essay on gandhi and modern india

Essay on Mahatma Gandhi – Contributions and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi

500+ words essay on mahatma gandhi.

Essay on Mahatma Gandhi – Mahatma Gandhi was a great patriotic Indian, if not the greatest. He was a man of an unbelievably great personality. He certainly does not need anyone like me praising him. Furthermore, his efforts for Indian independence are unparalleled. Most noteworthy, there would have been a significant delay in independence without him. Consequently, the British because of his pressure left India in 1947. In this essay on Mahatma Gandhi, we will see his contribution and legacy.

Contributions of Mahatma Gandhi

First of all, Mahatma Gandhi was a notable public figure. His role in social and political reform was instrumental. Above all, he rid the society of these social evils. Hence, many oppressed people felt great relief because of his efforts. Gandhi became a famous international figure because of these efforts. Furthermore, he became the topic of discussion in many international media outlets.

Mahatma Gandhi made significant contributions to environmental sustainability. Most noteworthy, he said that each person should consume according to his needs. The main question that he raised was “How much should a person consume?”. Gandhi certainly put forward this question.

Furthermore, this model of sustainability by Gandhi holds huge relevance in current India. This is because currently, India has a very high population . There has been the promotion of renewable energy and small-scale irrigation systems. This was due to Gandhiji’s campaigns against excessive industrial development.

Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of non-violence is probably his most important contribution. This philosophy of non-violence is known as Ahimsa. Most noteworthy, Gandhiji’s aim was to seek independence without violence. He decided to quit the Non-cooperation movement after the Chauri-Chaura incident . This was due to the violence at the Chauri Chaura incident. Consequently, many became upset at this decision. However, Gandhi was relentless in his philosophy of Ahimsa.

Secularism is yet another contribution of Gandhi. His belief was that no religion should have a monopoly on the truth. Mahatma Gandhi certainly encouraged friendship between different religions.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi has influenced many international leaders around the world. His struggle certainly became an inspiration for leaders. Such leaders are Martin Luther King Jr., James Beve, and James Lawson. Furthermore, Gandhi influenced Nelson Mandela for his freedom struggle. Also, Lanza del Vasto came to India to live with Gandhi.

The awards given to Mahatma Gandhi are too many to discuss. Probably only a few nations remain which have not awarded Mahatma Gandhi.

In conclusion, Mahatma Gandhi was one of the greatest political icons ever. Most noteworthy, Indians revere by describing him as the “father of the nation”. His name will certainly remain immortal for all generations.

Essay Topics on Famous Leaders

• Mahatma Gandhi
• APJ Abdul Kalam
• Jawaharlal Nehru
• Swami Vivekananda
• Mother Teresa
• Rabindranath Tagore
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
• Subhash Chandra Bose
• Abraham Lincoln
• Martin Luther King

FAQs on Mahatma Gandhi

Q.1 Why Mahatma Gandhi decided to stop Non-cooperation movement?

A.1 Mahatma Gandhi decided to stop the Non-cooperation movement. This was due to the infamous Chauri-Chaura incident. There was significant violence at this incident. Furthermore, Gandhiji was strictly against any kind of violence.

Q.2 Name any two leaders influenced by Mahatma Gandhi?

A.2 Two leaders influenced by Mahatma Gandhi are Martin Luther King Jr and Nelson Mandela.

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Gandhi in the Twenty-First Century: Ideas and Relevance

• First Online: 11 February 2022

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• Anshuman Behera 3 &
• Shailesh Nayak 3  

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This is an introductory chapter of this edited volume. This chapter reflects on the relevance of Gandhian ideas in dealing with the contemporary societal challenges. Departing from a body of literature that confines Gandhi and his ideas to a specific time, this chapter holds the view that Gandhian ideas transcend time. Accordingly, the chapter stresses on the critical need for revisiting Gandhi’s ideas keeping in mind the challenges that the society is witnessing. To blur the distinction between Gandhi as a philosopher, an activist, and a freedom fighter, this chapter highlights the surplus element in Gandhi in his multiple personality and roles. The first part of the chapter reasons with the need for and importance of revisiting and engaging with Gandhi’s ideas. And the second part briefly explains the fourteen critical themes pertaining to Gandhi’s ideas around which the book has been compiled.

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Gandhi defined his understanding of Ramraj during Indian National Congress (INC) session in Faizpore, 1936. He mentioned that: ‘By this I do not mean a mere imitation of the British House of Commons or the Soviet rule of Russia or the Fascist rule of Italy or the Nazi rule of Germany. They have systems suited to their genius. We must have systems suited to our genius. What that can be is more than I can tell. I have described it as Ramraj , that is sovereignty of the people based on moral authority’ (cited in Pandey, 1988 ).

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Behera, A., Nayak, S. (2022). Gandhi in the Twenty-First Century: Ideas and Relevance. In: Behera, A., Nayak, S. (eds) Gandhi in the Twenty First Century. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8476-0_1

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Two Indias: Gandhi and Modern India by Prof Johan Galtung

Gandhian Perspectives on Conflict and Peace – Hindu University, FL USA

Gandhi was born 2 October 1869, was killed 30 January 1948 by a Pune brahmin, Godse. I was a 17 years old boy in Norway who cried when hearing the news.  Something unheard of had happened.

But I did not know why I cried, and wanted to know more.  Who was Gandhi? So I became a Gandhi scholar as assistant and co-author to the late Arne Næss in his seminal work of extracting from Gandhi’s works and words his Gandhi’s Political Ethics as a norm-system. Note [i]

Mahatma Gandhi

The image of the India I love is the image of Gandhi.  I know perfectly well that there are other Indias.  And Ashis Nandy sensitized me to why the court proceedings against Godse were kept secret: because his arguments were that Gandhi stood in the way of the modern India the government wanted, with industrialization, booming cities, growth, trade, a strong army; the whole package.

Very different from Gandhi’s self-sufficient sarvodaya villages, linked by “oceanic circles”, focused on spiritual rather than material growth.  Very similar to the Buddhist image of the small sangha community. And in line with Gandhi’s idea that he may actually have been a Buddhist; without any vertical ranking of occupations.

Gandhi’s link to Buddhism and rejection of caste may have been on top of Godse’s motivation, adding to modernity.  Nehru’s India was also a modern India, with a socialist LSE-Harold Laski, Soviet touch. Nehru and Gandhi shared anti-colonialism but differed in their images of independent India.  Modernity, and even more so, Soviet top-down socialism, were very remote from Gandhi’s bottom-up world.

Gandhi was instrumentalized by Congress to get rid of Britons preaching against caste. India became independent, after a disastrous partition mainly caused by Lord Mountbatten; free to enter modernity, and to keep caste. The Congress Party got the cake and ate it too.  So, I see two Indias, Gandhi and modernity, knowing there are more.

Two Indian civilizations, with much clash and little dialogue. And some dwarfs rejecting India’s greatest son.  Some time ago there were books on and by Gandhi at New Delhi airport; today we find books on business administration. A non-dialogue of two civilizations within one country.  This essay opens for that missing dialogue, for the millions touched by the genius of the Gandhi that modern India expelled, like traditional India did to another genius coming out of roughly the same land, the Buddha.  The image of India abroad is still shaped by both.

Gandhi, a vaisya prime minister’s son, a lawyer trained in England, struggling with the drives of sex and food, finding his brahmacharya .  Indian themes with as much or more claim on India as the present growth machine serving the upper castes and classes at the expense of growing inequality and the suffering of the 1/3 of the world’s starving, living in one country, India.  An India linked to a falling global empire, USA; and a regional declining empire, Israel.

An India with direct violence by acts of commission; structural violence producing more suffering than direct violence upheld by acts of omission; and cultural violence legitimizing either or both. And Indo-European class structure, with brahmin specialists on cultural violence, kshatriyas on direct violence, and vaisyas on structural violence; unleashing all three on common people and women.

That tradition of direct violence + steep pyramids of structural violence + legitimacy from a divine mandate also predict well the four most belligerent countries over the last 1,000 years: USA, Israel, UK and Turkey.  Watch for the dangers of guilt by cooperation and association with those four.

Gandhi will survive this perverted Indian modernity.  Gandhi’s four S’s, satyagraha-swaraj-swadeshi-sarvodaya , are better approaches to the three UN goals sustainable peace, development and environment.

Satyagraha : holding on to Satya, a Truth-Love-God trinity, his unity-of-human beings.  As factual truth, as togetherness-compassion-love, and as embodying the divine.  The word ahimsa , nonviolence, reflects this badly. More than 100 years ago Gandhi coined satyagraha drawing on vasudaiva kuttumbakam-the world is my family . Very Indian.

But not practiced by 700,000 Hindu soldiers in Kashmir ruling over the Muslims, and in even more misery and inequality by driving  tribals and casteless off the land and killing Naxalites with drones.

Swaraj :   self-rule, swa , the Self of identity, with Raj, rule.  Gandhi praised openness refusing to be blown off his feet. Be rooted, deepen the rootedness, develop your self, your spirit, be in command of your identity; concepts beyond an independence ceremony with flags lowered and raised.  Gandhi even did not attend; he fought the Lord Mountbatten-twisted partition with its devastating consequences.

Swadeshi : meeting needs for food, shelter, clothing, self-made .  No to English textiles-Yes to khadi .  Gandhi even collected money for Bombay textile merchants; the textiles, not they, were the problem.

Sarvodaya : the uplift of the poor, inspired by Gandhi’s dictum, there is enough for everybody’s need, but not for everybody’s greed.

Gandhi was for need, modernity for greed; Gandhi for local self-reliance, modernity for unlimited trade; Gandhi for building on own identity, modernity for americanization as neo-nirvana; Gandhi for nonviolent conflict resolution, modernity for police, military, war.

India’s modernity suffers a crash landing, with revolts from Orissa to Kerala. Even worse: massive suicide by desperate, indebted farmers being driven off the land, even selling their daughters.

Both Delhi and the Naxalites would be better off with Gandhi’s Four S’s than with New Delhi state terrorism-torturism and Naxalite terrorism.  A blessing to have Gandhi on the reserve shelf; but it is needed in reality, not on any shelf, and backed by political power.

APPENDIX:  The Gandhi Conflict Norms

• GOALS AND CONFLICT

N 11     Act in conflicts!

N 111    Act now!

N 112    Act here!

N 113    Act for your own group!

N 114    Act out of identity!

N 115    Act out of conviction!

N 12     Define the conflict well!

N 121    State your own goal clearly!

N 122    Try to understand your opponent’s goal!

N 123    Emphasize common and compatible goals!

N 124    State the conflict relevant facts objectively!

N 13     Have a positive approach to conflict!

N 131    Give the conflict a positive emphasis!

N 132    See conflict as opportunity to meet the opponent!

N 133    See conflict as opportunity to transform society!

N 134    See conflict as opportunity to transform yourself!

• CONFLICT STRUGGLE

N 21     Act non-violently in conflicts!

N 211    Do not hurt or harm with deeds!

N 212    Do not hurt or harm with words!

N 213    Do not hurt or harm with thoughts!

N 214    Do not harm the opponent’s property!

N 215    Prefer violence to cowardice!

N 216    Do good even to the evil‑doer!

N 22     Act in a goal‑consistent manner!

N 221    Always include a constructive element!

N 222    Use goal‑revealing forms of struggle!

N 223    Act openly, not secretly!

N 224    Aim the struggle at the correct point!

N 23     Do not cooperate with evil!

N 231    Non‑cooperation with evil structure!

N 232    Non‑cooperation with evil status!

N 233    Non‑cooperation with evil action!

N 234    Non‑cooperation with those who cooperate with evil!

N 24     Be willing to sacrifice!

N 241    Do not escape from punishment!

N 242    Be willing to die if necessary!

N 25     Do not polarize!

N 251    Distinguish between antagonism and antagonist!

N 252    Distinguish between person and status!

N 253    Maintain contact!

N 254    Empathy with your opponent’s position!

N 255    Be flexible in defining parties and positions!

N 26     Do not escalate!

N 261    Remain as loyal as possible!

N 262    Do not provoke or let yourself be provoked!

N 263    Do no humiliate or let yourself be humiliated!

N 264    Do no expand the goals for the conflict!

N 265    Use the mildest possible forms of conflict behavior!

• CONFLICT RESOLUTION

N 31     Solve conflict!

N 311    Do not continue conflict struggle forever!

N 312    Always seek negotiation with the opponent!

N 313    Seek positive social transformations!

N 314    Seek human transformation!

‑ of yourself

‑ of the opponent

N 32     Insist on the essentials, not on non‑essentials!

N 321    Do not trade with essentials!

N 322    Be willing to compromise on non‑essentials!

N 33     See yourself as fallible!

N 331    Remember that you may be wrong!

N 332    Admit your mistakes openly!

N 333    Consistency over time not very important!

N 34     Be generous in your view of the opponent!

N 341    Do not exploit the opponent’s weaknesses!

N 342    Do not judge the opponent harder than yourself!

N 343    Trust your opponent!

N 35     Conversion, not coercion!

N 351    Always seek solutions that are accepted!

‑ by yourself

‑ by the opponent!

N 352    Never coerce your opponent!

N 353    Convert your opponent into a believer in the cause!

[i] .  For my own version of that system please see the Appendix, taken from my The Way is the Goal , Ahmdavad: Navajivan, 1995 (also reprinted on the back of the cover-pages of A Theory of Conflict, TRANSCEND University Press, 2010 ).

credits:  TMS: Two Indias: Gandhi and Modern India  

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Mahatma Gandhi

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 6, 2019 | Original: July 30, 2010

Revered the world over for his nonviolent philosophy of passive resistance, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was known to his many followers as Mahatma, or “the great-souled one.” He began his activism as an Indian immigrant in South Africa in the early 1900s, and in the years following World War I became the leading figure in India’s struggle to gain independence from Great Britain. Known for his ascetic lifestyle–he often dressed only in a loincloth and shawl–and devout Hindu faith, Gandhi was imprisoned several times during his pursuit of non-cooperation, and undertook a number of hunger strikes to protest the oppression of India’s poorest classes, among other injustices. After Partition in 1947, he continued to work toward peace between Hindus and Muslims. Gandhi was shot to death in Delhi in January 1948 by a Hindu fundamentalist.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869, at Porbandar, in the present-day Indian state of Gujarat. His father was the dewan (chief minister) of Porbandar; his deeply religious mother was a devoted practitioner of Vaishnavism (worship of the Hindu god Vishnu), influenced by Jainism, an ascetic religion governed by tenets of self-discipline and nonviolence. At the age of 19, Mohandas left home to study law in London at the Inner Temple, one of the city’s four law colleges. Upon returning to India in mid-1891, he set up a law practice in Bombay, but met with little success. He soon accepted a position with an Indian firm that sent him to its office in South Africa. Along with his wife, Kasturbai, and their children, Gandhi remained in South Africa for nearly 20 years.

Did you know? In the famous Salt March of April-May 1930, thousands of Indians followed Gandhi from Ahmadabad to the Arabian Sea. The march resulted in the arrest of nearly 60,000 people, including Gandhi himself.

Gandhi was appalled by the discrimination he experienced as an Indian immigrant in South Africa. When a European magistrate in Durban asked him to take off his turban, he refused and left the courtroom. On a train voyage to Pretoria, he was thrown out of a first-class railway compartment and beaten up by a white stagecoach driver after refusing to give up his seat for a European passenger. That train journey served as a turning point for Gandhi, and he soon began developing and teaching the concept of satyagraha (“truth and firmness”), or passive resistance, as a way of non-cooperation with authorities.

The Birth of Passive Resistance

In 1906, after the Transvaal government passed an ordinance regarding the registration of its Indian population, Gandhi led a campaign of civil disobedience that would last for the next eight years. During its final phase in 1913, hundreds of Indians living in South Africa, including women, went to jail, and thousands of striking Indian miners were imprisoned, flogged and even shot. Finally, under pressure from the British and Indian governments, the government of South Africa accepted a compromise negotiated by Gandhi and General Jan Christian Smuts, which included important concessions such as the recognition of Indian marriages and the abolition of the existing poll tax for Indians.

In July 1914, Gandhi left South Africa to return to India. He supported the British war effort in World War I but remained critical of colonial authorities for measures he felt were unjust. In 1919, Gandhi launched an organized campaign of passive resistance in response to Parliament’s passage of the Rowlatt Acts, which gave colonial authorities emergency powers to suppress subversive activities. He backed off after violence broke out–including the massacre by British-led soldiers of some 400 Indians attending a meeting at Amritsar–but only temporarily, and by 1920 he was the most visible figure in the movement for Indian independence.

Leader of a Movement

As part of his nonviolent non-cooperation campaign for home rule, Gandhi stressed the importance of economic independence for India. He particularly advocated the manufacture of khaddar, or homespun cloth, in order to replace imported textiles from Britain. Gandhi’s eloquence and embrace of an ascetic lifestyle based on prayer, fasting and meditation earned him the reverence of his followers, who called him Mahatma (Sanskrit for “the great-souled one”). Invested with all the authority of the Indian National Congress (INC or Congress Party), Gandhi turned the independence movement into a massive organization, leading boycotts of British manufacturers and institutions representing British influence in India, including legislatures and schools.

After sporadic violence broke out, Gandhi announced the end of the resistance movement, to the dismay of his followers. British authorities arrested Gandhi in March 1922 and tried him for sedition; he was sentenced to six years in prison but was released in 1924 after undergoing an operation for appendicitis. He refrained from active participation in politics for the next several years, but in 1930 launched a new civil disobedience campaign against the colonial government’s tax on salt, which greatly affected Indian’s poorest citizens.

A Divided Movement

In 1931, after British authorities made some concessions, Gandhi again called off the resistance movement and agreed to represent the Congress Party at the Round Table Conference in London. Meanwhile, some of his party colleagues–particularly Mohammed Ali Jinnah, a leading voice for India’s Muslim minority–grew frustrated with Gandhi’s methods, and what they saw as a lack of concrete gains. Arrested upon his return by a newly aggressive colonial government, Gandhi began a series of hunger strikes in protest of the treatment of India’s so-called “untouchables” (the poorer classes), whom he renamed Harijans, or “children of God.” The fasting caused an uproar among his followers and resulted in swift reforms by the Hindu community and the government.

In 1934, Gandhi announced his retirement from politics in, as well as his resignation from the Congress Party, in order to concentrate his efforts on working within rural communities. Drawn back into the political fray by the outbreak of World War II , Gandhi again took control of the INC, demanding a British withdrawal from India in return for Indian cooperation with the war effort. Instead, British forces imprisoned the entire Congress leadership, bringing Anglo-Indian relations to a new low point.

Partition and Death of Gandhi

After the Labor Party took power in Britain in 1947, negotiations over Indian home rule began between the British, the Congress Party and the Muslim League (now led by Jinnah). Later that year, Britain granted India its independence but split the country into two dominions: India and Pakistan. Gandhi strongly opposed Partition, but he agreed to it in hopes that after independence Hindus and Muslims could achieve peace internally. Amid the massive riots that followed Partition, Gandhi urged Hindus and Muslims to live peacefully together, and undertook a hunger strike until riots in Calcutta ceased.

In January 1948, Gandhi carried out yet another fast, this time to bring about peace in the city of Delhi. On January 30, 12 days after that fast ended, Gandhi was on his way to an evening prayer meeting in Delhi when he was shot to death by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu fanatic enraged by Mahatma’s efforts to negotiate with Jinnah and other Muslims. The next day, roughly 1 million people followed the procession as Gandhi’s body was carried in state through the streets of the city and cremated on the banks of the holy Jumna River.

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notes on art in a global context

Gandhi’s Buildings and the Search for a Spiritual Modernity

Riyaz Tayyibji

January 9, 2019

Riyaz Tayyibji considers the little-known architectural collaborations of Mahatma Gandhi, charismatic leader of the Indian freedom movement, in light of discourses of modern architecture. Weaving in discussions of phenomenology, material, and a discipline of privacy, the essay explores aspects of Gandhi’s philosophical and political thinking that propose a notion of the modern with an ethical and spiritual underpinning for 20th century architectural practice.

There are many things that Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869–1948), the “Mahatma” or more fondly “Bapu,” is known for, but architecture is not part of the standard mythos. Gandhi, however, did consider building to be an extension of his engagement with different materials, which he began at an early age. His first experiments were with food, and later, he taught himself carpentry and to work with leather. He was particularly interested in materiality, the relationship between material, its processing and production with labor and the human body. He taught himself to spin cotton, an activity that he personally undertook daily, and then promoted societally, which had large economic and political implications during the Indian independence movement. Gandhi sitting at his spinning wheel is an iconic portrait. His engagement with materials and how they are processed was not a casual one. 1 Gandhi referred to all his praxes as “experiments.” The English title of his autobiography,  An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth , gives insight into the depth and breadth of the manner in which he considered these engagements. Though sceptical of the scientific worldview of the Enlightenment for separating the subjective and the objective, he nevertheless borrowed from this paradigm, appropriating the method of the experiment and following it meticulously: setting up hypotheses, undertaking experiments, and searching for verification. Gandhi carried out experiments in his inner world (in his search for truth) and in the outer world (through his engagement with material). For him, the human body is the instrument that mediates between these two worlds, allowing for the inner to be verified by the outer, and vice versa. For this epistemological machine to work, Gandhi knew that a complete transparency between one’s inner and the outer worlds was necessary. M. K. Gandhi,  An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth , trans. Mahadev Desai (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Press),  https://gandhiheritageportal.org/mahatma-gandhi-books/the-story-of-my-experiments-with-truth#page/1/mode/2up ).  He mastered leatherwork and carpentry and even made highly technical innovations to the spinning wheel. 2 Gandhi developed a twelve-spindle  charkha (spinning wheel), and a portable “Yerawada”  charkha  that allowed him to spin while traveling. He also made changes to improve the aerodynamics of the wheel.  One should expect, then, an equally careful examination of architectural praxes in his experiments with built forms. 

Though Gandhi is unequivocally among the greatest modern thinkers, his buildings have largely been looked upon as conservative, rural, and vernacular. Ironically, it is their materiality that has perpetuated this reading. 3 The manner in which the discourse on modern architecture itself has been historically constructed foregrounds material technology and its production (industry). Given that more than 80 percent of India was rural and agricultural at the time, Gandhi saw no virtue in premising modern interventions into these contexts on such ideas. He did, however, see value in the ideas of the individual, health and hygiene, education, and dialogue. Gandhi, though critical of the European secular, scientific Enlightenment as a whole, felt no hesitation in borrowing ideas and practices from it that he thought were useful—or in discarding those that he considered destructive. He, in fact, categorically states that nothing he has thought or done is original, and he is completely transparent in crediting antecedents. M. K. Gandhi,  An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth , trans. Mahadev Desai (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Press,  https://gandhiheritageportal.org/mahatma-gandhi-books/the-story-of-my-experiments-with-truth#page/1/mode/2up ). A Gandhian modernity encourages a mix and match of ideas, on the assumption that these ideas arise in response to an internal inquiry and conversation with oneself. He then vehemently opposes the notion that any one fixed set of ideas (i.e., ideology) is inherently superior to any other. Gandhi’s buildings then question the hegemony of the idea of material technology in determining modern architecture. Quite simply, Gandhi’s buildings are modern in spite of the materials from which they are made, though the nature of their modernity may not be obvious. Given Gandhi’s criticism of industrial production processes, modern materials such as concrete and steel are, not surprisingly, absent from his architecture. With his economic and political thinking centered on the village and rural agricultural environments, the idea of the modern city was immaterial. 4 For Gandhi, the city is a place of violence. He proposed the “ashram” as a form of settlement pattern. This is not the ashram of antiquity but rather a community of satyagrahis, or searchers of truth, living together and “experimenting” toward a nonviolent existence. This form of ashram consists of a residential area, a communal kitchen and dining hall, an open-to-sky prayer space, along with an institutional area housing schools and other training sites. Areas are demarcated for agriculture, animal husbandry, dairy, and food processing. A separate area is allotted for international ashramites, volunteers, and visiting guests.  Gandhi’s buildings lie outside the matrix of material technology and urbanity that defines modern Euro-American architecture. And yet they are considerable departures from the traditional structures they appear to resemble. This break is rooted in the ideas that shaped Indian modernity in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and that matured through Gandhi’s experimentations. These ideas relate to individuality, hygiene, movement, locality, and, among other things, a reconfiguration of the domestic that constitutes an “opening up.” 5 In this essay, I use the term “opening up” to describe both an internal, mental, and psychological reconfiguration arising from systematic inquiry, experimentation, and verification, and a material one—referring to the increased porosity of an architectural configuration. Buildings using mud and masonry are load bearing by nature, where the configuration of the walls defines the structure. These are unlike the frame structures built with modern materials, such as reinforced cement concrete (RCC) and steel, which free the walls from the logic of gravity and, therefore, allow for “free” compositioning. Compositioning allows for transparency, whereas configurations of load-bearing walls allow for varying porosity. I have called an increase in porosity an “opening up.” For Gandhi, this external, material opening up can only follow an internal one. A societal opening up would follow the same logic: A society can only move away from dogmatisms and the darkness of a blind following of unverified ritual and habit through a wilful internal transformation within each individual member of that society. For it to happen any other way would involve the false or the violent, both of which Gandhi considered immoral. In this essay, I concentrate on the implications of opening up and the idea of the individual particular to Gandhi’s thinking. Considering the scope of this essay, other ideas, including those surrounding hygiene, domesticity, and movement are referred to in passing, however, they are not discussed in detail.  Given the inherent contradiction in architectural discourse between the categories of “vernacular” and “modern,” particularly in political and economic terms, it becomes important to observe Gandhi’s as an architecture that is simultaneously both. It follows to inquire about the implications of his architecture and the nature of its modernity. 

Gandhi proposed a modernity premised on inward inquiry, or a form of inquiry directed toward the self, rather than the outward-looking trajectory of phenomenal observation that so fueled the Enlightenment project. 6 By ‘modernity’, I mean the conditions and qualities necessary for being modern. Gandhi refuted the possibility that a universal set of conditions could be considered modern. He felt that the European conditions of being modern had limited significance in the Indian cultural context. Others, most notably Ashis Nandy, have attempted to construct the outlines of what a Gandhian modernity could be.  Such a modernity, Gandhi believed, could only come from scrutinizing one’s own experiences, the particularities of one’s own circumstances, and their reality as lived experience with a significant openness between one’s private and public selves. 7 Gandhi seems to have recognized that, in a world where there are no existential boundaries, the only reality that one can consider “firm” is that which is closest to us, i.e., that which is experienced directly. In this world of an atomized, individuated society, the onus to find an ethical and moral framework lies with the individual, and thus one must find this for oneself in the scientific manner of inquiry, i.e., through “experiments.”  In his autobiography, he provides a careful account of his youth, namely of the people and events that were the substance on which his physical, intellectual, philosophical, and spiritual development is based. 8 Gandhi, An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth, 11–51.  For Gandhi, this development is driven by the internal conversation one has with oneself. To have this conversation, one must first be able to listen to the “small, still voice” within. 9 For a discussion of Gandhi’s relationship with his “small, still voice,” see Tridip Suhrud, introduction to  An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth : Critical Edition, by M. K. Gandhi, trans. Mahadev Desai (New Delhi: Penguin Random House, 2018), 1–35, esp. 16, 22.  Indeed, it is the ability to hear this voice, to have this conversation, that allows one to emerge as an individual—and thus to be modern. Gandhi understood the purpose of this internal conversation to be the search for integrity and truth, for self-knowledge and self-awareness. Self-recognition, for him, is the basis of self-control. As the cultural historian and Gandhian scholar Tridip Suhrud writes, “His [Gandhi’s] idea of civilization is based on this possibility of rule over the self.” 10 Ibid., 6.  Open dialogue first with oneself and then with the other is the keystone of his praxis of nonviolence, or  ahimsa . For to Gandhi, a disintegrated self is amoral and unethical and leads to ignorance of the self, which in turn paves the way to violence. This is also Gandhi’s most scathing critique of the Western secular-scientific worldview, which he believed led directly to violence through a consciousness that isolates cognition from feelings and ethics, and partitions man from the subjects of inquiry emotionally. 11 Ashis Nandy, “From Outside the Imperium: Gandhi’s Cultural Critique of the West,” in  Traditions, Tyranny and Utopias: Essays in the Politics of Awareness  (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1987), 130–31.  This is the state of the technologist, whose individuality is robbed of the possibility of salvation through personal searching. For Gandhi, a modernity without the possibility of transcendence is an amoral modernity. The possibility of transcendence is embedded in the correct enactment of daily practices toward spiritual liberation and not in a longed-for utopia. 12 Gandhi’s daily practices included eating, bathing, reading, writing, spinning, visiting the sick (those stricken with leprosy), and praying. He thought carefully about these activities, and sought the spiritual possibilities within each one. With this understanding, he elevated everyday activities to the level of rituals that would aid him along his path to  moksha , or self-realization. He did not feel the need for any extraneous activity. See Mahadev Desai, “A Morning with Gandhiji,” November 13, 1924, in  Young India, 1924–1926 , by Mahatma Gandhi (Madras: S. Ganesan, 1927), 1025: “There are two aspects of things,—the outward and the inward. It is purely a matter of emphasis with me. The outward has no meaning except in so far as it helps the inward.” Gandhi argued that there are moments, however rare, when one’s communion with oneself is so complete that one feels no need for any outward expression, including art. Tridip Suhrud, “Towards a Gandhian Aesthetics: The Poetics of Surrender and the Art of Brahmacharya,” in  The Bloomsbury Research Handbook of Indian Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art , ed. Arindam Chakrabarti (New York: Bloomsbury, 2016), 374. It follows that Gandhi considers inner transformation at the individual scale as the engine for political revolution at the societal scale.

Gandhi’s first experience of working with building materials was in South Africa, where he constructed the shed to house the printing press for the  Indian Opinion  at Phoenix settlement. 13 By 1903, a core group of people of varied races and religious dispositions rallied around Gandhi, supporting him in his agitations against racial discrimination in South Africa. This led to the founding of the Natal Indian Congress, which Gandhi would soon lead. In the same year, he started the  Indian Opinion , the journal that became the voice of the Indian community in South Africa. Gandhi had been thinking about communal living for several years up to then. In 1904, with the journal’s financial struggles and his serendipitous reading of John Ruskin’s  Unto This Last , he was inspired to act on his thoughts of communal living and to buy a farm near the station of Phoenix, on the north coastline fourteen miles from Johannesburg. Both the printing press and operating staff were housed on the farm, “where the workers could live a more simple and natural life and the ideas of Ruskin and Tolstoy combined with strict business principles.” Ramachandra Guha,  Gandhi Before India  (New Delhi: Penguin Random House, 2013), 175. Needless to say, the production costs of the journal were reduced considerably. In addition, Gandhi would use the farm to articulate and sharpen his ideas about communal living, and satyagraha. It was at Phoenix settlement in 1906 that Gandhi would take his pledge of  brahmacharya , or voluntary celibacy. The inhabitants of the settlement had built their own houses, and though Gandhi only moved there in 1913, his family lived there and he visited them regularly.  A few years later, Gandhi moved into “The Kraal,” a house designed and built by his lifelong friend, ”soulmate,” and patron, the architect Hermann Kallenbach. 14 See Shimon Lev,  Soulmates: The Story of Mahatma Gandhi and Hermann Kallenbach  (New Delhi: Orient Black Swan, 2012), which discusses the relationship between Gandhi and Kallenbach in detail.  This house had a thatched roof and was based on a configuration of vernacular African building elements. It was unusual for a European to live in such a house at the time. 15 Before living with Kallenbach, Gandhi and his wife had lived with Millie and Henry Polak. It was unusual for mixed-race couples to live together in a city such as London in any case; however, in South Africa, it was downright revolutionary. Moreover, for two men to live together could not have been looked upon as anything but heretical. As the Indian historian Ramachandra Guha writes, “For Gandhi to befriend Polak, Kallenbach, West and company was an act of bravery; for them to befriend Gandhi was an act of defiance.” Guha,  Gandhi Before India , 188.  Gandhi and Kallenbach lived together for five years: first at The Kraal, then in canvas tents at Fairview, and finally at Tolstoy Farm, where once again Gandhi was involved in building. 16 Gandhi was involved in both the conceptualization and the construction of the buildings at Tolstoy Farm. His direct involvement in the construction was reduced after his time in South Africa. The buildings of the ashrams in India were built by important people at each ashram. Gandhi directed them by setting material and budget constraints, and the buildings were constructed under his supervision. His house Bapu Kutir at the Sevagram Ashram at Wardha was built by the British-born activist Mirabehn (Madeleine Slade) originally for herself. However, Gandhi did insist that it cost no more than Rs. 500 to build and that the sky be visible from within.  Given his own experimentation with materials and the pair’s close friendship, Gandhi likely picked up a great deal about construction from the architect. Kallenbach was a partner in a successful Johannesburg practice and designed sophisticated buildings across the town. 17 Hermann Kallenbach (1871–1945) was an architect who studied in both Stuttgart and Munich. He was a master craftsman, having trained and practiced as a carpenter. He arrived in South Africa at the behest of his uncles, who were in the construction industry. Initially, he formed a practice with A. Stanley Reynolds (1911–1971), with whom he built The Kraal. He then set up the firm Kallenbach, Kennedy & Furner, which was enormously influential in the development of Johannesburg up to 1945. He has been described by the South African architectural researcher Kathy Munro as a “property tycoon. See Kathy Munro, “Review of ‘Soulmates—The Story of Mahatma Gandhi and Hermann Kallenbach,’”  Heritage Portal , July 3, 2017,  http://www.theheritageportal.co.za/review/review-soulmates-story-mahatma-gandhi-and-hermann-kallenbach . He generously used his wealth to finance Gandhi’s antiracism activities, which resonated with him, most notably donating more than a thousand acres of land for Tolstoy Farm. After Gandhi’s departure from South Africa, Kallenbach was involved in supporting the Zionist movement. Nonetheless, Gandhi did not find it difficult to convince the tall, sports-loving, hedonistic Lithuanian to give himself over to a life of simplicity. The buildings at Tolstoy Farm consisted of three simple sheds: two about fifty-three feet in length and a third larger one, which, close to seventy-seven feet, housed a school. Each shed had a veranda running along its length, with the interior spaces enclosed by donated corrugated sheets of iron. 18 Tolstoy Farm was established in 1910, when Hermann Kallenbach acquired a farm at Lawley near Johannesburg and donated it to the satyagraha movement, then in its final stage. It was Kallenbach who named the farm after Leo Tolstoy. Gandhi wrote in a letter to Tolstoy, dated August 15, 1910, “No writings have so deeply touched Mr. Kallenbach as yours and, as a spur to further effort in living up to the ideals held before the world by you, he has taken the liberty, after consultation with me, of naming his farm after you.” M. K. Gandhi to Count Leo Tolstoy, 15 August 1910, in  Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi , vol. 10, November 1909–March 1911 (New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India), 306-7, https://gandhiheritageportal.org/cwmg_volume_thumbview/MTA=#page/346/mode/2up . See also Eric Itzkin,  Gandhi’s Johannesburg: Birthplace of Satyagraha , Frank Connock Publication no. 4 (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 2000), 78. The farm was 1100 acres. It was covered with 1000 fruit trees and included two wells and a small spring. At its height, the farm supported a community of eighty people: fifty adults as well as thirty children, who studied at its school. The farm, as Gandhi would write in 1914, was of great use in the training of the thousands of passive resisters who participated in the last phase of the struggle. Shriman Narayan, ed.,  Selected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, vol. 3, Satyagraha in South Africa  (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1968), 352. See also https://www.mkgandhi.org/museum/phoenix-settlement-tolstoy-farm.html . At both the Phoenix settlement and Tolstoy Farm, Gandhi had wanted to build with mud and thatch. However, resistance from other community members prevented him from doing so. 19 Though by 1904 Gandhi was a successful lawyer able to donate £3500 to the running of his press and Tolstoy Farm, he himself lived a frugal life and expected those associated with him to do the same. He was hardest on the people closest to him, particularly his family. The Polaks, with whom he stayed, were also subject to his austerity. Millie Polak wanted to make the bare little house they shared a home by giving it a touch of warmth with the use of carpets and curtains. Gandhi was unconvinced of such expenditure, which he felt would be better focused on the cause they were fighting for. Once when she suggested that a painting might do well to hide the ugliness of the yellow washed walls, he suggested she look out of the window at the sunset, which is more beautiful than anything that could be drawn by the hand of man. Guha,  Gandhi Before India , 199–200. See also Itzkin,  Gandhi’s Johannesburg , 69. Though he did give in to Millie Polak on this occasion, such differences about comfort were constant between Gandhi and those working with him at both the Phoenix settlement and Tolstoy Farm. At both places, Gandhi had wanted the residential buildings to be Spartan, made of the most rudimentary and basic materials, which the other community members refused to do. They finally built their homes in a more modern and comfortable manner, using commonly available timber frames.  As Millie Polak recalled, “His bent was naturally towards the ascetic and not towards the aesthetic.” 20 Millie Graham Polak,  Mr. Gandhi: The Man  (Bombay: Vora & Co., 1949), 67.

Gandhi’s ideas with respect to building materials would find fruition upon his return to India in the construction of his ashrams. The buildings of the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, a state in western India, were made from burnt brick, sawn timber, and handmade country tiles, and are referred to, in local terminology, as  pucca , or proper/permanent buildings. 21 Gandhi established his first ashram in Ahmedabad at Kochrab using an existing building and property gifted to him by his close friend, the barrister Jivanlal Desai. However, the need for more space to accommodate all of the agricultural activities of the ashram pushed Gandhi to relocate. This time, he chose a place on the banks of the Sabarmati River, from which the second ashram gets its name (it was originally called the Satyagraha Ashram). Gandhi stayed at the Sabarmati Ashram from 1917 to 1930, when it was one of the main centers of the independence movement. It was from there that he set out on his famous Salt March to Dandi and vowed not to return till India had gained its independence. The terms  pucca  and  kachcha  originally related to food. Cooked food is considered  pucca , while that which is eaten raw—such as a fruit—or a vegetable that hasn’t matured is considered  kachcha . It is common parlance to apply these words beyond the realm of food, however. For example, an asphalt road is considered  pucca  while an unpaved country track would be called  kachcha .  Pucca  implies the application of artificial energy to process material, i.e., the more  pucca  or permanent, the more energy has been used for the material’s stability and durability and hence perceived permanence. It is interesting to note here that in Gandhi’s experiments with his diet, he had moved to a diet of largely  kachcha  food. According to Indian historian Ramachandra Guha, “One of his [Gandhi’s] favorite authors, the anti-vivisectionist doctor Anna Kingsford, claimed that a fruit-based diet was man’s genetic inheritance.” Guha,  Gandhi Before India , 189–90.  However, Gandhi found Hriday Kunj, his own house at the ashram, excessive. He thought it too big and unnecessarily complex. At his second ashram, Sevagram Ashram at Wardha, near Nagpur in central India, the buildings are much simpler and made from materials found within a fifty-mile radius. Consequently, the buildings there have stone plinths, and the walls are made of a local mud called “ garhi mitti ” mixed with water, cow dung, wheat husk, and hay, the latter serving as a binder and insulation. Columns of un-sawn  sagwan wood hold up the roof structure, which is covered with bamboo matting and clay country tiles. These buildings were self-built—unlike the  pucca  buildings at the Sabarmati Ashram—and are, in contrast, considered  kachcha , or raw.

Gandhi’s inclination to move from the  pucca  to the  kachcha  (in both diet and in the construction of buildings), is rooted in the idea of health and what it means to live healthily. Gandhi clearly saw that the uncontrolled use of material and energy (particularly mechanical energy) that had so enthralled the last decade of the nineteenth century as well as the twentieth would lead to imbalances in both the internal and external environments of the human body. One might be tempted to consider this as a return to the primitive—certainly an image of Gandhi (read as the “half-naked fakir” 22 R. R. James, ed.,  Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, 1897–1963 , vol. 5, 1928–1935 (New York, Chelsea House, 1974), 4985: “It is [ . . . ] alarming and also nauseating to see Mr. Gandhi, a seditious middle temple lawyer, now posing as a fakir of a type well known in the East, striding half-naked up the steps of the Vice-regal palace, while he is still organizing and conducting a defiant campaign of civil disobedience, to parley on equal terms with the representative of the King-Emperor.” For a discussion on the politics of his dress, see Nandy, “From Outside the Imperium,” 144–45. ) would not be contradictory—however, the manner in which Gandhi constructed himself, i.e., his body, and the space around it, could not have occurred in any other time. To understand the nature of his modernity, we need to visit the spaces of his youth.

Gandhi was born in the town of Porbandar, where his father occupied the ground floor of a three-story town house. The families of his elder uncles lived on the upper two floors, which enjoyed more natural light and better ventilation. The ground-floor rooms, or  ordo  as they are known locally, were poorly lit from a veranda, or  osri , that overlooked a courtyard and lent the house some sense of openness. As Narayan Desai, Gandhi’s personal secretary, described, “Gandhiji was born in a dark room in that house.” 23 Narayan Desai,  My Life Is My Message, vol. 1, Sadhana , trans. Tridip Suhrud (New Delhi: Orient Black Swan, 2009), 2.  When he was seven, the family moved with his grandfather to the city of Rajkot under unusual circumstances. Here, they occupied a more elaborate house. Porbandar and Rajkot are situated in a region in western India known as Saurashtra. The type of house germane to Saurashtra grew out of an archetypal relationship between the closed  ordo , the semi-open  osri , and the open courtyard. 24 The diagram of this relationship would equate to that of the megaron, a Greek archetype that defines the basic relationship between closed, semi-open, and open space, symbolically read as inner world, outer world, and the transitional domain where the two overlap. Given the climatic conditions of the subcontinent, it is this overlap that is inhabited by teeming life.  In denser, more urban areas such as Porbandar, the configuration of the house would be linear, with the open space constricted to a vertically oriented, shaded courtyard called a  chowk . In the squarer, more spread-out agrarian configuration, the courtyard is larger and accommodates both animals and agricultural activities such as drying and threshing. Here, the courtyard is called a  delo . Gandhi’s father’s house, where he lived until the age of nineteen, is of this  delo  type. Known as “Kaba Gandhi no Delo,” or “Kaba Gandhi’s House,” it still stands today.

The  osri  and the  ordo  are the main components of this type of house, the stature of which is determined by the number of its constituent  ordos : the greater the number, the greater its complexity and functional or formal differentiation of its spaces. Likewise, the  osris  on each  ordo  vary depending on orientation and use. The  osri  is the most active, lived-in space of the house, where collective social activities are held and where family members spend the bulk of their time. The kitchen, or  rasodu , is a partially enclosed area within the  osri  and associated with meals and water. Traditionally, the  ordo  is used for storage, and when inhabited, given over to the aged, the sick, or the pregnant, as well as to married couples for sexual intercourse; on rare occasions, it is also used for bathing and grooming. In short, the  ordo  is a closed space for private activities related to the body, keeping them hidden from social witness.

These communal houses were largely extended-family homes, in which the idea of individual privacy was subordinate to the acts of collective living. It was only when Gandhi left Rajkot and began living in London that he developed a taste for a life attuned to the individual, where a room ( ordo ) is one’s private domain. By 1910, at Tolstoy Farm, Gandhi had a room to himself and maintained a certain distance from the community. However, communal living post-1913 tempered his need for individuality; and by 1918, at Hriday Kunj in Ahmedabad, the  ordos  were not placed along the  osri , closing its long face, but instead perpendicular to it, opening up the courtyard and the veranda through and through. Gandhi configured his study as a partially enclosed area within the veranda. The courtyard “loosens” the sense of an enclosure, while the veranda gains a porosity unseen in its traditional iteration. The configuration of the house as a whole is opened up. Whereas the definition of the traditional house is based on the  ordo  and its sense of enclosure, Gandhi’s abode is defined by the continuity of its open and semi-open spaces, or  osris .

In 1933, in Bapu Kutir, Gandhi’s house in his final ashram at Sevagram, the dissolution of the  ordo  is subtler and more complex. Even the bathroom, now accessible, ceased to be an  ordo —it is well-known that anyone in need of an urgent discussion could walk in while Gandhi was bathing, and that often, in order to save time, he dictated letters of importance to his secretary, who sat across from him by the window, while he was defecating. 25 Gandhi often responded to more than a hundred letters a day. This was in addition to the writing he did for his press.  Just as important is the bathroom’s articulation as a sensuous space, with a library connecting to a massage room and sick bay, that collectively reflect an unprecedented ease with the body. This ease had developed over the previous twenty-five years, from 1906 when Gandhi took a vow of celibacy, that final affirmation on the path to  brahmacharya  (activity in search of Brahma or soul). 26 The vow of  brahmacharya  taken by Gandhi in 1906 has a much wider significance than simply abstinence from sexual intercourse. Gandhi writes, “ Brahmacharya  literally means that mode of life which leads to the realization of God. That realization is impossible without practicing self-restraint. Self-restraint means restraint of all the senses. But ordinarily  brahmacharya  is understood to mean control over the sexual organs and prevention of seminal discharge through complete control over the sexual instinct and the sexual organs.”  The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi , vol. 77, December 17, 1942–July 31, 1944 (New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1979), 19. He continues, “Only he who has burnt away sexual desire in its entirety may be said to have complete control over his sexual organs.”; “There is something very striking about a full-fledged  Brahmachari . His speech, his thought and his actions all bespeak possession of a vital force.” In several religious traditions in the subcontinent, celibacy has always occupied a venerable position.  With its purificatory control of the body,  brahmacharya  diminishes the need and significance of the closed  ordo  in the scheme of dwelling. 27 Since the  ordo  was traditionally the closed room that hid the activities of the body from social witness, it follows that behavioral control over one’s body, i.e., changing or eradicating the need for certain activities, would change or eradicate the need for the  ordo  itself. By taking a vow of  brahmacharya , Gandhi not only transformed his body to be asexual but also redefined the relationship between man and woman in the house. His ideas about hygiene and ablution allowed the body to be far more relaxed and open.  The form of dwelling for this new body found its fruition at Bapu Kutir at Wardha. The gradual dissolution of the “closed room,” the opening up of the private space of the body as an expression of a new, modern relationship between body and dwelling, is one of the most important and consistent themes across Gandhi’s buildings beginning at Tolstoy Farm. For Gandhi, this opening up had deep spiritual implications. Homologous processes of opening up could be seen in his other praxes—for example, in the manner in which he opened up the insular literary form of the modern autobiography.

In December 1925, Gandhi began writing  An Autobiography or the Story of My Experiments with Truth  from Sabarmati Ashram. In this serial exercise, spread over 166 installments published weekly in the  Navjivan (Young India) , the  Indian Opinion (Johannesburg), and the American journal  Unity , Gandhi invited readers to respond to current installments while he worked on those to follow. These writings, he said, were driven by the “dweller-within,” rather than by an overall plan to present the reader with a “book.” 28 See Suhrud, introduction, 17.  In his approach, Gandhi opened up the insular writing process of the modern literary autobiographical form to the possibility of dialogue. 29 In some ways, Gandhi’s process of writing his autobiography resembles the contemporary practice of blogging, in that he was using the social-media technology of his day, which was print. Writing weekly, Gandhi received responses that were often critical. He published these responses with the installments that followed. The idea of dialogue is fundamental to much of India’s modernist thinking and forms one of the most important precepts of Gandhi’s ideas outlining an alternative modernity—one that includes a sharp critique of the Eurocentric secular and scientific modernity. So hegemonic was the European voice, so unanimously accepted at the time as derived from a superior fact-based, historical, objective, empirical, and literary culture, that an older more intimate, oral, mythic, and liturgical order was like the proverbial baby being thrown out with the scientific bathwater. It was this assumption of unquestionable superiority that Gandhi most opposed and felt compelled to push back against through ”civilizational dialogue,” a process in which reconciliation of differences depends on the ability to look at difference as a form of criticism, which he believed one should apply toward oneself for ”internal use.” 30 For Gandhi, every civilization is based on a primary set of ideas. He denied that any one set of ideas could claim superiority over any other. He himself borrowed ideas and methods from across cultures to further articulate and sharpen his own. He believed that the differences in ideas offered the potential for dialogue from the personal to the civilizational levels. However, such dialogue could only take place with an inner openness and self-confidence that accepts difference as a form of criticism for internal use. According to Ashish Nandy, when, “Catherine Mayo wrote her savagely anti-Indian and pro-imperialist treatise,  Mother India , Gandhi called the book a ‘drain-inspectors report’ but added that every Indian should read it. While Mayo’s critique of Indian culture was blatantly prejudiced, he seemed to imply, Indian culture should have the self-confidence to put the criticism to internal use.” Frederick Buell.  National Culture and the New Global System  (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1994), 245–46. Gandhi understood that ideas that claim superiority are not ready for this dialogue. His criticism of the Western secular, scientific paradigm should be seen as an initiation of such a civilizational dialogue.  He held that dialogue, by definition, must become a two-way process, as much as it was a two-part process, i.e., first involving an internal conversation that is then followed by an external one. The ease with which Gandhi brings into close proximity the modern and the vernacular (though he himself would not have made this particular distinction) is the first step toward the possibility of dialogue and a subsequent inquiry into the shared ground between two seemingly opposed categories.

As much as Gandhi was critical of the European Enlightenment, he was equally critical of India’s bigoted, caste-ridden, and striated society, in which archaic social norms prevent individuation and consequently eliminate the possibility of an inner dialogue. For him, the possibility of a modern India was premised on the eradication of untouchability and other practices, such as  sati . He believed these closed, dark spaces perpetuated by superstition needed to be opened up. Having dismissed the trajectory of the Enlightenment, in which the external light of science and rationality eradicates obscurity, Gandhi centered this idea of ”opening up” on the continuation of a spiritual tradition drawn from his reading of the  Bhagavad Gita , and further inflected by the Bible. Such amalgamations were implicit to his formative education, specifically via his mother Putlibai, who belonged to an eclectic religious tradition known as ”Pranami Sampradaya,” which “seeks to combine the finest elements of Hinduism and Islam.”


Like many spiritual traditions of the Indian subcontinent, the Vaishnava tradition, with which Gandhi experimented, looks at the relationship between the body and mind as the site for self-realization. It is widely accepted that the free play of the senses is a distraction, and does not allow one to heed one’s inner voice. Gandhi first experimented with his diet and its relationship to the palate while still a student in Rajkot and then in London. He noted with great care how the changes in his diet affected his body, his behavior, and particularly the workings of his mind. Gandhi was fastidious about personal hygiene, and in caring for his body, and he allowed this to play a key role in his writings on social reform. The upliftment of the manual scavenging caste, composed of those who made a living by cleaning up the excrement of the higher castes, the most abject position in Indian society, was one of his most strident agendas, as was the healing of those affected with leprosy. He also realized that it was not possible to be completely committed to social service without having complete control over one’s own inner body.

It should be noted that though Gandhi considered the body to be an impediment in the search for the self, he also saw it as an essential instrument in one’s healthy and appropriate engagement with the material world. Gandhi borrowed from Tolstoy the idea of bread labor. He believed that if everyone made with their own hands one essential item necessary for their existence, they would realize in a bodily sense, from their own labor, the right proportion of resource and the energy required toward their living. Gandhi, as mentioned earlier, had taught himself carpentry, to work with leather, and to weave and spin. He explored organic material and production processes through direct involvement in both agriculture and dairy. During his days in London and in South Africa, he transformed his body from the inert construct of a traditional Indian  bania  to one of a modern individual at ease with its labor. Gandhi’s later twin concepts of nonpossession and non-stealing have deep ecological implication, preparing one to give up all possessions including the body. For Gandhi, then, the body is not for individual self-gratification and pleasure, but rather an instrument with which to measure the limits of one’s engagement in the substantial world. The body is a social instrument he considers to be part of the “commons.”

If a new relationship to the body is one sign of the modern in the buildings of Gandhi’s ashrams, which manifests in an opening up, in an increased spatial porosity, then the other is the care taken in the articulation of the place for the individual, who for Gandhi is at the very root of being modern. For Gandhi, the study, a place for contemplation, reading, and writing, is the site of the inner conversation that defines the individual. It bears noting that his “study” is distinct from his  daftar , or office, for which a separate building was built. It was at Hriday Kunj in Ahmedabad that the study emerged as a partitioned space within the  osri  and, like the kitchen in his Rajkot house, was the domain of an individual simultaneously connected to the social realm of the house. It was the archetype of the  rasodu , or kitchen, that Gandhi appropriated for the development of the study. Fifteen years later, at Bapu Kutir, in 1933, the study, scaled down by a bamboo loft, became a far more intimate space. Gandhi now inhabited the very wall that separates the  osri  from the inner space of the house: a carved-out space, delicate in its articulation and tactility. Apart from limiting the cost of its construction to Rs. 500, Gandhi had one other expectation from the building: he wanted to be able to see the sky from any place within it. It is from the study of the  kutir  that this is possible. The study at Wardha is thus a space where one is simultaneously held and released.

A note on spatiality of porosity: porosity must be distinguished from the transparent that is so valorized by European modern architecture. I have argued elsewhere that this porosity arises from an attitude of agrarian frugality rather than of mechanical efficiencies. This opening up distinguishes itself from the Wrightian corner window or the Corbusian  plan libre  (both contemporaneous with the architecture under discussion) as the mechanisms facilitating this openness are not dependent on technological articulations of material and structure, or for that matter, a mechanized production process. This openness is the direct result of the control over oneself, over one’s behavior, and the ability to transform the activities that underpin function with this changed behavior. If one of the credos of modern architecture is that form follows function, Gandhi would extend this inward ad infinitum: form follows function, which follows activity, which follows behavior, which follows resolve, which in turn is a function of discipline, which is a direct result of control over the self, which is necessary for an inquiry of truth, which is based on being able to hear and have a conversation with the “small, still voice” within, which in turn defines the modern individual. If our cumulative behavior aggregates into what we now call “lifestyle,” and we have a choice of lifestyle, then it follows that this choice also determines the material, technological, and formal choices that are ethically open to us. Gandhi’s visionary architecture demonstrated this long before it became an environmentalist credo that the future of the planet may well depend on the manner in which each of us chooses to live. As Gandhi often said, the purity of the means results in the purity of the ends. Form then has ethical and moral underpinnings. The choice of form must necessarily emerge from careful experimentation through a sequence that leads from a relationship to one’s inner self.

Another way to look at this would be to say that Gandhi believed that the specificity and differentiation of architectural form was simply excessive—unnecessary even. He noted that there is a striking similarity between the spatial structure of the Saurashtra house and that of a Hindu temple. The  ordo  corresponds to the closed  garbhagriha , or sanctum, whereas the  osri  corresponds to the  mandapa , a hypostyle hall, or social, sometimes congregational space. In Gandhi’s mind, the categories of house and temple are never very far from each other. As was common practice in the area, his mother, who was a pious woman, visited a neighborhood  haveli , or temple that exists within a large house. Gandhi, always sensitive to the possibilities of universal relationships, realized that the relationship between the  osri  and the  ordo  of the house parallels that between the hypostyle and the sanctum of a temple. The difference then lies not in the form but rather in the manner in which the spaces are ritualized, or the ways in which activities and material cohere in a recurrent manner. By changing the mode of ritualization, one could easily turn a house into a shrine, or for that matter the cell of a prison into the  cella , or inner chamber, of a temple. This is precisely what Gandhi did when he was imprisoned in Yerawada Central Jail in Pune: he recognized the prison cell and the corridor in archetypal terms, and referred to the prison as ”Yerawada”  mandir , or temple. It was the manner in which he inhabited the prison that denied his imprisonment.

Gandhi realized that the power of changing one’s relationship to physical space, and by extension the meaning of buildings, derived from controlling one’s thinking and activity, and not merely by radicalizing the design of a space for its own sake. In this approach, he began with the presumption that the human body is more adaptive and responsive than inanimate matter. He found it contradictory that for inanimate matter to become responsive, adaptive, or flexible, it needed to be shaped using vast amounts of energy. In contrast, human beings could do so naturally, because we are naturally so. He demonstrated that in shaping one’s behavior, one does not need to shape form, the ecological implications of which cannot be overstated. Consequently, his ashrams consist of a distributed and continuous field of  osris , where the dwelling is all verandas, some built and the rest the result of heavily foliaged trees. Immersed in this porous plenum, bodies both individual and societal are shaped into a variety of institutional relationships through disciplined activities and/or practices. This discipline is internal and, in turn, defines the ashram as the place and operation of a collective of co-experimenters, all in search of self-knowledge and truth. This is the Gandhian space for a spiritual modern.

• 1 Gandhi referred to all his praxes as “experiments.” The English title of his autobiography,  An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth , gives insight into the depth and breadth of the manner in which he considered these engagements. Though sceptical of the scientific worldview of the Enlightenment for separating the subjective and the objective, he nevertheless borrowed from this paradigm, appropriating the method of the experiment and following it meticulously: setting up hypotheses, undertaking experiments, and searching for verification. Gandhi carried out experiments in his inner world (in his search for truth) and in the outer world (through his engagement with material). For him, the human body is the instrument that mediates between these two worlds, allowing for the inner to be verified by the outer, and vice versa. For this epistemological machine to work, Gandhi knew that a complete transparency between one’s inner and the outer worlds was necessary. M. K. Gandhi,  An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth , trans. Mahadev Desai (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Press),  https://gandhiheritageportal.org/mahatma-gandhi-books/the-story-of-my-experiments-with-truth#page/1/mode/2up ).
• 2 Gandhi developed a twelve-spindle  charkha (spinning wheel), and a portable “Yerawada”  charkha  that allowed him to spin while traveling. He also made changes to improve the aerodynamics of the wheel.
• 3 The manner in which the discourse on modern architecture itself has been historically constructed foregrounds material technology and its production (industry). Given that more than 80 percent of India was rural and agricultural at the time, Gandhi saw no virtue in premising modern interventions into these contexts on such ideas. He did, however, see value in the ideas of the individual, health and hygiene, education, and dialogue. Gandhi, though critical of the European secular, scientific Enlightenment as a whole, felt no hesitation in borrowing ideas and practices from it that he thought were useful—or in discarding those that he considered destructive. He, in fact, categorically states that nothing he has thought or done is original, and he is completely transparent in crediting antecedents. M. K. Gandhi,  An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth , trans. Mahadev Desai (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Press,  https://gandhiheritageportal.org/mahatma-gandhi-books/the-story-of-my-experiments-with-truth#page/1/mode/2up ). A Gandhian modernity encourages a mix and match of ideas, on the assumption that these ideas arise in response to an internal inquiry and conversation with oneself. He then vehemently opposes the notion that any one fixed set of ideas (i.e., ideology) is inherently superior to any other. Gandhi’s buildings then question the hegemony of the idea of material technology in determining modern architecture. Quite simply, Gandhi’s buildings are modern in spite of the materials from which they are made, though the nature of their modernity may not be obvious.
• 4 For Gandhi, the city is a place of violence. He proposed the “ashram” as a form of settlement pattern. This is not the ashram of antiquity but rather a community of satyagrahis, or searchers of truth, living together and “experimenting” toward a nonviolent existence. This form of ashram consists of a residential area, a communal kitchen and dining hall, an open-to-sky prayer space, along with an institutional area housing schools and other training sites. Areas are demarcated for agriculture, animal husbandry, dairy, and food processing. A separate area is allotted for international ashramites, volunteers, and visiting guests.
• 5 In this essay, I use the term “opening up” to describe both an internal, mental, and psychological reconfiguration arising from systematic inquiry, experimentation, and verification, and a material one—referring to the increased porosity of an architectural configuration. Buildings using mud and masonry are load bearing by nature, where the configuration of the walls defines the structure. These are unlike the frame structures built with modern materials, such as reinforced cement concrete (RCC) and steel, which free the walls from the logic of gravity and, therefore, allow for “free” compositioning. Compositioning allows for transparency, whereas configurations of load-bearing walls allow for varying porosity. I have called an increase in porosity an “opening up.” For Gandhi, this external, material opening up can only follow an internal one. A societal opening up would follow the same logic: A society can only move away from dogmatisms and the darkness of a blind following of unverified ritual and habit through a wilful internal transformation within each individual member of that society. For it to happen any other way would involve the false or the violent, both of which Gandhi considered immoral. In this essay, I concentrate on the implications of opening up and the idea of the individual particular to Gandhi’s thinking. Considering the scope of this essay, other ideas, including those surrounding hygiene, domesticity, and movement are referred to in passing, however, they are not discussed in detail.
• 6 By ‘modernity’, I mean the conditions and qualities necessary for being modern. Gandhi refuted the possibility that a universal set of conditions could be considered modern. He felt that the European conditions of being modern had limited significance in the Indian cultural context. Others, most notably Ashis Nandy, have attempted to construct the outlines of what a Gandhian modernity could be.
• 7 Gandhi seems to have recognized that, in a world where there are no existential boundaries, the only reality that one can consider “firm” is that which is closest to us, i.e., that which is experienced directly. In this world of an atomized, individuated society, the onus to find an ethical and moral framework lies with the individual, and thus one must find this for oneself in the scientific manner of inquiry, i.e., through “experiments.”
• 8 Gandhi, An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth, 11–51.
• 9 For a discussion of Gandhi’s relationship with his “small, still voice,” see Tridip Suhrud, introduction to  An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments with Truth : Critical Edition, by M. K. Gandhi, trans. Mahadev Desai (New Delhi: Penguin Random House, 2018), 1–35, esp. 16, 22.
• 10 Ibid., 6.
• 11 Ashis Nandy, “From Outside the Imperium: Gandhi’s Cultural Critique of the West,” in  Traditions, Tyranny and Utopias: Essays in the Politics of Awareness  (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1987), 130–31.
• 12 Gandhi’s daily practices included eating, bathing, reading, writing, spinning, visiting the sick (those stricken with leprosy), and praying. He thought carefully about these activities, and sought the spiritual possibilities within each one. With this understanding, he elevated everyday activities to the level of rituals that would aid him along his path to  moksha , or self-realization. He did not feel the need for any extraneous activity. See Mahadev Desai, “A Morning with Gandhiji,” November 13, 1924, in  Young India, 1924–1926 , by Mahatma Gandhi (Madras: S. Ganesan, 1927), 1025: “There are two aspects of things,—the outward and the inward. It is purely a matter of emphasis with me. The outward has no meaning except in so far as it helps the inward.” Gandhi argued that there are moments, however rare, when one’s communion with oneself is so complete that one feels no need for any outward expression, including art. Tridip Suhrud, “Towards a Gandhian Aesthetics: The Poetics of Surrender and the Art of Brahmacharya,” in  The Bloomsbury Research Handbook of Indian Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art , ed. Arindam Chakrabarti (New York: Bloomsbury, 2016), 374. It follows that Gandhi considers inner transformation at the individual scale as the engine for political revolution at the societal scale.
• 13 By 1903, a core group of people of varied races and religious dispositions rallied around Gandhi, supporting him in his agitations against racial discrimination in South Africa. This led to the founding of the Natal Indian Congress, which Gandhi would soon lead. In the same year, he started the  Indian Opinion , the journal that became the voice of the Indian community in South Africa. Gandhi had been thinking about communal living for several years up to then. In 1904, with the journal’s financial struggles and his serendipitous reading of John Ruskin’s  Unto This Last , he was inspired to act on his thoughts of communal living and to buy a farm near the station of Phoenix, on the north coastline fourteen miles from Johannesburg. Both the printing press and operating staff were housed on the farm, “where the workers could live a more simple and natural life and the ideas of Ruskin and Tolstoy combined with strict business principles.” Ramachandra Guha,  Gandhi Before India  (New Delhi: Penguin Random House, 2013), 175. Needless to say, the production costs of the journal were reduced considerably. In addition, Gandhi would use the farm to articulate and sharpen his ideas about communal living, and satyagraha. It was at Phoenix settlement in 1906 that Gandhi would take his pledge of  brahmacharya , or voluntary celibacy. The inhabitants of the settlement had built their own houses, and though Gandhi only moved there in 1913, his family lived there and he visited them regularly.
• 14 See Shimon Lev,  Soulmates: The Story of Mahatma Gandhi and Hermann Kallenbach  (New Delhi: Orient Black Swan, 2012), which discusses the relationship between Gandhi and Kallenbach in detail.
• 15 Before living with Kallenbach, Gandhi and his wife had lived with Millie and Henry Polak. It was unusual for mixed-race couples to live together in a city such as London in any case; however, in South Africa, it was downright revolutionary. Moreover, for two men to live together could not have been looked upon as anything but heretical. As the Indian historian Ramachandra Guha writes, “For Gandhi to befriend Polak, Kallenbach, West and company was an act of bravery; for them to befriend Gandhi was an act of defiance.” Guha,  Gandhi Before India , 188.
• 16 Gandhi was involved in both the conceptualization and the construction of the buildings at Tolstoy Farm. His direct involvement in the construction was reduced after his time in South Africa. The buildings of the ashrams in India were built by important people at each ashram. Gandhi directed them by setting material and budget constraints, and the buildings were constructed under his supervision. His house Bapu Kutir at the Sevagram Ashram at Wardha was built by the British-born activist Mirabehn (Madeleine Slade) originally for herself. However, Gandhi did insist that it cost no more than Rs. 500 to build and that the sky be visible from within.
• 17 Hermann Kallenbach (1871–1945) was an architect who studied in both Stuttgart and Munich. He was a master craftsman, having trained and practiced as a carpenter. He arrived in South Africa at the behest of his uncles, who were in the construction industry. Initially, he formed a practice with A. Stanley Reynolds (1911–1971), with whom he built The Kraal. He then set up the firm Kallenbach, Kennedy & Furner, which was enormously influential in the development of Johannesburg up to 1945. He has been described by the South African architectural researcher Kathy Munro as a “property tycoon. See Kathy Munro, “Review of ‘Soulmates—The Story of Mahatma Gandhi and Hermann Kallenbach,’”  Heritage Portal , July 3, 2017,  http://www.theheritageportal.co.za/review/review-soulmates-story-mahatma-gandhi-and-hermann-kallenbach . He generously used his wealth to finance Gandhi’s antiracism activities, which resonated with him, most notably donating more than a thousand acres of land for Tolstoy Farm. After Gandhi’s departure from South Africa, Kallenbach was involved in supporting the Zionist movement.
• 18 Tolstoy Farm was established in 1910, when Hermann Kallenbach acquired a farm at Lawley near Johannesburg and donated it to the satyagraha movement, then in its final stage. It was Kallenbach who named the farm after Leo Tolstoy. Gandhi wrote in a letter to Tolstoy, dated August 15, 1910, “No writings have so deeply touched Mr. Kallenbach as yours and, as a spur to further effort in living up to the ideals held before the world by you, he has taken the liberty, after consultation with me, of naming his farm after you.” M. K. Gandhi to Count Leo Tolstoy, 15 August 1910, in  Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi , vol. 10, November 1909–March 1911 (New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India), 306-7, https://gandhiheritageportal.org/cwmg_volume_thumbview/MTA=#page/346/mode/2up . See also Eric Itzkin,  Gandhi’s Johannesburg: Birthplace of Satyagraha , Frank Connock Publication no. 4 (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 2000), 78. The farm was 1100 acres. It was covered with 1000 fruit trees and included two wells and a small spring. At its height, the farm supported a community of eighty people: fifty adults as well as thirty children, who studied at its school. The farm, as Gandhi would write in 1914, was of great use in the training of the thousands of passive resisters who participated in the last phase of the struggle. Shriman Narayan, ed.,  Selected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, vol. 3, Satyagraha in South Africa  (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1968), 352. See also https://www.mkgandhi.org/museum/phoenix-settlement-tolstoy-farm.html .
• 19 Though by 1904 Gandhi was a successful lawyer able to donate £3500 to the running of his press and Tolstoy Farm, he himself lived a frugal life and expected those associated with him to do the same. He was hardest on the people closest to him, particularly his family. The Polaks, with whom he stayed, were also subject to his austerity. Millie Polak wanted to make the bare little house they shared a home by giving it a touch of warmth with the use of carpets and curtains. Gandhi was unconvinced of such expenditure, which he felt would be better focused on the cause they were fighting for. Once when she suggested that a painting might do well to hide the ugliness of the yellow washed walls, he suggested she look out of the window at the sunset, which is more beautiful than anything that could be drawn by the hand of man. Guha,  Gandhi Before India , 199–200. See also Itzkin,  Gandhi’s Johannesburg , 69. Though he did give in to Millie Polak on this occasion, such differences about comfort were constant between Gandhi and those working with him at both the Phoenix settlement and Tolstoy Farm. At both places, Gandhi had wanted the residential buildings to be Spartan, made of the most rudimentary and basic materials, which the other community members refused to do. They finally built their homes in a more modern and comfortable manner, using commonly available timber frames.
• 20 Millie Graham Polak,  Mr. Gandhi: The Man  (Bombay: Vora & Co., 1949), 67.
• 21 Gandhi established his first ashram in Ahmedabad at Kochrab using an existing building and property gifted to him by his close friend, the barrister Jivanlal Desai. However, the need for more space to accommodate all of the agricultural activities of the ashram pushed Gandhi to relocate. This time, he chose a place on the banks of the Sabarmati River, from which the second ashram gets its name (it was originally called the Satyagraha Ashram). Gandhi stayed at the Sabarmati Ashram from 1917 to 1930, when it was one of the main centers of the independence movement. It was from there that he set out on his famous Salt March to Dandi and vowed not to return till India had gained its independence. The terms  pucca  and  kachcha  originally related to food. Cooked food is considered  pucca , while that which is eaten raw—such as a fruit—or a vegetable that hasn’t matured is considered  kachcha . It is common parlance to apply these words beyond the realm of food, however. For example, an asphalt road is considered  pucca  while an unpaved country track would be called  kachcha .  Pucca  implies the application of artificial energy to process material, i.e., the more  pucca  or permanent, the more energy has been used for the material’s stability and durability and hence perceived permanence. It is interesting to note here that in Gandhi’s experiments with his diet, he had moved to a diet of largely  kachcha  food. According to Indian historian Ramachandra Guha, “One of his [Gandhi’s] favorite authors, the anti-vivisectionist doctor Anna Kingsford, claimed that a fruit-based diet was man’s genetic inheritance.” Guha,  Gandhi Before India , 189–90.
• 22 R. R. James, ed.,  Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, 1897–1963 , vol. 5, 1928–1935 (New York, Chelsea House, 1974), 4985: “It is [ . . . ] alarming and also nauseating to see Mr. Gandhi, a seditious middle temple lawyer, now posing as a fakir of a type well known in the East, striding half-naked up the steps of the Vice-regal palace, while he is still organizing and conducting a defiant campaign of civil disobedience, to parley on equal terms with the representative of the King-Emperor.” For a discussion on the politics of his dress, see Nandy, “From Outside the Imperium,” 144–45.
• 23 Narayan Desai,  My Life Is My Message, vol. 1, Sadhana , trans. Tridip Suhrud (New Delhi: Orient Black Swan, 2009), 2.
• 24 The diagram of this relationship would equate to that of the megaron, a Greek archetype that defines the basic relationship between closed, semi-open, and open space, symbolically read as inner world, outer world, and the transitional domain where the two overlap. Given the climatic conditions of the subcontinent, it is this overlap that is inhabited by teeming life.
• 25 Gandhi often responded to more than a hundred letters a day. This was in addition to the writing he did for his press.
• 26 The vow of  brahmacharya  taken by Gandhi in 1906 has a much wider significance than simply abstinence from sexual intercourse. Gandhi writes, “ Brahmacharya  literally means that mode of life which leads to the realization of God. That realization is impossible without practicing self-restraint. Self-restraint means restraint of all the senses. But ordinarily  brahmacharya  is understood to mean control over the sexual organs and prevention of seminal discharge through complete control over the sexual instinct and the sexual organs.”  The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi , vol. 77, December 17, 1942–July 31, 1944 (New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1979), 19. He continues, “Only he who has burnt away sexual desire in its entirety may be said to have complete control over his sexual organs.”; “There is something very striking about a full-fledged  Brahmachari . His speech, his thought and his actions all bespeak possession of a vital force.” In several religious traditions in the subcontinent, celibacy has always occupied a venerable position.
• 27 Since the  ordo  was traditionally the closed room that hid the activities of the body from social witness, it follows that behavioral control over one’s body, i.e., changing or eradicating the need for certain activities, would change or eradicate the need for the  ordo  itself. By taking a vow of  brahmacharya , Gandhi not only transformed his body to be asexual but also redefined the relationship between man and woman in the house. His ideas about hygiene and ablution allowed the body to be far more relaxed and open.
• 28 See Suhrud, introduction, 17.
• 29 In some ways, Gandhi’s process of writing his autobiography resembles the contemporary practice of blogging, in that he was using the social-media technology of his day, which was print. Writing weekly, Gandhi received responses that were often critical. He published these responses with the installments that followed.
• 30 For Gandhi, every civilization is based on a primary set of ideas. He denied that any one set of ideas could claim superiority over any other. He himself borrowed ideas and methods from across cultures to further articulate and sharpen his own. He believed that the differences in ideas offered the potential for dialogue from the personal to the civilizational levels. However, such dialogue could only take place with an inner openness and self-confidence that accepts difference as a form of criticism for internal use. According to Ashish Nandy, when, “Catherine Mayo wrote her savagely anti-Indian and pro-imperialist treatise,  Mother India , Gandhi called the book a ‘drain-inspectors report’ but added that every Indian should read it. While Mayo’s critique of Indian culture was blatantly prejudiced, he seemed to imply, Indian culture should have the self-confidence to put the criticism to internal use.” Frederick Buell.  National Culture and the New Global System  (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1994), 245–46. Gandhi understood that ideas that claim superiority are not ready for this dialogue. His criticism of the Western secular, scientific paradigm should be seen as an initiation of such a civilizational dialogue.

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Important Essay on Mahatma Gandhi for Students in English

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, often called the 'Father of the Nation' , was a leader who fought for India's freedom from British rule. He believed in non-violence. Every year on October 2nd, Mahatma Gandhi's birthday is celebrated as Gandhi Jayanti to honor his efforts in freeing India.

English Essay on Mahatma Gandhi

Rabindranath Tagore was the first to call Gandhiji 'Mahatma,' which means 'Great Soul' in Sanskrit. His wise ideas and beliefs led people to respect and call him 'Mahatma Gandhi.' His dedication to the country and efforts to turn his ideas into reality make Indians around the world very proud of him .

According to Mahatma Gandhi’s biography, he was born on October 2, 1869 , in Porbandar, a coastal town in the present-day Indian state of Gujarat. He grew up in a Hindu family and ate basic vegetarian meals. His dad, Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi, was an important leader in Porbandar State. In South Africa, he was the first to lead a peaceful protest movement, setting him apart from other demonstrators. Mahatma Gandhi also introduced the idea of Satyagraha, a nonviolent approach to opposing unfairness. He devoted 20 years of his life to battling discrimination in South Africa.

His idea of 'Ahimsa,' which means not hurting anyone, was widely admired and followed by many influential people worldwide. He became an indomitable figure who couldn't be defeated in any situation. Mahatma Gandhi initiated the 'Khadi Movement' to encourage the use of fabrics like khadi or jute. This movement was a crucial part of the larger 'Non-co-operation Movement,' which advocated for Indian goods and discouraged foreign ones. Gandhi strongly supported agriculture and encouraged people to engage in farming. He inspired Indians to embrace manual labor and emphasized self-reliance, urging them to provide for their needs and lead simple lives. He began weaving cotton clothes using the Charkha to reduce dependence on foreign goods and promote Swadeshi products among Indians.

During the fight for India's freedom, Gandhiji faced imprisonment several times along with his followers, but his main goal was always the freedom of his motherland. Even when he was in prison, he never chose the path of violence.

Mahatma Gandhi made significant contributions to various social issues. His efforts against 'untouchability' while he was in Yerwada Jail, where he went on a hunger strike against this ancient social evil, greatly helped uplift the oppressed community in modern times. He also emphasized the importance of education, cleanliness, health, and equality in society.

These qualities defined him as a person with a great soul and justified his transformation from Gandhi to Mahatma. He led many freedom movements, including the "Quit India Movement," which was highly successful. His death was a huge loss to the forces of peace and democracy, leaving a significant void in the nation's life.

Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a prominent Indian nationalist leader, significantly influenced Mahatma Gandhi's political ideology and leadership approach. Gandhi considered him his political teacher.

Mahatma Gandhi played a crucial role in India's fight for freedom from British rule. His life was dedicated to serving his country and its people, and he became an international symbol of Indian leadership. Even today, he continues to inspire and motivate young people worldwide with his values and principles.

Gandhi Ji was known for his strong sense of discipline. He emphasized the importance of self-discipline in achieving significant goals, a principle he applied in promoting his philosophy of Ahimsa (non-violence). Through his own life, he demonstrated that rigorous discipline can lead to the realization of any objective, provided we remain committed and dedicated. These qualities established him as a revered and respected leader whose influence extends far beyond his lifetime. His ideals continue to resonate not only in India but also around the world.

FAQs on Mahatma Gandhi Essay

1. What were the different movements that Gandhi started in order to bring Independence to India?

In order to bring freedom, Gandhi started the Satyagraha movement in 1919, the non-cooperation movement in 1921, and Civil Disobedience movement in 1930 and Quit India movement in 1942.

2. Who killed Mahatma Gandhi?

A young man named Nathuram Godse killed Mahatma Gandhi when he was going to attend an evening prayer meeting.

3. Why is Gandhi known as the ‘Father of the Nation’?

Mahatma Gandhi is known as the ‘Father of the Nation’ because he laid the true foundation of independent India with his noble ideals and supreme sacrifice.

4. How do we commemorate Mahatma Gandhi’s contribution for our Nation?

His birthday on 2 nd October is celebrated as a National Holiday across the nation in order to commemorate his great contributions and sacrifices for the country’s independence.

5. What are the things we should learn from Mahatma Gandhi? 

There are various things one can learn from Gandhiji. The principles that he followed and preached his entire generation and for generations to come are commendable. He believed in ‘Ahimsa’ and taught people how any war in the world can be won through non-violence. To simply state one can learn the following principles from Gandhiji - 

Nonviolence, 

Respect for elders,

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Modern Indian History: From about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present – significant events, personalities, and issues

Last updated on January 6, 2024 by Alex Andrews George

Modern Indian history refers to the period of Indian history beginning in the middle of the 18th century, following the collapse of the mighty Mughal Empire , and continuing through to the present day.

This period is characterized by the rise of nationalist movements, the struggle for independence from British colonial rule, and the formation of the modern nation-state of India.

Key figures in modern Indian history include Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Sardar Patel.

The period has also seen significant economic and social changes and the rise of India as a major player in the global economy.

Also read: Delegated Legislation

Table of Contents

Modern Indian History: From the Mughal Empire to Independence and Beyond

Modern Indian history covers a wide range of events and developments, from the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of British colonial rule to the Indian independence movement and the challenges faced by the newly independent nation.

The decline of the Mughal Empire

The middle of the 18th century marked the beginning of the decline of the Mughal Empire (Early Mughals) in India, which had been a dominant political and cultural force for centuries.

This period saw the rise of regional powers, such as the Marathas who began to challenge the Mughal rule. The British East India Company too tried to gain control of large parts of India through a series of military conquests and economic manipulation.

Wish to know more? Read: India in 1750 – Decline of the Mughal Empire, Rule of Later Mughals, and Emergence of Successor States

The emergence of the British as the central controlling authority

During the 19th century, the British established a firm hold on India. The British started implementing their policies in India. The British used India as a colonial market which resulted in a significant ‘Drain of Wealth’ from India to the United Kingdom. The British policy of ‘Divide and Rule’ created tension among communities in India and affected its unity and integration. However, some of the British measures like the creation of a centralized bureaucracy, the introduction of Western-style education, and the expansion of infrastructure, such as railways and telegraph lines gave India a modern outlook.

Wish to know more? Read: The British Expansion in India – East India Company, Presidencies, Governor-generals, and Battles

Dissatisfaction against the Foreign rule

Unlike the Mughals, the British never integrated completely with the Indians. Many Indians were not happy under foreign rule and white supremacy. The Indian nationalist movement began to take shape in the late 19th century. Leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal called for greater Indian self-rule.

Wish to know more? Read:

• The Changes introduced by the British in India
• Popular Uprisings and Revolts against the British
• Socio-Religious Movements in India

Nationalist Movements and Independence

However, it was Mahatma Gandhi who truly galvanized the Indian people and led the country on the path of non-violent resistance against British colonial rule. With the support of millions of Indians, Gandhi’s campaigns of civil disobedience and non-cooperation forced the British government to negotiate with Indian leaders and eventually grant independence in 1947.

Wish to know more? Read: India’s struggle for independence: The Indian Freedom Movement

Building of a new nation under Nehru

The period following independence saw the country under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first Prime Minister. Nehru implemented policies of planned economic development and industrialization, which led to rapid economic growth and social change in India. However, Nehru’s focus on socialism and state control also led to inefficiencies and slow growth in certain sectors.

Wars with Pakistan and China

India’s relations with Pakistan, which was formed as a separate country for Muslims, have been marked by conflict and tension, including multiple wars and ongoing disputes over the region of Kashmir. India has also faced political instability, with frequent changes in government and a rise in regional, religious, and caste-based politics.

Economic Liberlisation and Globalisation

In the 1990s, under Prime Minister P.V Narasimha Rao and his finance minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, India adopted economic liberalization policies, leading to a significant increase in economic growth and foreign investment. This also led to a rapid expansion of the middle class and significant improvements in living standards for many Indians.

Significant progress in spite of challenges

India has continued to grow economically and politically in the 21st century, with a rising global profile and increasing influence in international affairs. The country has also made significant progress in areas such as technology, space exploration, and renewable energy. However, India still faces many challenges, including poverty, inequality, and communal tensions.

Significant events in the Modern Indian History

There have been many significant events in modern Indian history from 1750 to 1947. One of the most important events during this period was the British colonization of India, which began in the 18th century and lasted until the middle of the 20th century.

The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Indian Mutiny, was a major event that marked the beginning of the end of British East India Company rule in India and led to the British Crown taking direct control of the country.

The Non-Cooperation Movement led by Mahatma Gandhi in the 1920s, the Salt Satyagraha in 1930 and the Quit India Movement in 1942 were some of the key events in the Indian independence movement. These events led to a growing sense of nationalism among Indians and ultimately led to the country gaining independence from British rule in 1947. This was a significant event not only for India but also for the entire subcontinent, as it led to the creation of Pakistan as well.

Another important event in Indian history was the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi in 1948. Gandhi was a key leader in the independence movement and his death had a profound impact on the country.

The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 and 1971, the economic liberalization of 1991, the Pokhran nuclear test of 1998, the Kargil War of 1999 and the 26/11 Mumbai terrorist attack of 2008 are some of the other notable events in modern Indian history.

Indian Rebellion of 1857

Also known as the Indian Mutiny or the First War of Independence, this was a major rebellion against British colonial rule in India.

Birth of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885

The Indian National Congress, a political party which became the primary voice of the Indian independence movement, was founded in 1885.

The partition of Bengal in 1905

The partition of Bengal in 1905 by the British government was an attempt to weaken the growing nationalist movement through the ‘Divide and Rule’ policy. Many Indians opposed this.

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre of 1919

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre of 1919, where British troops killed hundreds of unarmed Indian civilians, was a turning point in Indian history and increased the resentment towards British rule.

Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920

Led by Mahatma Gandhi, this movement was a major campaign of civil disobedience and non-violent resistance against British colonial rule.

The Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930

The Salt Satyagraha in 1930 led by Mahatma Gandhi, was a peaceful protest against the British salt monopoly and became a symbol of resistance to British rule.

The Government of India Act 1935

The Government of India Act 1935 was passed, which aimed to give Indians more representation in government but was widely criticized for falling short of true self-government.

World War II

The forced involvement of India in World War II put a heavy burden on the economy and increased resentment towards British rule.

The Quit India Movement in 1942

The Quit India Movement in 1942, was a mass civil disobedience movement called by Mahatma Gandhi for immediate independence of India, it was one of the most aggressive movements against British colonial rule.

The Indian Independence Act of 1947

This act passed by the British parliament granted independence to India and Pakistan on 15th August 1947.

Partition of India in 1947

In 1947, British India was partitioned into the independent nations of India and Pakistan, with a large-scale population exchange of Hindus and Muslims.

India-China War 1962

The war fought between India and China in 1962 over the disputed border region resulted in a Chinese victory.

The Green Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s

The period of increase in agricultural production in India in the 1960s and 1970s was due to the introduction of high-yielding varieties of seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation facilities.

Indian Nuclear Program in 1974

In 1974 India successfully detonated a nuclear device, becoming the 6th nuclear weapons state in the world.

The Emergency in 1975

In 1975, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a state of emergency in India, suspending civil liberties and democratic institutions.

The assassination of Indira Gandhi in 1884

Indira Gandhi, the Prime Minister of India was assassinated by her own bodyguards in 1984.

Economic Liberalization in 1991

In 1991, under Prime Minister P.V Narasimha Rao and his finance minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, India adopted economic liberalization policies.

The Mumbai Bombings in 1993

A series of bombings in Mumbai in 1993, orchestrated by organized crime groups, resulted in the deaths of over 250 people.

Rise of Right-wing Politics from the late 1990s

From the late 1990s, India saw the rise of right-wing, Hindu nationalist politics, led by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).

The Kargil War of 1999

A conflict between India and Pakistan in 1999, fought in the Kargil district of Kashmir, resulted in an Indian victory.

The Gujarat Riots of 2002

In 2002, Hindu-Muslim riots broke out in the state of Gujarat, resulting in the deaths of over 1000 people, mostly Muslims.

The 26/11 Mumbai Terror Attacks in 2008

A series of terrorist attacks in Mumbai in 2008, carried out by a Pakistan-based militant group, resulted in the deaths of over 160 people.

The Anna Hazare Movement in 2011

The movement led by Anna Hazare in 2011, demanded the implementation of the Jan Lokpal Bill, a proposed anti-corruption law.

The 2014 General Election

The BJP led by Narendra Modi emerged as the single largest party in the general elections, leading to Modi becoming the Prime Minister.

Demonetization in 2016

In 2016, the Indian government demonetized the 500 and 1000 rupee notes, effectively rendering 86% of the cash in circulation invalid.

The abrogation of Article 370 in 2019

In 2019, the Indian government revoked the special status of the state of Jammu and Kashmir, sparking widespread protests and criticism from various political parties and human rights organizations

The COVID-19 Pandemic

India was hit hard by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, with a lot of cases and deaths.

Significant Personalities in Modern Indian History

There have been many significant personalities in modern Indian history who have played a crucial role in shaping the country.

Mahatma Gandhi

Considered the “Father of the Nation,” Mahatma Gandhi led the Indian independence movement through non-violent civil disobedience and is considered one of the most influential figures in Indian history.

Jawaharlal Nehru

India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru played a key role in shaping the country’s foreign and domestic policies following independence.

Sardar Patel

Known as the “Iron Man of India,” Sardar Patel played a key role in the integration of the princely states into the Indian Union following independence.

B. R. Ambedkar

An Indian jurist, economist, politician and social reformer, Ambedkar was the main architect of the Indian Constitution and champion for the rights of Dalits (formerly known as “untouchables”) and other marginalized communities.

Subhas Chandra Bose

A prominent Indian nationalist leader, Subhas Chandra Bose was a key figure in the Indian independence movement and advocated for a more aggressive approach to achieving freedom from British rule.

Rajendra Prasad

India’s first President, Rajendra Prasad played a key role in the drafting of the Indian Constitution and in the early years of the Indian Republic.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad

A prominent Muslim leader, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was a key figure in the Indian independence movement and served as India’s first Education Minister following independence.

C. Rajagopalachari

A freedom fighter and one of the first leaders of the Indian National Congress, Rajagopalachari served as the last Governor-General of India and later as the Chief Minister of Madras state.

Bhagat Singh

Bhagat Singh was an Indian revolutionary socialist who was influential in the Indian independence movement, he is considered to be one of the most influential revolutionaries of the Indian independence movement, and is often referred to as Shaheed Bhagat Singh, the word “Shaheed” meaning “martyr” in Arabic.

Indira Gandhi

India’s first female Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi was a powerful political figure who implemented policies of economic development and industrialization, but also faced criticism for authoritarianism and human rights abuses.

Rajiv Gandhi

The son of Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi served as Prime Minister of India and was responsible for introducing several economic and technological advancements in the country.

V. P. Singh

The 7th Prime Minister of India, Singh was a leader of the Janata Dal party and is remembered for his efforts to address issues of caste discrimination and corruption.

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

A former Prime Minister of India, Vajpayee was a leader of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and played a key role in shaping India’s foreign policy.

Manmohan Singh

India’s first Sikh Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh served two terms as Prime Minister and is credited with implementing economic liberalization policies that led to significant growth in the Indian economy.

Narendra Modi

The current Prime Minister of India, Modi is a leader of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and has implemented a range of economic and social policies during his time in office.

Major Issues in the Modern Indian History

Modern India witnessed many problems and issues. The major issues in the history of modern India include poverty, inequality, caste discrimination, communal tensions etc. Most of these issues are still prevalent in India.

(1) Colonialism and the Drain of Wealth

The impact of British colonialism on India , including the exploitation of resources and the suppression of Indian culture and identity, was a major issue in modern Indian history.

(2) Communal Tensions and Religious Violence

India has a diverse population made up of many different religious and ethnic groups. Communal tensions and religious violence, particularly between Hindus and Muslims, have been recurring issues in modern Indian history.

(3) Caste Discrimination

India’s caste system , which has traditionally determined a person’s social status and occupation based on birth, has been a major issue in modern Indian history. Discrimination and violence against lower castes, particularly Dalits (formerly known as “untouchables”), have been widespread.

(4) Poverty

Despite significant economic growth in recent decades, poverty  remains a major issue in India. Millions of Indians still live in extreme poverty.

(5) Inequality

There is a wide gap between the rich and the poor.

(6) Political Instability and Corruption

India has seen frequent changes in government and political instability, with a rise in regional and caste-based politics. Corruption has also been a major issue, with many politicians and bureaucrats being accused of corrupt practices.

(7) Separatist movements

India is a diverse country. Many regions have their own distinct cultural and linguistic identities. Separatist movements in many states/regions in India have been a major issue in modern Indian history.

(8) Human rights violations

The suppression of civil liberties and democratic institutions, violence against marginalized communities, and extrajudicial killings are reported in India.

(9) Environmental degradation

India’s rapid economic growth has led to a significant increase in pollution and environmental degradation, with issues such as deforestation, water pollution, and air pollution becoming increasingly severe.

(10) Political Instability

The 1990s and 2000s saw a rise in regional and caste-based politics. This resulted in coalition politics and political instability. Even though not without criticism, the popularity of right-wing politics resulted in a stable majority government in India after 2014.

(11) India-Pakistan Conflicts

The relationship between India and Pakistan , which have a long-standing dispute over the region of Kashmir, has been a major issue in modern Indian history. The two countries have fought several wars, and tensions between them remain high.

(12) India-China Conflicts

India and China engaged in war in 1962 over territorial disputes and conflicts, which resulted in a Chinese victory. There are ongoing border disputes in the Himalayan region.

(13) Internal Security Issues

Internal security issues in India include a range of challenges that affect the country’s stability and safety. Some of the major internal security issues in India include Insurgency , Terrorism , Naxalism, Cybercrimes etc.

In conclusion, modern Indian history is a multifaceted story of political struggles, economic development, and social change.

From the decline of the Mughal Empire to the rise of the nationalist movement, from the struggle for independence to the challenges of building a modern nation-state , the history of India is a story of a people’s determination to shape their own destiny.

Also read:  Modern Indian History Books and Authors

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May 2, 2023 at 6:33 pm

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Conclusion: Gandhi and the Critique of Western Civilization

• Published: February 2011
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Hind Swaraj

Hind Swaraj (Indian Home Rule) is widely considered the most concise and forceful statement of Gandhi's political theory. It contains an explanation of British domination in India, an analysis of the meaning of swaraj (self-rule), a discussion of political strategy, and, perhaps most notoriously, a critique of Western civilization. Not content to merely condemn the excesses of British colonialism, Gandhi criticizes the colonial state's proudest achievements: technology, parliamentary government, the railway system, public education, modern medicine, and the judicial system. 1 Close Like Jamal al-Din al-Afghani twenty years earlier and Jalal Al-e Ahmad fifty years later, Gandhi castigates Western civilization for its materialism, individualism, and immorality. He calls Western civilization a disease and suggests that the cure is to be found in the traditional Indian practice of self-mastery.

Gandhi composed the book in just ten days while traveling by ship from England to South Africa. It seems somehow fitting that the book was written on a ship, because of its cosmopolitan character. At first it might seem strange to characterize Hind Swaraj as cosmopolitan, given its status as a foundational text of the Indian nationalist movement and, of course, its seemingly Manichaean distinction between Western and Indian civilizations. Gandhi's essay, however, points to another cosmopolitanism, one that emerges in opposition to the illusory universalism of Western civilization. Gandhi points out that “civilization” is a normative concept that is invoked to distinguish good from bad and superior from inferior. According to Gandhi, the West recognizes material comfort as the primary marker of civilization but this value system, far from being universal, is the product of a particular time and place. It emerged historically with the growth of commerce and industrialization. True civilization for Gandhi is good conduct, which involves duty, self-control, and morality. 2 Close

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Essay on Modern India

Students are often asked to write an essay on Modern India in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Modern India

Introduction.

Modern India refers to the period after its independence in 1947. It’s an era marked by significant progress in various sectors like technology, education, healthcare, and economy.

Technological Advancements

India has made impressive strides in technology. The successful launch of Mars Orbiter Mission by ISRO is a testament to this.

Education in India has seen vast improvements with increased literacy rates and the introduction of digital learning.

Modern India has improved healthcare facilities. However, accessibility to quality healthcare in rural areas remains a challenge.

India’s economy has grown significantly. It’s one of the fastest-growing major economies in the world. However, poverty and unemployment are still prevalent.

Modern India has achieved a lot, but there’s still a long way to go. The journey towards a fully developed nation continues.

250 Words Essay on Modern India

Modern India is a vibrant tapestry of diverse cultures, traditions, and socio-economic realities. The nation stands as a unique blend of ancient customs harmoniously coexisting with cutting-edge technological advancements and global trends.

The Indian subcontinent has made remarkable strides in the field of technology. With the advent of the digital age, India has emerged as a global IT hub, housing multinational corporations and fostering innovative startups. The technology-led transformation has significantly improved the quality of life, promoting digital literacy and democratizing access to information.

Economic Landscape

India’s economic landscape is characterized by rapid growth and development. The transition from an agrarian economy to a service-oriented one has led to an increase in GDP and per capita income. However, the challenge of economic disparity remains, with the wealth gap widening between the urban rich and rural poor.

Social Dynamics

The social fabric of India is undergoing a significant shift. While the country is rooted in tradition, it is simultaneously embracing progressive ideologies. The younger generation is challenging age-old social norms, advocating for gender equality, LGBTQ+ rights, and environmental sustainability.

Modern India presents a dynamic and complex picture. It is a nation in transition, grappling with the challenges of rapid modernization while striving to preserve its rich cultural heritage. As India continues to evolve, it holds the potential to emerge as a leading global power, shaping the world’s socio-economic and political landscape.

500 Words Essay on Modern India

Modern India, a nation with a rich historical backdrop, stands as a testament to the power of change and adaptation. From its colonial past to its current status as a global economic player, India’s journey is marked by numerous transformations that reflect its resilience and commitment to progress.

Colonial Legacy and the Struggle for Independence

India’s modern history is deeply rooted in its colonial past. The British Raj left indelible marks on the socio-political fabric of the nation. The struggle for independence, led by luminaries like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Subhas Chandra Bose, was a significant turning point. It not only led to India’s freedom in 1947 but also instilled a sense of unity and nationalism among its diverse populace.

Post-Independence Era and the Making of the Constitution

Post-independence, India faced the mammoth task of nation-building. The creation of the Constitution, under the stewardship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, was a defining moment. It laid the foundation for India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, and democratic republic, ensuring justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity for its citizens.

Economic Reforms and Globalization

The economic reforms of 1991, under the leadership of then Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, marked the beginning of a new era. The liberalization, privatization, and globalization (LPG) model opened up the Indian economy, leading to significant growth and development. Today, India is one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, with a strong presence in sectors like information technology, telecommunications, textiles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, agriculture, steel, and aviation.

Social Progress and Challenges

Modern India has made notable strides in social progress. The implementation of various social welfare schemes, advancements in education and healthcare, and progressive laws ensuring women’s rights and the rights of marginalized communities are commendable. However, challenges persist. Issues like poverty, corruption, unemployment, and social inequality need persistent attention.

India’s Role in the Global Arena

In the global arena, India plays a significant role. As a founding member of the United Nations, a nuclear power, and a significant contributor to peacekeeping missions, India’s influence is undeniable. Its commitment to climate change mitigation, as seen in the International Solar Alliance initiative, reflects its responsibility as a global citizen.

Modern India, with its vibrant mix of tradition and modernity, is a nation in constant evolution. It is a country that is learning from its past, taking strides in the present, and setting ambitious goals for the future. As India continues to grow and evolve, it remains a fascinating study of resilience, diversity, and progress.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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• IAS Preparation
• NCERT Notes for UPSC
• NCERT Notes Rise Of Gandhi In Indian Freedom Struggle

Mahatma Gandhi's Early Movements - Champaran, Ahmedabad Mill Strike & Kheda Satyagraha (NCERT Notes)

With the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi in the Indian Independence struggle, there have been led, many significant movements which are important to be read for IAS Exam . The famous satyagraha movement includes – Champaran Satyagraha, Ahmedabad Mill Strike and Kheda Satyagraha.

This article will provide you with NCERT notes that are useful for other competitive exams also like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.

Mahatma Gandhi’s Early Movements (UPSC Notes):- Download PDF Here

To help ease the path of your IAS preparation, check out the Free NCERT Fundamentals Course– a comprehensive study program to help you cover the NCERTs effectively. Watch the video below to learn more:

The Rise of Gandhi in the Indian Freedom Struggle

M K Gandhi returned from South Africa (where he had lived for more than 20 years) to India in 1915. There he had led a peaceful agitation against the discrimination meted out to Indians and had emerged as a respected leader. It was in South Africa that he developed his brand of Satyagraha. In India, he first used this tool against the British government at Champaran in Bihar.

Note : Aspirants of UPSC 2023 should know the trick to remember the Satyagraha movements chronologically by using the acronym CAKE.  ‘C’ stands for Champaran (1917), ‘A’ stands for Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) and ‘KE’ stands for Kheda Satyagraha (1918).

Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

• The first civil disobedience movement by Gandhi in the freedom struggle.
• Persuaded by Rajkumar Shukla, an indigo cultivator, Gandhi went to Champaran in Bihar to investigate the conditions of the farmers there.
• The farmers were suffering under heavy taxes and an exploitative system. They were forced to grow indigo by the British planters under the tinkathia system.
• Gandhi arrived in Champaran to investigate the matter but was not permitted by the British authorities to do so.
• He was asked to leave the place but he refused.
• He was able to gather support from the farmers and masses.
• When he appeared in court in response to a summons, almost 2000 locals accompanied him.
• The case against him was dropped and he was allowed to conduct the inquiry.
• After peaceful protests against the planters and landlords led by Gandhi, the government agreed to abolish the exploitative tinkathia system.
• The peasants also received a part of the money extracted from them as compensation.
• Champaran struggle is called the first experiment on Satyagraha by Gandhi and later Ahmedabad Mill Strike and Kheda Satyagraha occurred.
• It was during this time that Gandhi was given the names ‘Bapu’ and ‘Mahatma’ by the people.

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)

• 1918 was a year of failed crops in the Kheda district of Gujarat due to droughts.
• As per law, the farmers were entitled to remission if the produce was less than a quarter of the normal output.
• But the government refused any remission from paying land revenue.
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, under Gandhi’s guidance, led the farmers in protest against the collection of taxes in the wake of the famine.
• People from all castes and ethnicities of the district lend their support to the movement.
• The protest was peaceful and people showed remarkable courage even in the face of adversities like confiscation of personal property and arrest.
• Finally, the authorities gave in and gave some concessions to the farmers.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)

• Gandhi used Satyagraha and hunger strike for the first time during an industrial dispute between the owners and workers of a cotton mill in Ahmedabad.
• The owners wanted to withdraw the plague bonus to the workers while the workers were demanding a hike of 35% in their wages.
• During the peaceful strike led by Gandhi, he underwent a hunger strike.
• The Ahmedabad Mill strike was successful and the workers were granted the wage hike they wanted.

In all these movements, Gandhi was able to involve the masses including farmers, artisans and even the so-called lower castes. This was a change from the previous movements when the participation was limited to the upper and the middle classes.

UPSC Questions related to Mahatma Gandhi’s Early Movements

What happened in the ahmedabad mill strike, what was plague bonus in ahmedabad mill strike.

In 1917, Ahmedabad witnessed a plague epidemic due to destruction of agricultural crops because of heavy monsoon. Plague bonus was given to the mill workers by the mill owners to help dissuade them from feeling from the work.

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Servant Leadership in Indian Culture and Hindu Religion Essay

The concept of servant leadership is often associated with the Christian religion. However, in modern society, the principles of this style can be found across various cultural and religious values. This approach is largely associated with Indian culture and Hindu religion. Many tenets of servant leadership can be found in Hindu philosophy and applied by famous Indian leaders. Overall, the modern corporate culture of India relies heavily on the principles of servant leadership described in ancient scriptures and Vedic texts.

The main difference of servant leadership from other styles is the focus on followers, their well-being and development. Eva et al. (2019) suggest that this approach can be defined as other-oriented and “manifested through one-on-one prioritizing of follower individual needs and interests” (p. 114). The goal of servant leaders is to give up the self in favor of supporting others within the organization and the wider community (Eva et al., 2019). The basis of this approach is the reorientation of the values ​​of the leader, who considers the empowerment of followers as a means and goal of his activity. In contrast to other styles, the servant leader does not have the task of achieving organizational performance indicators or pursuing personal interests. The motivation of such a leader comes from outside, focusing on the followers, their needs and values, without the self component (Eva et al., 2019). Servant leader seeks to understand and appreciate the interests and abilities of each follower in order to help them develop their best qualities.

Servant leader is first and foremost a servant to the followers, and only then a leader. Such leaders have an innate desire to take care of the psychological and emotional state of their followers, along with the professional (Mishra & Mahapatra, 2018). They can also effectively build trust in the community, thus bringing meaningfulness to the workplace (Mishra & Mahapatra, 2018). The characteristics of servant leadership include the combination of qualities needed to serve others as well as to inspire and lead others. In particular, this approach requires the leader to be empathetic, listening and supportive in order to identify the needs of followers and develop their best qualities. At the same time, the servant leader needs persuasion to lead followers, and foresight to assess conditions and actively move forward using available resources.

Indian culture, in particular, within the framework of economics and business, largely borrows the features of servant leadership. Mishra and Mahapatra (2018) explored the roots of servant leadership in Indian culture and analyzed the use of this approach among corporate leaders in India. The authors of the article give several examples of how Indian business leaders actively use the principles of servant leadership for the successful management of large organizations. N.R. Narayana Murthy was the CEO of Infosys in India from 1981 to 2002 (Mishra & Mahapatra, 2018, p. 83). Murthy actively used principles of servant leadership in his managerial activities. It is noted that “he displays qualities like trust, simplicity, honesty and integrity” (Mishra & Mahapatra, 2018, p. 83). Over the years, Murthy has nurtured many leaders within his company, underscoring his focus on empowerment and development of others. Capacity Mutuality Model certificate. Murthy did not hide the secrets of obtaining this certificate from competitors and actively helped them to achieve the same level. He cared about the well-being of the community and the industry as a whole, prioritizing the needs and interests of others over his own.

The principles of servant leadership are actively used in the modern Indian context, not only in business but also in the public sector. Singh and Ryhal (2021) investigated the correlation between the servant leadership of school principals and the level of job satisfaction among teachers in India. As a result, it was found that relatively little attention is paid to the principles of servant leadership in relation to policy making and administration of educational institutions. However, the authors also note that the use of this approach is quite common among school principals, especially in an academic setting (Singh & Ryhal, 2021). Moreover, a positive correlation was found between the use of servant leadership principles and job satisfaction among the teaching staff. The authors provide recommendations on the need to transform policymaking and administration activities in accordance with this approach (Singh & Ryhal, 2021). The study shows that in Indian culture, servant leadership is actively used in the management of organizations, including those in the public sector. However, this practice is widespread at the local level, while it is underdeveloped at the state level.

The principles of servant leadership are evident when considering the Hindu religion, which is the most widespread in India. In particular, the Bhagavad Gita, one of the Hinduism scriptures, contains many features of servant leadership in this religion. Most significantly, it is stated that “the effective leader renounces selfish desire, arrogance, and inequality” (Ong, 2019, p. 94). Spiritual motivation and lack of selfish interests instead of control, according to the Bhagavad Gita, will allow the leader to successfully lead his followers. Ganguly and Majumder (2022) argue that the Vedic texts focus on the principle of lay leadership, which implies that the right person must be assigned to the right position at the right time. In this context, this is an example of servant leadership, as it postulates the need to prioritize the individual qualities. Additionally, the prehistoric books and ancient scriptures of Hindu emphasize aspects necessary for the successful functioning of a leader for the good of society, which is the characteristics of servant leadership (Ganguly & Majumder, 2022). Thus, this religion describes the principles of servant leadership both in earlier times and in a modern corporate context.

The main difference that exists between Indian culture, Hindu religion, and the principles of servant leadership is the concept of karma. Karma describes the Hindu belief that a person’s services in the present life depend on his previous lives (Singh, 2018). This concept also follows the features of the traditional structure of the Indian society divided into castes. Castes are closely associated with a person’s position in society and prescribe certain types of activities and jobs to particular groups. The transition from one caste to another in traditional Indian society is often impossible or extremely difficult (Singh, 2018). Although the concept of religion is of less importance in India today, it is the basis of traditional Hindu ideas about how the world works. The concept of karma is in many ways contrary to the principles of servant leadership, which postulates the possibility of developing the individual skills of followers for their advancement (Singh, 2018). Whereas the servant leader associates the merit of an employee solely with values ​​and diligence, Hinduism implies that a person is not able to change the current position due to previous life actions.

One of the most prominent examples of a servant leadership that combines both cultural and religious backgrounds is Swami Vivekananda. He was a Hindu philosopher and monk who created the foundations of servant leadership management practices before they were formally established in Western and world literature (Ganguly & Majumder, 2022). The philosopher argued that the growth of a leader and the achievement of goals is impossible without the development of his subordinates. Vivekananda believed in equality and brotherhood among people, arguing the necessity and effectiveness of hierarchy. According to the philosopher, the servant leader should lead followers along the path of their development and empowerment. Vivekananda drew his principles from the Vedic texts, which are the basis for the Hindu religion.

Modern Indian businessmen are also actively using the basics of servant leadership to build their companies. Dhirubhai Ambani the founder of Reliance Industries in India is one example of following the basics of servant leadership and the postulates of the philosopher (Mishra & Mahapatra, 2018). He went from the bottom of society to a successful corporation mainly through building trust and empowering his own colleagues. He also worried about society by donating huge sums to charity. This leader was sure that only following others could bring success and satisfaction to a person.

Thus, servant leadership has many connections to Indian culture and Hindu religion. From this point of view, the leader must focus on spirituality in order to exist in harmony with the outside world. According to the philosophy articulated by Vivekananda, only service to others can lead a leader to success and efficiency. The managerial experience of the most prominent Indian leaders also indicates that servant leadership is an integral part of Indian culture and derives its origins from the Vedic texts and scriptures of the Hindu religion.

Eva, N., Robin, M., Sendjaya, S., van Dierendonck, D., & Liden, R. C. (2019). Servant Leadership: A systematic review and call for future research. The Leadership Quarterly, 30 , 111-132. Web.

Ganguly, S., & Majumder, A. (2022). A pursuit on the servant leadership theory by Swami Vivekananda: A conceptual study. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 7 (5), 7-12.

Mishra, A., & Mahapatra, M. (2018). Servant leadership in India: A journey from past to present. Review of Professional Management, 16 (2), 79-87.

Ong, Y. S. (2019). A grace-based leadership approach to managing gen A in the digital age. Business Ethics and Leadership, 3 (3), 88-98. Web.

Singh, S., & Ryhal, P. C. (2021). How does servant leadership behaviour affect job satisfaction? A study on Indian academia. FIIB Business Review, 10 (1), 52-61. Web.

Singh, V. (2018). Myths of meritocracy: Caste, karma and the new racism, a comparative study. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 41 (15), 2693-2710.

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Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Servant Leadership in Indian Culture and Hindu Religion." June 30, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/servant-leadership-in-indian-culture-and-hindu-religion/.

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