposed International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects , as a guideline for World Health Organization (WHO) member countries. (Individual countries have created their own guidelines, as well. In the United States, for example, the National Research Act of 1974 established the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research—often referred to as the Belmont commission—which issued the 1979 Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research , now known as the Belmont Report. The National Research Act of 1974 also established a set of regulations regarding human subject research; by 1991, after various updates and additions, the government decided that the regulations should become a “Common Rule” covering all federally connected research, codified in Title 45, Part 46 of the Code of Federal Regulations.)

This article will not delve into all of He's ethical missteps as regards his research (such as the fact that he registered the trial with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry in November 2018, after the twins had already been born). However, there are a few key issues, directly addressed by at least one of these major reports, which can be considered in terms of guiding future ethics discussions regarding gene‐editing clinical trials.

First and foremost, clinical trial participants should be informed of all of the associated risks and benefits. There is significant ambiguity as to the informed consent process in He's study. First, the experiment was misleadingly couched as an HIV vaccine trial. 65 , 80 It is also unclear how much the parents in He's study understood about risks such as mosaicism or increased susceptibility to other infections. The investigator is responsible for keeping participants informed throughout the study; it does not appear that in this case they were informed of the mosaicism present in both embryos (in his presentation at the human genome editing summit, He said only that the parents had been informed about one OTM 68 and does not even mention the mosaicism in his manuscript 70 ). It is likely that were the parents fully informed, they would have decided not to implant one or both embryos. This raises another question: Should parents be the ones to make such a decision, or is that the responsibility of the researchers and doctors?

The selection of the study participants is an issue, as well: The first inclusion criterion is that the participants must be a married couple wherein the husband is HIV‐positive and the wife is HIV‐negative. 81 Father‐to‐child transmission of HIV is rare (especially when the father is on antiretroviral therapy and the mother is on preexposure prophylaxis), but it is possible; for this reason, many couples opt for sperm washing (to separate the sperm from the virus), followed by either in vitro fertilization (IVF) or intrauterine implantation (IUI). While there is no explicit law against HIV‐positive parents accessing these procedures, it is unlikely that it would be approved by hospitals’ ethics committees. 82 Chinese couples often travel to other countries (such as Thailand) for the procedure, but it can cost hundreds of thousands of yuan. 83 The couples selected for He's study may have seen participation as their only chance to have children—indeed, He described the father as having “lost hope for life.” 68 This makes them particularly vulnerable to exploitation. (This may also have informed their decision to implant both embryos rather than just the one that had alterations to both alleles.)

Study participants should be able to voluntarily withdraw from the research at any point; He's informed consent form stipulates that were the couple to withdraw from the study (at any point between the implantation of the embryo in the first IVF cycle and 28 days postbirth), they would be responsible for reimbursing the laboratory for all project costs (and that if reimbursement was not received within 10 calendar days of withdrawal, a substantial fine—more than the average annual income of a Chinese citizen—would be imposed). 80 This is sufficiently cost prohibitive as to prevent a subject from withdrawing from the study.

It is unclear whether He's research actually underwent an ethics review process: In his manuscript, He claims that the Medical Ethics Committee of the Shenzhen Harmonicare Women's and Children's Hospital approved the study in March 2017, but only elaborates by stating that his team was “… told that the committee held a comprehensive discussion of risks and benefits… During the study, the director of the ethics committee was constantly updated about the state of the clinical trial.” 84 The hospital has since denied that the study was reviewed at all, and claims that the signatures on the approval were forged. 85 What is clear is that a number of regulations were violated or circumvented, including the guidelines for embryo research which allow an edited embryo to be cultured for no more than 14 days and prohibit its implantation, 86 as well as the aforementioned limitations on assisted reproductive services for HIV‐positive parents. 82 It is likely that He switched blood samples and kept many of the IVF technicians and obstetricians in the dark as to the nature of the study to get around these issues. 87

Finally, it is reasonable to consider whether He was qualified to be the investigator on such a trial: He had published one paper about CRISPR (in 2010, before human gene editing was an application of the technology), his background was in physics (he crossed over into biophysics), and he had no medical training. This is especially concerning as biohackers have made available both the equipment and the basic blueprints for home CRISPR editing (see the Other Perspectives section)—including advice on how to obtain human embryos and eventually implant them. 88

2.6.2. Socioeconomic disparities

Multiple polls have shown that the majority of people around the world are opposed to the use of genetic engineering of embryos for enhancement, such as athletic ability and intelligence, or for altering physical characteristics, such as eye color and height. 89 It is easy to conceive of the risk of a new age of eugenics.

But even the application of genetic modification to address medical needs holds the potential for establishing inequality. The technology will remain incredibly expensive for some time, prohibitively so for most people. CCR5 edits lie in an ill‐defined area between medical need and enhancement; an unfair health advantage will be established if such modifications are only accessible to the wealthy. Other kinds of edits may mean the difference between life and death; should potentially life‐saving therapies only be available to those with financial means? Put another way, should those individuals on one side of the growing socioeconomic gap be the only ones protected from the suffering that comes with illnesses such as Alzheimer's disease, Huntington disease, or cystic fibrosis?

2.6.3. Possible stigma

Especially while the concept is still novel, it is difficult to predict how society will feel about gene‐edited babies. Will Nana and Lulu face any sort of backlash? Conversely, if and when gene editing becomes commonplace, will there be a stigma associated with not having been edited in some way, such as still being susceptible to various infectious diseases? Might children like Lulu be less accepted for not carrying a desired modification? He wanted to spare HIV‐infected individuals’ children the stigma and discrimination their parents endured; 90 it is possible that having edited genes has replaced one potential stigma with another.

2.6.4. Insurance

Because gene editing will be a tool to cure and prevent illness, insurance coverage will be an important part of the conversation. First, will insurance cover the editing itself? If so, will germline versus somatic cell editing be an important distinction? Will coverage be based on the targeted illness or disability (and expected associated costs)? And who will decide which edits are considered medically necessary and which are considered elective?

Once babies born from edited embryos are born, more questions arise. Will those whose genes have not been edited to prevent certain illnesses be considered to have preexisting conditions? Will they be expected to pay more for coverage? On the other side of the coin, will those who have had their genes edited (especially when the technology is first rolled out) pay more because of possible off‐target risks or potential negative consequences of editing (eg, the increased susceptibility to influenza associated with CCR5 editing)?

2.6.5. Other perspectives

A full discussion of ethics requires a balanced presentation of various points of view.

There are those who object to continued research into gene editing, especially in zygotes, for myriad reasons. For example, some feel that gene editing is “playing God” and that it is not man's role to make changes to the basic building blocks of humanity; others are concerned about the potential that the technology, once perfected, could be co‐opted to produce designer babies; there is the consideration that opening a market for human eggs for research could lead to exploitation of disadvantaged women; and still others have concerns similar to those who are opposed to embryonic stem cell research—such as the conviction that embryos should not be created for the purpose of research, or that un‐implanted embryos (which they consider potential life) should not be destroyed.

There are also those who believe that not only should research continue, but that even nascent technology such as gene editing should be accessible to the public. 91 Known as biohackers, these scientists and activists laud the efforts like Jiankui He's. 88 Educational and laboratory materials are currently available to essentially anyone. It is even possible to purchase CRISPR kits, 92 and while a new California law requires that such kits are labeled “not for self‐administration” 93 there are currently no laws prohibiting people from doing just that—in fact, the owner of one company was investigated by the California Medical Board for unlicensed practice of medicine after injecting himself with CRISPR, but the investigation was dropped after four months with “no further action… anticipated.” 94

3. GLOBAL DISCUSSIONS ON GERMLINE EDITING

While it is impossible to mandate that all countries follow the same set of guidelines, it is possible to establish guiding principles for the risk‐benefit analyses and ethical discussions each country will undertake in developing their own regulatory framework. Because science moves faster than regulation, the scientific community as a whole can also use these principles to help guide ethically charged research decisions where no regulations yet exist. To that end, various groups have been meeting all over the world to try to come to a consensus on how to proceed with germline editing research and the potential clinical applications thereof.

3.1. Before He’s announcement

In 2015, the International Bioethics Committee (IBC), part of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), released the Report of the IBC on Updating its Reflection on the Human Genome and Human Rights. 95 The report considers other technologies as well, but “recommends a moratorium on genome editing of the human germline.”

Also in 2015, investigators in China announced that they had successfully used CRISPR to edit a nonviable human embryo. 96 This inspired the first International Summit on Human Gene Editing, held December 2015 in Washington, D.C. Hosted by the US National Academy of Sciences, US National Academy of Medicine, the Royal Society of the UK, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the summit brought together more than 3500 stakeholders (500 in person and 3000 online) from around the world to discuss human gene editing. At the end of the summit, the organizing committee released a statement advising ongoing global engagement and discussion, and outlined their conclusions regarding gene editing: 97 “(i)ntensive basic and preclinical research is clearly needed and should proceed, subject to appropriate legal and ethical rules and oversight…”; “(m)any promising and valuable clinical applications of gene editing are directed at altering genetic sequences only in somatic cells… [and] they can be… evaluated within existing and evolving regulatory frameworks for gene therapy…”; and “(g)ene editing might also be used, in principle, to make genetic alterations in gametes or embryos…” The statement goes on to address the ethical, legal, and scientific questions surrounding germline editing that have yet to be answered, and warns:

It would be irresponsible to proceed with any clinical use of germline editing unless and until (a) the relevant safety and efficacy issues have been resolved, based on appropriate understanding and balancing of risks, potential benefits, and alternatives, and (b) there is broad societal consensus about the appropriateness of the proposed application. Moreover, any clinical use should proceed only under appropriate regulatory oversight. At present, these criteria have not been met for any proposed clinical use: the safety issues have not yet been adequately explored; the cases of most compelling benefit are limited; and many nations have legislative or regulatory bans on germline modification. However, as scientific knowledge advances and societal views evolve, the clinical use of germline editing should be revisited on a regular basis.

While this statement in no way gives a green light for trials such as He's, it also does not call for an outright moratorium. In March 2017, another Chinese team published the results of the first use of CRISPR in viable human embryos. 98 Less than two years later, He's work was revealed to the world.

3.2. After He’s announcement

The article about He's trial was published the day before the second International Summit on Human Gene Editing. As they had at the first summit, organizers released a concluding statement on the last day. Surprisingly, not only does the statement again fall short of calling for a moratorium on clinical use of gene editing, the language is even softer than that of the first summit statement:

The variability of effects produced by genetic changes makes it difficult to conduct a thorough evaluation of benefits and risks. Nevertheless, germline genome editing could become acceptable in the future if these risks are addressed and if a number of additional criteria are met. These criteria include strict independent oversight, a compelling medical need, an absence of reasonable alternatives, a plan for long‐term follow‐up, and attention to societal effects. Even so, public acceptability will likely vary among jurisdictions, leading to differing policy responses. The organizing committee concludes that the scientific understanding and technical requirements for clinical practice remain too uncertain and the risks too great to permit clinical trials of germline editing at this time. Progress over the last three years and the discussions at the current summit, however, suggest that it is time to define a rigorous, responsible translational pathway toward such trials.

In December 2018, seeing the need for a more substantial framework of regulatory guidance, the WHO established the Advisory Committee on Developing Global Standards for Governance and Oversight of Human Genome Editing, “a global, multi‐disciplinary expert panel to examine the scientific, ethical, social and legal challenges associated with human genome editing… tasked to advise and make recommendations on appropriate institutional, national, regional and global governance mechanisms for human genome editing.” 99 They have established the Human Genome Editing Registry to collect information on human clinical trials involving genome editing, and the WHO has supported the advisory committee's interim recommendation that “it would be irresponsible at this time for anyone to proceed with clinical applications of human germline genome editing.” 100

In 2019, the US National Academies of Medicine and Science, together with the Royal Society, convened the International Commission on the Clinical Use of Human Germline Genome Editing. The goal of commission is: 101

… with the participation of science and medical academies around the world, to develop a framework for scientists, clinicians, and regulatory authorities to consider when assessing potential clinical applications of human germline genome editing. The framework will identify a number of scientific, medical, and ethical requirements that should be considered, and could inform the development of a potential pathway from research to clinical use—if society concludes that heritable human genome editing applications are acceptable.

The commission's final report is scheduled to be released in the spring of 2020.

As the science progresses, there are clearly significant conversations yet to be had.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors have stated explicitly that there are no conflicts of interest in connection with this article.

Rothschild J. Ethical considerations of gene editing and genetic selection . J Gen Fam Med . 2020; 21 :37–47. 10.1002/jgf2.321 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

The Ethical Issues of Genetic Engineering

Introduction, historical context, political context, social context, ethical evaluation, ethical questions, reference list.

Genetic engineering is a scientific achievement that has led to the development of new ethical issues. Genetic engineering has been a subject of controversy because a lot of people are not comfortable with the technology.

The ethical issues are more evident when it comes to cases of genetic engineering on the human tissue. Historically, the process has been conducted in the west. It has become easier to conduct genetic engineering in plants, animals, and humans due to developments in science.

A case study to consider in the relationship between science and ethics is Argentina. The government allowed several manufactures of genetically modified (GM) seeds to operate within the country due to increasing debts.

The manufacturers were given permits and the produced seeds were supplied to farmers for free. The seeds were of a wide variety, including maize, soya, and sunflower. GM soya seeds became common and the country was able to export its soya produce within a short while (Burachik, 2012).

Thus, the government was able to gain through this strategy. Despite this, ethical questions arose about whether the decision made could be considered moral or not.

The ethical questions arising from science are based on two concepts. The first concept is whether science is a danger in itself. The knowledge that arises from science can be a risk (Griffiths & Stotz, 2013). Secondly, an ethical issue arises based on what the long-term effects of science might be.

The idea of improving nature is considered to be a dangerous choice. Thus, it is unethical to change nature. It is easier to establish the ethical argument by raising an extrinsic question that is related to the long-term effects of GM crops makes.

Thus, such a question will be able to inform whether a choice can be considered to be ethical or not. The consequences that arise from the decision are also looked at in detail. Different results may be achieved. Determining whether the choice taken is ethical depends on weighing both options.

An option that has more positive consequences is always considered to be ethical and ideal to choose. In Argentina’s case, the ethical nature of its actions was defined by the financial costs involved. The country was to gain more from the decision to grow GM crops.

For a long time, science was not considered to be a concept that could be tied to ethical considerations. This changed and the social, political, individual, and practical effects were discussed in many forums dealing with the philosophy of science.

Genetic engineering is a science that has the highest potential of changing human lives. Historically, genetic engineering has led to the development of new ethical arguments because GM crops have varied implications that can affect a country as a whole.

In Argentina, the government was able to increase its imports and employ more people in the agricultural sector (Burachik, 2012).

Scientific research has always enjoyed independence when it comes to the expected results. Thus, scientists could conduct any experiment they wanted as long as they were not limited by funds. It is during the 1980s that it was realized that scientific research should be restricted.

The restriction also considered how science should be limited and within what limits (Light & De-Shalit, 2003). It is easier to know the consequences of genetic engineering through rational means. Initially, genetic engineering was witnessed within the field of agriculture.

It was conducted to increase food production by producing better crops that could survive harsh weather conditions. Later, it also involved human genetic engineering. Thus, there was a need to consider the ethical implications of genetic engineering (Stock & Campbell, 2000).

Genetically modified crops always raise political issues. The debate is hotter where the crops are made for human consumption. A political issue arises on whether to let the crops into the country or not.

Many people have questioned the health risks that arise from genetically modified crops, thus it is the politicians who have to ensure that the interests of the people are met and their safety is assured (Haugen, 2013).

GM crops are usually cheaper and have high yields when planted. This is advantageous because it is an economic advantage to a country and its citizens.

Various negative issues arise, despite the advantages of GM crops because the growth of GM crops intensifies pressure on unspoiled nature areas such as forests and grasslands.

GM crops tend to easily adapt into many environmental conditions, thus large tracts of land are set to maximize on the benefits (Burachik, 2012). The growth of GM crops affects various political aims within a country. In many countries, nature conservation is the duty of the government.

In Argentina’s case, the growth of soya became a political issue due to the land that was required for its growth. Its growth spread so rapidly that more than 14 million hectares of land were covered by the crop within two years.

The government established policies that allowed for the eviction of people from the land that was considered suitable for agricultural production after the establishment of the nation state of Argentina in 1853.

Moreover, an economic model was also adopted to encourage exportation and acquisition of foreign aid. The government was also involved in the acquisition of permits to plant GM crops comprising of soya, cotton, sunflower, potatoes, maize, and wheat.

Neither the public nor the Congress was informed about this decision. Thus, it can be seen that political problems would have emerged if this policy was considered by Congress or the public.

Moreover, the government also considered the ethical issues that would have come up due to this policy. Thus, they chose not to divulge the information about the permits (Burachik, 2012).

The commission set by the government to consider biotechnology was comprised of representatives from biotechnology companies. This scenario would not come up with appropriate ethical considerations because most of representatives wanted growth of GM crops just for personal profits.

Political implications always arise due to GM foods. Such crops can have negative implications within a state. In Argentina’s case, the crops began to take larger tracts of land.

There was a risk of social justice being compromised because the government did not care about the implications of the GM crops. Exports from soya were sufficient to pay back its debts, thus the government saw no need to establish better policies to control the growth of GM crops.

The citizens also gained due to this decision, thus it was in the best interest of the country. On the other hand, an individualized contract-based ethics arises whereby the production of GM crops is against nature.

Thus, the government should not be involved in the production of GM crops because they interfere with nature (Laurie, 2002).

GM crops usually tend to use methods that pollute the environment. Growth of GM crops involves use of advanced agricultural practices. In Argentina’s case, farmers were given both seeds and fertilizers to grow the crops.

These fertilizers had health risks and they polluted the environment in the long run. Moreover, less efficient eco-farming strategies were promoted. The methods used for agricultural production used various methods that facilitated increased productivity.

Conservation of biodiversity also became an issue. GM plants have an accelerated growth rate, thus they can encroach on a large piece of land within a short time.

The fertilizers and chemicals used may also affect the surrounding plants and animals. For instance, ploughed grasslands can lead to loss of important biodiversity. The other risks involved were theoretical in nature.

The government’s decision can be seen as unethical if questions are raised about the potential risks GM crops have on humans. Information in this regard could only be obtained through empirical means.

Experimentation and experience were the best means to establish this information (Barry, 2011). Cultivation of genetic crops also leads to spread of genetic engineering. This becomes an ethical issue for countries that have not legalized the importation or sale of GM crops.

Such fears are usually faced by government agencies dealing with rural development. GM crops require modern methods of agricultural production, thus people in rural areas will lose their source of income if GM crops are promoted.

The social impacts of GM foods are always considered before permits are given to develop the foods in most western countries. Other food crops can also be affected through jumping genes and pollen flight. This can lead to disastrous consequences, such a limiting food production in the future.

Thus, a democratic decision should be reached through public debate about the implications of GM crops. Establishing a green genetic engineering strategy would be an effective step to begin with (Derr & McNamara, 2003).

The ethical implications within the society arise based on how people will be affected. In Argentina, the government’s decisions can be considered as illegal, but they were ethical to an extent. The government’s decisions, though not revealed to the public, were for the greater good of the public.

Socially, there were gains and losses expected. GM crops are used at the expense of natural crops. Intensive research is usually done to come up with GM crops.

Thus, natural plants will lose their role in life if GM foods. It is a societal obligation to preserve nature. If GM crops are allowed to flourish, then the society will lose its role in protecting nature (Bennett et al., 2013).

Philosophers in the western world have been interested in the development and systemization of the sciences in relation to genetic engineering. There are two general thoughts that have been used to explain how the actions are viewed. These are the utilitarian and Aristotelian thoughts.

Aristotelian uses the belief of good reason to bring out the forces that influence the direction of the actions. Good reasons are always given to explain the reason behind an action, or an event (Light & De-Shalit, 2003).

An ultimate goal is always pursued, thus less credit is given to the negative effects of the action. Such a scenario can be seen with genetic engineering. The larger picture shows that genetic engineering has negative consequences.

Thus, genetic engineers try to show that the process is beneficial and done with good intentions. The goals already achieved through genetic engineering have been helpful to the human race. It is for this reason that genetic engineering has grown and evolved over the years.

Many people ignore the greater consequences of the process. It is as a result of this realization that it becomes important to consider the ethical implications of genetic engineering.

There is always an evaluation of the reasons explaining what genetic engineering seeks to achieve and the product of the process (Reiss & Straughan, 2001).

One the other hand, utilitarian beliefs do not consider the actions of an individual as resulting from either good or bad decisions, but only with a maximization of the agent’s abilities.

This can be applied to genetic engineering where one can view genetic engineering as using knowledge to its maximum. In Argentina’s case, the actions were not specifically for good or bad reasons.

The activities were conducted to ensure that maximum gains were achieved from the knowledge of genetic engineering. Thus, ethical concerns on GM crops arise depending on the implications of GM crops and not the use genetic engineering.

A closer analysis of the field of science would reveal that people always depend on their practical knowledge. This is then utilized when making a judgment on whether something is good or bad.

Ethical considerations are sometimes based on established norms within the society (Frey & Wellman, 2007). Norms are able to describe what rules are applicable within different contexts. The ethical considerations arising from genetic engineering relate to norms within the society.

It determines how certain beliefs are upheld at the expense of other beliefs. It is hard to accept genetic engineering as ethical if the basis of the science is irrational.

The goals of science can be equated to the goals of life. For both concepts, the end involves improvement of human life (Reiss & Straughan, 2001).

Problems are bound to arise more often in cases of cash crops that grow at the expense of food crops. Genetic modification is allowed on cash crops because of their economic importance.

Scientists usually view ethics as essential to their practice and identity. Despite this, their ethical beliefs can change according to current conditions in society.

Thus, an ethical risk can arise from GM crops whereby it could lead to increased research on genetic engineering on humans (Mizzoni, 2010). Ethical questions also arise on whether it is necessary to genetically modify crops. Naturally, such crops can grow in some environments.

The use of genetic engineering makes the process cheaper because crops are made adaptable to different environments and to yield better products. Though it is cheaper, the negative consequences of this decision can be realized in future.

In the case study, new types of pests have appeared because of the genetically modified crops. Initially, it was thought that such an attack would not occur. This only proves that GM crops are not always the best option (Burachik, 2012).

Many of the ethical and moral debates have followed a one-dimensional strategy whereby they are concerned with a single and a specific application of genetic engineering. Human application of this technology has been given significant coverage in comparison to GM crops.

Research on the implications of genetic engineering on animals, plants, and microorganisms has been largely overlooked. If GM crops are encouraged, then the future will be bleak where most food, animals, or humans will be genetically modified (Nordgren, 2001).

Moral and ethical concerns are effective in controlling public opinion. The public will not easily support an idea if it is considered immoral. Thus, concerns have developed that various biotechnology techniques would fail if not given public acceptance.

Philosophy has been used in the explanation of nature and how to interact with it. An important example is the stoic philosophy that describes that humans have to live with nature as it is (Mizzoni, 2010). It is morally wrong for humans to interfere with nature for their own benefit.

Genetic engineering is seen as the most effective way to interfere with nature because genetic materials are the basic structures that comprise humans, plants, and animals.

The human body and its parts can be seen as a system that works in unison. The different parts play different roles to establish a balance in the human body. The same can be said about nature. Each aspect of nature has its own role to play.

Thus, a balance is established to facilitate the survival of man and his dependence on nature. If nature were to be reconfigured through genetic engineering, then there would be a loss of this balance.

For instance, genetic modification in humans can result in the production of a superhuman. If such a human procreates, then it would lead to a situation where more people have genetically engineered genes resulting from his offspring (Yashon & Cummings, 2012).

Thus, a problem may exist within the individual’s genetic pool and researchers are not aware. The same can be said about GM crops. Their use may result in negative consequences as the case was in Argentina whereby new strains of pests emerged.

A survey conducted in the UK to determine public opinion about GM crops found that 70 percent of the total respondents considered it morally wrong. Thus, globally, the beliefs on genetic engineering depend on individual values. People tend to believe that biotechnology is wrong.

In some cases, this is attributed to lack of knowledge of how genetic modification is done. For most people, they consider the issues that can arise from GM crops to be the same with genetic modification of humans (Haugen, 2013).

The decision to depend on ethics may have negative consequences as well. Something may be considered unethical, but it can lead to improvements.

In conclusion, genetic engineering is a scientific breakthrough that has led to developments in biotechnology. Growth and consumption of GM crops have been on the increase, despite little regard for the consequences.

Thus, ethical issues arise as people try to determine whether GM crops are good or bad for humans. Genetic engineering can have very many dangers, but such fears will reduce once it is realized that everything has the potential to be harmful.

Thus, the issues arising due to GM crops can be related to the ethical issues resulting from science.

Barry, VE 2011, Bioethics: At the beginning and end of life, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.

Bennett, AB, Chi-Ham, C, Barrows, G, Sexton, S, & Zilberman, D, 2013, ‘Agricultural biotechnology: economics, environment, ethics, and the future,’ Annual Review of Environment & Resources, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 249-279.

Burachik, M 2012, ‘Regulation of GM crops in Argentina’, GM Crops & Food, vol. 3, no.1, pp. 48-51.

Derr, PG. & McNamara, EM 2003, Case studies in environmental ethics, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD.

Frey, RG, & Wellman, CH 2007, A companion to applied ethics, John Wiley & Sons, Oxford.

Griffiths, P, & Stotz, K 2013. Genetics and philosophy : an introduction, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.

Haugen, H M 2013, ‘Human rights in natural science and technology professions’ codes of ethics?’, Business & Professional Ethics Journal, vol. 32, no. 1/2, pp. 49-76.

Laurie, GT 2002, Genetic privacy : a challenge to medico-legal norms, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.

Light, A, & De-Shalit, A, 2003, Moral and political reasoning in environmental practice, MIT, Cambridge, MA

Mizzoni, J 2010, Ethics: the basics, Wiley-Blackwell, West Sussex, UK.

Nordgren, A, 2001, Responsible genetics: the moral responsibility of geneticists for the consequences of human genetics research, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, MA

Reiss, MJ, & Straughan, R 2001, Improving nature?: the science and ethics of genetic engineering, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.

Stock, G, & Campbell, JH, 2000, Engineering the human germline: an exploration of the science and ethics of altering the genes we pass to our children, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.

Yashon, RK, & Cummings, MR 2012, Human genetics and society, 2nd ed, Brooks/Cole, Belmont, MA.

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The Evolving Danger of the New Bird Flu

An unusual outbreak of the disease has spread to dairy herds in multiple u.s. states..

This transcript was created using speech recognition software. While it has been reviewed by human transcribers, it may contain errors. Please review the episode audio before quoting from this transcript and email [email protected] with any questions.

From “The New York Times,” I’m Sabrina Tavernise, and this is “The Daily.”

[MUSIC PLAYING]

The outbreak of bird flu that is tearing through the nation’s poultry farms is the worst in US history. But scientists say it’s now starting to spread into places and species it’s never been before.

Today, my colleague, Emily Anthes, explains.

It’s Monday, April 22.

Emily, welcome back to the show.

Thanks for having me. Happy to be here.

So, Emily, we’ve been talking here on “The Daily” about prices of things and how they’ve gotten so high, mostly in the context of inflation episodes. And one of the items that keeps coming up is eggs. Egg prices were through the roof last year, and we learned it was related to this. Avian flu has been surging in the United States. You’ve been covering this. Tell us what’s happening.

Yes, so I have been covering this virus for the last few years. And the bird flu is absolutely tearing through poultry flocks, and that is affecting egg prices. That’s a concern for everyone, for me and for my family. But when it comes to scientists, egg prices are pretty low on their list of concerns. Because they see this bird flu virus behaving differently than previous versions have. And they’re getting nervous, in particular, about the fact that this virus is reaching places and species where it’s never been before.

OK, so bird flu, though, isn’t new. I mean I remember hearing about cases in Asia in the ‘90s. Remind us how it began.

Bird flu refers to a bunch of different viruses that are adapted to spread best in birds. Wild water birds, in particular, are known for carrying these viruses. And flu viruses are famous for also being shapeshifters. So they’re constantly swapping genes around and evolving into new strains. And as you mentioned back in the ‘90s, a new version of bird flu, a virus known as H5N1, emerged in Asia. And it has been spreading on and off around the world since then, causing periodic outbreaks.

And how are these outbreaks caused?

So wild birds are the reservoir for the virus, which means they carry it in their bodies with them around the world as they fly and travel and migrate. And most of the time, these wild birds, like ducks and geese, don’t even get very sick from this virus. But they shed it. So as they’re traveling over a poultry farm maybe, if they happen to go to the bathroom in a pond that the chickens on the farm are using or eat some of the feed that chickens on the farm are eating, they can leave the virus behind.

And the virus can get into chickens. In some cases, it causes mild illness. It’s what’s known as low pathogenic avian influenza. But sometimes the virus mutates and evolves, and it can become extremely contagious and extremely fatal in poultry.

OK, so the virus comes through wild birds, but gets into farms like this, as you’re describing. How have farms traditionally handled outbreaks, when they do happen?

Well, because this threat isn’t new, there is a pretty well-established playbook for containing outbreaks. It’s sometimes known as stamping out. And brutally, what it means is killing the birds. So the virus is so deadly in this highly pathogenic form that it’s sort of destined to kill all the birds on a farm anyway once it gets in. So the response has traditionally been to proactively depopulate or cull all the birds, so it doesn’t have a chance to spread.

So that’s pretty costly for farmers.

It is. Although the US has a program where it will reimburse farmers for their losses. And the way these reimbursements work is they will reimburse farmers only for the birds that are proactively culled, and not for those who die naturally from the virus. And the thinking behind that is it’s a way to incentivize farmers to report outbreaks early.

So, OK, lots of chickens are killed in a way to manage these outbreaks. So we know how to deal with them. But what about now? Tell me about this new strain.

So this new version of the virus, it emerged in 2020.

After the deadly outbreak of the novel coronavirus, authorities have now confirmed an outbreak of the H5N1 strain of influenza, a kind of bird flu.

And pretty quickly it became clear that a couple things set it apart.

A bald eagle found dead at Carvins Cove has tested positive for the highly contagious bird flu.

This virus, for whatever reason, seemed very good at infecting all sorts of wild birds that we don’t normally associate with bird flu.

[BIRD CRYING]

He was kind of stepping, and then falling over, and using its wing to right itself.

Things like eagles and condors and pelicans.

We just lost a parliament of owls in Minneapolis.

Yeah, a couple of high profile nests.

And also in the past, wild birds have not traditionally gotten very sick from this virus. And this version of the virus not only spread widely through the wild bird population, but it proved to be devastating.

The washing up along the East Coast of the country from Scotland down to Suffolk.

We were hearing about mass die-offs of seabirds in Europe by the hundreds and the thousands.

And the bodies of the dead dot the island wherever you look.

Wow. OK. So then as we know, this strain, like previous ones, makes its way from wild animals to farmed animals, namely to chickens. But it’s even more deadly.

Absolutely. And in fact, it has already caused the worst bird flu outbreak in US history. So more than 90 million birds in the US have died as a result of this virus.

90 million birds.

Yes, and I should be clear that represents two things. So some of those birds are birds who naturally got infected and died from the virus. But the vast majority of them are birds that were proactively culled. What it adds up to is, is 90 million farmed birds in the US have died since this virus emerged. And it’s not just a chicken problem. Another thing that has been weird about this virus is it has jumped into other kinds of farms. It is the first time we’ve seen a bird flu virus jump into US livestock.

And it’s now been reported on a number of dairy farms across eight US states. And that’s just something that’s totally unprecedented.

So it’s showing up at Dairy farms now. You’re saying that bird flu has now spread to cows. How did that happen?

So we don’t know exactly how cows were first infected, but most scientists’ best guess is that maybe an infected wild bird that was migrating shed the virus into some cattle feed or a pasture or a pond, and cattle picked it up. The good news is they don’t seem to get nearly as sick as chickens do. They are generally making full recoveries on their own in a couple of weeks.

OK, so no mass culling of cows?

No, that doesn’t seem to be necessary at this point. But the bad news is that it’s starting to look like we’re seeing this virus spread from cow to cow. We don’t know exactly how that’s happening yet. But anytime you see cow-to-cow or mammal-to-mammal transmission, that’s a big concern.

And why is that exactly?

Well, there are a bunch of reasons. First, it could allow the outbreak to get much bigger, much faster, which might increase the risk to the food supply. And we might also expect it to increase the risk to farm workers, people who might be in contact with these sick cows.

Right now, the likelihood that a farmer who gets this virus passes it on is pretty low. But any time you see mammal-to-mammal transmission, it increases the chance that the virus will adapt and possibly, maybe one day get good at spreading between humans. To be clear, that’s not something that there’s any evidence happening in cows right now. But the fact that there’s any cow-to-cow transmission happening at all is enough to have scientists a bit concerned.

And then if we think more expansively beyond what’s happening on farms, there’s another big danger lurking out there. And that’s what happens when this virus gets into wild animals, vast populations that we can’t control.

We’ll be right back.

So, Emily, you said that another threat was the threat of flu in wild animal populations. Clearly, of course, it’s already in wild birds. Where else has it gone?

Well, the reason it’s become such a threat is because of how widespread it’s become in wild birds. So they keep reintroducing it to wild animal populations pretty much anywhere they go. So we’ve seen the virus repeatedly pop up in all sorts of animals that you might figure would eat a wild bird, so foxes, bobcats, bears. We actually saw it in a polar bear, raccoons. So a lot of carnivores and scavengers.

The thinking is that these animals might stumble across a sick or dead bird, eat it, and contract the virus that way. But we’re also seeing it show up in some more surprising places, too. We’ve seen the virus in a bottle-nosed dolphin, of all places.

And most devastatingly, we’ve seen enormous outbreaks in other sorts of marine mammals, especially sea lions and seals.

So elephant seals, in particular in South America, were just devastated by this virus last fall. My colleague Apoorva Mandavilli and I were talking to some scientists in South America who described to us what they called a scene from hell, of walking out onto a beach in Argentina that is normally crowded with chaotic, living, breathing, breeding, elephant seals — and the beach just being covered by carcass, after carcass, after carcass.

Mostly carcasses of young newborn pups. The virus seemed to have a mortality rate of 95 percent in these elephant seal pups, and they estimated that it might have killed more than 17,000 of the pups that were born last year. So almost the entire new generation of this colony. These are scientists that have studied these seals for decades. And they said they’ve never seen anything like it before.

And why is it so far reaching, Emily? I mean, what explains these mass die-offs?

There are probably a few explanations. One is just how much virus is out there in the environment being shed by wild birds into water and onto beaches. These are also places that viruses like this haven’t been before. So it’s reaching elephant seals and sea lions in South America that have no prior immunity.

There’s also the fact that these particular species, these sea lions and seals, tend to breed in these huge colonies all crowded together on beaches. And so what that means is if a virus makes its way into the colony, it’s very conducive conditions for it to spread. And scientists think that that’s actually what’s happening now. That it’s not just that all these seals are picking up the virus from individual birds, but that they’re actually passing it to each other.

So basically, this virus is spreading to places it’s never been before, kind of virgin snow territory, where animals just don’t have the immunity against it. And once it gets into a population packed on a beach, say, of elephant seals, it’s just like a knife through butter.

Absolutely. And an even more extreme example of that is what we’re starting to see happen in Antarctica, where there’s never been a bird flu outbreak before until last fall, for the first time, this virus reached the Antarctic mainland. And we are now seeing the virus move through colonies of not only seabirds and seals, but penguin colonies, which have not been exposed to these viruses before.

And it’s too soon to say what the toll will be. But penguins also, of course, are known for breeding in these large colonies.

Probably. don’t have many immune defenses against this virus, and of course, are facing all these other environmental threats. And so there’s a lot of fear that you add on the stress of a bird flu virus, and it could just be a tipping point for penguins.

Emily, at this point, I’m kind of wondering why more people aren’t talking about this. I mean, I didn’t know any of this before having this conversation with you, and it feels pretty worrying.

Well, a lot of experts and scientists are talking about this with rising alarm and in terms that are quite stark. They’re talking about the virus spreading through wild animal populations so quickly and so ferociously that they’re calling it an ecological disaster.

But that’s a disaster that sometimes seems distant from us, both geographically, we’re talking about things that are happening maybe at the tip of Argentina or in Antarctica. And also from our concerns of our everyday lives, what’s happening in Penguins might not seem like it has a lot to do with the price of a carton of eggs at the grocery store. But I think that we should be paying a lot of attention to how this virus is moving through animal populations, how quickly it’s moving through animal populations, and the opportunities that it is giving the virus to evolve into something that poses a much bigger threat to human health.

So the way it’s spreading in wild animals, even in remote places like Antarctica, that’s important to watch, at least in part because there’s a real danger to people here.

So we know that the virus can infect humans, and that generally it’s not very good at spreading between humans. But the concern all along has been that if this virus has more opportunities to spread between mammals, it will get better at spreading between them. And that seems to be what is happening in seals and sea lions. Scientists are already seeing evidence that the virus is adapting as it passes from marine mammal to marine mammal. And that could turn it into a virus that’s also better at spreading between people.

And if somebody walks out onto a beach and touches a dead sea lion, if their dog starts playing with a sea lion carcass, you could imagine that this virus could make its way out of marine mammals and into the human population. And if it’s this mammalian adapted version of the virus that makes its way out, that could be a bigger threat to human health.

So the sheer number of hosts that this disease has, the more opportunity it has to mutate, and the more chance it has to mutate in a way that would actually be dangerous for people.

Yes, and in particular, the more mammalian hosts. So that gives the virus many more opportunities to become a specialist in mammals instead of a specialist in birds, which is what it is right now.

Right. I like that, a specialist in mammals. So what can we do to contain this virus?

Well, scientists are exploring new options. There’s been a lot of discussion about whether we should start vaccinating chickens in the US. The government, USDA labs, have been testing some poultry vaccines. It’s probably scientifically feasible. There are challenges there, both in terms of logistics — just how would you go about vaccinating billions of chickens every year. There are also trade questions. Traditionally, a lot of countries have not been willing to accept poultry products from countries that vaccinate their poultry.

And there’s concern about whether the virus might spread undetected in flocks that are vaccinated. So as we saw with COVID, the vaccine can sometimes stop you from getting sick, but it doesn’t necessarily stop infection. And so countries are worried they might unknowingly import products that are harboring the virus.

And what about among wild animals? I mean, how do you even begin to get your head around that?

Yeah, I mean, thinking about vaccinating wild animals maybe makes vaccinating all the chickens in the US look easy. There has been some discussion of limited vaccination campaigns, but that’s not feasible on a global scale. So unfortunately, the bottom line is there isn’t a good way to stop spread in wild animals. We can try to protect some vulnerable populations, but we’re not going to stop the circulation of this virus.

So, Emily, we started this conversation with a kind of curiosity that “The Daily” had about the price of eggs. And then you explained the bird flu to us. And then somehow we ended up learning about an ecological disaster that’s unfolding all around us, and potentially the source of the next human pandemic. That is pretty scary.

It is scary, and it’s easy to get overwhelmed by it. And I feel like I should take a step back and say none of this is inevitable. None of this is necessarily happening tomorrow. But this is why scientists are concerned and why they think it’s really important to keep a very close eye on what’s happening both on farms and off farms, as this virus spreads through all sorts of animal populations.

One thing that comes up again and again and again in my interviews with people who have been studying bird flu for decades, is how this virus never stops surprising them. And sometimes those are bad surprises, like these elephant seal die-offs, the incursions into dairy cattle. But there are some encouraging signs that have emerged recently. We’re starting to see some early evidence that some of the bird populations that survived early brushes with this virus might be developing some immunity. So that’s something that maybe could help slow the spread of this virus in animal populations.

We just don’t entirely know how this is going to play out. Flu is a very difficult, wily foe. And so that’s one reason scientists are trying to keep such a close, attentive eye on what’s happening.

Emily, thank you.

Thanks for having me.

Here’s what else you should know today.

On this vote, the yeas are 366 and the nays are 58. The bill is passed.

On Saturday, in four back-to-back votes, the House voted resoundingly to approve a long-stalled package of aid to Ukraine, Israel and other American allies, delivering a major victory to President Biden, who made aid to Ukraine one of his top priorities.

On this vote, the yeas are 385, and the no’s are 34 with one answering present. The bill is passed without objection.

The House passed the component parts of the $95 billion package, which included a bill that could result in a nationwide ban of TikTok.

On this vote, the yeas are 311 and the nays are 112. The bill is passed.

Oh, one voting present. I missed it, but thank you.

In a remarkable breach of custom, Democrats stepped in to supply the crucial votes to push the legislation past hard-line Republican opposition and bring it to the floor.

The House will be in order.

The Senate is expected to pass the legislation as early as Tuesday.

Today’s episode was produced by Rikki Novetsky, Nina Feldman, Eric Krupke, and Alex Stern. It was edited by Lisa Chow and Patricia Willens; contains original music by Marion Lozano, Dan Powell, Rowan Niemisto, and Sophia Lanman; and was engineered by Chris Wood. Our theme music is by Jim Brunberg and Ben Landsverk of Wonderly. Special thanks to Andrew Jacobs.

That’s it for “The Daily.” I’m Sabrina Tavernise. See you tomorrow.

• April 24, 2024   •   32:18 Is $60 Billion Enough to Save Ukraine?
• April 23, 2024   •   30:30 A Salacious Conspiracy or Just 34 Pieces of Paper?
• April 22, 2024   •   24:30 The Evolving Danger of the New Bird Flu
• April 19, 2024   •   30:42 The Supreme Court Takes Up Homelessness
• April 18, 2024   •   30:07 The Opening Days of Trump’s First Criminal Trial
• April 17, 2024   •   24:52 Are ‘Forever Chemicals’ a Forever Problem?
• April 16, 2024   •   29:29 A.I.’s Original Sin
• April 15, 2024   •   24:07 Iran’s Unprecedented Attack on Israel
• April 14, 2024   •   46:17 The Sunday Read: ‘What I Saw Working at The National Enquirer During Donald Trump’s Rise’
• April 12, 2024   •   34:23 How One Family Lost $900,000 in a Timeshare Scam
• April 11, 2024   •   28:39 The Staggering Success of Trump’s Trial Delay Tactics
• April 10, 2024   •   22:49 Trump’s Abortion Dilemma

Hosted by Sabrina Tavernise

Produced by Rikki Novetsky ,  Nina Feldman ,  Eric Krupke and Alex Stern

Edited by Lisa Chow and Patricia Willens

Original music by Marion Lozano ,  Dan Powell ,  Rowan Niemisto and Sophia Lanman

Engineered by Chris Wood

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The outbreak of bird flu currently tearing through the nation’s poultry is the worst in U.S. history. Scientists say it is now spreading beyond farms into places and species it has never been before.

Emily Anthes, a science reporter for The Times, explains.

On today’s episode

Emily Anthes , a science reporter for The New York Times.

Background reading

Scientists have faulted the federal response to bird flu outbreaks on dairy farms .

Here’s what to know about the outbreak.

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Special thanks to Andrew Jacobs .

The Daily is made by Rachel Quester, Lynsea Garrison, Clare Toeniskoetter, Paige Cowett, Michael Simon Johnson, Brad Fisher, Chris Wood, Jessica Cheung, Stella Tan, Alexandra Leigh Young, Lisa Chow, Eric Krupke, Marc Georges, Luke Vander Ploeg, M.J. Davis Lin, Dan Powell, Sydney Harper, Mike Benoist, Liz O. Baylen, Asthaa Chaturvedi, Rachelle Bonja, Diana Nguyen, Marion Lozano, Corey Schreppel, Rob Szypko, Elisheba Ittoop, Mooj Zadie, Patricia Willens, Rowan Niemisto, Jody Becker, Rikki Novetsky, John Ketchum, Nina Feldman, Will Reid, Carlos Prieto, Ben Calhoun, Susan Lee, Lexie Diao, Mary Wilson, Alex Stern, Dan Farrell, Sophia Lanman, Shannon Lin, Diane Wong, Devon Taylor, Alyssa Moxley, Summer Thomad, Olivia Natt, Daniel Ramirez and Brendan Klinkenberg.

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